Manual on Oil Pollution

8/21/2019 Manual on Oil Pollution

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/manual-on-oil-pollution 1/475

Section II

Manual on Oil Pollut ion

C O N T I N G E N C Y

P L A N N I N G

1995 Edition

BINTERNATIONAL

MARITIME

ORGANIZATION

London, 1995

Copyright @ International Maritime Organization 1995. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the International Maritime Organization.

Licensed to Chevron Texaco by the International Maritime Organization



First published in 1978

by the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION

4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SR

Second edition 1988

Third edition 1995

Printed in the United Kingdom by Edward Mortimer Ltd, Halifax

8 10 9

ISBN 92-801-1330-5

IMO PUBLICATION

Sales number: IA560E

The cover photo is reproduced by kind permission of Environment Canada

Copyright # IMO 1995

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic

tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,

without prior permission in writing from the

International Maritime Organization.





Preface

This publication, prepared by the Marine Environment ProtectionCommittee of the International Maritime Organization (IMO),supersedes the 1988 edition of section II of the Manual on Oil Pollution .It provides guidance to Governments, particularly those of developing countries, on ways and means of establishing a response organizationand preparing contingency plans.

This edition takes into account the International Convention on OilPollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC

Convention) and other new developments in oil pollution emergency preparedness and response. Chapter 1, which deals with responseconsiderations, introduces the new organizational concept of a tieredresponse, according to the severity of the spill. To that end, subsequent chapters mirror the escalation of activity, beginning with guidance onlocal contingency plans (chapter 2), national response (chapter 3) andinternational agreements designed to cover operational aspects of therare, catastrophic spill (chapter 4).

Finally, chapter 5 provides specific guidance on intervention and cost

recovery from spills arising from shipping accidents.

The Manual on Oil Pollution consists of five sections:

Section I Prevention , revised edition published in 1983;

Section II Contingency Planning, first published in 1978, revisededitions published in 1988 and 1995;

Section III Salvage , published in 1983;

Section IV Combating Oil Spills, published in 1988

Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (1995).

A related publication addressing one aspect of combating oil spills is the IMO/UNEP Guidelines on Oil Spill Dispersant Application including Envi- ronmental Considerations (1995).

iii









Contents

Page

Chapter 1 General response planning considerations

1.1 Designation of authority responsiblefor development and operation of a plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Response organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Identification of areas of high spill risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.4 Fate of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.5 Probable oil spill movement based on local windand current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.6 Coastal sensitivity mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.7 Priorities for protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.8 Oil spill response policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.9 Organization for response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 2 Facility, seaport, local and area oil pollutionemergency plans

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.2 Scope and geographic area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.3 Duties and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.4 Methods for increasing response effort andrequesting further assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.5 Training and exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 3 National systems for preparednessand response

3.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2 Purpose and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.3 Scope and content of the plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.4 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.5 Support from other agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.6 Reporting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.7 Alerting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.8 Spill assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.9 Salvage and cargo removal considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.10 Spill surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

v





3.11 Response decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.12 Clean-up operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.13 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.14 Transport and disposal of recovered oiland oily debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.15 Restoration of affected areas and post-spillmonitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.16 Record keeping and preparation of claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.17 Public information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.18 Training and exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.19 Plan revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Chapter 4 International agreements for preparedness,response and co-operation

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.2 Scope of co-operation between participating governments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.3 Definition of geographical area(s) and division of responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.4 Reporting, alerting and communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.5 Logistics, administration and funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.6 Review and update of an internationalcontingency plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chapter 5 Intervention and cost recovery

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.2 Intervention on the high seas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.3 Intervention in national waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.4 Intergovernmental regimes for compensation for oil pollution damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5.5 Identification of the polluter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.6 Preparation of claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.7 Oil pollution damage not covered by theintergovernmental compensation regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5.8 The role of the P and I Clubs with regard tomarine casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

vi





Appendices

Appendix 1 Issues to be considered when developing local oil pollution emergency plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Appendix 2 Oil pollution emergency plans for offshore units,seaports and oil handling facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Appendix 3 Outline of a national oil pollution emergency plan . . . . 39

Appendix 4 Suggested outline for an international oil pollutionemergency plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Appendix 5 Pollution reporting systems (POLREPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Appendix 6 Guidelines for identifying response resources . . . . . . . . . 62

vii









Chapter 1 – General responseplanning considerations

1.1 Designation of authority responsible for development and operation of a plan

1.1.1 Before serious consideration can be given to writing a plan torespond to oil pollution, some agency or agencies must be maderesponsible for the task both at the national and local levels. Thenational plan would normally be developed at a higher management

level of an organization, while it is important for local plans to bedeveloped by local authorities responsible for co-ordinating on-sceneresponse efforts at the beginning of an incident. Different countrieshave various solutions to this problem, but the principal options at Government level are:

– Defence Department

– Maritime Transport (Civil) Department

– Environment Protection Department

– Coast Guard– National Committee.

1.1.2 It is likely that different agencies or organizations will beresponsible for different aspects of the counter-pollution plan, at sea and on shore, but overall co-ordination by a designated authority or lead agency is essential for success. Similarly, a wide range of expertise will have to be made available. Necessary skills include, but are not necessarily limited to:

– marine salvage

– ship operations

– meteorology and oceanography

– aircraft operations

– scientific expertise of various kinds

– fisheries

– environment protection

– civil engineering

– legal

– logistics, customs and immigration arrangements

– health and safety

– training and exercises

– communications.

1





1.2 Response organization

1.2.1 Before national contingency plans are finalized, a national system

for preparedness and response fulfilling the minimum requirements of article 6 of the OPRC Convention should be developed. The number of levels that such a national system needs should also be identified. Eachresponse level identified will need a corresponding contingency plan.

.1 Some countries may require fewer levels of response and thusfewer plans than other States. However, a minimum of tworesponse levels should be established: a national level that will require a national contingency plan (NCP) as discussed inchapter 3 of this manual and a local level which will addressresponses to geographic subdivisions. This local area may bea terminal, a port or several ports within the specified re-sponse area or jurisdiction.

.2 Each local area will need a facility, seaport or local oil pollu-tion emergency plan as discussed in chapter 2 of this manual. There will be substantial differences between an oil pollutionemergency plan dealing with a whole national coastline andone dealing with a single port or locality. The former will be wider in scope, while the latter can go into much greater localdetail. However, all plans covering a given area must be

compatible.

1.2.2 Another response level that may be needed is an area responselevel. This level may be established in larger countries that require anintermediate response level between the local and nationalorganizations. An area plan would likely follow the same format as thenational plan.

1.2.3 In addition, those entities that may be the source of a pollutionincident should also have an established response system and a

corresponding oil pollution emergency plan. Guidance on oil pollutionemergency plans has been developed specifically for vessels (seeregulation 26 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78 and resolutionMEPC.54(32), Guidelines for the Development of Shipboard OilPollution Emergency plans). Other activities that may need oilpollution emergency plans include seaports, oil handling facilities andoffshore units as described in article 3 of the OPRC Convention.

Co-operation with industry

1.2.4 A co-operative approach with the oil and shipping industries iskey to the establishment and sustainment of an effective responsesystem. It is Government’s role to establish the legal and organ-izational framework for this relationship. Whatever relationship isestablished, the roles of Government and industry should be clearly defined.

2

Manual on Oil Pollution II: Contingency planning





1.2.5 It is important to understand the envisaged relationshipsbetween national response systems and international oil spill pre-paredness and response arrangements currently in existence. There

are two planning approaches that coexist in the international arena:the international industry’s concept of tiered response and govern-mental arrangements at the local, national, and regional levels. Figure1 is a depiction of the relationship of these two approaches withresponse capability.

Figure 1 – The global framework for pollution response

Tiered response

1.2.6 Tiered response is a widely accepted operational concept that provides a convenient categorization of response levels and a practical

basis for planning. Tiered response recognizes three levels.

.1 Tier 1 is concerned with preparedness and response to a small spill within the capabilities of an individual facility or harbour authority. Seven hundred tons is often cited as theupper limit of ‘tier 1’; however, the circumstances of the spilland the surrounding environment will determine the actuallevel of response.

.2 Tier 2 is concerned with preparedness and response to a spill

that requires the co-ordination of more than one source of equipment and personnel. For a tier 2 response, assistancecan come from a number of entities within a port area or fromsources outside the immediate geographic area. ‘Tier 2’ de-scribes a wide range of spill sizes and potential scenarios.Figure 1 depicts a grey boundary either side of tier 2 to reflect this.

3

Chapter 1

TIER 3

TIER 2

TIER 1

GROUP 3

GROUP 2

GROUP 1

Industry concept of tiered response

The organization of theinternational framework

INTERNATIONAL CAPABILITY

MULTI-NATIONAL OR REGIONAL

CAPABILITY

NATIONAL CAPABILITY

AREA CAPABILITY

LOCAL CAPABILITY





.3 Tier 3 is concerned with a major spill requiring the mobili-zation of all available national resources and, depending uponthe circumstances, will likely involve mobilization of regional

and international systems. It is this tier of response wherepositive advance customs arrangements are critical to facil-itate a successful effort.

Governmental arrangements

1.2.7 Governmental oil spill preparedness and response arrangementsmay be ‘‘grouped’’ in the following fashion.

.1 Group 1 encompasses the entire national response system,and is the focus of this proposal. The national oil pollutionemergency plan, also called the national contingency plan(NCP), is the over-arching document that embodies the na-tional response policy and establishes the national organi-zation for response to oil spills (the national response system). As described in section 1.2.1, depending on the needs andcomplexity of the country, the response system described by the plan may consist of an assembly of sub-national plans for specific geographic areas which would be further subdividedinto local plans.

. Additionally, the NCP should address the interrelationshipbetween the vessel plans, offshore unit plans, seaport plansor oil handling facility plans and the national responsesystem.1 Typically, the developers of these plans would re-quire guidance on organizational structures to maintaincompatibility with the national response system, lines of authority and reporting procedures.

.2 Group 2 consists of any bilateral or multilateral responseplans or agreements with other countries as well as regional

response bodies. Multilateral arrangements have been devel-oped for the Mediterranean, Baltic and North Seas by gov-ernments and for some eight regions of the world covered by the UNEP Regional Seas Programme. The importance of thesearrangements to the concept of sustainable development cannot be overestimated. Effective multilateral and regionalsystems provide for the pooling of resources and effective re-sponse to the rare large spill.

. Customs issues. The movement of oil spill response equip-

ment and personnel across national borders is a necessary ingredient of a sustainable system. No individual country,regardless of its wealth, can sustain the levels of equipment

——————

1 Note: Article 3 of the 1990 OPRC Convention calls for authorities or operators in chargeof vessels, offshore units, seaports and oil handling facilities to have oil pollutionemergency plans or (for seaports and oil handling facilities) similar arrangements.

4






and personnel needed for the worst-case spill. Such spillsrequire rapid movement of equipment, unimpeded by lengthy customs formalities. Conversely, countries should

be able to protect themselves from opportunists who woulduse an emergency to smuggle contraband. The NCP shouldcontain guidance that ensures the legitimate need for se-curity is maintained in a system that expedites the im-portation of essential response resources.

.3 Group 3 is the network of inter-regional plans or agreements. This includes the operation of the IMO Oil Pollution Co-ordi-nation Centre and relationships, both formal and informal,among the secretariats of the various regional agreements

world-wide.

1.3 Identification of areas of high spill risk

1.3.1 In deciding on the provision of counter-pollution responsecapability, it is clearly desirable to give special emphasis to those areasat highest risk. The perception of risk might be based upon the amount of passing tanker and other shipping traffic, navigational hazards, thelocation of oil refineries and oil terminals and the exist-ence of offshoreoil exploration and production operations and related undersea pipelines.

1.3.2 The degree of attention paid to this aspect of planning will vary. A country with a short coastline might find it relatively easy to identify thefew areas of high risk whilst a country with a long coastline and a complex interaction of these factors might find it more difficult.Nevertheless, it should always be possible to indicate which areashave higher than average risk.

1.4 Fate of oil

There are wide variations in characteristics of oil and in the way they change with time once an oil has been released into the marineenvironment. This affects the response options available, and canmake speed of response imperative. Information about the charac-teristics of different oils can be obtained from the oil industry or from various publications. Further details on the physical and chemicalprocesses which determine the fate of spilled oil may be found inchapter 3 of section IV of the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution .

1.5 Probable oil spill movement based on local wind and current

1.5.1 The probable movement of an oil slick can be forecast if the speedand direction of current and wind are known. Suitable arrangementsshould be made for prompt and accurate forecasting of spill movement by trained persons. However, it should be recognized that some high-density oils may not always stay on the surface, thus rendering prediction difficult.

5

Chapter 1





1.5.2 To simplify the forecasting of oil slick movements, variouscomputer programs are available. These vary in sophistication fromthose doing little more than a vector sum to programs which have

oceanographic data built in, together with a full outline of the relevant coastlines, some different oil characteristics and a model of the fate of spilled oil. Provision is always made for wind and current informationinput. Accurate prediction of slick movement is dependent on reliabledata, which are not always available. For this reason, it is alwaysadvisable to carry out aerial surveillance, and to consider deploying tracking devices in the early stages of a spill, to monitor the actualmovement of the oil. Local knowledge of ocean currents and of naturalcollection points (coastal areas where floating debris regularly collects)is often the best predictor of the movement of oil on the water’s surface

and the probable area of shoreline impact.

1.6 Coastal sensitivity mapping

1.6.1 For a variety of reasons, some stretches of coastline and coastal waters are more sensitive than others to oil pollution. Some factors which might influence such considerations are:

– fisheries

– mariculture

– birds and other wildlife– areas of particular environmental significance, e.g. wetlands

– industrial use of seawater, e.g. in power stations

– desalination plants

– amenity beaches

– yachting and other recreational facilities

– cultural/archaeological sites.

1.6.2 In planning response to oil spills, a knowledge of coastalsensitivities in the threatened area will enable the best use to be madeof available clean-up resources, as it will usually be impossible to protect all of the coastline, and priorities have to be decided. In order to assist thedecision makers, coastal sensitivity maps may be prepared. Thesensitivity of an area could also be affected by seasonal factors. For example, an area may require a higher sensitivity priority during breeding seasons or during periods when serving as a nursery area for young organisms or when hosting migratory species.

1.6.3 Priorities can also be decided on the basis of socio-economic

factors such as fisheries, agriculture, industrial water intakes or tourism or of pure aesthetic reasons.

1.6.4 Also, matters of general national policy have to be taken intoaccount; for example, prohibition of the use of dispersants or sinking agents. Furthermore, priorities for certain response methods could begiven depending on the geographical location of an oil spill. It may be

6






considered undesirable to use dispersants near to industrial water intakes, desalination plants, shellfish grounds or sensitive reef areas, while dispersants could be the best solution in a breeding area or in

an area hosting a rare bird population. On open waters most responsemethods could be utilized, individually or in combination, while solventsand dispersants should be avoided in enclosed waters. Sinking agentsshould in any case be avoided since they cause incorporation of oil or of oil and agents into the sediment. The presence of coral reefs, mangrovesand sea-grass beds, but also socio-economic factors, require carefulconsideration of different response methods.

1.7 Priorities for protection

1.7.1 In many spills, it may not prove possible to prevent some oilcoming ashore, and in some circumstances it might be advantageousto deflect the oil to a chosen place onshore. It is therefore necessary todecide in advance which areas are to be given priority for protection.Before making such decisions, a wide variety of interested parties willneed to be consulted.

1.7.2 Various factors will have to be considered, including:

– availability of local knowledge

– the practicality of protecting a particular resource

– relative importance of competing demands

– variations in priorities due to seasonal factors, such as fish andbird breeding seasons and holiday seasons.

1.7.3 Information about agreed priorities must be readily available andsufficiently widely published. The priorities must be listed and cross-referenced to any coastal sensitivity maps. Such an order of prioritiescan reduce the risk of disagreement and indecision when faced withdifficult choices during an oil spill emergency.

1.8 Oil spill response policy

1.8.1 Oil spill response is not an exact science, and there are different opinions as to the best techniques. The planners should try to keep their options open to permit the best combination of responses for any particular incident in the light of existing circumstances. It should beemphasized that the primary purpose of the oil spill preparedness andresponse effort is to prevent, to mitigate and, where possible, to restorepollution damages caused by the spill.

1.8.2 Standard reporting procedures should be established that willfacilitate effective passing of impact-assessment information betweenfield personnel and the command post. Standardization facilitatesimpact assessment and response resource allocation. Also, plannersshould, in advance of a spill, identify the different shoreline types intheir area and identify which countermeasures are acceptable and

7

Chapter 1





which are, or may be, prohibited for use in each area. This processshould be a collective consensus of all of the parties responsible for protecting the country’s resources.

1.8.3 The response measures include:

– if possible, preventing or reducing outflow of oil from thesource;

– if marine or coastal resources are not threatened, monitoring the oil slick;

– attempting to recover the oil at sea;

– application of dispersants at sea;

– protection of key resources;

– shoreline clean-up;

– if marine or coastal resources are threatened, consider dispersants or in-situ burning;

– bioremediation; or

– any combination of the above.

1.8.4 Whatever the response, action at sea must be prompt if it is to beeffective.

1.8.5 Dealing with oil on shorelines may be less urgent, and there may be circumstances in which it will be appropriate to do nothing about oilthat has come ashore, such as where natural cleaning will occur or where any clean-up will increase damage to the environment.

1.8.6 Details on response techniques may be found in section IV of theIMO Manual on Oil Pollution .

1.9 Organization for response

1.9.1 The response organization should be large enough andsufficiently funded to deal with a pollution incident of a specified sizeand nature. An example is shown in figure 2. It should be capable of enlargement and modification to cope with a more extensive operationas shown in figure 3. These diagrams have been kept purposely simple;an actual organizational chart will likely be more complex.

1.9.2 Arrangements should exist for prompt gathering and dis-semination of information about actual or threatened pollution. Thedecision makers in the response organization must be available at all

times to receive such information. Adequate communication facilitiesmust therefore exist for transmission of instructions and information.

1.9.3 The decision makers in the response organization must havesufficient authority to initiate action to deal promptly with a spill or with an incident which may lead to a spill. This is of particular importance if oil is to be dealt with whilst it is still on the sea.

8






9

Chapter 1

Responseteam

OSC

Lead

Agency

Support staff

&advisors

Responseteam

Responseteam

Responseteam

Public Affairs

Safety

Science

Finance

Logistics

Figure 2 – Typical local response organization

Operationsarea 1

NOSC

Leadagency

Support staff &

advisors

Operationsarea 2

Operationsarea 3

Operationsarea 4

Public Affairs

Safety

Science

Finance

Logistics

Local response organization

Figure 3 – Incorporation of a local response organization into a larger (area or national) organization





1.9.4 The response organization should be authorized to co-ordinatethe activities of other agencies and capable of controlling substantialnumbers of personnel and a variety of equipment. In this vein, clear

instructions should exist defining the responsibilities of different partsof the response organization.

1.9.5 Resources for combating the oil pollution should be readily available, whatever technique is to be used.

1.9.6 Additional personnel, equipment and materials needed to deal with large incidents should be identified in advance and arrangementsmade in advance for obtaining same.

1.9.7 Suitable centres should be identified for effective command andcontrol of operations. It may be decided that different centres will be usedfor different aspects of counter-pollution operations, but an overallcommand centre should be established.

.1 Due to the large number of parties that may be part of thecommand post, and the relatively long time an oil spill re-sponse centre may need to be active, authorities should con-sider locating the oil spill response command centre close tothe incident, but separate from command centres establishedby civil authorities for other emergency responses. This willprevent conflicts should additional local emergencies arise.

10






Chapter 2 – Facility, seaport, local andarea oil pollution emergency plans

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 An analysis of oil spill incidents between 1974 and 1990 indicatesthat over 70% occurred in port during loading and discharging operations and a further 12% were from ships in port that wereengaged in bunkering operations. The majority of these incidents

involved spill volumes of less than 7 tonnes and it is thereforeimportant that port authorities and terminal operators develop plansdesigned to respond to the most likely spill scenarios.

2.1.2 In preparing seaport or oil handling facility oil pollutionemergency plans (‘port plans’), the authorities and/or operators shouldfollow the same general outlines as for a national plan (see appendix 3), with provision made for escalation via the local plan or area plan, asrelevant, to obtain additional resources, if required. The objectives of a

‘port plan’ are to establish an organization, communications and other procedures for response to marine oil spills. Potential locations of spillsand types of oil are more easily identified in ports and terminals.However, in preparing a ‘port plan’, due consideration should be givento all emergency incidents which could occur, such as collisions,groundings, fires, personnel casualties. Based on the foregoing,priorities may be defined and response mechanisms established. Appendices 1 and 2 provide more detail as to issues and essentialelements of these plans.

2.1.3 An On-Scene Commander should be designated and personnelshould be trained in the use and deployment of available equipment.Mechanisms should also be established for reporting spillages,alerting other concerned parties within the port and its environs,assessing the spill to determine whether response action is requiredand, if affirmative, beginning operations.

2.1.4 Where the petroleum terminals within a port are independently owned and operated, spillages at a terminal should initially be the

responsibility of the operator. The port authorities should be advisedof the spill and should take appropriate measures to ensure the safety of other vessels and harbour installations and monitor the clean-up. If the spill proves to be beyond the capability of the terminal operator, theoil handling facility oil pollution emergency plan should make provisionsfor requesting additional resources from the port authorities or elsewhere.

11





2.2 Scope and geographic area

The plan should define accurately the types of incident with which it is

intended to deal and who has authority to activate the plan. It shouldalso delineate the geographical area covered by the plan. Referenceshould be made to any appropriate supporting legislation. The planmust be compatible with other emergency plans in the area.

2.3 Duties and responsibilities

2.3.1 It is extremely important that any seaport plan or oil handling facility oil pollution emergency plan clearly defines the duties andresponsibilities of all personnel involved. This should include thealerting procedures, communications and the setting up of anoperational centre.

2.3.2 The designated person will activate the plan and the On-SceneCommander will direct the various aspects of the operation and co-ordinate all activities. The On-Scene Commander may be assisted by other port or local officials acting as site representatives. Internal co-ordination and co-operation at the national and local levels, and

amongst response agencies and industry, is essential to all pre-paredness and response actions. Other departments which may beable to render assistance include:

– The Fire Department

– The Police

– Health and Safety Officials

– industry and contractors

– Municipal Authorities

– Fisheries Officers

– environmental specialists, etc.

2.3.3 Particular concerns that should be addressed include:

– preventing movement of unauthorized aircraft, vessels, vehicles and personnel at the site of the incident;

– shelter in place or evacuation of port personnel and the public,as necessary;

– reception and treatment of any personnel injured in theincident and subsequent response operations;

– the maintenance of accurate cost records, and

– logistics arrangements to facilitate the transportation of pollution-response resources into and out of the affected area.

12






2.4 Methods for increasing response effort and requesting further assistance

2.4.1 In localities where the major spill risks are concentrated within a limited port or harbour area, a single plan will address all local responsearrangements. However, should the locality contain a number of separate significant spill risks, such as those associated with anextensive coastal industrial and port complex, individual seaport plansor oil handling facility plans will integrate with a local plan or area plan. This plan will provide for additional resources to be made available inresponse to spills that occur that are beyond the capability of the port authority or terminal operator’s own resources. The local plan or area plan will also address other non-marine related oil spill risks, such as

those associated with pipelines or road or rail car oil movements.2.4.2 Should a pollution incident be of such a magnitude that theresources of the local plan or area plan are considered inadequate, thecountry’s area plan should be activated in order to make availableadditional resources. Further escalation would be achieved by activating the national contingency plan (see chapter 3) and, ultimately, by requesting assistance from other nations or international organizationsand contractors.

2.5 Training and exercises2.5.1 To ensure effective implementation of the seaport or oil handling facility oil pollution emergency plans, training must be conductedregularly for both equipment operators, in order that they may utilizeand maintain available equipment in the most effective manner, and theOn-Scene Commander and his management team.

2.5.2 The plan must be exercised regularly. This can be done either as a paper exercise to verify communication procedures or by operationalexercises involving deployment of personnel, equipment and materials.

On completion of each exercise an evaluation should be conducted toexamine any deficiencies which are identified and make any necessary revisions and amendments to improve the effectiveness of the plan.

2.5.3 Although the entire system needs to be exercised at one time toensure all of the response components mesh together properly, it isbeneficial to exercise some of the components of the response systemseparately to allow for a more thorough evaluation and the opportunity for the responders to become familiar with the different components. For instance, prior to holding a full-scale exercise you may want to have a command-post exercise and a communications exercise. Having all of the potential players involved in the exercise helps ensure that theneeds of the entire community are addressed.

13

Chapter 2





Chapter 3 – National systems forpreparedness and response

3.1 Background

3.1.1 Marine traffic, especially oil tankers, which is using ports or is intransit through coastal waters presents the risk of marine oil pollutionfrom collisions, groundings, transfer of oil cargo and bunkers and other

marine accidents. A further risk is presented by petroleum explorationand production activities. Such pollution can threaten recreation areas,sea-birds, marine life, coastal installations and fisheries.

3.1.2 Response to accidental spillages of oil requires careful advanceplanning to ensure that the impact of the oil spill is minimized. This isusually accomplished by means of a contingency plan. Such a contin-gency plan may be defined as a predetermined sequence of communi-cations and actions which can be quickly initiated to cope with an event of possible but uncertain occurrence.

3.2 Purpose and objectives

3.2.1 A national oil spill contingency plan is intended to delineate anentire national preparedness and response system, including bothpublic and private resources, for responses to emergencies whichcould result in the spillage of oil into the marine environment.

3.2.2 The objectives of such a plan are to ensure a timely and effectiveresponse to spillages or the threat of spillages of oil. This is accomplishedby:

.1 establishing a viable operational organization with re-presentation from all concerned agencies;

.2 identifying high-risk areas;

.3 identifying priority coastal areas for protection and clean-up;

.4 providing a minimum level and appropriate types of pre-

positioned pollution-response equipment to protect the areasidentified in 3.2.2.3 in accordance with article 6(2) of theOPRC Convention;

.5 training operational, middle management and upper-management personnel; and

.6 conducting exercises to assess and improve preparedness.

14





3.3 Scope and content of the plan

3.3.1 Whilst most oil spills are small and can be dealt with at the locallevel, in the event of a major spill mechanisms must be available toescalate the response to the national and international levels. Ingeneral, contingency plans should follow a similar format at each level.

3.3.2 The plan should define policy and responsibilities, and identify the authority or lead agency responsible for the preparation andimplementation of the plan, together with the supporting legislation. The geographic area covered by the plan should be clearly indicated, with reference made to supporting legislation and agreements.

3.4 Definitions

The following definitions are included to clarify terminology used:

Response: Any actions undertaken to prevent, reduce,monitor or combat oil pollution.

Lead agency: The authority within the nationalGovernment designated under the plan ashaving overall responsibility for response tomarine emergencies.

Support agency: Any organization assigned specific tasks

under the plan in support of the response.On-Scene Commander: The person responsible for organizing the

local response and co-ordinating thedeployment of required resources.

Marine emergency: Any casualty, incident, occurrence or situation, however caused, resulting insubstantial pollution or imminent threat of substantial pollution to the marineenvironment by oil and including, inter alia ,

collisions, strandings and other incidentsinvolving ships, blowouts arising frompetroleum drilling and production activities,and the presence of oil arising from the failureof industrial installations.

National On-SceneCommander (NOSC): The designated On-Scene Commander for a

particular country in an internationalresponse.

Supreme On-SceneCommander (SOSC): The On-Scene Commander from the leadcountry of an international response. The leadcountry is usually the country in whose waters the spill occurred, or the nearest coastal State if the spill occurred ininternational waters.

15

Chapter 3





3.5 Support from other agencies

The plan should clearly define the tasks of other government and private

agencies who may provide resources or technical and scientific advice tothe On-Scene Commander during both planning and operationalphases. Items to be considered in inter-agency matters should includethe following:

– how such supporting agencies can work together collectively tohelp the spill response organization;

– the types of advisory and assessment responsibilities andtechnical tasks that such a support group can undertake;

– the organizational links by which their work can be delivered tothe response managers; and

– the need for mechanisms by which disputes or conflicting priorities would be settled.

3.6 Reporting systems

Article 8 and Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78 establish reporting require-ments for masters or persons in charge of a ship. Article 4 of the OPRCConvention is consistent with these requirements. Information regard-ing a marine emergency which could result or has resulted in oil spillagecan come from a number of sources. The plan should identify an agency which will receive and disseminate such reports, which should containas much of the following information as possible:

– name of person reporting incident

– telephone number (work/home) or other means of contact

– date and time of observation

– details of observation

– location (e.g. latitude and longitude or position relative tocoastline)

– source and cause of pollution (e.g. name and type of vessel,collision or grounding)

– type and estimated quantity of oil spilled and the potential andprobability of further pollution

– weather and sea conditions

– action taken or intended to respond to the incident.

3.7 Alerting systems

3.7.1 An alert procedure should be included in the plan. The initial andsubsequent reports should be disseminated to the lead and support agencies by the fastest possible means.

16






3.8 Spill assessment

3.8.1 A rapid assessment of the threat presented by a marine

emergency is essential. If an actual spill has occurred then theappropriate level of operational control should arrange for surveillanceof the oil slick and, by use of available meteorological and hydrographicdata, prediction of its probable movement. Since a large factor in thethreat posed by a spill is the environmental situation, the damageassessment should include arranging for an up-to-date check of thepotential dangers to birds, wildlife, fisheries and other environmentally sensitive features in the area.

3.9 Salvage and cargo-removal considerations

3.9.1 In the case of a ship casualty there may not be any immediate oilspill but a threat may exist due to the condition of the vessel and thepossibility of leakage from oil cargo tanks or bunker tanks.

3.9.2 Salvage operations are complex and usually require the servicesof a professional salvor. The plan should facilitate communicationsbetween the Administration, the salvor, the vessel’s master and owner

and the cargo owner. Whilst the Administration’s concern is to mitigatedamage from oil pollution in the event of a casualty, this may be best achieved by the prompt and efficient salvage of the ship and cargo. In thecase of an oil tanker casualty, this will frequently entail cargo removal by lightering into another tanker, using portable pumping equipment.Section III of the Manual on Oil Pollution provides guidance to Administrations on this matter.

3.10 Spill surveillance

3.10.1 Surveillance at sea can be carried out using a fixed-wing aircraft or a helicopter. Airborne remote sensing equipment may be of value inthis regard. Aerial surveillance allows the movement and extent of the oilslick to be plotted in order that appropriate response action may be takenby the On-Scene Commander.

3.10.2 Aerial surveillance is also useful for determining the overallextent of shoreline pollution, but this should be backed up by visiting

the affected and potentially affected shores where significant impactsmay not be visible except by walking the area and inspecting below thesurface of permeable shorelines.

3.10.3 Continuous surveillance may be required during some phases of the clean-up operation.

17

Chapter 3





3.11 Response decisions

3.11.1 The plan should make provision for the various responseoptions to be considered:

.1 if possible, prevent or reduce outflow of oil from the source;

.2 if no marine or coastal resources are threatened or likely to bethreatened, continue monitoring the movement and behaviour of the oil slick;

.3 if marine or coastal resources are threatened, decide whether to begin response operations at sea and/or to protect sensitiveshoreline areas by use of booms;

.4 if, due to weather conditions, response at sea and shoreline

protection is not feasible or shoreline resources have already been affected, decide on clean-up priorities; and

.5 begin mobilization of the required personnel, equipment andmaterials.

3.12 Clean-up operations

3.12.1 The plan should state which clean-up techniques should beused and in what circumstances. Generally, containment and recovery of spilled oil is to be preferred, but in some instances it may be necessary to use dispersants, burning or other alternative response technologies. The plan should state the policy with regard to whether, where and whensuch alternative means may be used and the approved types, as well as a description of any required process for dispersant applications.

3.12.2 In many cases oil will reach the coastal areas and it will benecessary to remove oil and oily debris from shorelines and the water surfaces within bays, lagoons, etc. For shoreline clean-up a large work-force and civil engineering construction equipment are frequently required, and the plan should identify their availability.

3.12.3 The progress of the clean-up operation should be monitored,using inputs from aerial surveillance and site supervisors, to reassessresponse decisions. Each area will require different standards of clean-up; for example, amenity beaches are normally cleaned to a higher standard than exposed rocky headlands. The decision to terminateclean-up operations must be made by the On-Scene Commander inconsultation with all other parties concerned. In general, terminationis decided when further operations would be ineffective or the desiredlevel of clean-up has been achieved.

3.13 Communications

3.13.1 The plan should establish systems and procedures for effectivecommunication between the On-Scene Commander, field sites, and vessels and aircraft involved in the operations. A communicationscentre should be selected and equipped at least with telephone,

18






facsimile machine, telex and radio communications systems.Consideration should be given to allocating an operating frequency or frequencies for radio communication.

3.14 Transport and disposal of recovered oil and oily debris

3.14.1 The plan should identify resources to transport any recovered oiland oily debris to collection and disposal locations and identify equip-ment and temporary storage sites which can be used for collection andreception of recovered oil and oily debris. Final disposal of the recoveredoil will depend on its nature and degree of contamination.

3.14.2 Disposal of oily debris and oiled sand presents particular problems in handling due to the large quantities involved. It is

recommended that suitable final disposal sites are identified in theplan in consultation with the relevant government agencies. Referenceshould be made to chapter 9 of section IV of the IMO Manual on Oil

Pollution .

3.15 Restoration of affected areas and post-spill monitoring

3.15.1 On completion of the clean-up operations, some restoration may be necessary. The degree of restoration will be determined by the leadagency in consultation with other agencies such as those representing

environment, tourism, fishery, coastal industry and ports. Someexamples of such restoration are replacing contaminated beach sand,replanting mangrove stands and marsh and sea-grasses and restocking aquaculture projects.

3.15.2 In areas identified in the contingency plans or sensitivity mapsas having high environmental sensitivity, additional study may benecessary to determine if more restoration, replacement, or other actions for avoiding or mitigating damages to the coastal environment is necessary. The lead agency for the spill response should consider this

factor in consultation with the appropriate environmental agencies.

3.16 Record keeping and preparation of claims

3.16.1 In order that claims may be processed with minimal delay, it isessential that accurate records are maintained for each clean-uplocation of all of the actions taken, personnel and equipment deployedand consumable materials used. It is recommended that sample worksheets should be provided as an annex to the plan. More completeinformation on this subject is provided in chapter 5 of this manual. In

addition, documentation of the observed environmental damages, as wellas collection and preservation of samples, will be needed to validateclaims. Pictures and field reports, as well as actual physical evidencesuch as wildlife killed by the spill, should be preserved and main-tained until the steps necessary to mitigate or restore the damage havebeen determined and satisfactory arrangements are in place to completethese steps.

19

Chapter 3





3.17 Public information

3.17.1 Effective public relations is an integral part of the entireoperation and it is recommended that an experienced public relationsofficer be designated in the plan to liaise with the media. This will requireprovision of suitable office space and telephone line(s) separate fromthose used for the response operations. It should be remembered that failure to provide pertinent information to the public and the media asquickly as possible may create unnecessary difficulties in dealing withan oil-spill incident.

3.18 Training and exercises

3.18.1 The requirements for training and exercises should be clearly

defined in the plan. Training programmes should be developed at alllevels, including vessel and aircraft crews, equipment operators,shoreline clean-up personnel and the command team.

.1 IMO provides guidance, titled ‘‘IMO Model Training and Trainer Training’’. The guidance focuses on three levels of training:

(a) first responder;

(b) middle management; and

(c) senior management.

.2 It is helpful to conduct both internal and external exercises.Internal exercises are conducted by a plan holder to evaluatethe effectiveness of their plan and only involve the plan hol-der’s personnel and resources. External exercises would involve personnel and resources (from Government or industry)outside the plan holder’s response structure. External ex-ercises provide an opportunity to learn how well different plans interface.

3.18.2 From time to time such exercises should require mobilization

and deployment of personnel, equipment and materials to ensure their availability and performance.

3.19 Plan revision

The plan should be reviewed periodically to incorporate experiencegained from regular exercises and actual incidents. Regular updates of alerting lists and equipment inventories should also be made. Any organizational changes or legislative changes that modify the responseorganization or policies should be reflected in timely amendments to the

affected plan(s).

20






Chapter 4 – International agreements forpreparedness, response and co-operation

4.l Introduction

4.1.1 This chapter identifies those elements which should be includedin preparing international preparedness and response plans in order toensure that general agreements between Governments to co-operate inresponding to oil pollution or the threat of oil pollution are in place at theoperational level . These elements may be expanded and used for the

development of specific plans under the framework of regional, sub-regional or bilateral agreements and are not intended to replaceexisting contingency plans. This chapter is principally intended toassist developing countries in establishing operational arrangementsbetween neighbouring States. It is recommended that participating Governments should begin such activities on a modest scale withintheir national capabilities. A suggested outline for an internationalcontingency plan is attached at appendix 4.

4.1.2 It is essential that each Government which intends to participate

in international co-operation first develops and implements a nationaloil spill response system and plan. This initiative should be conducted inclose consultation with domestic organizations, local industry, IMO andother specialized United Nations agencies who can provide technicalexpertise in risk assessment, behaviour of oil spills on the sea,possible methods of treatment and availability of oil spill responseequipment.

4.1.3 Each Government should provide the following information to theinternational plan:

.1 identification of the competent national authority and na-tional operational contact point responsible for oil spill mat-ters (OPRC Article 6(1)(a));

.2 description of the national oil spill response organization and,if available, the national plan;

.3 types of oil spill response resources, if any, and the proper method to request them;

.4 identification of logistic support facilities within the country

available for response; and.5 identification of storage for recovered oil and disposal meth-

ods.

4.1.4 National arrangements should be consistent with any international oil spill plan or agreement. It is also suggested that a summary of the possible sources of oil spills, resources at risk and

21





priorities for protection is prepared for the geographic area covered by the international contingency plan, drawing on the information providedin the national plans.

4.1.5 International oil spill plans must remain simple and easy tooperate. However, mechanisms should be established to permit activation by stages, on a set of prearranged signals and procedures whereby States may initiate the appropriate levels of action.

4.2 Scope of co-operation between participating governments

4.2.1 International oil spill plans are intended to establish a framework within which two or more Governments can co-operate to facilitate theoperational aspects of oil spill surveillance and response. Plans can

include, but are not limited to:– information exchange;

– the use of vessels, aircraft and oil spill response equipment;

– arrangements for the assumption of the lead role by the Statein whose waters a pollution incident occurs;

– clear definition of command structure and liaison for joint response operations;

– identification of priority coastal and sea areas;

– arrangements for transboundary activities such as the move-ment of response equipment and personnel in, vessel oper-ations in, or overflying of the territory of other States;

– the conduct of paper and live exercises to test the adequacy of the plan; and

– arrangements for advisory and technical support.

4.3 Definition of geographical area(s) and division of responsibility

4.3.1 The geographical area covered by any international oil spill planshould be clearly defined. Areas in which individual States or severalStates jointly may be responsible for taking actions such assurveillance, reporting, alerting and response activities should also beclearly defined.

4.3.2 The geographical area may be identified by use of suitably annotated maps attached to the plan, latitude and longitude co-ordinates or both.

4.3.3 Typically, the State in whose zone of responsibility the spill occurs

assumes the lead role and is initially responsible for all of the actionstaken related to both tracking the spill and any necessary response. Thebasis on which responsibility is transferred from one State to another must be clearly laid down in any international oil spill plan. Any Stateinvolved may escalate the response activities to call upon assistancefrom other States participating in the plan or from States or organizations not participating in the plan.

22






4.4 Reporting, alerting and communications

4.4.1 An international oil spill plan must include agreed lists for eachindividual State, detailing the authorities or organizations assignedresponsibility under their national contingency plan. These listsshould identify contact points with appropriate telephone and/or telex numbers, which must be available on a 24-hour basis. Existing facilities,such as Defence, Coast Guard, or Police Headquarters, could be utilizedto receive and disseminate reports.

4.4.2 A State in whose zone of responsibility a spill or a serious threat thereof occurs should immediately inform any neighbouring States if it appears likely that it may affect their sea areas and shorelines, giving asmuch detail as possible about the incident. In the event that a spill has

occurred, that information should include source date, time, position,type and amount of oil spilled, likelihood of further spillage, theprevailing and forecast weather conditions and proposed actions. Asthe situation develops, information to these States must be updatedcontinuously and a regular synopsis provided to keep them informed.Examples of report formats appear at appendix 5. Transmission of suchreports should not be delayed if complete information is not immediately available.

4.4.3 Available meteorological and hydrographic data should be

analysed to give rough early predictions of general spill movement.More sophisticated methods of prediction of spill movement may subsequently be used. However, visual observation of any spill isessential and the responsible authority under the appropriate nationalcontingency plan should use those resources already identified, such ascharter, military or commercial aircraft, for surveillance. It is essentialthat the results of such observation and prediction be transmitted toother States which may be affected by the spilled oil until it no longer threatens any State in the area covered by the plan.

4.4.4 Procedures should be developed for requesting, offering andaccepting assistance in the event of a spill incident.

4.4.5 To facilitate on-scene radio communications, it is essential that prior agreement is established between designated authorities on theassignment of specific operating frequencies and a working languagefor operational response to an oil spill.

4.5 Logistics, administration and funding

4.5.1 An international oil spill plan should contain contacts to acquireresponse equipment and specialist personnel available through eachnational authority, procedures for mobilizing equipment and materialsand the relevant charges. Guidelines for identifying response resourcesare shown at appendix 6. The resources of national Governments andcommercial companies available for assistance within a region may stillbe found to fall short of what is desired. It may, therefore, be necessary to

23

Chapter 4





agree upon an increase in individual holdings or, alternatively, to makearrangements to maintain a common supplemental holding or stockpileof equipment and materials. The international oil spill plan should also

consider commercial and government resources which may be readily available from outside the region, so that a reasonable response to worst-case situations can be mounted. All States would nevertheless maintaincontrol over the commitment of their national spill-response resources.

4.5.2 It is vital for the implementation of international oil spill plans tobe able to move equipment, materials and personnel to the places whereit is needed without undue delay or formality. It is therefore essentialthat each State participating in an international oil spill plan makes

administrative arrangements to expedite customs, immigration andother control of material and personnel entering or leaving its territory for the purposes of assisting it or another State in combating oilpollution.

4.5.3 Details of such arrangements should be included in theinternational contingency plan and promulgated by all Statesparticipating in this plan throughout their respective Governments.International organizations or other States which may be called upon

to assist in the case of an oil pollution incident should also be madeaware of the arrangements. Such details should include the essentialinformation which is required by the appropriate national authority (customs, immigration, etc.) in order to facilitate special arrangements.Ideally, such arrangements should include provisions for the rapidgranting of entry visas as well as the temporary importation of oil spillclean-up equipment and material free of duty or import taxes. Theinterim guidelines for facilitation of response to an oil pollutionincident adopted by the MEPC pursuant to article 7 of the OPRC

Convention should be considered.

4.5.4 Specific agreements should be made for funding of joint responseoperations and for the loan of resources. Participating States should beaware of international regimes and voluntary schemes applicable in theregion for obtaining compensation for oil spill clean-up costs.Specifically, States should refer to and, to the maximum extent possible, use the annex to the OPRC Convention on reimbursement of costs of assistance as a basis for funding international assistance.

4.5.5 Each State should maintain individual records of action takenand of equipment and other resources used to respond to the incident. These records can be utilized both to support claims for compensationand for subsequent analysis of actions taken during the spill incident toupgrade the international contingency plan.

24






4.6 Review and update of an international contingency plan

4.6.1 An international contingency plan should be reviewed periodi-cally to incorporate experience gained from regular exercises andactual incidents in the region. Periodic updates of points of contact and equipment inventories should be made, using the informationprovided by individual States.

25

Chapter 4





Chapter 5 – Intervention and cost recovery

5.1 Introduction

This chapter addresses intervention and cost recovery, arising fromshipping accidents which threaten to cause or which result in an oilspill. It does not deal with spills arising from other sources, which arenormally regulated under national law.

5.2 Intervention on the high seas

5.2.1 The International Convention Relating to Intervention on theHigh Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969, and the ProtocolRelating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine Pollution by Substances Other than Oil, 1973, were prepared in cognisance of theneed to protect the interests of coastal States against the graveconsequences of a maritime casualty resulting in danger of oilpollution of the sea and shorelines. It was recognized that, under suchcircumstances, measures of an exceptional character to protect suchinterests might be necessary on the high seas and that thesemeasures do not affect the principle of freedom of the high seas.

5.2.2 Parties to this Convention may take such measures on the highseas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave andimminent danger to their coastline or related interests from pollutionor threat of pollution of the sea by oil, following upon a maritimecasualty or acts related to such a casualty which may reasonably beexpected to result in major harmful consequences. No such measuresmay be taken against warships or other ships owned and operated by a State and used only on government non-commercial service. TheInternational Maritime Organization maintains a list of experts who

can assist coastal States in assessing the need for intervention and inthe determination of the appropriate courses of action.

5.3 Intervention in national waters

5.3.1 Many Administrations have enacted legislation giving therelevant Government authority the right to intervene in the event of a marine casualty occurring in national waters. In such cases theauthority must have assessed the situation and concluded that thenature or degree of actions taken by the shipowner or his agents is not

satisfactory. The authority can then either issue instructions or advice tothe shipowner and his agents as to how they should proceed or it cantake direct operational control.

5.3.2 In all cases, the master of the casualty vessel should takeimmediate action to ensure the safety of the crew and the preservationof the ship and cargo and will make arrangements, if necessary,

26





for salvage. Arrangements for salvage are normally made with a professional salvage company. It should be recognized that the salvor’saim is to salvage the casualty successfully whereas the Administration

must give priority to protection of the coastal environment and of commercial resources. It is therefore important that the NCP containsprovisions for co-operation between the authority, the ship and cargoowners and the salvor to resolve any conflicts and to clarify res-ponsibilities. The plan should address the need for safe havens andports of refuge to which the salvor may take the casualty to carry out such operations as cargo removal, tank cleaning and temporary repairs.

5.4 Intergovernmental regimes for compensation

for oil pollution damage5.4.1 The Torrey Canyon incident in 1967 provided a major stimulus tothe development of four international regimes through whichcompensation for clean-up costs and pollution damage is availablefollowing spills of persistent oil* from tankers.

5.4.2 Two of the regimes – the Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for Oil Pollution (TOVALOP) and the Contract Regarding a Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution(CRISTAL) – are voluntary in nature and were established by the

tanker and oil industries as interim arrangements pending the wide-spread ratification and acceptance of two international conventionsdeveloped under the auspices of the International Maritime Organ-ization. These conventions are the International Convention on CivilLiability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (Liability Convention) and theInternational Convention on the Establishment of an International Fundfor Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (Fund Convention). Asat 1 January 1994 the Liability Convention had been ratified by 82States and the Fund Convention by 57 States.

5.4.3 The voluntary agreements have been revised on numerousoccasions since they first came into effect. Particularly significant changes took effect in 1987 and resulted, amongst other things, in theaddition of a Supplement to the TOVALOP Agreement which waspreviously in force (henceforth known as the TOVALOP Standing Agreement). It should be noted that the terms of the Supplement, withits higher limits of compensation and broader scope, only apply when a participating tanker involved in an incident is carrying a cargo owned by a party to CRISTAL.

5.4.4 Amendments to the international conventions are most difficult to bring about. Protocols to both the Liability and Fund Conventions, which broadened the scope of the original Conventions andsignificantly increased the amount of compensation available to the

——————

* The term persistent oil is not precisely defined in any of the regimes but, as a guide, it can be taken to include crude oil, heavy fuel oil, heavy diesel oil and lubricating oil.

27

Chapter 5





victims of oil spills from tankers, were agreed in 1984 but failed to comeinto force. However, a Diplomatic Conference in 1992 agreed to revise theentry-into-force provisions of these Protocols to facilitate their

implementation.

5.4.5 The international system of compensation created by the twointernational conventions and two voluntary agreements is unique inthe field of environmental pollution. Of particular note is the fact that all of the regimes impose ‘strict liability’ on the spiller. This means that they apply regardless of whether or not the tanker owner whose vesselsuffered the spill was at fault, subject to very few exceptions (e.g. if thespill was caused by an act of war). Claimants can therefore receivecompensation promptly, without the need for lengthy and costly

litigation.

5.4.6 Details of the scope of these international regimes, the types of claims which are admissible and the levels of compensation availableare described in section V of the Manual on Oil Pollution – Administrative

Aspects of Oil Pollution Response .

5.5 Identification of the polluter

5.5.1 In the case of major oil spills there is usually little difficulty in

identifying the source. However, the possibility of legal proceedings being taken under national law against the offending vessel should be borne inmind in all cases of pollution. Samples of spilled oil should be takenimmediately, properly labelled and witnessed, and then submitted for analysis, ensuring that a custodial chain can be proved in court.Samples should also be taken (and similarly labelled and witnessed)from oil cargo tanks, bunker tanks and machinery spaces of suspectedoffenders, and from other possible sources in the area, for comparativeanalysis with the spilled oil.

5.6 Preparation of claims

5.6.1 When a spill occurs, claims for clean-up costs and damage can bebrought against the owner of the ship which caused the oil spill and, if the limit of the owner’s liability is exceeded, against the IOPC Fund (if thecountry where the pollution damage is caused is a member of the IOPCFund) or against CRISTAL (if the cargo owner is a CRISTAL member).Normally an Administration will co-ordinate the submission of the various claims, and it is essential that accurate detailed records arekept to support such claims.

5.6.2 Each claim should contain the following particulars:

.1 the name and address of the claimant or representative;

.2 the identity of the ship involved in the incident;

.3 the date, the place and specific details of the incident, in-cluding the type of oil;

28






.4 details of the clean-up measures taken, and of the kind of pollution damage as well as the places affected;

.5 the amount of the claim.

5.6.3 Depending on the amount and nature of the claim, it should bebroken down into different categories, such as:

.1 Summary of events, including a description of the work car-ried out in different areas and of the working methods chosenin relation to the circumstances prevailing during the in-cident.

.2 Delineation of the area affected, describing the extent of pol-

lution and identifying those areas most heavily contaminated. This should be presented in the form of a map or chart sup-ported by photographs or video tapes.

.3 Analytical and/or other evidence linking the oil pollution withthe ship involved in the incident (e.g. chemical analysis; wind,tide and current data; observation and plotting of movement of floating oil).

.4 Dates on which work was carried out (with weekly or daily

costs)..5 Labour and administrative costs (number and categories of

response personnel; regular and overtime rates of pay; days/hours worked).

.6 Equipment and material costs (types of equipment used; rateof hire; consumable material quantity and cost).

.7 Transport costs (number and types of vessels, aircraft, vehic-les used; number of days/hours operated; rate of hire or op-erating cost).

.8 Costs of temporary storage (if applicable) and final disposal of recovered oil and oily material.

.9 Fisheries – costs of (Government) inspecting/monitoring thepresence of oil in potentially impacted fisheries areas.

.10 Environmental assessments of the effects the spill could haveor had; includes both field work and report preparation, oftenafter the clean-up has stopped.

5.6.4 It is essential that comprehensive records are kept detailing alloperations and expenditures. Daily worksheets should be compiled by supervisory personnel of the operations in progress, the equipment inuse, where and how it is being used, the number of personnel employed,how and where they are deployed and the materials consumed.Recording such information is facilitated by using standard worksheets.

29

Chapter 5





To ensure that adequate control of expenditures is kept, it is essentialthat a financial controller be assigned to the response team.

.1 Replacement and repair costs

– Extent of pollution damage to property.

– Description of items destroyed, damaged or needing replacement or repairs (e.g. boat, fishing gear andclothing) including their location.

– Cost of repair work or replacement of item.

– Age of item to be replaced.

– Costs of restoring the environment to the state it had beenin before the spill.

– Costs of studies to assess restoration and mitigation.

With regard to this category, it is likely that numerous claims will be made from the public, and private sector, such asfishermen, pleasure-boat owners, marina operators, etc. Inthis case it may be desirable to arrange through the vessel’sinsurers to appoint insurance adjusters to whom claimantsmay be referred. In some incidents a special telephonenumber and office have been established to process smallclaims and the public advised through the media that this

service is available.

.2 Economic loss

– Nature of loss, including demonstration that loss resulteddirectly from the incident;

– Comparative figures for profits earned in previous periodsand for the period during which such damage was suffered.

– Comparison with similar areas outside the area affected by the spill.

– Method of assessment of loss.

– Subsistence (traditional) foods and government costs of monitoring/responding to native food issues.

It should be noted that the IOPC Fund and the voluntary agreements (TOVALOP and CRISTAL) only pay compensationfor quantifiable economic loss and do not accept claims for non-economic environmental damage.

.3 Economic losses can include but are not limited to: restriction

of fishing activity, closure of coastal industrial and processing installations, loss of income by resort operators (hotel ownersand restaurateurs), etc. In many cases the financial recordsfor previous years may be readily available, although diffi-culties may arise in distinguishing losses caused by the oilspill from those caused by other unrelated factors suchas bad weather or overfishing. When dealing with artisan

30






fisheries, no formal records may be available and some other form of assessment may be required. Also there could be ad-ditional indirect expenditures incurred by the local autho-

rities in providing alternate protein sources for the coastalcommunities affected by the spillage which should be docu-mented.

5.6.5 The foregoing are the principal categories of claims which arelikely to prove acceptable. However, there may be other categories of claims. In all cases the claim should be presented clearly and insufficient detail so that it is possible to assess the amount of damagesuffered on the basis of the facts and the documentation presented. It should be noted that each item of the claim must be supported by an

invoice or by other relevant documentation such as daily worksheetsand explanatory notes. Reference should be made to the IOPC Fund‘‘Claims Manual’’.

5.6.6 In cases where the IOPC Fund may become involved, it is very important that the Fund is informed of the incident immediately sothat the IOPC Fund will be able to follow closely the clean-up operationand verify damage. This will facilitate the speedy settlement of claims.

5.7 Oil pollution damage not covered by the intergovernmental compensation regimes

5.7.1 In respect of oil spills that do not fall under the regime of compensation covered by the Civil Liability Convention and the FundConvention – i.e. in cases of spills of non-persistent oils, spills fromunladen tankers and spills from ships other than tankers –compensation will have to be sought under applicable national law.States are free to legislate as they consider appropriate as regardssuch spills. However, a State may be party to the InternationalConvention Relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of Seagoing Ships, Brussels, 1957, or the Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976 (LLMC 1976), which containprovisions whereby the shipowners and certain other persons may limit liability. If this is so the State concerned must, of course, in itsnational law respect the limitations laid down by the applicableconvention. It should be noted that the 1976 LLMC Convention doesnot apply to pollution damage caused by laden tankers within themeaning of the Civil Liability Convention as outlined in paragraph 5.4.

5.7.2 A State may provide in its national law that claims in respect of damage to harbour works, basins and waterways and aids to navigationshall have priority over other claims. Several national Administrationshave ruled that oil spills fall under the definition of damage to harbour facilities. However, as regards States Party to the Civil Liability Convention, all claims for pollution damage against the owner of thetanker from which the oil escaped must be given equal priority.

31

Chapter 5





5.8 The role of the P and I Clubs with regard to marine casualties

5.8.1 Protection and Indemnity Associations or P and I Clubs exist toprovide shipowners with insurance for liability they may incur to thirdparties, meaning, in this context, anybody other than the insuredshipowner. Approximately 85% of all ocean-going ships are entered inProtection and Indemnity Associations. In the case of tankers the figureis closer to 95%.

5.8.2 The risks covered by P and I Clubs are numerous and do includeoil pollution liabilities. The intergovernmental regimes and voluntary industry agreements which cover compensation and liability for tankers have been covered under paragraph 5.4. However, other shipscan cause oil pollution from leakage of bunker fuel.

5.8.3 In a typical serious casualty, the shipowner is faced with a number of immediate and urgent problems which include the decisionas to whether or not to attempt salvage of the ship and cargo or to disposeof either or both as simply as possible, causing the least possible amount of further damage. If oil has been spilled the owner may be required totake immediate action to deal with the ensuing pollution. A P and I Club,through its local correspondent, will provide advice on the shipowner’srights and duties and negotiate on the shipowner’s behalf with theappropriate authorities to take fast and effective action to minimize the

damage and subsequent liabilities. At a later stage the Club will assist indetermining eventual liability for the damage and the extent of thecompensation.

5.8.4 One important principle is that the shipowner must pay the claimin the first instance and only then claim reimbursement from the P and IClub. As a general rule, the P and I Club will not pay claimants direct. There may be exceptions, for example, in case of oil spills from tankers when the Liability Convention applies, and also when the P and I Clubhas given a letter of undertaking providing a guarantee of payment of theshipowner’s liabilities, but in most cases the P and I Club still insiststhat the principle should be maintained that the shipowner pays first.

32






Appendix 1

Issues to be considered when developing

local oil pollution emergency plans

Section 1

The focus of this section is on planning policy and administration.Section 2 will focus on operational matters.

A INTRODUCTION

– Purpose and objective

– Authority and jurisdiction

– Definitions and acronyms

– Geographic boundaries (local, area)

B RESPONSE SYSTEM AND POLICIES

Consider and describe the relationship of the various responseplans and systems with which this plan should be compatible.

C ORGANIZATION

– Planning organization– Response organization

D PLAN REVIEW

– Revision/update requirements

– Exercises/drills

E TRAINING, EXERCISES AND DRILLS

– Training

– Exercises and drills

F AREA ASSESSMENTS

– Area of responsibility

– Planning committee organization(s)

– Area spill history

– Threat analysis

G HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY

– Public health and safety

– Worker health and safety

H SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT

Scenarios should be explored that range from routine operationalspills to the worst-case spill.

I APPLICABLE DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

33





Section 2

The focus of this section is on operational considerations, not policy.Each chapter and subchapter should have a corresponding checklist

developed to assist responders.

A INTRODUCTION

B JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES

C NOTIFICATIONS

– Required notifications

– Local notifications

– International notifications

D COMMAND POST

– Policy and procedures for establishing

– Staffing

– Supplies

E DATA COLLECTION

– Receipt of initial report

– Tracking spill movement (aircraft, spill models)– Shoreline impact reports/assessments

F OPERATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

– Spill funding procedures

. Accessing funds

. Documentation and cost-recovery procedures

. Damage-assessment procedures

– Required reports

. Pollution reports – POLREPs

. After-action reports

G LOGISTICS

– Permits required

– Personnel and personnel support

– Transboundary movement of equipment and personnel

– Information resource hardware

H SPECIALIST TEAMS

– Specialized response teams

– Media and public relations specialists

– Hazardous materials response team

– Specialized salvage teams

34






I RESOURCE DIRECTORY

– Coast Guard

– Navy – Environmental agencies

– Fire departments

– Police departments

– Hospitals

– Port authority/harbourmasters

– Marine Pilots Association

– Salvage companies/divers

– Towing companies

– Laboratories

– Water intake facilities

– Environmental interest groups

– Airports and aircraft rental

– Trucking companies/car rentals

– Weather service agencies

– Media contacts– Volunteer organizations

– Natural resource trustees/administrators

– Local emergency managers

– Fishing fleets

– Vessel operators/agents

– Vac/tank truck companies

– Public transportation and transportation-maintenance

agencies

J COMMUNICATIONS

– Communications plan

– Resources

K SENSITIVE AREAS

– Identification

– Prioritizing

L MECHANICAL RESPONSE STRATEGIES

M NON-MECHANICAL RESPONSE STRATEGIES: DISPERSANTS,CHEMICAL AGENTS, IN-SITU BURNING AND OTHER SPILL-MITIGATING SUBSTANCES, DEVICES OR TECHNOLOGY

N SITE HEALTH AND SAFETY PLAN

35

Appendix 1





O TRANSPORT, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE

P FUNDING AND COST DOCUMENTATION

Q PUBLIC AND MEDIA RELATIONSR DEMOBILIZATION AND TERMINATION OF OPERATIONS

36






Appendix 2

Oil pollution emergency plans for offshore units,

seaports and oil handling facilities

List of essential elements

A Underlying philosophies

1 Safety of life

2 Fire fighting and safety of navigation

3 Pollution prevention

– routine operations

– blowout prevention for offshore units

4 Response to pollution

5 Consistency with national response system

6 Tiered response philosophy

B Responsibilities/reporting

1 The roles and responsibilities of the major organizations whichcould be involved are clearly stated and agreed.

2 Operator’s responsibilities are clearly established.

3 Established reporting/consultation arrangements with appro-priate authorities

4 A predetermined reporting format to allow evaluation andclassification of the emergency.

C Response

1 Established procedures to stop the spilling of oil as fast aspossible (e.g. oil flow shutdown; blowout prevention, etc.)

2 Personnel trained in above procedures.

3 I mp le me nt p ro ce du re s f or w ar ni ng o r e va cu at io n o f endangered areas.

4 Access to specialist teams and resources (e.g. for blowouts onoffshore units).

37





D Oil spill clean-up

1 Information on characteristics of oil(s).

2 Oil spill drift- and fate-prediction techniques available for usein response

3 Identification of resources which could be impacted

4 Arrangements in place for rapid deployment of tier 1 responseat the spill site

5 Access to tier 2 and tier 3 resources – equipment and personnel

6 Established chain of supply to access and deploy such equip-ment

E Training and exercises

1 Training and exercise programmes established to ensure that the response activity can be effectively executed.

F Public information

38






Appendix 3

Outline of a national oil pollution emergency plan

1 INTRODUCTION


1.2 Authority and applicability

1.3 Scope

1.4 Definitions and abbreviations

2 RESPONSIBILITY AND ORGANIZATION FOR RESPONSE

2.1 Duties of national leadership

2.2 National response system

2.3 National response priorities

2.4 On-Scene Commander’s duties and responsibilities

2.5 Notifications

2.6 Inter-agency participation and support

3 PREPAREDNESS AND PLANNING

3.1 National policy

3.2 Planning and co-ordination structure

3.3 National plan

3.4 Area plans

3.5 Local/industrial facility plans

3.6 International arrangements

– linkage with other national plans (bilateral agreements)

– co-ordination with regional arrangements for oil pollutionresponse

– policy and procedures for requesting internationalassistance

– policy and procedures for giving international assistance

3.7 Drills/exercise programme

39





4 RESPONSE OPERATIONS

4.1 General pattern of response

4.2 Command structure4.3 Communications/command facilities

4.4 Specialist teams

4.5 Multi-regional response

4.6 Health and safety

4.7 Response technology

4.8 Administration/logistics

4.9 Funding, reimbursement, claims

5 REPORTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

5.1 Communications systems

5.2 Pollution reports (POLREPs)

5.3 Post-incident review

40






Appendix 4

Suggested outline for an international oil pollution

emergency plan

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background


1.3 Scope and geographic coverage

1.4 Definitions and abbreviations

2 POLICY AND RESPONSIBILITY

2.1 Exchange of information

2.2 Designation of national authorities and points of contact

2.3 Assumption of lead role

2.4 Response planning

2.5 Joint training and exercises

3 RESPONSE ELEMENTS AND PLANNING

3.1 Assumption of lead role

3.2 National On-Scene Commander (NOSC)/Supreme On-SceneCommander (SOSC)

3.3 Emergency Response Centres/Joint Emergency Response

Centre3.4 Support teams

3.5 Command structure

3.6 Communications arrangements

3.7 Response planning

3.8 Response strategy

4 RESPONSE OPERATIONS

4.1 Response phases

4.2 Spill surveillance and forecasting

4.3 Requests for assistance

4.4 Joint response operations

41





4.5 Use of non-mechanical response methods

4.6 Requests for additional assistance

4.7 Termination of joint operations and deactivation

5 REPORTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

5.1 Communications system(s)

5.2 Initial warning system

5.3 Pollution reports (POLREPs)

5.4 Post-incident reports

6 ADMINISTRATION AND LOGISTICS

6.1 Logistics

6.2 Funding

6.3 Customs, immigration and overflight procedures

6.4 Health and safety

6.5 Documentation of clean-up costs

6.6 Revisions to the plan

7 PUBLIC INFORMATION/PROTOCOL

7.1 Public information office

7.2 Press releases/press conferences

7.3 Protocol

ANNEX 1 National directory of points of contact and responsepersonnel

ANNEX 2 Map indicating geographical coverage and areas of responsibility for participating States

ANNEX 3 Map showing possible sources of oil spills andenvironmentally sensitive areas

ANNEX 4 Communications plan

ANNEX 5 Equipment inventories and listing of specialist personnel

ANNEX 6 National contingency plans of participating States

42






Appendix 5

Pollution reporting systems (POLREPs)

This appendix contains two examples of POLREP systems in use. Thefirst is an example of a POLREP system in use by the Bonn, Helsinki andCopenhagen Agreements and the DENGER Plan (Denmark/Germany). The second is an example of a POLREP system in use in the Caribbean.

E XAMPLE 1: BONN, HELSINKI AND COPENHAGEN A GREEMENTS POLREP S YSTEM

1 The pollution reporting system is for use between Contracting Partiesfor exchanging information when pollution of the sea has occurred or when a threat of such is present.

2 The POLREP is divided into three parts:

.1 Part I or POLWARN(figures 1–5)

POL lutionWARNing

gives first informationor warning of thepollution or the threat

.2 Part II or POLINF (figures 40–60) POL lutionINF ormation gives a detailedsupplementary report

as well as situationreports

.3 Part III or POLFAC(figures 80–99)

POL lutionFACilities

deals with requests for counter-pollutionfacilities or resources as well as matters of operational character

3 The division into three parts is only for identification purposes. For this reason, consecutive figures are not used. This enables the recipient to recognize, merely by looking at the figures, whether he is dealing withpart I (1–5), part II (40–60) or part III (80–99). This method of divisionshall in no way exclude the use of all figures in a full report or theseparate use of single figures from each part or the use of singlefigures from different parts mixed in one report.

4 When part I is used as a warning in the Helsinki Convention, in theCopenhagen Agreement or in the DENGER Plan, it shall always be

transmitted with the traffic priority URGENT, but when used in theBonn Agreement the priority URGENT is optional.

5 Part II is the logical consequence of part I. Having transmitted part I,the Contracting Party concerned can inform the other relevant Contracting Parties of its assessment of the nature and extent of theincident by using the appropriate figures from part II.

43





6 Part III is for the request for assistance and related mattersexclusively.

7 Detailed explanations of the different figures in parts I, II and III of thePOLREP are given in table 1.

8 Three examples of a POLREP in this system are given in table 2.

9 It must be possible to identify each POLREP and the person whoreceives it must be able to check if he has received all of the reportsconcerning that particular pollution or threat in question.

10 The POLREP is to be identified by a serial number, e.g. ‘‘DK 2/3’’, which means that it is a POLREP from the Danish authorities. The report concerns the second pollution and it is the third report concerning thispollution.

11 The last and final POLREP will show as follows: ‘‘DK 2/5 FINAL’’, which means that this is the fifth and final report concerning thesecond pollution.

12 In order to keep the receivers of POLREPs informed about all of thetransmitted reports, the person who sends the POLREP must includeinformation after the serial number concerning who has received theearlier transmitted POLREPs, e.g.:

DK 2/5 – DK 2/1 for FRG and SDK 2/2 for FRGDK 2/3 for SDK 2/4 for FRG and S

13 Concerning the figures 5, 60 and 99, it is emphasized that ACKNOWLEDGE is made by the competent national authority withreference to the serial number in question.

14 By answering a POLREP the serial number used by the transmitting country is to be used as reference in the answer. However, it is not necessary for countries to adhere to the POLREP system in responding to POLREPs.

15 If the POLREP is used in exercises the text is to be introduced withthe word EXERCISE and finished with this word three times. Each of thesubsequent reports which deals with the exercise is to be introduced andfinished in the same format.

16 A summarized list of a POLREP is given on the following pages.

44






Summarized list of a POLREP

Address from ... to ...

Date Time Group

Identification

Serial number

Part I 1 Date and time(POLWARN) 2 Position

3 Incident

4 Outflow

5 Acknowledge

Part II 40 Date and time(POLINF) 41 Position

42 Characteristics of pollution

43 Source and cause of pollution

44 Wind direction and speed

45 Current or tide

46 Sea state and visibility 47 Drift of pollution

48 Forecast

49 Identity of observer and ships on scene

50 Action taken

51 Photographs or samples

52 Names of other States informed

53–59 [Spare]

60 Acknowledge

Part III 80 Date and time(POLFAC) 81 Request for assistance

82 Cost

83 Pre-arrangements for the delivery

84 Assistance to where and how

85 Other States requested

86 Change of command87 Exchange of information

88–98 [Spare]

99 Acknowledge

45

Appendix 5





46


T a b l e

1

C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

D T G ( D a t e T i m e

G r o u p )

D a y a n d t i m e o f d r a f t i n g o f t h e t e l e x ( D T G ) . A l w a y s s i x f i g u r e s . C a n b e

f o l l o w e d b y m o n t h i n d i c a t i o n . T h e

D T G c a n b e u s e d a s a r e f e r e n c e .

P O L R E P B O N N

A G R E E M E N T /

N O R D I C / B A L T I

C /

D E N G E R

T h i s i s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t .

‘ ‘ P O L . . . ’ ’ i n d i c a t e s

t h a t t h e r e p o r t m i g h t d e a l w i t h a l l a s p e c t s o f p o l l u t i o n ( s u c h a s o i l a s w e l l a s

o t h e r

h a r m f u l s u b s t a n c

e s ) .

‘ ‘ . . . R E P ’ ’ i n d i c a t e s

t h a t t h i s i s a r e p o r t o n a p o l l u t i o n i n c i d e n t .

I t c a n c o n t a i n u p t o t h r e e m a i n p a r t s :

P a r t I ( P O L W A R N )

i s a n i n i t i a l n o t i c e ( a f

i r s t i n f o r m a t i o n o r a w a r n i n g ) o f a c a s u a l t y o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f

o i l s l i c k s o r h a r m f u l

s u b s t a n c e s . T h i s p a r t o f t

h e r e p o r t i s n u m b e r e d f r o m 1 t o 5 .

P a r t I I ( P O L I N F )

i s a d e t a i l e d s u p p l e m

e n t a r y r e p o r t t o p a r t I . T h

i s p a r t o f t h e r e p o r t i s n u m b e r e d

f r o m 4 0 t o 6 0 .

P a r t I I I ( P O L F A C )

i s f o r r e q u e s t s f o r a s

s i s t a n c e f r o m o t h e r C o n t r

a c t i n g P a r t i e s , a s w e l l a s f o r

o p e r a t i o n a l m a t t e r s i n t h e a s s i s t a n c e s i t u a t i o n . T h i s p a r t o f t h e r e p o r t i s

n u m b e r e d f r o m 8 0 t o 9 9 .

B O N N A G R E E M E N T

i s f o r i d e n t i f y i n

g t h e a g r e e m e n t i n q u e s t i o n ( o t h e r c o d e w o r d s :

‘ ‘ N O R D I C ’ ’ f o r t h e C o p e n h a g e n A g r e e m e n t , 1 9 7 1 ;

‘ ‘ B A L T I C ’ ’ f o r t h e H e l s i n k i C o n v e n t i o n , 1 9 7 4 ; a n d

‘ ‘ D E N G E R ’ ’ f o r

t h e D a n i s h G e r m a n J o i n t

M a r i t i m e C o n t i n g e n c y P l a

n , 1 9 8 2 ) .

P a r t s I , I I a n d I I I c

a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d a l l t o g e

t h e r i n o n e r e p o r t o r s e p a r a t e l y .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s i n g

l e f i g u r e s f r o m e a c h p a r t c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d s e p a r a

t e l y o r c o m b i n e d w i t h f i g u

r e s f r o m

t h e t w o o t h e r p a r t

s .

F i g u r e s w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l t e x t s h a l l n o t a p p e a r i n t h e P O L R E P .

W h e n p a r t I i s u s e

d a s a w a r n i n g o f a s e r i o u

s t h r e a t , t h e t e l e x s h o u l d

b e h e a d e d w i t h t h e t r a f f i c

p r i o r i t y

w o r d ‘ ‘ U R G E N T ’ ’ . ( U R G E N T i s o p t i o n a l u n d e

r t h e B o n n A g r e e m e n t . )

A l l P O L R E P s c o n t a

i n i n g A C K N O W L E D G E f i g u r e s ( 5 , 6 0 o r 9 9 ) s h o u l d b e a c k n o w l e d g e d a s s o o n a s

p o s s i b l e

b y t h e c o m p e t e n t

n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y .

P O L R E P s f o r a s p e c i f i c i n c i d e n t s h a l l a l w a y s b e t e r m i n a t e d b y a t e l e x

f r o m t h e r e p o r t i n g S t a t e w h i c h

i n d i c a t e s t h a t n o m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m u n

i c a t i o n o n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r

i n c i d e n t c a n b e e x p e c t e d .





47

Appendix 5

C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

D K 1 / 1

E a c h s i n g l e r e p o r t s h o u l d b e e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a

b l e a n d t h e r e c e i v i n g a g e n

c y s h o u l d b e i n a p o s i t i o n

t o c h e c k

w h e t h e r a l l r e p o r t s o f t h e i n c i d e n t i n q u e s t i o n h a v e b e e n r e c e i v e d . T h i s

i s d o n e b y u s i n g a n a t i o n - i

d e n t i f i e r

( D K , F R G , U K , P O , F I , e t c . ) f o l l o w e d b y a s t r o

k e s y s t e m , w h e r e t h e f i g u r e b e f o r e t h e s t r o k e i n d i c a

t e s t h e

i n c i d e n t t o w h i c h

t h e r e p o r t r e f e r s a n d t h e f i g u r e f o l l o w i n g t h e s t r o k e

i n d i c a t e s t h e a c t u a l n u m

b e r o f

r e p o r t s w h i c h h a v

e b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n t h e i

n c i d e n t i n q u e s t i o n .

P O L R E P B O N N A G

R E E M E N T D K 1 / 1 i n d i c a

t e s t h e f i r s t r e p o r t f r o m D e n m a r k o f t h e i n c i d e n t i n q u e s t i o n

i n t h e B o n n A g r e e

m e n t r e g i o n .


R E E M E N T D K 1 / 2 w i l l , i n

a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d e s c r i b e d s y s t e m , t h e n i n d i c a t e t h e

s e c o n d r e p o r t f r o m

t h e s a m e i n c i d e n t .

I f t h e p o l l u t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e i n c i d e n t s p l i t s u p i n t o c l e a r l y d e f i n e d p a t c h e s – i n t h i s e x a m p l e t w o – t h e

w o r d i n g ‘ ‘ P O L R E P

B O N N A G R E E M E N T 1 n o

w s p l i t t i n g i n t o P O L R E P B

O N N A G R E E M E N T 2 a n d

P O L R E P

B O N N A G R E E M E N T 3 ’ ’ s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e l a s t r e p o r t o n t h e i n c i d e n t i d e n t i f i e d b y f i g u r e 1

p r e c e d i n g t h e s t r o

k e .

T h e f i r s t r e p o r t s o

n t h e t w o p a t c h e s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m t h e i n c i d e n t f i r s

t r e p o r t e d w i l l t h e n b e n u m b e r e d


R E E M E N T D K 2 / 1 a n d P O

L R E P B O N N A G R E E M E N T

D K 3 / 1 , a n d c o n s e c u t i v e n u m b e r s

a f t e r t h e s t r o k e c o

u l d t h e n b e u s e d .

P A R T I ( P O L W A R N )

C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

1

D A T E A N D T I M E

T h e d a t e o f t h e m o n t h a s w e l l a s t h e t i m e o f t h e d a y w h e n t h e i n

c i d e n t t o o k p l a c e o r , i f t h e

c a u s e o f

t h e p o l l u t i o n i s n o t k n o w n , t h e t i m e

o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s h o u l d

b e s t a t e d w i t h s i x f i g u r e s

. T i m e

s h o u l d b e s t a t e d a s G M T , f o r e x a m p l e 0 9 1 9 0 0 Z ( i . e . t h e 9 t h o f

t h e r e l e v a n t m o n t h a t 1 9 0

0 G M T ) .

2

P O S I T I O N

I n d i c a t e s t h e m a i n p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n c i d e n t i n l a t i t u d e a n d l o n g i t u d e i n d e g r e e s a n d m i n u t e s a n d

m a y , i n a d d i t i o n , g i v e t h e b e a r i n g o f

a n d t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m a l o c a t i o n k n o w n b y t h e r e c e

i v e r .

3

I N C I D E N T

T h e n a t u r e

o f t h e i n c i d e n t s h o u l d b e

s t a t e d h e r e , s u c h a s B L O

W O U T , T A N K E R G R O U N D

I N G ,

T A N K E R C

O L L I S I O N , O I L S L I C K , e t c

.





48


C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

4

O U T F L O W

T h e n a t u r e

o f t h e p o l l u t i o n , s u c h a s C

R U D E O I L , C H L O R I N E , D I N I T R O P H E N O L , e t c . , a s w e l l a s t h e

t o t a l q u a n t i t y i n t o n n e s o f t h e o u t f l o w

a n d / o r t h e f l o w r a t e , a s w

e l l a s t h e r i s k o f f u r t h e r o u t f l o w . I f

t h e r e i s n o

p o l l u t i o n b u t a p o l l u t i o n

t h r e a t , t h e w o r d s N O T Y E T f o l l o w e d b y t h e n a m e o f

t h e

s u b s t a n c e , f o r e x a m p l e N O T Y E T F U E L O I L , s h o u l d b e s t a t e d .

5

A C K N O W L E

D G E

W h e n t h i s

f i g u r e i s u s e d t h e t e l e x s h

o u l d b e a c k n o w l e d g e d a s

s o o n a s p o s s i b l e b y t h e c o

m p e t e n t


P A R T I I ( P O

L I N F )

C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

4 0 D A T E A N D T I M E

N o . 4 0 r e l a

t e s t o t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i

b e d i n f i g u r e s 4 1 t o 6 0 i f i t v a r i e s f r o m f i g u r e 1 .

4 1 P O S I T I O N A

N D / O R

E X T E N T O F

P O L L U T I O N

O N / A B O V E / I N T H E S E A

I n d i c a t e s t h e m a i n p o s i t i o n o f t h e p o

l l u t i o n i n l a t i t u d e a n d l o n g i t u d e i n d e g r e e s a n d m i n u t e s a n d

m a y i n a d d

i t i o n g i v e t h e d i s t a n c e a n d b e a r i n g o f s o m e p r o m i n e

n t l a n d m a r k k n o w n t o t h e

r e c e i v e r

i f o t h e r t h a

n i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 2 . E s t i m a t e d a m o u n t o f p o l l u t

i o n ( e . g . s i z e o f p o l l u t e d a r

e a s ,

n u m b e r o f

t o n n e s o f o i l s p i l l e d i f o t h e

r t h a n i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 4 , o r n u m b e r o f c o n t a i n e r s

, d r u m s ,

e t c . l o s t ) . I n d i c a t e s l e n g t h a n d w i d t h

o f s l i c k , i n n a u t i c a l m i l e s

, i f n o t i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e

2 .

4 2 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F

P O L L U T I O N

G i v e s t y p e o f p o l l u t i o n , e . g . t y p e o f o i l w i t h i t s v i s c o s i t y a n d p o u r

p o i n t , p a c k a g e d o r b u l k c h

e m i c a l s ,

s e w a g e . F o

r c h e m i c a l s , g i v e p r o p e r n

a m e o r U n i t e d N a t i o n s N u

m b e r , i f k n o w n . F o r a l l , g i v e a l s o

a p p e a r a n c e , e . g . l i q u i d , f l o a t i n g s o l i d

, l i q u i d o i l , s e m i - l i q u i d s l u

d g e , t a r r y l u m p s , w e a t h e r

e d o i l ,

d i s c o l o r a t i o n o f s e a , v i s i b l e v a p o u r . A

n y m a r k i n g s o n d r u m s , c

o n t a i n e r s , e t c . s h o u l d b e g i v e n .

4 3 S O U R C E A N

D C A U S E O F

P O L L U T I O N

e . g . f r o m v e s s e l o r o t h e r u n d e r t a k i n g

. I f f r o m v e s s e l , s a y w h e t h

e r a s a r e s u l t o f a d e l i b e r a t e

d i s c h a r g e o r c a s u a l t y . I f t h e l a t t e r , g i v e b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n . W h e r e

p o s s i b l e , g i v e n a m e , t y p e ,

s i z e , c a l l

s i g n , n a t i o n a l i t y a n d p o r t o f r e g i s t r a t

i o n o f p o l l u t i n g v e s s e l . I f v

e s s e l i s p r o c e e d i n g o n i t s w a y , g i v e

c o u r s e , s p e e d a n d d e s t i n a t i o n .

4 4 W I N D D I R E C T I O N A N D

S P E E D

I n d i c a t e s w

i n d d i r e c t i o n i n d e g r e e s a

n d s p e e d i n m / s . T h e d i r e

c t i o n a l w a y s i n d i c a t e s f r o

m w h e r e

t h e w i n d i s

b l o w i n g .





49

Appendix 5

C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

4 5 C U R R E N T D

I R E C T I O N

A N D S P E E D

A N D / O R

T I D E

I n d i c a t e s c

u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n i n d e g r e e s

a n d s p e e d i n k n o t s a n d t e

n t h s o f k n o t s . T h e d i r e c t i o n a l w a y s

i n d i c a t e s t h e d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e

c u r r e n t i s f l o w i n g .

4 6 S E A S T A T E

A N D

V I S I B I L I T Y

S e a s t a t e i n d i c a t e d a s w a v e h e i g h t i n

m e t r e s . V i s i b i l i t y i n n a u t i c a l m i l e s .

4 7 D R I F T O F P

O L L U T I O N

I n d i c a t e s d

r i f t c o u r s e a n d s p e e d o f p o

l l u t i o n i n d e g r e e s a n d i n k

n o t s a n d t e n t h s o f k n o t s . I

n c a s e o f

a i r p o l l u t i o

n ( g a s c l o u d ) , d r i f t s p e e d i s i n d i c a t e d i n m / s .

4 8 F O R E C A S T

O F L I K E L Y

E F F E C T O F

P O L L U T I O N

A N D Z O N E S

A F F E C T E D

e . g . a r r i v a l

o n b e a c h , w i t h e s t i m a t e d

t i m i n g . R e s u l t s o f m a t h e m

a t i c a l m o d e l s .

4 9 I D E N T I T Y O

F

O B S E R V E R

/ R E P O R T E R .

I D E N T I T Y O

F S H I P S O N

S C E N E

I n d i c a t e s w

h o h a s r e p o r t e d t h e i n c i d

e n t . I f a s h i p , i t s n a m e , h o

m e p o r t , f l a g a n d c a l l s i g n

m u s t b e

g i v e n .

S h i p s o n s c e n e c a n a l s o b e i n d i c a t e d

u n d e r t h i s i t e m b y n a m e

, h o m e p o r t , f l a g a n d c a l l s i g n ,

e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e p o l l u t e r c a n n o t b e i d

e n t i f i e d a n d t h e s p i l l i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o f r e c e n t o

r i g i n .

5 0 A C T I O N T A K E N

A n y a c t i o n

t a k e n f o r t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e p o l l u t i o n .

5 1 P H O T O G R A

P H S O R

S A M P L E S

I n d i c a t e s i f p h o t o g r a p h s o r s a m p l e s

f r o m t h e p o l l u t i o n h a v e b e e n t a k e n . T e l e x n u m b e r o f t h e

s a m p l i n g a

u t h o r i t y s h o u l d b e g i v e n .

5 2 N A M E S O F

O T H E R

S T A T E S A N D O R G A N I -

Z A T I O N S I N

F O R M E D

5 3 – 5 9

S P A R E F O R A N Y O T H E R R E L E V A N T

I N F O R M A T I O N ( e . g . r e s u l t s o f s a m p l e o r p h o t o g r a p

h i c

a n a l y s i s , r e s u l t s o f i n s p e c t i o n s o f s u

r v e y o r s , s t a t e m e n t s o f s h i p ’ s p e r s o n n e l , e t c .

6 0 A C K N O W L E

D G E

W h e n t h i s




m p e t e n t


8 0 D A T E A N D T I M E

N o . 8 0 i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d b e l o w , i f i t v a r i e s f r

o m f i g u r e s 1 a n d / o r 4 0 .





50


P A R T I I I ( P O

L F A C )

C O N T E N T S

R E M A R K S

8 1 R E Q U E S T F

O R

A S S I S T A N C

E

T y p e a n d a

m o u n t o f a s s i s t a n c e r e q u

i r e d i n t h e f o r m o f :

– s p e c i f i e d

e q u i p m e n t

– s p e c i f i e d

e q u i p m e n t w i t h t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l

– c o m p l e t e s t r i k e t e a m s

– p e r s o n n e l w i t h s p e c i a l e x p e r t i s e

w i t h i n d i c a

t i o n o f c o u n t r y r e q u e s t e d

.

8 2 C O S T

R e q u i r e m e

n t s f o r c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n t o r e q u e s t i n g c o u n t r y o f d e

l i v e r e d a s s i s t a n c e .

8 3 P R E - A R R A N

G E M E N T S

F O R T H E D E L I V E R Y O F

A S S I S T A N C

E

I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g c u s t o m s c l e a r a n c e , a c c e s s t o t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s , e t c . i n t h e r e q u e

s t i n g

c o u n t r y .

8 4 T O W H E R E

A S S I S T A N C E

S H O U L D B E

R E N D E R E D

A N D H O W

I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e l i v e r y o f t h e a s s i s t a n c e , e . g . r e n d

e z v o u s a t s e a , w i t h i n f o r m

a t i o n o n

f r e q u e n c i e s t o b e u s e d , c a l l s i g n a n d

n a m e o f S u p r e m e O n - S c e

n e C o m m a n d e r o f t h e r e q

u e s t i n g

c o u n t r y , o r

l a n d - b a s e d a u t h o r i t i e s w

i t h t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r , t e l e x n u m b e r a n d c o n t a c t p e

r s o n s .

8 5 N A M E S O F

O T H E R

S T A T E S A N D

O R G A N I Z A T

I O N S

O n l y t o b e

f i l l e d i n i f n o t c o v e r e d b y f i g u r e 8 1 , e . g . i f f u r t h e r a s s i s t a n c e i s l a t e r n e e d e d b y o t h e r

S t a t e s .

8 6 C H A N G E O F C O M M A N D

W h e n a s u

b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f a n o i l p o l l u t i o n o r s e r i o u s t h r e a t o f o i l p o l l u t i o n m o v e s o r h a

s m o v e d

i n t o t h e z o n e o f a n o t h e r C o n t r a c t i n g

P a r t y , t h e c o u n t r y w h i c h

h a s e x e r c i s e d t h e s u p r e m

e

c o m m a n d o f t h e o p e r a t i o n m a y r e q u

e s t t h e o t h e r c o u n t r y t o t a

k e o v e r t h e s u p r e m e c o m m a n d .

8 7 E X C H A N G E

O F

I N F O R M A T I O N

W h e n a m u t u a l a g r e e m e n t h a s b e e n

r e a c h e d b e t w e e n t w o p a r t i e s o n a c h a n g e o f s u p r e m

e

c o m m a n d ,

t h e c o u n t r y t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e s u p r e m e c o m m a n d s h o u l d g i v e a r e p o r t o n a l l r e l e v a n t

i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e o p e r a t i o n t o t h e c o u n t r y t a k i n g o v e r t h e c o m m a n d .

8 8 - 9 8

S P A R E F O R A N Y O T H E R R E L E V A N T

R E Q U I R E M E N T S O R I N S

T R U C T I O N S

9 9 A C K N O W L E

D G E

W h e n t h i s




m p e t e n t






Table 2

POLREP Example No. 1: Full report (parts I, II & III)

Address From: DK

To: FRG and NL

Date Time Group 181100Z June

Identification POLREP BONN AGREEMENT

Serial number DK 1/2 (DK 1/1 for FRG)

1 Date and time 1 181000Z

2 Position 2 55o30’N - 07o00’E

3 Incident 3 Tanker collision

4 Outflow 4 Crude oil, estimated 3,000 tonnes

41 Position and/or extent of pollutionon/above/in thesea

41 The oil is forming a slick0.5 nautical miles to thesouth-east. Width up to0.3 nautical miles.

42 Characteristics of pollution 42 Venezuela crude. Viscosity3,780 cSt at 37.8oC. Ratherviscous.

43 Source and causeof pollution

43 Danish tanker ESSO BALTICA ofCopenhagen, 22,000 GRT, call signxxx, in collision with Norwegianbulk carrier AGNEDAL ofStavanger, 30,000 GRT, call signyyy. Two tanks damaged in ESSOBALTICA. No damage in AGNEDAL.

44 Wind direction andspeed 44 270 - 10 m/s.

45 Current directionand speed and/or tide

45 180 - 0.3 knots.

46 Sea state and visibility

46 Wave height 2 m. 10 nauticalmiles.

47 Drift of pollution 47 135 - 0.4 knots.

48 Forecast of likely effect of pollutionand zones affected

48 Could reach the island of Sylt,FRG or further south, NL on the23rd of this month.

49 Identity of observer/reporter.Identity of ships onscene

49 AGNEDAL, figure 43 refers.

51

Appendix 5





50 Action taken 50 2 Danish strike teams with highmechanical pick-up capacityen route to the area.

51 Photographs or samples

51 Oil samples have been taken.Telex 64471 SOK DK.

52 Names of other States andorganizationsinformed

52 FRG

53 [Spare] 53 DENGER PLAN is activated.

81 Request for

assistance

81 FRG is requested for 2 strike

teams with high mechanicalpick-up capacity.

82 Cost 82 FRG is requested for anapproximate cost rate per day ofassistance rendered.

83 Pre-arrangementsfor the delivery of assistance

83 FRG units will be allowed to enterDanish territorial waters forcombating purposes or Danishharbours for logistics,informing SOSC beforehand.

84 To whereassistance shouldbe rendered andhow

84 Rendezvous 57o30’N - 07o00’E.Report on VHF channels 16 and 67.SOSC, Lieutenant CommanderHansen in GUNNAR SEIDENFADEN,call sign OWAJ.

99 ACKNOWLEDGE 99 ACKNOWLEDGE.

POLREP Example No. 2: Abbreviated report (single figures from part III)

Address From: FRG

To: DK

Date Time Group 182230Z June


Serial number Your DK 1/2 refers


82 Cost 82 Total cost per day will beapprox...

84 To where assis-tance should berendered and how

84 ETA FRG units at POLREP BONNAGREEMENT DK 1/2 will be 182100Z.

52






POLREP Example No. 3: Exercise report

Address From: DKTo: N

Date Time Group 210940Z JuneURGENT

EXERCISE


Serial number Your DK 1/1


2 Position 2 57o50’N - 10o00’E

3 Incident 3 Tanker collision

4 Outflow 4 Not yet crude oil

5 Acknowledge 5 Acknowledge

EXERCISE EXERCISE EXERCISE

E XAMPLE 2: C ARIBBEAN POLREP S YSTEM

CARIBPOLREP Format

1 The following is a summarized list of the composition of theCARIBPOLREP message.

1.1 HEADING

.1 Date time group:

.2 From:

.3 To:

.4 Subject:

1.2 SITUATION

.1 Date and time

.2 Position

.3 Incident

.4 Outflow

.5 Characteristics of pollution

53

Appendix 5





.6 Source and cause of pollution

.7 Wind direction and speed

.8 Current or tide

.9 Sea state and visibility

.10 Drift of pollution

.11 Forecast

.12 Identity of observer and ships on scene

1.3 ACTION TAKEN

.1 Implementation of national contingency plan

.2 Incident surveillance

.3 Photographs or samples

.4 Names of other States informed

1.4 FUTURE PLANS

Various types of information, such as anticipated changes of command;reducing information exchange to encompass only relevant, affectedparties; etc.

1.5 ASSISTANCE REQUESTED

.1 Source of assistance

.2 Estimated cost

.3 Pre-arrangement for delivery

.4 Assistance to where and how

.5 Other States requested

.6 Names and passport numbers of persons

.7 Description of equipment

.8 ETA and arrival information

.9 Place of embarkation

.10 Place of disembarkation

2 If the CARIBPOLREP is used in exercises, the text is to be introduced with the word EXERCISE and finished with this word three times. Eachof the subsequent reports which deals with the exercise is to beintroduced and finished with the word EXERCISE (three times) as well.

54






CARIBPOLREP Explanation

REMARKS

3.1 HEADING

.1 Date Time Group: The day of the month as well as the timeof day of the message.

.2 From: Lead agency of the Island State or Territory that is initiating the message.

.3 To: Commander, Greater Antilles Section, USCoast Guard, San Juan, Puerto Ricorequesting the US Coast Guard pass themessage to other Island States or Territories. Lead agencies may passinformation directly to other IslandStates or Territories that may be affectedby the spill.

.4 Subject: CARIBPOLREP, sequential number of thereport and the name of the vessel or facility involved in the spill incident.

3.2 SITUATION

.1 Date and time: Date and time of the incident.

.2 Position: Position of vessel or vessels involved inthe incident. If source of spill isunknown, location by latitude andlongitude in degrees and minutes andmay, in addition, give the bearings of and

the distance from a location known by the receiver.

.3 Incident: The nature of the incident should bestated here, such as BLOWOUT, TANKER GROUNDING, TANKER COLLISION, OIL SLICK, etc.

.4 Outflow: The nature of the pollution, such asCRUDE OIL, CHLORINE,DINITROPHENOL, etc., as well as the

total quantity in tonnes of the outflow and/or the flow rate, as well as the risk of further outflow. If there is no pollutionbut a pollution threat, the words NOT YET followed by the substance (for example, NOT YET FUEL OIL) should bestated.

55

Appendix 5





.5 Characteristics of pollution:

Give type of pollution, e.g. type of oil withits viscosity and pour point, packaged or bulk chemicals, sewage. For chemicals,

give proper name or United NationsNumber, if known. For all, give alsoappearance, e.g., liquid, floating solid,liquid oil, semi-liquid sludge, tarry lumps, weathered oil, discoloration of sea, visible vapour. Any markings ondrums, containers, etc. should be given.

.6 Source and causeof pollution:

e.g., from vessel or other undertaking. If from vessel, say whether as a result of a

deliberate discharge or casualty. If thelatter, give brief description. Wherepossible, give name, type, size, call sign,nationality and port of registration of polluting vessel. If vessel is proceeding onits way, give course, speed anddestination.

.7 Wind directionand speed:

Indicate wind direction and speed indegrees and m.p.h. The direction always

indicates from where the wind is blowing.

.8 Current or tide: Indicate current direction in degrees andspeed in knots and tenths of knots. Thedirection always indicates the directionin which the current is flowing.

.9 Sea state and visibility:

Sea state indicated as wave height in feet. Visibility is in nautical miles.

.10 Drift of pollution: Indicate drift course and speed of

pollution in degrees and in knots andtenths of knots. In case of air pollution(gas cloud), drift speed is indicated inm/s.

.11 Forecast: e.g., arrival on beach, with estimatedtiming. Results of mathematical models,or computer trajectory modelling.

.12 Identity of observer

and ships on scene:

Indicate who has reported the incident. If

a ship, its name, home port, flag and callsign must be given. Ships on scene canalso be indicated under this item by name, home port, flag and call sign,especially if the polluter cannot beidentified and the spill is considered to beof recent origin.

56






3.3 ACTION TAKEN

.1 Implementation of nationalcontingency plan:

Indicate if national contingency plan hasbeen activated. If appropriate, give nameof response agency and On-SceneCommander.

.2 Incident surveillance:

Indicate type of spill surveillance, suchas aerial or vessel. Number of overflightsper day, etc.

.3 Photographs or samples:

Indicate if photographs or samples fromthe pollution have been taken. Fax or telex number of the sampling authority should be given.

.4 Names of other States informed:

Lead agency initiating messageconcerning the spill incident shouldname the other Island States that havebeen notified directly. This is important if the control of communications is being passed to the US Coast GuardCommander, Greater Antilles. If communications are being passed,identify Island States to whom the alert is

to be readdressed.

3.4 FUTURE PLANS

.1 Future plans: Describe the action contemplated inresponse to the discharge or threat of discharge.

3.5 ASSISTANCE REQUESTED

.1 Source of assistance:

Name of lead agency and name of IslandState or Territory and the type of assistance required, in the form of:

– specified equipment

– specified equipment with trainedpersonnel

– complete strike teams

– personnel with special expertise with indication of Island State or Territory requested.

.2 Estimated cost: Requirements for cost information torequesting Island State or Territory of delivered assistance.

57

Appendix 5





.3 Prearrangement delivery of assistance:

Information concerning customsclearance, access to territorial waters,etc. in the requesting Island or Territory.

.4 Assistance to where and how:

Information concerning the delivery of the assistance, e.g. rendezvous at sea, with information on frequencies to beused, call sign and name of On-SceneCommander of the requesting IslandState or Territory or land-basedauthorities, with telephone number, fax,or telex number and contact person.

.5 Other Statesrequested:

Only used, if not covered by 3.5.1, if further assistance is later needed by other Island States or Territories.

.6 Personnel names,passport nationality andnumber:

Names of persons responding from anassisting Island State, including their passport numbers. This information isnecessary to facilitate rapid entry into

the requesting Island State or Territory.

.7 Description of equipment:

A brief description of the equipment,including serial and model numbers. Also include a list of any component parts that are being shipped with theequipment.

.8 ETA and arrival

information:

Time and place of arrival of equipment

and of personnel should be given toaccommodate clearance with customsand immigration officials in therequesting Island State or Territory.

.9 Place of embarkation:

The responding Island State shouldinclude the airport or seaport whereresponding personnel are departing from. The information should give flight names and numbers and/or vessel

names.

.10 Place of disembarkation:

The responding Island State should givethe airport or seaport where responding personnel will be arriving in therequesting country.

58






.11 Spare: Any relevant information pertaining tothe spill should be included, such asresults of field inspections or surveys,

statements of ship’s personnel, vesseland cargo owners and if the owners aremembers of a co-operative association,etc.

Example: CARIBPOLREP Message No. 1

(Heading)

Date Time Group: 181100GMT

From: Lead agency Grenada

To: Commander, Greater Antilles Section, US Coast Guard,San Juan, Puerto Rico

Pass to: Lead agency St. Vincent, Tobago, St. Lucia and Trinidadfor immediate alert

(Subject)

Caribpolrep No. 1: M.T. West Passage

(Situation)

Tankship M.T. West Passage on fire and in danger of sinking Date and time: Fire reported 180745GMT

Position: Vessel at 128-30’N 618-15’ W

Incident: Engine-room fire spreading to cargo tanks. Some crudeoil reported to be leaking. Risk of loss of vessel andentire cargo of 156,000 tons. Oil is forming a slick tothe west.

Source of pollution: Ruptured cargo tanks 10 right, 10 centreand 10 left.

Wind direction and speed: Wind is from 0908 at 10 miles per hour.

Current: Current is towards 2708 at approximately 1 knot.

Sea state and visibility: Wave height 3 feet and visibility is10 nautical miles.

(Action taken)

Air sea rescue units en route.

Crew still aboard the vessel.

Grenada lead agency activating national contingency plan andhas commenced aerial surveillance.

Names of other States informed: Inform all other CaribbeanPlan member Island States and Territories for informationalert only at this time.

59

Appendix 5





Example: CARIBPOLREP Message No. 2

(Heading)

Date Time Group: 181645GMT From: Lead agency Grenada

To: Commander, Greater Antilles Section, US Coast Guard,San Juan, Puerto Rico

Pass to: Trinidad lead agency for action.

(Subject)

Caribpolrep No.2: M.T. West Passage leaking oil.

(Situation) Tankship M.T. West Passage on fire, leaking oil, and in danger of sinking.

Date and time: Fire reported 180745 GMT

Position: Vessel now dead in the water at 128-30’N 618-15’ W

Incident: Vessel sustained engine damage from fire whichspread to cargo tanks and is out of control. Crew hasabandoned vessel and air sea rescue units are on

scene. Vessel contains 156,000 tons of Arabian crude.Oil slick observed from aerial observations to bespreading west-north-west. Slick 1/2 mile wide and 8miles long.

Wind direction and speed: Wind is from 1408 at 15 miles per hour.

Current: Current is towards 2708 at approximately 1 knot.

Sea state and visibility: Wave height 4 feet and visibility is10 nautical miles.

Request assistance: Request vessel with dispersant spray equipment and available dispersant chemicals. Inform the Grenada lead agency of the quantity and type available. Request dispersant spray operating personnel toaccompany equipment.

Estimated cost: If known, cost of rental rate for dispersant spray equipment, dispersant spray chemicals by thedrum and daily charges for operating personnel.

Assistance to where and how: Assistance needed at mobilizationarea at the Port of St. George,Grenada as soon as possible.Please arrange air transportationfor equipment and operating personnel.

60






(Action taken)

Grenada Response Agency assuming on-scene responsibility for pollution abatement in Grenada’s EEZ. Chemical dispersant

response to oil at sea initiated.Names of other States informed: Pass to St. Vincent, Tobago, St.

Lucia for information.

61

Appendix 5





Appendix 6

Guidelines for identifying response resources

Booms

Types

Total length*

Draught/Freeboard length and weight per unit*

Additional support equipment necessary

Design or intended use (e.g. use in open sea or sheltered water operations)

Mobilization time{

Means of transportation required

Available transportation

Personnel for handling/operating

Procurement cost/m versus rental cost

Skimmers and other pick-up devices

Types, total numbers Weight and size per unit*


Design or intended use (e.g. use in open sea or sheltered water operations)

Mobilization time{



Personnel for handling/operating Procurement cost versus rental cost

Estimated daily rental cost

Available equipment, not dedicated to oil spill response, that canbe used (pumps, etc.)

Mobile equipment for temporary storage of recovered oil

Types, total numbers/capacity*

Weight and size per unit*

Additional support equipment necessary Design or intended use (e.g. use in open sea or sheltered water operations)

——————

* Dimensions and weights should be metric.

{ The time-lapse between request for and dispatch of equipment, vessels, etc.

62





Mobilization time{



Personnel for handling/operating

Procurement cost versus rental cost

Specialized shoreline clean-up equipment

Types/function

Weight and size per unit*


Design or intended use

Mobilization time{



Personnel for handling

Procurement cost versus rental cost

Specialized vessels

Type, length, breadth, speed, function*

Fuel/dockage

Work-crew accommodation

On-board storage capacity in cubic metres (if applicable)

Application (open sea or sheltered waters)

Mobilization time{



Aircraft

Missiondispersant applicationsurveillancetransport

Type, rotary/fixed wing

Operating speed

Specialized equipment

Endurance

Passenger capacity

Load capacity

Mobilization time{Fuel/ramp requirements


——————



63

Appendix 6





Dispersants

Types, total stock of each type in litres

System of storage

Method of application

Approval data (e.g. country of approval, approval number)

Toxicity and efficiency data (e.g. tests applied and resultsobtained)

Types of spraying equipment required

Sources of supply and mobilization time{

Means of transportation required, capacity of unit


Estimated price/litre

Vessel and aircraft dispersant spraying equipment

Stocks held, by type and size*

Whether suitable for dispersant concentrate and in what ratio

Design or intended use

Mobilization time{

Means of transportation required, weight per unit*

Available transportationPersonnel for handling

Dispersant pillow tanks

Total stocks, by type and capacity and weight empty/full*

Means of securing on board

Mobilization time{

Means of transportation required, weight per unit*



Lightering equipment

Pumps, total stocks by type/capacity and weight including primemover*

Hoses, length, diameter and weight/section*

Fenders, total stocks by type/size and weight*


Estimated procurement cost Estimated daily rental cost

Mobilization time{

——————



64






In-situ burning

Fire boom, amount*

Support equipment Mobilization time{

Transportation/delivery


Ignition methodology

Procurement cost

Wildlife chemical treatment/rehabilitation

Bird scaring devicesRecovery/handling equipment (nets)*

Holding pens/facilities

Cleaning agents and supplies

Husbandry experts

Mobilization time{

Transportation/delivery (boats/trailers)

Cost of operations

Communications and auxiliary equipment

Equipment available

Mobilization time{

Portable equipment (on board and ashore)

Frequencies

Types of emission

Power source

Signalling lamps

Estimated daily rental cost versus procurement cost

——————



65

Appendix 6





Section III

MANUAL ON

OIL POLLUTION

SALVAGE1997 Edition

BINTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATIONLondon, 1997








Second edition 1997

Printed in the United Kingdom by the International Maritime Organization, London

2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1

ISBN 92-801-1442-5

IMO PUBLICATION

Sales number: IMO-566E

Cover photo Mega Borg, June 1990 (IMO photo library)



No part of this publication may, for sales purposes,

be produced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic,

magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,







Foreword

This publication comprises section III of the Manual on Oil Pollution prepared by the Marine Environment Protection Committee of IMO.


Section I Prevention (out of print; revision under consideration)

Section II Contingency Planning (first published in 1978; revisededition published in 1995)

Section III Salvage (first published in 1983; revised edition published

in 1997)

Section IV Combating Oil Spills (first published in 1988; currently under review)

Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (to bepublished in late 1997/early 1998)

The Manual on Chemical Pollution consists of two sections:

Section I Problem Assessment and Response Arrangements (first

published in 1987, currently under review)

Section II Search and Recovery of Packaged Goods Lost at Sea (first published in 1991)

The Salvage section of the Manual on Oil Pollution has been extended tocover substances other than oil. The other above sections of the Manual which relate specifically to oil pollution will, later, be extended to cover substances other than oil.

The Marine Environment Protection Committee thanks the many

experts who assisted in the preparation of the text and whocontributed tables and diagrams, thereby making the publication of this section possible in its present form.

It is advisable that the national contingency plan (see section II of the Manual on Oil Pollution ) contains information on where and how resources for the purpose of quick and effective salvage may be available.

This section of the Manual is intended to provide guidance to Administrations and officials involved with oil pollution casualties so

that they may effectively mitigate the effects of such accidents,particularly in relation to the salvage of vessels and cargo.

While most oil pollution casualties are likely to involve tankers, it shouldbe noted that many dry cargo and passenger vessels have a bunker capacity of several thousand tons and may therefore pose a seriousthreat of oil pollution if involved in an accident.

iii





Acknowledgements

The illustrations from Reed’s Commercial Salvage Practice in appendix 1have been reproduced with the kind permission of Thomas ReedPublications, 19 Bridge Road, East Molesey, Surrey KT8 9EU, UnitedKingdom.

Tables 1-5 and figure 1 in appendix 2 and the table in appendix 3 havebeen reproduced with the kind permission of the International Chamber of Shipping and the Oil Companies International Marine Forum.

Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement has been reproduced in

appendix 4 with the kind permission of Lloyd’s of London, One LimeStreet, London EC3 7HA, United Kingdom.

iv





.

Contents

Page

1 Introduction

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Action by the shipowner in the event of a casualty. . . . . . . 2

1.3 Advice to masters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4 Position of the Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Intervention

2.1 Powers under the 1969 Convention andthe 1973 Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

3.1 Article 221, Measures to avoid pollution arising from maritime casualties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 International Convention on Salvage, 1989

4.1 Application of the Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4.2 Article 5(3) – Salvage operations controlledby public authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.3 Article 6 – Salvage contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.4 Article 8 – Duties of the salvor and of the owner and master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.5 Article 9 – Rights of coastal States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.6 Article 14 – Special compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5 Advice to Administrations

5.1 Planning prior to a casualty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5.2 Customs and immigration facilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5.3 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5.4 Establishment and maintenance of liaison

with interested parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95.5 Inventory of specialist salvage equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5.6 Provision of ‘‘harbours of refuge’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5.7 Maintenance of records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

5.8 Action at the time of a casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

v





5.9 Action subsequent to a casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

6 Salvage contracts

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

6.2 ‘‘No cure–no pay’’ and ‘‘service’’ contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6.3 Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Appendix 1 Information on salvage methods, specialized salvageequipment and salvage techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Appendix 2 Rate of drift for disabled tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Appendix 3 Resistance to tow in still water conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Appendix 4 Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement(LOF 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

vi

Manual on Oil Pollution III: Salvage





Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 General

1.1.1 Despite all efforts to reduce maritime accidents through improvedsafety measures and technological advances in navigational aids, there will be occasions where oil or other harmful substances are spilled from a vessel as a result of:

.1 collision;

.2 grounding;

.3 striking a wreck or other obstacle;

.4 fire and/or explosion;

.5 failure or breakdown of machinery or equipment which resultsin the impairment of the safety of navigation;

.6 structural failure;

.7 storm damage and ice damage;

.8 flooding; and

.9 sabotage.

Happy Traveller, March 1990 off Singapore

1





1.1.2 In most accidents the master, as representative of the vessel owner and the cargo owner, will take immediate action to ensure the safety of hiscrew, the preservation of the ship, and to stop or limit cargo outflow. The

master will also make arrangements, where necessary, for the salvage of the vessel.

1.1.3 The salvor’s primary aim will, therefore, be the successful comple-tion of his assignment, whereas the concern of the Administration may additionally involve protection of local industry, fisheries, and mainte-nance of the ecology of the area. It is important, therefore, that full co-operation between all the parties concerned (Administrations, ship andcargo owners, salvors, etc.) is arranged expeditiously and that, as far as ispossible, division of responsibility is worked out in principle and acceptedby all parties prior to or at the inception of any incidents. A guide to Administrations, information on salvage methods, specialized salvageequipment, and salvage techniques is attached at appendix 1.

1.1.4 The arrangements should also cover agreement on responsibility for procurement of ancillary equipment which may be necessary and thenecessary financial resources.

1.2 Action by the shipowner in the event of a casualty

1.2.1 In most cases the shipowner or operator will be fully aware of any

potentially hazardous situation in which his vessel is involved. If in themaster’s judgement or as a result of the advice to the master by theoperator, it is considered desirable, salvage assistance will be arranged oncommercial terms. Such salvage contracts are usually with a firm of professional salvors who are experienced in the highly specializedrequirements for successful salvage.

1.2.2 Prior to the 1980s, virtually all contracts were on a ‘‘no cure–no pay’’basis by which the salvor received no remuneration if the ship was not brought to a place of safety. Under these terms, the overriding incentive for

the salvor was to get the stricken vessel to a place of safety even though inextreme cases it might be necessary to jettison some of the cargo in order to do so.

1.2.3 The primary concern of a shipowner or operator in such circum-stances must be the safety of those on board the vessel. The master, as theowner’s representative, must be well aware of the need to seek outsideassistance wherever it is necessary. In the special case of oil tankers, thehelp and expert advice which generally can be provided by the cargo owner is also at the disposal of the vessel’s master and owner. Recognizing that,

in the case of oil tanker casualties, Governments had the right and duty tointervene to prevent damage to their coastal environment, an agreement was reached in 1980 between a number of influential organizations under the aegis of Lloyd’s of London under which, in the case of laden oil tankersonly, there would be a departure from the normal no cure–no pay principleso that a salvor could recover his out-of-pocket costs even in cases wherethe vessel and its cargo were a total loss.

2






1.2.4 Thus, unless an Administration under its national law or under theprovisions of the International Convention relating to Intervention on theHigh Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969 (Intervention 1969),*

as amended by the Protocol relating to Intervention on the High Seas inCases of Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil, 1973 (1973 InterventionProtocol), if it is a Contracting Party thereto, has taken powers to intervenebecause of a grave and imminent threat of pollution of its shores, thesalvage operation will be dealt with between the owner/operator and thesalvor, with both parties complying with the requirements of Administra-tions as directed.

1.2.5 The award to the salvors in the event of successful salvage is (indefault of agreement between the parties) decided by arbitration. The cost of any oil pollution claims as a result of an accident involving a tanker areusually recoverable under the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (1969 Civil Liability Convention),{ and theInternational Convention on the Establishment of an International Fundfor Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (1971 Fund Conven-tion).{ In the case of both laden and unladen tankers, the compensationschemes allow reimbursement for preventative measures which includesalvage operations that minimize or prevent pollution damage, even in theevent of an incident where no oil is spilled, provided there is grave andimminent danger of pollution damage (1992 Protocol to the 1971 Fund

Convention).}

For hazardous noxious liquid substances, compensation willbe covered under the International Convention on Liability and Compen-sation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous andNoxious Substances by Sea, 1996 (1996 HNS Convention), when it entersinto force.

1.3 Advice to masters

1.3.1 The various aspects of vessel salvage are covered by the joint International Chamber of Shipping (ICS)/Oil Companies International

Marine Forum (OCIMF) publication Peril at Sea and Salvage – A Guide for Masters (4th edition). Appendix 2 to this Manual has been drawn frominformation contained in that publication.

1.3.2 Timely reporting is required under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78),} and the International Conventionon Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-Operation, 1990 (1990OPRC Convention),|| and should be made to the coastal State(s) concerned

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-402E.{ Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-410E{ Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-520B.} Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-456E.} Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-520E.|| Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-550E.

3

Chapter 1





in accordance with IMO resolution A.648(16),* General principles for shipreporting systems and ship reporting requirements, including guidelinesfor reporting incidents involving dangerous goods, harmful substances

and/or marine pollutants. Some States might delineate further in localregulations concerning under what circumstances reports of casualtiesneed to be made.

1.3.3 Emergency response on board ships should be carried out inaccordance with regulation 26 of Annex I to MARPOL 73/78 and IMOresolution MEPC.54(32),{ Guidelines for the development of shipboard oilpollution emergency plans. Such response should take into account thedirections given by the coastal State(s) authorities.

1.3.4 Emergency response procedures on board ships are often different

than for similar incidents on land. Land-based responders might not befamiliar with shipboard response techniques thereby inadvertently causing damage to the vessel or causing injury to themselves, the localpopulation, or the environment. Additionally, as a result of the automationof shipboard systems, the trend has been towards smaller crew sizes. Withsmaller crew sizes the land-based response support required during anemergency increases. Accordingly, the master and the shipowner shouldpartner with the local authorities of the ports the ship visits to:

.1 identify the response needs of the ship;

.2 identify the response capabilities of the ship and the port;

.3 identify any shortfalls in response capability;

.4 establish response agreements and develop contingency plansas appropriate; and

.5 eliminate response capability shortfalls.

1.4 Position of the Administration

1.4.1 A major part of an Administration’s contingency planning must of necessity be related to mitigating damage from pollution in the event of a casualty. One of the most important contributions to this is ensuring, where possible, the prompt and efficient salvage of the ship and cargo. Thismay well involve such associated disciplines as emergency lightering arrangements and fire-fighting aboard the ship. Thus, the prompt availability of portable pumping equipment, particularly submersiblepumps with appropriate power packs, fenders of appropriate size, andlightering craft, as well as other equipment not normally carried by shipsor salvage tugs, will be of considerable importance. An assessment of the

risk to shorelines, fisheries, and local industry needs to be carried out by the Administration as a matter of urgent priority. The immediate andfuture actions to be taken by the ship’s master, the operator (and in some

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-516E.{ Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-586E.

4






cases the cargo owner), and the salvor need to be taken into account inreviewing the overall situation, in order that an agreement can be reached with the Administration on the action to be taken.

Chapter 2 Intervention

2.1 Powers under the 1969 Intervention Convention andthe 1973 Intervention Protocol

2.1.1 The Administration, if it is a Party thereto, should be aware of thepowers conferred upon it by the 1969 Intervention Convention asamended by the 1973 Intervention Protocol, to intervene in casualty situations which pose a threat of pollution to its coastline or adjacent waters. As a generality, it should be borne in mind by the authority or official exercising powers under the 1969 Intervention Convention*on behalf of an Administration that these only apply after a casualty (asdefined in the Convention) has occurred and when there exists a grave andimminent danger to their coastline or related interests from pollution or threat of pollution of the sea. The term high seas for the purpose of the

above Convention and Protocol means those waters beyond the territorialsea.

2.1.2 What constitutes a grave and imminent danger can only be decidedat the time, taking into account the type and quantity of the pollutant, thecircumstances surrounding the casualty, the existing and forecast weather, the range and strength of tides and currents, availability of salvage equipment and expertise and such other factors as may bepeculiar to that particular incident.

2.1.3 Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that the interests of theshipowner, the salvor and the cargo owner might not always coincide and,in those cases, it may become necessary for the coastal State to intervenein order to reconcile these differences in its own best interest. In other cases, the need to intervene may not arise if agreement exists between allparties.

2.1.4 It should be remembered that whenever these powers have beenexercised, the Administration should be prepared to defend its actions as it could be held responsible for costs incurred by unreasonable andexcessive exercise of the powers.

2.1.5 Finally, there will come a stage when one of the parties considersthat the threat is no longer grave or imminent, and a decision will have tobe taken whether and when intervention should cease.

* Further powers may be available under national legislation.

5

Chapter 2





2.1.6 Administrations should satisfy themselves that they have access tothe expertise which will be required to enable them to assess marinecasualties and related salvage operations and to exercise their intervention

powers in an effective and timely manner. This expertise might beavailable from within the Administration or from elsewhere, for instance,from the IMO panel of experts or from other States.

Chapter 3United Nations Convention on

the Law of the Sea

3.1 Article 221, Measures to avoid pollution arising from maritime casualties

3.1.1 Article 221 of the United Nation’s Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), gives States the right, ‘‘pursuant to international law, bothcustomary and conventional, to take and enforce measures beyond theterritorial sea proportionate to the actual or threatened damage to protect their coastlines or related interests, including fishing, from pollution or threat of pollution following from a maritime casualty or acts relating to

such a casualty, which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmful consequences’’. This article generalizes the above-mentioned1969 Intervention Convention and the 1973 Intervention Protocol.

Chapter 4 International Convention on Salvage, 1989*

4.1 Application of the Convention

4.1.1 The International Convention on Salvage, 1989 (1989 SalvageConvention), replaces, for States which become party to both, the 1910Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea (Brussels Convention). A salvage operationmeans any act or activity undertaken to assist a vessel or any other property in danger in navigable waters or in any other waters. Any other property is defined as any property not permanently and intentionally attached to the shoreline and includes freight at risk. Also included in thedefinition are aircraft used in salvage operations or even wrecks that might be salvaged. The Convention does not apply to the sea only, but also to theinland waters of a State.

* The International Convention on Salvage, 1989, entered into force on 14 July 1996. Refer to IMOsales publication number IMO-450E.

6






4.1.2 Some of the highlights of the Salvage Convention, 1989, arediscussed in paragraphs 4.2 – 4.6.

4.2 Article 5(3), Salvage operations controlledby public authorities

Article 5(3) stipulates that the extent to which a public authority under a duty to perform salvage operations might avail itself of the rights andremedies provided for shall be determined by the law of the State wheresuch authority is situated.

4.3 Article 6, Salvage contracts

According to article 6, the master shall have the authority to conclude

contracts for salvage operations on behalf of the owner of the vessel. Themaster or the owner of the vessel shall have the authority to concludesuch contracts on behalf of the owner of the property on board the vessel.See chapter 6 of this section for more information on contracts.

4.4 Article 8, Duties of the salvor and of the owner and master

Article 8 imposes a duty on the salvor to exercise due care while carrying out salvage operations, to prevent or minimize damage to theenvironment.

4.5 Article 9, Rights of coastal States

(Article 9 printed in its entirety)

‘‘Nothing in this Convention shall affect the right of the coastal Stateconcerned to take measures in accordance with generally recognizedprinciples of international law to protect its coastline or relatedinterests from pollution or the threat of pollution following upon a maritime casualty or acts relating to such a casualty which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmful consequences,

including the right of a coastal State to give directions in relation tosalvage operations.’’

4.6 Article 14, Special compensation

4.6.1 The 1989 Salvage Convention keeps up the normal principle of nocure–no pay, but according to article 14, the salvor, who has carried out a salvage operation in respect of a vessel which by itself or its cargothreatened damage to the environment and failed to earn reward becausethe operation has not had a useful result, shall be entitled to a special

compensation from the owner of that vessel equivalent to the salvor’sexpenses as herein defined. The special compensation might be increasedup to a maximum of 30% of the expenses incurred.

4.6.2 Also, upon the request of the salvor, a person liable for payment dueunder the Convention shall provide satisfactory security for the claim,including interest and costs of the salvor (article 21).

7

Chapters 3, 4





Chapter 5 Advice to Administrations

5.1 Planning prior to a casualty

5.1.1 An appropriate authority within an Administration should bedesignated to receive all information relating to a maritime casualty or a potential casualty and to take effective action thereon.

5.1.2 This will require establishment of a permanently manned system which can:

.1 rapidly notify all relevant authorities involved;

.2 establish the facts and assess the damage potential of theincident;

.3 establish and maintain contact with all parties concerned(authorized shipowner, cargo owner, salvors, insurance interest,etc.);

.4 decide whether salvage activities being undertaken by theowner are adequate for the circumstances both present andforeseen;

.5 decide what additional steps should be taken, if any, by the Administration to facilitate salvage and prevent pollution;

.6 organize the prompt availability of specialist assistance andspecial salvage materials and make the necessary financialarrangements therefor;

.7 review the suitability of specific locations to be designatedharbours of refuge (see 5.6) where distressed vessels can morerapidly and safely be attended to and their pollution potentialeliminated or substantially reduced and to establish such

locations together with appropriate equipment; and.8 maintain detailed records of actions taken, costs incurred,

damage sustained and remedial actions for subsequent review and preparation of claims.

5.2 Customs and immigration facilitation

All the foregoing steps should be taken in the closest co-operation withthose authorities who will have responsibility for clean-up of pollution. Also, prior joint arrangements should be made to expedite the temporary

importation and customs clearance of all salvage related and pollutionclean-up material. Facilitation of entry of the technical experts requiredto deal with the casualty should be arranged. The Administration might also wish to avail itself of the services of an independent expert (seearticle IV of the 1969 Intervention Convention and article VII of the1990 OPRC Convention) and special arrangements should be made tofacilitate entry.

8






5.3 Communications

It is essential to keep telegraphic authorities and maritime radio stationsaware of the specific point to which advisory messages or requests for

assistance should be communicated and where necessary to ensurepriority handling of such traffic. Administrations may prefer to des-ignate in advance a specific channel for emergency use only, together with detailed arrangements.

5.4 Establishment and maintenance of liaisonwith interested parties

5.4.1 The parties having special interests related to salvage operationsare:

.1 shipowners and operators,

.2 insurance companies (P& I),

.3 cargo owners and their insurers,

.4 salvors, and

.5 Administrations.

5.4.2 Various books of reference, such as Lloyd’s Register and Clarkson’sThe Tanker Register , will give the details of a vessel, its owner and operator,as will the specialized marine computer data banks. If ownership haschanged, a facsimile or telex to the reference consulted will rapidly providethe new information. The ship should, in any case, provide the name andaddress of the owner. Details of professional salvors in the area may beobtained from local or international sources.

5.5 Inventory of specialist salvage equipment

5.5.1 In addition to the equipment which is normally carried on a salvage vessel, it is essential to be aware of the availability and location of other equipment which may be needed to facilitate the salvage of the vessel.

Items such as:

.1 lightering vessels,

.2 fenders of appropriate size,

.3 portable pumping equipment (particularly submersible pumps) with appropriate power packs,

.4 fire-fighting equipment suitable for marine use, and

.5 portable inert gas generating equipment,

should be located and catalogued. Arrangements should be made for theimmediate release of these items in case of an emergency and theappropriate office which can authorize release should be clearly identified. Financial arrangements for the provision of such equipment should also be worked out in advance. For example, many authoritiesrequire a letter of credit or bank guarantee as a prerequisite for therelease of equipment.

9

Chapter 5





5.5.2 Studies should be carried out as to the practicability of acquiring and storing of any specialist equipment which is not readily available fromsources near at hand. In this regard, discussions with neighbouring

Administrations with a view to establishing regional or sub-regionalstockpiles can be advantageous. Information on specialized salvageequipment and techniques is provided at appendix 1.

5.6 Provision of ‘‘harbours of refuge’’

5.6.1 Authorities, mindful of the risks involved, may be reluctant to accept a distressed ship which may leak a pollutant. However, it is rarely possibleto deal satisfactorily and expeditiously with a casualty in open sea conditions and the longer a damaged ship is forced to remain at the mercy

of the open sea, the greater is the risk of its condition deteriorating andthereby becoming a greater pollution hazard.

5.6.2 Authorities should be encouraged to identify potential ‘‘harbours of refuge’’ or ‘‘safe havens’’. The provision of special sheltered areas asharbours of refuge or safe havens should be carefully examined, but if such areas cannot be determined, authorities should be encouraged topermit (with all reasonable precautions, e.g. a requirement that the salvor could not disengage before the owner has complied with all requiredpreventive measures and ensuring adequate arrangements for

compensation are in place) a distressed vessel to enter its harbour tofacilitate its salvage and minimize damage. If a harbour of refuge or a safehaven cannot be identified, the possibility of using another sea area should be examined.

5.6.3 Article 11 of the 1989 Salvage Convention requires States Party tothe Convention to take account of the need for co-operation between various parties concerned in a salvage operation, including publicauthorities, when considering admittance to ports of damaged vessels.

5.6.4 Local conditions and the nature of the incident will determine what

factors need to be considered when identifying harbours of refuge. A harbour of refuge should provide safe access to the ship in distress with a minimal amount of threat to local populations and the environment. Someharbours may provide an excellent refuge because of their accessibility and the protection they provide from seas and weather; however, they may also be environmentally sensitive. These harbours should not be excludedfrom designation as harbours of refuge if actions can be taken to achieve a reasonable level of protection to the environment. Some items to consider when designating a harbour of refuge:

.1 threat to local populations (direct exposure to threats such asfire, explosion, water and air pollutants; indirect exposurethrough facility air and water intakes, etc.);

.2 threat to environmentally sensitive areas;

.3 access availability for response resources (piers, docks, bulk-heads, roads, airports, equipment staging area, etc.);

10






.4 access availability by the stricken and response vessels(channel width and depth, aids to navigation, anchorages andmoorings, etc.);

.5 proximity to response resources (salvage vessels/equipment,fire-fighting equipment, rescue and medical services, etc.); and

.6 proximity to support services (water, electricity, commandcentre, living accommodations, etc.).

Note: It will often be difficult to predesignate harbours of refuge and thedecision will often be taken after the salvage has started. The aboveitems, however, remain applicable in such a case.

5.7 Maintenance of records

5.7.1 The costs connected even with a minor incident may be consider-able. It is important, therefore, to maintain detailed records of any sumsexpended in connection with preventive measures, equipment costs,transport, etc., in order to subsequently submit a claim to the appropriatebody. Compensation for pollution risks involving oil tankers is usually covered under the provisions of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, the1971 Fund Convention and the 1992 Protocols to these Conventions. It isdesirable, therefore, to establish the identity of the tanker’s P & I Club(which insures the polluter under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention) and

to establish contact as quickly as possible with its representatives and, if appropriate, the International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPCFunds) which administer the 1971 Fund Convention and the 1992 FundConvention.

5.7.2 If the Administration is a Contracting Party to the 1969 InterventionConvention and decides to use its powers thereunder, it is imperative tokeep a detailed record of actions taken, the reasons therefor, and thealternative courses considered with reasons for their rejection. Suchinformation may be needed if the Administration’s actions aresubsequently challenged in the courts as the Convention permits. In most cases, however, close and continuing co-operation with the interestedparties will result in actions being taken with the agreement of allconcerned.

5.8 Action at the time of a casualty

.1 Immediately on receipt of a report from a vessel’s master of anincident involving discharge or probable discharge of a harmfulsubstance,* which may be in the form of an Advisory or Security Message,{ all interested authorities with responsibilities under

the State’s contingency plan should be alerted.

* Refer to IMO resolution A.648(16), General principles for ship reporting systems and ship reporting requirements, including guidlelines for reporting incidents involving dangerous goods, harmfulsubstances and/or marine pollutants; see IMO sales publication number IMO-516E.

{ For further information refer to the ICS/OCIMF publication Peril at Sea and Salvage – A Guide for Masters (4th edition).

11

Chapter 5





.2 A preliminary assessment of the environmental damage poten-tial should be made using local meteorological information andforecasts. The tables and diagrams at appendix 2 used in

conjunction with local information will assist in this process..3 Contact should be made with the owner’s representative if it

appears that a potentially hazardous situation exists, toestablish what action is being taken by the ship and its owners.

.4 When dealing with an incident involving a tanker, estimates of the probable drift of a disabled tanker may be made using theinformation contained in appendix 2. Similarly, information onresistance to tow for various sizes of tankers is provided at appendix 3.

.5 Should the results of 5.8.2 and 5.8.3 indicate that further stepsare desirable, action should be taken to start moving any necessary ancillary equipment to the scene.

.6 When a report of a marine accident or ‘Request for Assistance’ isreceived, authorities should be advised to activate their contingency plan.

.7 An evaluation of the situation and an assessment of itsenvironmental damage potential (see 5.8.2) must be made. Thisshould include a review of actions already being taken by the

owner to salvage the vessel and of the resources at his disposaland those available to the salvor.

.8 Review of this evaluation will require a decision as to whether:

.8.1 the situation is covered by the actions already taken by theowner and salvor;

.8.2 supplementary assistance by the Administration is necessary or desirable to ensure minimum overall damage to the localenvironment; or

.8.3 full intervention by the Administration is necessary wheresuch action is appropriate and permitted either under locallaw in territorial seas or under the 1969 InterventionConvention if the Administration is a Contracting Party thereto.

.9 Where the decision is that referred to in 5.8.8.1, continuousmonitoring of the situation should be maintained with supple-mentary action being taken by the Administration if requestedby the owner or salvor or if a review of the situation indicatesunsatisfactory performance by the owner or the salvor.

.10 Where the decision is taken on the basis of 5.8.8.2, immediatesteps should be taken to get on site all the additional personneland materials deemed necessary to permit a successfulconclusion to the endeavour. All interested parties should beadvised of the action being taken and a careful record of actionstaken and costs incurred must be kept. Provision of such

12






ancillary equipment may require the activation of regionalassistance arrangements or a request for assistance to another Administration. Such actions will be facilitated where prior

attention to the necessary financial arrangements has beengiven.

.11 Where a full governmental intervention is taken under appro-priate law, the owner and salvor must be advised immediately with confirmation in writing and a decision must be made as to whether any salvor already appointed is to be retained by the Administration or the salvor’s services dispensed with. The Administration may decide to appoint its own salvage master or contractor who will then take over responsibility for the wholeoperation. In such cases, it will be imperative to maintaindetailed records of all actions taken as set out in 5.8.8.3 in order to justify these if they are subsequently challenged.

.12 All actions taken should be subject to continuous review in thelight of changing circumstances and regular advice on the latest situation should be communicated to all interested authorities.

5.9 Action subsequent to a casualty

.1 As soon as possible after the emergency is over a review of theevents should be undertaken in order to identify thosesuccesses which can be built upon and the items whereperformance needs to be improved. Learning the lessons fromeach occurrence will greatly improve overall casualty response. A summary of lessons and successful techniques employed canbe of considerable benefit to other Administrations and shouldbe circulated through IMO channels for their benefit.

.2 Detailed claims for expenses incurred in the incident should besubmitted as soon as possible and it is advisable to notify theappropriate body of any intention to submit such a claimimmediately following the incident.

Chapter 6Salvage contracts

6.1 General

While under maritime law the right to perform salvage existsindependently from contract, it is the generally accepted practice for salvage services to be rendered under contract terms.

13

Chapter 6





6.2 No cure–no pay and service contracts

Such contracts may be on a no cure–no pay basis, in which the salvor’sremuneration is determined after completion of the salvage operation by

agreement between the parties or, in the event of failure to agree, by arbitration, or a service basis. Service contracts normally specify theparticular service to be performed on a lump sum or a daily rate basis with any additional work carried out being subject to further payment.

6.3 Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement

6.3.1 The most widely used and best known of the salvage contracts isLloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement (usually referred to as Lloyd’sOpen Form (LOF 1995)) and, subject to the Special Compensationprovision of article 14 of the 1989 Salvage Convention, this Agreement operates on a no cure–no pay basis. For ease of reference, a copy of LOF 1995, which incorporates the 1989 Salvage Convention, is included at appendix 4. While this should always be referred to for detail, the following is a summary of its major principles:

.1 The salvor agrees to use his best endeavours to salvage the vessel and its cargo and take said vessel and cargo to a namedplace or place of safety.

.2 In addition the salvor agrees to use his best endeavours toprevent or minimize damage to the environment. (It should benoted that the obligation upon the salvor under LOF 1995 to‘‘use his best endeavours’’ is considered to be a more onerousobligation than that contained within the 1989 SalvageConvention, where the obligation requires the salvor to use‘‘due care’’.)

.3 Under article 6 of the Convention, the master has the authority to conclude contracts on behalf of the owner of the vessel, andthe master or owner of the vessel has the authority to concludesuch contracts on behalf of the owners of the property on boardthe vessel, i.e. the cargo.

.4 If the salvage is successful the remuneration will be on thenormal no cure–no pay principle, pursuant to the provision of article 13 of the Convention, provided always that the award,exclusive of interest and any recoverable legal costs, may not exceed the salvaged value of the vessel and other property.

.5 If the salvage has involved a threat of damage to the environ-

ment, and the salvor is unable to earn an award under article 13at least equivalent to the special compensation assessableunder article 14, the salvor is entitled, subject to the provisionsof the article, to recover from the shipowner, expenses incurredby the salvor as defined in the article. If the salvor has preventedor minimized damage to the environment, the salvor is entitledto an increment on these expenses of up to 30%, or up to 100% if

14






the tribunal considers it fair and just to do so. Any remunera-tion payable under article 13 is deduced from this specialcompensation.

Important note: When there is environmental urgency, negotiation of a contract should not delay the salvage operation. Both the 1989 SalvageConvention, and the 1969 Intervention Convention and the 1973Intervention Protocol empower the coastal State(s) to take measures toavoid such delay.

15

Chapter 6









Appendix 1 Information on salvage methods, specialized

salvage equipment and salvage techniques

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The purpose of this appendix is to provide Administrations withsome understanding of what is involved in a salvage operation, in order that due consideration of salvage as a pollution response can be includedat the time overall contingency plans are made or reviewed. In order that the terms used in salvage can be understood, a brief description of the

more usual salvage methods is given below, which is followed by examplesof specialized salvage equipment. Specialized techniques used in salvageoperations are also summarized.

1.2 It should be stressed that salvage is a highly technical and complex process which, whenever possible, is best placed in the hands of professional salvors.

2 SALVAGE METHODS

2.1 Lightering

2.1.1 In many cases of stranding and grounding involving a vessel, therequired lift to free the vessel can be obtained by transferring the cargointo suitable vessels (or ashore), by bringing the receiving vessel as close tothe casualty as is safe and pumping the cargo from the casualty to thereceiving vessel by means of transfer hoses and, where necessary, utilizing inflatable or Yokohama fenders, portable pumps and inert gas equipment.

2.1.2 When the necessary reduction in draft has been obtained, towing isusually employed to refloat the vessel under controlled conditions.

2.1.3 Transfer of cargo is also employed where it is desirable to reduce thepollution risk or to minimize the risk of fire or explosion.

2.2 Air lift

The displacement of water by air pressure, particularly where tanks have

been opened to the sea during the casualty, is another means of obtaining lift to free a damaged vessel. If possible, cargo or bunkers should beremoved from damaged tanks prior to pressurization in order to minimizethe risk of pollution. When cargo or bunkers cannot be totally removed, whenever possible, a water interface between the cargo and damaged areasopen to the sea should be maintained in order to prevent the expulsion of pollutants by the pressurized air above the liquid.

17





R e p r o d u c e d f r o m R e e d ’ s C o m

m e r c i a l S a l v a g e P r a c t i c e

18






Reproduced from Reed’s Commercial Salvage Practice


19

Appendix 1





2.3 Tidal lift and heaving

2.3.1 The methods of salvage known as ‘‘tidal lift’’ and ‘‘heaving’’ requirethe employment of heavy rigging called ‘‘beach gear’’. Originally beach gear

was supplied to salvage tugs to supplement their pulling power in the days when pulling forces were fairly modest. Nowadays the increase in power and manoeuvrability of tugs, coupled with significant reductions inmanning levels, has resulted in the decline in outfitting of beach gear tothe point that this method is now rarely, if ever, employed.

2.3.2 During the tidal lift method, beach gear is drawn up tight at low tideand uses the lift on the salvage vessel from the rising tide to pull on thestranded vessel. The process is repeated, with the beach gear re-rigged, tofit the changing situation each tidal cycle. Great forces are involved, but

the energy expended by the salvage ship is not large.

2.3.3 The ground leg of beach gear consists of an anchor and wire rope tocarry the load. The anchor must have both great weight and exceptionalholding ability in a wide range of bottom conditions.

2.3.4 During the heaving method, the force is provided by heaving on thetowing lines with a winch or hydraulic ram. In heaving gear, at the end of the ground leg, a series of blocks is used to increase the pull. A dynamometer or tensiometer must be used to monitor the tension in eachleg. Several legs of beach gear may be needed to free a large vessel. Heavy weather conditions may provide the energy needed to move the vessel inthe direction of the tow.

2.4 Towing

2.4.1 Towing relies on the power supplied from the salvage vessel togenerate the moving force. Modern tugs are usually twin screw and areequipped with nozzles around their propellers. This significantly increasestheir towing power and this, coupled with the use of bow thrusters and

high-performance rudders, improves on their manoeuvring ability.Frequently, a combination of towing with other methods will be used.

2.4.2 For a towing attempt, a wire rope is used as the towline, sometimesin conjunction with a nylon spring and/or a chafing chain. Modern salvagetugs are equipped with powerful towing winches and may carry tow wiresof up to 2,000 m in length and 76 mm in diameter. The salvage vesselbuilds up power thrust slowly, and at the same time must monitor towlinetension carefully.

2.4.3 Regulation V/15-1 of the International Convention for the Safety of

Life at Sea, 1974, as amended (SOLAS 1974),* sets forth requirements for towing arrangements on tankers. It states that all tankers of not less than20,000 tonnes deadweight shall be fitted with a towing arrangement at thefirst scheduled dry-docking, but not later than 1 January 1999.

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-110E.

20







2.5 Refloating or breaking out stranded vessels

There are several methods to reduce the power needed to refloat a stranded vessel. Lightering the cargo, if possible, is often the quickest and most effective method. If the sea-bed is exposed for at least part of the tidal cycle,the ground beneath the ship can be removed, either by excavating equipment if exposed, or by scouring from the propeller wash of small

support ships, high velocity water or air streams, or even with carefully placed explosives. Scouring is usually necessary to prevent damage fromnatural scouring at each end of the ship caused by wave and current action. When scouring or digging out a vessel, extreme care should betaken to avoid excessive hogging or sagging stresses which could break theship. Another method of reducing the refloating force is to use pontoons, or even barges, rigged alongside, to support part of the weight of the vessel.

21

Appendix 1






3 SPECIALIZED SALVAGE EQUIPMENT

3.1 Salvage vessels

3.1.1 In the past two decades the number of dedicated salvage vessels hasdeclined. Salvage vessels have become larger and faster, and there is a consequent need for fewer vessels. Also, this is due in part to advances intechnology. Examples of such advances include: better navigation systems

and shipboard backup systems which have reduced the number of casualties requiring salvage services; the use of heavy lift ships to movedamaged vessels to repair yards thereby reducing the need for oceantowing services, which in the past was a major source of revenue for dedicated salvage vessels; and the development of portable, flyaway salvage-related systems, such as those in the areas of fire-fighting andlightering. With the reduction in dedicated salvage vessels has come a reduction in the number of trained salvors.

3.1.2 There are several types of salvage vessels, most of which are

designed for a specific purpose. The type of vessel used in any salvageoperation will be determined by the circumstances of the incident and theavailability of specialized equipment.

3.1.3 The common characteristics of most specialized salvage vessels are:

.1 open working space on deck for rigging beach gear and other equipment;

22






.2 adequate cargo space for salvage gear;

.3 accommodation for specialists working on the salvage; and

.4 a large working area and structure designed for lifting heavy weights.

3.1.4 Salvage ships may range from 100 m ships built specially for rescueand salvage, to 30 m all-purpose tugs. Almost any ship built for offshoresupport duties may serve as a vessel of opportunity for salvage work.

3.2 Descriptions of typical ships used for salvage

3.2.1 Ocean-going salvage tugs

(Note: There are very few ocean-going salvage tugs in operation today)

The crew on such tugs are experienced in salvage work. Some tugs alsocarry divers and riggers who are equally experienced in such work.Equipment includes portable generators, compressors, diesel, hydraulicand electrical submersible pumps, welding and cutting gear and other salvage tools as well as work boats needed for a wide range of salvage andrepair work. These vessels may also carry fire-fighting and pollutioncombating equipment.

Ocean-going salvage tug Fotiy Krylov (length 97.6 m, breadth 19.36 m,depth 9.00 m). Photo courtesy of Tsavliris Salvage International Limited.

23

Appendix 1





3.2.2 Coastal and harbour tugs

These tugs are smaller and less powerful than the deep-sea tugs and havea much shorter range of operation. Such vessels will not normally carry

any salvage material but, operating close to shore, can quickly acquire any necessary specialized equipment. Many of these vessels (especially thosebased near oil installations) carry considerable equipment for combating oil pollution as well as fire-fighting capability. These tugs usually lack experienced salvage personnel.

Coastal/harbour tug Smit Siberie (length 28.6 m, breadth 8.7 m,depth 4.2 m). Photo courtesy of Smit Tak BV, Rotterdam,

Netherlands.

3.2.3 Diving inspection salvage vessels

These vessels are specifically designed to work in remote locations whenaccess to modern port and engineering facilities are not available. They carry a great deal of equipment and can be self-supporting for a considerable period. Such vessels can perform towing duties but their power is much less than that of a deep-sea tug. They are often equipped with limited lifting capacity which is designed for deep-water recovery.

24






Diving inspection vessel Smit Orca (length 49.87 m, breadth 11.79 m,depth 4.73 m). Photo courtesy of Smit Tak BV, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

3.2.4 Coastal and inland waterways salvage vessels

These are smaller and less well equipped than the diving inspection deep-sea salvage vessels and must rely on availability of facilities andequipment from nearby shore facilities.

The capabilities of these vessels vary in proportion to their size. Fire-fighting and portable salvage pumps are normal equipment on this type of vessel.

This type of vessel can also do some coastal work, especially when weather conditions are favourable, but many specialized types can only work incalm, inland waters. They may have a multitude of special duties toperform. Because of their small size they are very handy and can do allkinds of jobs for which it would be difficult to use large salvage vessels.

3.2.5 Floating cranes and sheer-legs

These specialized heavy-lifting vessels can only operate in limited open- water sea conditions. However, such vessels can also be of considerable

assistance in the later stages of a salvage operation when the casualty hasreached a place of safety.

Some of these units are self-propelled but many such vessels must betowed to the scene. They provide a large, fairly stable work platform withlift capability which can be in excess of 3,000 tonnes. They can also carry a sizeable amount of salvage material. They are usually equipped with lifting

25

Appendix 1





gear such as sheer-legs, heavy derricks with powerful winches and, in

some cases, revolving cranes.

Coastal/Inland waterways salvage vessels Salvage Chief and Dolfijn(length 50.65 m, 24.0 m; breadth 12.78 m, 5.84 m; depth 2.69 m, 2.47 m). Photos courtesy of Union de Remorquage et de Sauvetage SA, Belgium

(Salvage Chief) and Van den Akker, Netherlands (Dolfjin).

26






Orange Coral (Fukuda Salvage & Marine Works)

4 SALVAGE TECHNIQUES

4.1 Damage inspection

4.1.1 The most effective inspection of damage to a ship may be performedby an experienced salvage diving team coupled with a salvage engineer, allunder the direction of a professional salvage master. With the support of technological advances, such as improved diving hardware, hand-heldunderwater television, ultrasonic capability, etc., the information neces-sary to assess the extent of damage and prepare an effective remedy can beaccomplished within a very limited time frame.

4.1.2 Considerable advances have been made in the area of underwater surveillance and detection equipment. Underwater television is a valuableaid to the effective inspection of a casualty and can be operated by a diver,by suspension from a frame lowered from the surface or by attachment toa remotely operated submersible vehicle (ROV). A typical underwater TV system would include:

.1 TV camera in watertight housing;

.2 lighting and ballast in watertight housing;

.3 a pan and tilt unit in watertight housing;

.4 control console, monitor and video recorder; and

.5 heavy-duty cable and reel.

27

Appendix 1





Photo courtesy of Van den Akker, Netherlands

4.1.3 If the system is to be used in or near oil or chemical spills, it isimperative to recognize the need for safety of operation and it should benoted that all components of the system listed above are available inexplosion-proof models.

4.1.4 The following characteristics are also desirable in the systems:

.1 equipment should be compatible with fluctuating power supplies from portable generators without distortion of thepicture;

.2 maximum resolution is desirable, with water-corrected lenses incamera optics, and a wide-angle (minimum of 90o) field of view;

.3 the control console should include remote focus, pan and tilt control, with pan and tilt ranges of 180o;

.4 lights should rotate in pan and tilt with the camera;

.5 lightweight components should be used where practicable;

28






Photo courtesy of Van Den Akker, Netherlands

.6 corrosion resistant materials should be used for wet cases; and

.7 provide permanent record of viewing in the form of a video or still photos.

4.1.5 Various sizes and complexity of ROVs are available to suit the work from the simple roving underwater eye (TV) to powerful and complex manipulating appendages which can grip, cut, and lift to carry out underwater tasks.

4.2 Divers

4.2.1 Frequently a salvage operation cannot be accomplished successfully solely from the surface. In such circumstances, the services of divers whocan operate underwater televisions, make damage surveys, performunderwater cutting and welding, locate and recover small or medium-sized objects, and patch hull damage from the outside, can be used. Diversshould not be used, however, if the work can be done effectively and safely from the surface. In any event, only experienced salvage divers should beused on all but the simplest tasks. They should operate under the controlof a professional salvage master.

4.2.2 There are two techniques used by divers: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) and surface-supplied air through a hose.Scuba divers have more mobility, as they are essentially weightless whilein the water. Their support equipment is minimal, so that they can arriveat the scene quickly by any available means of transportation. Scuba divers are limited to short spells on each dive and to shallow depths by thelimited air supply carried.

29

Appendix 1





4.2.3 Surface-supplied divers, however, have an unrestricted air supply and can work at almost any depth needed for salvage. The diver can select from a range of weights, allowing him some choice between freedom of

movement and a strong stance for heavy work, but his mobility is quitelimited unless he is working on a fairly level bottom. Surface-supply systems include more support equipment, and will arrive at the scenelater. For both surface-supplied and scuba diving operations, voicecommunications with the surface are desirable. Since few vessels have a loaded draft of over 21.4 m, depth is rarely a problem to a surface-supplieddiver with portable equipment.

4.2.4 Safety is the primary concern in any diving operation. Many hazardsface a salvage diver, including surf and turbulence, current, cold, limited visibility, closed spaces, propeller and vessel intake dangers, and pollution. A diver cannot work where turbulence (e.g. from wave action) will make it difficult to keep his balance or if he will have to work near a vessel moving with the waves. Diving is not recommended if a current is present in excessof 1 knot for scuba and 3 knots for surface-supplied. The ocean is almost everywhere colder than normal body temperature, so that chilling isalways a problem for the diver, even in tropical waters. In limited visibility,the diver might not be able to clearly see the work being performed or determine his location or the location of potential dangers, and may thusbecome disoriented.

4.2.5 Two great threats to a diver are entrapment and the oil or chemicalspill. A diver may enter a confined space and become trapped when debrisfalls, the ship shifts from the current or waves, or if anything else blockshis exit. A diver carrying his own supply of air will run out of air very quickly. If the diver cannot communicate with the surface, no one willrealize his problem until he is overdue. When a diver enters a confinedspace, he must assume that he will become trapped, and prepare for it: hemust have surface-supplied air with voice communications, a lifeline, anda standby diver ready to come to his aid. Divers should not enter water where chemicals have been spilled without a fully encapsulated,chemically compatible suit. Hazardous material spills may damage theequipment and may be toxic to the diver. Precautions similar to those for hazardous materials are recommended in the case of major oil spillage.

4.3 Damage control

4.3.1 The immediate aim of a salvage response is to prevent the damagesustained by the casualty from worsening, to minimize the possibility of further damage and then to patch or repair existing damage sufficiently toenable the vessel to be moved to a place of safety. Where there is a threat of

pollution, the salvor’s concern is also to reduce flooding and loss of cargo.If lightering or cargo transfer is not possible, patching all or some of thedamage will help to minimize outflow.

4.3.2 Patches for holes can be made of many materials, and are frequently improvised from the materials available on board the casualty. The salvor will normally come equipped with additional specialized tools and

30






material. Wood is the most common patching material, in the form of plugsand wedges for small holes, planks for medium holes, and beams andplywood for large patches which are assembled on the site. With a wood

patch, caulking materials, such as oakum, rags, fibre waste, and rubber sheeting, are very useful in providing a tighter seal. In a limited number of cases, metal plates can be used for patching material. Metal may present difficulty since the use of welding or cutting apparatus may be hazardous where there has been or is a danger of oil or hazardous material outflow.

4.3.3 Large holes may be patched by pouring concrete into forms over thehole. This will require moving the ingredients and mixing equipment to thesite, but concrete patches, often called ‘‘cement boxes’’, are effective anddurable.

4.3.4 Collision mats are convenient temporary patches. Heavy canvas, or mattresses sewn together, coated with tar and weighted with chain, can beused on shallow holes in the hull. Reinforcing the mat with timber willmake it more effective. Collision mats lack rigidity, however, and excessivepressures or wave action might cause them to leak.

4.3.5 A specialized type of patch is the cofferdam. This is essentially anentirely new bulkhead, built in place or installed after assembly on thesalvage vessel. It can be used both outside and inside the hull. After the

cofferdam has been installed, the space behind can be pumped out. A partial cofferdam can be built, just tall enough to reach above the water level, but it is more sensible to build a full seal. A cofferdam will require a large amount of timber, accurate carpentry, and availability of access tothe hole. It is usually applied to isolate large holes in the hull.

4.3.6 Occasionally, water-displacing materials such as foam, or poly-urethane balls or pellets, are used in salvage. The foam, usually of urethane composition, is forced into a flooded compartment under pressure. As it expands, it displaces the water and then sets. Thebulkheads and overhead in the space are provided with some extra support as well. This technique is fairly sophisticated and requires theavailability of specialized equipment and experienced operators for itssuccess. It is difficult to remove if the ship is to be repaired. Urethane foamis sensitive to temperature, pressure and current. Its application thereforehas limitations. Urethane foam fumes may also be toxic and care must betaken to protect against inhalation as well as skin contact. Polyurethaneballs or pellets, which are more easily removed at repair ports, have beenused with limited success. Although easier to remove than foam, they are

difficult to place and environmentally objectionable if they escape into theopen water. Polyurethane has been replaced by materials that are lessdamaging to the environment.

4.3.7 When the structure of the ship is threatened, or to support a largepatch or cofferdam, shoring may be used. Shoring is wedged into placebetween a firm foundation and the part in need of support. Heavy beam

31

Appendix 1





timbers are the usual shoring material, although some ships carry adjustable steel shoring. This comprises a long screw jack with adjustableend fittings to wedge it into place.

4.4 Fire prevention

4.4.1 The threat of fire is of major concern in accidents involving tankerscarrying oil products and hazardous materials. With tanker casualties, inaddition to the problems posed by pollution, tanks may be open to the sea,oil may have escaped in considerable quantity and inert gas systems(where fitted) may be inoperable or may have been shut down. In suchcases, there is a very high risk that any source of ignition will result in a serious fire.

4.4.2 To reduce this high risk of fire, certain precautions which can betaken are as follows:

.1 use of explosion-proof electrical devices;

.2 restriction of electrical devices to an absolute minimum;

.3 minimize the loss of oil, if practicable;

.4 keep tank openings closed except for essential operations;

.5 if tanks must be opened, use wire mesh flame arrester screens(open tank lids and hatches allow oxygen to enter the tank and

hydrocarbon vapours to escape to the atmosphere, thuscreating two potential hazards);

.6 care in the use of metallic or spark-producing tools;

.7 use of spark arrestors in prime mover exhaust outlets; and

.8 grounding of all equipment.

4.5 Fire-fighting

4.5.1 In the event of a fire breaking out, the primary aim should be tocontain the fire, prevent it from spreading, reduce the area and severity of the fire, and ultimately extinguish it.

4.5.2 Oil products on fires may generate large quantities of heavy black smoke and therefore breathing apparatus for fire-fighting personnel isdesirable and, in many cases, essential. For oil fires, the use of foamsystems is preferred. Foam is more effective than water since itssmothering action excludes the oxygen needed to sustain combustion, whereas the main value of water is for cooling. Foam, properly applied,persists as a blanket for some time, thereby providing some protectionagainst reignition. When applying foam, responders should ensure a

sufficient quantity of foam is available to cover the area desired. To prevent a reflash, enough backup foam will also be needed on scene to replacefoam that has dispersed or broken down.

4.5.3 Certain fire-fighting and rescue techniques commonly used by land-based fire-fighters are not applicable on board a ship, and if used, couldfurther endanger a ship and result in injury or death. Most commercial

32






vessels do not have sufficient crew sizes to sustain an extended fire-fighting effort, and, because of the increased urgency associated with a shipboard fire, salvors with fire-fighting capability may not be available in

time for the emergency. For these reasons, ship operators may be hesitant to request assistance from land-based fire-fighters. Vessel operatorsshould liaise in advance with local authorities to determine local capability and make plans for joint fire-fighting efforts. Administrations areencouraged to have port fire-fighting contingency plans that identify localresources which are capable of fighting shipboard fires. This isparticularly important in busy port areas with large populations, and where cruise ships, with their large number of passengers that may needto be rescued, make port calls.

4.5.4 Chemical fires require highly trained personnel and specializedequipment. Ignorance of the chemical characteristics involved may worsenor elevate casualty consequences since improper technique can cause a toxic or explosive event. In short, chemical fires usually require a compatible chemical response rather than the simple use of water. Theidentification of the chemical characteristics is therefore of criticalimportance to ascertain the appropriate response. Containerization, withincompatible as well as unidentified cargo all commingled, poses a specialrisk to the marine fire-fighter. It also complicates severely the decision onthe appropriate application of fire-fighting technique. Trained, experienced

chemical fire-fighting capability is of course the preferred solution.

4.6 Pumping systems

4.6.1 The motive power for most pumping systems is supplied by a portable diesel hydraulic unit. A typical small unit, which can be movedaround fairly easily, weighs less than 700 kg and is enclosed in a floatablecase which is roughly 1.2 m on each side. A larger unit, which cannot bemoved once it has been placed aboard, weighs around 1,950 kg and is

usually built into an open frame 1.5 m wide, 1.5 m high, and 2.7 m long.Both units need a fuel tank which can be a collapsible rubber-coated fabricbladder holding some 200 l , weighing some 200 kg when full, which cansupply 4 to 8 h of fuel, depending on the engine and load. The starting system for the diesel engine should not be electric; a hydraulic motor start with hydraulic pressure in an accumulator supplied by a hand pump or a small bottle of compressed nitrogen is the usual method.

4.6.2 Portable pumps for oil are usually submersible pumps. Dischargehoses from these pumps are typically 15 to 20 cm in diameter, in 15 m

lengths. These can be coupled together and to the pump, to provide theexact hose length needed. A typical small-sized pump will be 25 cm indiameter, 1 m long, and weigh approximately 90 kg. Such pumps require a hydraulic supply and their performance depends on two main factors: the viscosity of the oil and the length and size of the discharge hose. Thesefactors can reduce both rate of flow and the discharge head. Two thousandcentistokes is regarded as the upper limit of kinematic viscosity of the oil

33

Appendix 1





and 90 m is the limiting length of discharge hose which the pump canhandle. Under these extreme conditions, the flow rate would be too low tobe of practical value.

4.6.3 A larger pump is typically 30 cm in diameter, 1.2 m long and weighsapproximately 130 kg. Reasonable pumping rates can be achieved with viscosities as high as 10,000 centistokes and up to 150 m of hose.Performance of most submersible pumps will be between the two examplesgiven here.

4.6.4 The 32 cm standard butterworth opening for tank cleaning is that most often used as the access for putting a submersible pump into a tank.Portable pumps are available for use in this manner but, where a larger

opening can be safely used, the range of suitable pumps will be increased.4.6.5 Hydraulically driven pumps capable of passing small pieces of debris and fire-fighting pumps can be used for pumping out a damagedship or for ballasting the vessel to adjust the trim. Another important device for pumping water is the eductor, which is capable of dealing withany debris which will pass through the throat of the venturi. Eductorshave no moving parts, which makes them ideally suited for use in debris-filled spaces, or where there is a danger of fire. They can be driven by a fire-fighting pump. Care in the operation of eductors is important, however,

since a restriction in the eductor discharge can result in further flooding of the compartment.

4.6.6 In any pumping operation, care should be taken to keep hydro-carbon vapours to a minimum since the presence of such vapours canpresent explosion hazards. Care should be taken to ensure that any vapour present is below the lower explosive limit as measured by anexplosimeter. The presence of hydrocarbon vapour should be monitored inall enclosed spaces on board a casualty and even in depressions on theopen deck. Hydrocarbon vapours are heavier than air and may thus form

dangerous pockets in such places.

4.7 Sources of further information

4.7.1 Jane’s Ocean Technology. This yearbook describes in detail systemsthat are operating today. It contains sections specifically devoted to tugsand supply vessels suitable for salvage, and to oil spill systems. The specialfeature of the book is the extensive geographic information with lists of companies working in specific areas. Order from: MacDonald and Jane’s

Publishers Ltd., 8 Shepherdess Walk, London N1 7LW, United Kingdom.

4.7.2 Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering. This is a valuablesource book containing detailed technical summaries of many of the areas with which a salvor must be familiar, including chain, wire rope, rigging,towing, diving, and ocean operations. Order from: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020, USA.

34






4.7.3 Reed’s Commercial Salvage Practice (ISBN 0 947637 400). This is anexcellent resource for marine salvage practices currently employed, andincludes extensive background theory and written descriptions of the

various salvage practices available with supporting figures, diagrams andtables. The illustrations shown in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.5 of appendix 1 havebeen reproduced with the kind permission of Thomas Reed Publications,19 Bridge Road, East Molesey, Surrey KT8 9EU, United Kingdom.

35

Appendix 1





Appendix 2 Rate of drift data for disabled tankers*

Tables 1–5 and figure 1 are included here only as an indication of the drift of a disabled tanker and hence of where a grounding might occur in a given set of circumstances. However, the behaviour of individual shipsmay differ from these general results. The charts are intended to enablethose concerned with a tanker casualty to anticipate the area of drift of a disabled tanker, based on considerable research into this problem as validated by actual correlation tests carried out at sea.

Tanker Drift Data

Table 1 – VLCC with bulbous bow

CONDITION(Loaded/Ballastand Trim)

MODEL UPRIGHT LIST: 6.5o

(LOADED)/8.5o

(BALLAST)

RUDDERAMIDSHIP

RUDDER35

o

DOWNWINDRUDDER

AMIDSHIPRUDDER

35o

DOWNWIND

Ao

Bo

C Ao

Bo

C Ao

Bo

C Ao

Bo

C

LOADED 1.4 m STERN 125 203 2.3 106 198 2.7 078 198 2.4 088 210 2.7

LOADED 2.0 m STERN 095 190 2.3 100 194 2.4 - - - - - -

LOADED 5.2 m HEAD 120 209 2.7 155 207 2.5 - - - - - -

BALLAST 5.3 m STERN 093 150 3.3 105 140 3.7 090 157 3.4 090 180 3.0

BALLAST 12.5 m STERN 090 158 3.2 100 144 3.6 - - - - - -

BALLAST 5.5 m HEAD 070 181 3.0 084 173 3.0 - - - - - -

Table 2 – VLCC with cylindrical bow

CONDITION(Loaded/Ballastand Trim)

MODEL UPRIGHT LIST: 6.5o

(LOADED)/8.5o

(BALLAST)

RUDDERAMIDSHIP

RUDDER35

o

DOWNWINDRUDDER

AMIDSHIPRUDDER

35o

DOWNWIND

Ao

Bo

C Ao

Bo

C Ao

Bo

C Ao

Bo

C

LOADED 1.4 m STERN 070 160 2.3 110 128 2.5 VAR 149 2.2 088 190 2.3

LOADED 2.0 m STERN 090 154 2.4 070 123 2.5 - - - - - -

LOADED 5.2 m HEAD 060 150 2.3 090 190 2.4 - - - - - -

BALLAST 5.3 m STERN 087 150 3.1 105 148 3.3 090 145 3.2 098 145 3.3

BALLAST 12.5 m STERN 110 145 3.7 105 141 3.5 - - - - - -

BALLAST 5.5 m HEAD 100 146 3.4 120 144 3.4 - - - - - -

Table 3 – Small/Medium tanker (single screw, plain bows)

DWTCondition

37,000 dwt 88,000 dwt

Ao Bo C Ao Bo C

LOADED 079 166 1.8 080 166 1.9

BALLAST 065 143 2.7 063 135 2.7

* Tables 1–5 and figure 1 and the table in appendix 6 are reproduced with permission from theInternational Chamber of Shipping and the Oil Companies International Marine Forum, who have jointly published Peril at Sea and Salvage – a Guide for Masters (4th edition) (ISBN 1 85609 0329).For a full explanation of these data, the original publication should be consulted. Order it from: Witherby and Co. Ltd., 32-36 Aylesbury Street, London EC1R 0ET, United Kingdom.

36






Gas Carrier Drift Data

Table 4 – 52,000 m3

LPG carrier (plain bow)

Table 5 – 125,000 m3

LNG carrier (bulbous bow)

WIND/WAVEANGLE

Ao

Bo

C

-40o

070 146 1.5

-20o

081 184 1.2

0o

093 104 0.6

+20o

093 170 1.8

+40o

097 175 1.7

WIND/WAVEANGLE

Ao

Bo

C

-40o

065 187 2.4

-20o

070 220 2.3

0o

090 152 1.5

+20o

090 178 2.4

+40o 094 180 2.0

Note: the results of the data given in tables 1–5 are for Beaufort wind force 7.

Figure 1 – Legend for tables 1–5

37

Appendix 2





Appendix 3 Resistance to tow in still water conditions*

Size of shipbeing towed

Angle of yawResistance to tow (tonnes)

Speed through water2 knots

Speed through water3 knots

24,000 tonnesdeadweight

0o

10o

20o

30o

2.35.58.7

13.0

4.311.418.728.3


0o

10o

20o

30o

4.710.817.325.8

8.525.537.056.0


0o

10

o

20o

30o

6.2

14.823.435.0

11.3

30.550.276.5


0o

10o

20o

30o

7.915.239.651.8

14.030.085.0

112.7

Note: Depending on sea conditions, the forces can be three times greater than

those tabulated.

* This table indicates the magnitude of the forces involved when a ship is being towed in still water. The table takes account of a combination of speed, yaw and a 20-knot wind. For further details, thepublication Peril at Sea and Salvage – A Guide for Masters should be consulted (see appendix 2 for ordering details).

38






Appendix 4 Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement

(LOF 1995)*

97505

* Form LOF 1995 is reprinted in its entirety with permission of Lloyd’s of London, One Lime Street,London EC3M 7HA, United Kingdom.

39

Appendices 3, 4





40






41

Appendix 4





42






43

Appendix 4





44






MANUAL ON

OIL POLLUTION

SECTION IV . COMBATING OIL SPILLS

BINTERNATIONAL

MARITIME

ORGANIZATION

London, 2005





Published by the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION


2nd edition, 2005

Printed in the United Kingdom by the Bath Press, Bath

2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1

ISBN 92-801-4177-5

IMO PUBLICATION



All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic,

magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,without prior permission in writing from the






Preface

The Manual on Oil Pollution comprises six sections:

Section I Prevention (out of print)

Section II Contingency Planning (revised edition published 1995)

Section III Salvage (revised edition published 1997)

Section IV Combating Oil Spills (contained in this publication)

Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (published 1998)

Section VI IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identification of Oil Spills (published 1998)

This edition of Section IV draws on the experience and lessons learned by Governments and industry in responding to marine oil pollution world- wide during the last thirty years. It builds on earlier editions, first

published in 1972 and revised in 1980 and 1988, and provides a clear andconcise overview of the present level of knowledge, expertise and under-standing in the field of oil spill response.

It covers the behaviour and fate of different types of oil when spilled andthe effects on marine and coastal resources. Guidance is given on aerialsurveillance, the at-sea measures of containment and recovery and the useof chemical dispersants, and a new chapter has been included on in situ burning. Shoreline clean-up strategies and techniques, and waste manage-ment and disposal are described, and a new chapter has been added onbioremediation measures. In view of the growing awareness of thedifficulties inherent in dealing with spills of heavy fuel oil and emulsifiedfuels, a new, separate chapter has been devoted to the current state of knowledge and experience in dealing with them. Guidance is provided ontraining, exercises and equipment maintenance and storage, and informa-tion is also given on liability, compensation and cost accounting.

In 1990 the International Convention on Oil Pollution, Preparedness,Response and Co-operation was adopted by IMO. This Convention calls onContracting States, amongst other things, to co-operate and to exchangeinformation on matters related to response to oil pollution incidents. This

section of the Manual provides useful information with regard to thepreparation of national and/or regional systems for preparedness andresponse. The information is intended for Governments, particularly thoseof developing countries, and industry, on the most appropriate means of dealing with marine oil spills. The information is intended for Govern-ments, particularly those of developing countries, and industry, on themost appropriate means of dealing with marine oil spills.

iii





The revision of this section of the Manual on Oil Pollution was undertakenby the Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC) Working Group and approved by the Marine Environment Protection

Committee (MEPC) of IMO. The MEPC wishes to express its appreciation tothe many experts who assisted in the preparation of the text and whocontributed photographs, illustrations and reference data, making thispublication available in its present form.

iv

Manual on Oil Pollution IV: Combating Oil Spills





Contents Page

Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2 Types of oil

2.1 Crude oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 Petroleum products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 3 Fate of oil spills in the marine environment

3.1 Properties of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2 Natural weathering processes acting on spilled oil . . 10

3.3 Movement of oil slicks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.4 Combined movement, weathering processesand modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Chapter 4 Effects of oil on marine and coastal resources4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.2 Ecological effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.3 Recreational beaches and sea areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.4 Ports and marinas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.5 Industrial installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.6 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.7 Marine mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344.8 Sea turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.9 Marine birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.10 Coral communities and ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.11 Wetland communities and ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.12 Nature reserves and marine parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter 5 Situation evaluation and response options

5.1 Source identification and incident details . . . . . . . . . 41

5.2 Prevention or reduction of further spillages . . . . . . . . 41

5.3 Aerial surveillance, including remote sensing . . . . . . 42

5.4 Assessment of the threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.5 Spill response options and their limitations. . . . . . . . 48

v





Page

Chapter 6 Containment and recovery of oil

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.2 Containment booms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6.3 Recovery devices – skimming equipment . . . . . . . . . . 71

6.4 Temporary storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.5 Integrated containment and recovery operations. . . . 90

6.6 Recovery of subsurface oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.7 Sorbents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 7 Chemical dispersion

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.2 Dispersants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.3 Application techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 8 In situ burning

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

8.2 Features of in situ burning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

8.3 Environmental and health considerations . . . . . . . . . 122

8.4 Safety considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Chapter 9 Shoreline response

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

9.2 Pre-spill contingency planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

9.3 Shoreline spill assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

9.4 Shoreline cleanup methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

9.5 Managing shoreline response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

9.6 Site restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

9.7 Care of wildlife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Chapter 10 Bioremediation

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

10.2 Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . 147

10.3 Bioremediation techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

10.4 Opportunities for bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

10.5 Contingency planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152


vi





Page

Chapter 11 Management and disposal of oil and oily debris

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

11.2 Types of collected material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

11.3 On-site temporary storage and separationfor liquids and solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

11.4 Land transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

11.5 Waste treatment methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

11.6 Waste disposal methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

11.7 Reclamation of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16511.8 Stabilization of oiled beach materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

11.9 Direct disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

11.10 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

11.11 Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

11.12 Dune disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Chapter 12 Spills of heavy fuel oils – features

and countermeasures12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

12.2 Characteristics of heavy fuel oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

12.3 Behaviour of heavy fuel oils when spilled. . . . . . . . . . 174

12.4 Response strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Chapter 13 Training, exercises, equipment maintenanceand storage

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18113.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

13.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13.4 Equipment maintenance and storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Chapter 14 Cleanup cost considerations

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

14.2 Factors affecting response costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

14.3 Compensation for response costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Table of useful conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

vii

Contents









Chapter 1 Introduction

The prevention of marine pollution is one of the most important objectivesof the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and considerablesuccess has been achieved with the average amount of oil spilled each year having decreased more than ten-fold from the peak of the mid-1970’s.

IMO has been instrumental in reducing these discharges over the yearsthrough various international conventions, the most important being theInternational Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973,as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). Thisimprovement in performance is demonstrated in the statistics of accidental oil spills world-wide from tankers, combined carriers andbarges (figure 1-1).

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

0

20

40

60

80

100

120World Seaborne Oil Trade Numbers of Spills >7 tonnes per year

World seaborne oil trade

(billion tonne-miles)

Numbers of s pills

>7 tonnes

World seaborne oil trade Number of spills >7 tonnes per year

Figure 1-1 – Comparison between the number of spills 47 tonnes

and world seaborne oil trade: 1974–2001 (Source: ITOPF)

The incidence of accidental spills greater than 7 tonnes (50 barrels) hasdecreased substantially since 1974. As a result, the number of spills in1999 was less than one quarter of the number in 1974. The number of spills has remained low in recent years despite an upturn in seaborne oiltrade, which is now approaching the high levels of the mid 1970’s .

1





A significant number of accidental tanker spills less than 7 tonnes(50 barrels) occur during loading and discharging operations (35%)(figure 1-2). For spills between 7 and 700 tonnes (50–5,000 barrels),

loading and discharging operations still remain a significant cause (29%),along with collisions (22%) and groundings (19%). However, for spillsgreater than 700 tonnes (5,000 barrels) the major causes are collisions(28%) and groundings (34%).

MARPOL 73/78 has now been ratified by most member countries of IMO.Besides limiting the overall amount of oil entering the sea, MARPOL 73/78requires that any discharges of oil are made in accordance with strict operational procedures such that the oil does not form a persistent slick requiring any cleanup response. In addition to operational issues,

MARPOL 73/78 also provides a framework for the design and constructionof oil tankers, which should contribute significantly to further reductionsin the occurrence of oil spills in the future.

36

28

67

2

0

15

5

0

2

24

28

3

18

34

7 7

13

21

7

28

15

12

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

C o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h C a u s e ( %

)

Loading /

Discharging

Bunkering Other

Operations

Collisons Groundings Hull Failure Fires /

Explosion

Other

<7 tonnes 7-700 tonnes >700 tonnes

Figure 1-2 – Accidental tanker spills and their causes: 1974–2001(Source: ITOPF)

To supplement MARPOL 73/78, IMO has played a major role in reducing

the risk of oil spills from all ships by promoting greater safety andoperating standards such as through the International Convention for theSafety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 1974), together with its associated Protocol of 1978. More recent IMO initiatives include the International Safety Management Code (ISM Code) to ensure safety at sea, prevention of human injury or loss of life and avoidance of damage to the environment,in particular, to the marine environment.


2





Despite the improvements that have already been achieved, oil spills willcontinue to occur. They can have a serious impact on coastal activities andthose who use or benefit from the resources of the sea. In most cases, such

damage is temporary and caused primarily by the physical properties of oilcreating a nuisance and hazardous conditions. However in somesituations many years may be required for recovery to take place and onrare occasions, the damage may be irreparable. The impact on marine lifeis compounded by toxicity and tainting effects resulting from chemicalcomposition of the oil, as well as by the diversity and variability of biological systems and their sensitivity to oil pollution. However damage tothe environment can be minimized if correct counter measures are takenpromptly.

This section of the Manual on Oil Pollution is intended to provide anoverview of the practical response measures that are available to deal withsuch oil spills. During the time since first publication in the 1970’s, therehave been a number of developments, particularly with regard to oilcontainment booms and recovery techniques, oil dispersant chemicals,bioremediation, in situ burning, waste management and disposal. The variety of different types of oil being transported around the world has alsoincreased and more recently there has been a growing recognition of theparticular difficulties posed by spills of heavy oils such as ships bunkers. While this section of the Manual has been generally developed to deal with

ship source spills, many of the issues and features presented can also beapplied to oil spills from other marine sources such as offshoreinstallations.

As with previous editions, this revised Manual on Oil Pollution is not anexhaustive treatment of the subject of marine oil spill response. Rather, itspurpose is to provide a clear and concise overview of the response optionsavailable, their main features and the key issues involved. This will assist those persons in Government and industry charged with the response tomarine oil spills, in the selection of the most appropriate cleanup

measures for a particular situation. A bibliography is also provided inthis Manual as a guide to relevant sources of further and more detailedinformation and reference.

Chapter 1 – Introduction

3









Chapter 2

Types of oil

2.1 Crude oils

Crude oils are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons of varying molecular weight and structure comprising the three main chemical groups:paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatic. These hydrocarbons range fromsimple, highly volatile substances to complex waxes and asphalticcompounds which cannot be distilled. Oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, vana-dium, nickel, mineral salts, etc. may be present in various combinations.

The characteristics of most crude oils fall within the following ranges:

Table 2-1 – Range of characteristics of crude oils

Specific gravity, kg/m3

at 15/158C800 to 980

Initial boiling point,8C 30 to 125

Kinematic viscosity, cSt, at 408C 3 to 100 (but can be as muchas 20,000)

Pour point 8C –30 to +25 (but can be lower, or

as high as 40)Flashpoint, (Abel) 8C –18 to 190

Sulphur, % wt. 0.08 to 5

Wax, % wt. up to 15

Asphaltenes, % wt. up to 5

Vanadium, ppm V 5 to 170

The names of crude oils are often associated with or have been derivedfrom their geographical source, e.g. Alaska North Slope Crude. Each crudeoil has unique physical and chemical properties and these can vary bothbetween oils from the same area and between different regions of the world. Their physical properties and how they behave when spilled,together with their chemical properties, which determine their toxicity, areimportant factors influencing the oil spill response and the effect they canhave on various marine resources.

Lighter, more volatile crude oils tend to be highly fluid and spread rapidly,have a strong odour, a high evaporation rate and are usually flammable. They penetrate porous substrates, but do not tend to adhere to hard

surfaces. They may be highly toxic to humans, fish and other biota.Heavier, less volatile crude oils have a variety of characteristics depending on their specific properties; these are described in more detail in chapter 3. They are fluid to varying degrees, have a range of evaporation rates andmay be flammable. As temperature increases, their tendency to penetrateporous substrates can increase, but the more viscous and sticky crude oilsdo not penetrate readily. They adhere to hard surfaces but may be removed

5





using a variety of techniques; described in chapter 9. With lower volatility,toxicity is also lower, but some biota can be affected by physicalsmothering. Some of the heavier crude oils are solid at ambient temper-

atures and they are relatively non-toxic and do not penetrate poroussurfaces. When heated they may melt and form a coating on hard surfaces, which can sometimes be difficult to remove.

2.2 Petroleum products

The products derived from refining crude oils have chemical and physicalcharacteristics that depend on the nature of the crudes and the variousprocesses to which they have been subjected. Many refined productsgenerally tend to have well defined and predictable characteristics since a

product like gasoline and petroleum contain similar hydrocarbon com-pounds within a narrow distillation temperature band. However, residualfuel oils such as intermediate (medium) and heavy fuel oils are morediverse. Such oils often consist of viscous and tarry residues of crude oilrefining with complex mixtures of heavy aliphatic and aromatic com-pound, bitumens and asphaltenes. Waxy residues from crude oil storagetank cleaning may also be added to the residues from crude refining. Suchresidues are then blended with light fuels or products to meet viscosity and flashpoint specifications. The characteristics of a certain intermediateor heavy fuel oil will depend on the crude(s) from which the residue is

derived, as well as the nature of any oils or other products blended in toallow the fuel to meet a particular performance requirement.

The typical characteristics provided in table 2-2 give an indication of theproperties of various petroleum products. It should be noted that therequirements in various countries for presenting characteristics of a petroleum product actually being carried in bulk, may vary and call for more detailed information than is given in table 2-2.

Table 2-2 – Typical characteristics of petroleum products

Gasolines(motor spirit) Specific gravity, 15/158

CBoiling range, 8CKinematic viscosity, cSt @ 158CFlashpoint 8C

0.68 to 0.7730 to 2000.65–15 to –40

Kerosene Specific gravity, 15/158CBoiling range, 8CKinematic viscosity, cSt @ 408CFlashpoint 8C

0.78160 to 2851,4835–70

Diesel fuels(gas oils)

Specific gravity, 15/158CBoiling range, 8CKinematic viscosity, cSt @ 408C

Flashpoint 8C

0.81 to 0.85180 to 3601.3 to 5.5(grade dependent)35–70

Fuel oils(light, mediumand heavy)

Specific gravity, 15/508CKinematic viscosity, cSt @ 408CFlashpoint 8C

0.925 to 0.96549 to 86270 upwards


6





Gasoline is a lightweight product that flows easily, spreads quickly, andmay evaporate completely in a few hours under ambient conditions. It poses a risk of fire and explosion because of its high volatility and

flammability, and is generally more toxic than crude oil. Kerosene is a lightweight product that flows easily, spreads rapidly, and evaporatesquickly.

There are various names that can often be used to describe different fueloils. They can be called Bunker A, B, C; Fuel Oil No.2, 4, 5, 6; IntermediateFuel Oil (IFO 180); or Heavy Fuel Oil (IFO 380). The relationship betweendifferent classifications is not always clear but the Bunker A-C scale andthe ASTM fuel oil scale are roughly equivalent, as shown in table 2-3. TheIFO scale specifies the viscosity of the oil in centistokes (approximately

equivalent to mPAs) at 508

C.Table 2-3 – Bunker scale, ASTM fuel oil numbers

and IFO numbers

Examples Bunker

scaleASTMFO No.

IFO No.

Light fuels, diesel, domesticheating oil

A 2

Diesel, gas oil, light fuel for marineengines

B 4 60

Heavy gas oil, intermediate fuel oils B 5 180

Heavy fuel oils for marine enginesand industrial burners

C 6 m380

It should be noted that in France, and possibly some French speaking countries world-wide, heavy fuel oils which are commonly referred to asbunker C or IFO 380 are also called ‘fuel oil no. 2’, which differs from theconvention given in table 2-3. This illustrates that it is very important toestablish the actual properties of the oil spilled, to confirm its likely nature

and thus behaviour.

2.2.1 Lubricating oils

These are highly refined oils which, depending on their application, vary widely in specific gravity and viscosity. A wide range of additives is used inthese oils, many of which are surface active compounds. Certainlubricating oils contain additives that may present a hazard to humanhealth and/or the environment when spilled.

2.2.2 Other petroleum productsLess common than the oils listed above, but increasingly used as fuels for industrial power generation, are bitumen and newer products known as‘emulsified fuels’. These may have densities that approach or exceed that of seawater and have very high viscosities at ambient temperatures.Further information on the characteristics of these oils is provided inchapter 12.

Chapter 2 – Types of oil

7





2.3 Persistent oils

The term persistent is used to describe those oils which, because of their chemical composition, are usually slow to dissipate naturally when spilledinto the marine environment and are therefore likely to spread and requirecleanup. Non-persistent oils tend to evaporate quickly when spilled and donot generally require extensive cleaning up.

Whilst the term persistent is not precisely defined in any convention or international standard, generally, oils that are normally termed persistent include crude oils, fuel oils, heavy diesel and lubricating oils. Non-persistent oils include gasoline, light diesel oil and kerosene. For spillresponders, this term is a useful first indication of whether an oil willpersist when spilled into the marine environment, calling possibly for a

significant and prolonged response.

8






Chapter 3 Fate of oil spills

in the marine environment

When oil is spilled at sea, it undergoes a number of physical and chemicalchanges, some of which lead to its disappearance from the sea surface, while others cause it to persist. Although spilled oil is eventually

assimilated by the marine environment, the time involved depends onthe initial physical and chemical characteristics of the oil and the natural‘weathering’ processes that can take place.

3.1 Properties of oil

Individual properties are very important since they influence an oil’sbehaviour on the sea surface and its rate of dissipation by naturalprocesses.

3.1.1 Density (specific gravity)

This dictates the buoyancy of an oil on water and it influences spreading and natural dispersion. The density of an oil is expressed either in units of mass per unit volume – kg/m3 (note that specific gravity is the measure of an oil’s density in relation to freshwater, whose density is 1 kg/m3), or interms of API gravity; in accordance with the following formula:

API ¼

141:5

specific gravity 131:5

As a general rule, oils with a low density (high API gravity) tend to have low viscosities and contain a high proportion of volatile components.

3.1.2 Boiling point and boiling range

The rate at which an oil evaporates is indicated by its initial boiling point and boiling range. The lower these are, the faster evaporation will occur.

3.1.3 Viscosity

The viscosity of an oil indicates its resistance to flow. High viscosity oilsflow with difficulty, whilst those with low viscosity are highly mobile. Viscosities decrease with increasing temperature, thus seawater temper-ature and absorption of heat from the sun will affect the apparent viscosity of spilled oil.

9





3.1.4 Pour point

The pour point of an oil is the temperature below which the oil will not flow. This effect is the result of the formation of an internal micro-

crystalline structure. If the ambient temperature is below the pour point,the oil will behave as a solid.

3.1.5 Flashpoint

The flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour existsabove the spilled oil to yield a flammable mixture. This is an important factor in relation to the safety of cleanup operations. Many freshly spilledoils may be easily ignited until the more volatile components haveevaporated and dispersed in the atmosphere.

3.1.6 Solubility

Some components of oils are soluble in water. Generally the more volatilecomponents are also the more soluble. Although solubility is small relativeto evaporation, it can be significant for toxicity to marine life.

3.1.7 Asphaltene content

Asphaltenes play a major role in the formation and stability of water-in-oilemulsions. Low asphaltene oils generally do not form stable emulsions.

The behaviour of spilled oil is influenced by its properties

3.2 Natural weathering processes acting on spilled oil

Oil spilled on the sea undergoes a series of processes collectively known as weathering which will change its characteristics and behaviour. The mainfactors affecting the behaviour of oil are:


10





– physical characteristics of the oil, in particular, specific gravity, viscosity and boiling range;

– composition and chemical characteristics of the oil;

– m et eorologi cal c on di ti on s ( se a s tate , s un li gh t and air temperatures); and

– characteristics of the seawater (specific gravity, currents,temperature, presence of bacteria, nutrients and dissolvedoxygen and suspended solids).

A knowledge of these processes and how they interact to alter the nature of oil is valuable when responding to spills. Figure 3-1 depicts the processesand figure 3-2 shows how the relative importance of the processes vary

with time.

Weathering Processes

Figure 3-1 – Processes taking place after an oil spill

Figure 3-2 – Time span and relative importance of processesacting on an oil spill

Chapter 3 – Fate of oil spills in the marine environment

11





3.2.1 Spreading

When an oil spill occurs at sea, oil will float and begin to spread, with the

exception of a very few oils whose density exceeds that of seawater and which therefore sink. Spreading of an oil slick on the sea surface is a rapidand dominant process at the time of a release. Initially the most important factor causing the oil to spread is its weight and the oil begins to spreadout as a coherent slick. Viscous oils will spread more slowly than oils withlow viscosities. Oils spilled on the sea at a temperature below their pour point hardly spread at all.

Within a few hours the slick begins to break up and form narrow bands or

‘‘windrows’’ parallel to the wind direction. At this stage the viscosity of theoil becomes less important since further spreading is primarily due toturbulence at the sea surface. Spreading rates vary due to differences inthe oceanographic conditions such as currents (both residual and tidal)and wind speed. In some 12 hours of a spill, the oil can already bescattered over an area of several square kilometres or more, thus limiting the possibility of effective cleanup.

As the oil continues to spread it can become scattered over very large sea areas. Except in the case of small spills of low viscosity oils, spreading is

not uniform and large variations of oil thickness occur within a slick. Thicker, broken patches of oil may often be found in relatively small areassurrounded by much larger expanses of sheen or even open seawater. Waves and turbulence at the sea surface also act on the slick to producedroplets with a range of sizes. The larger ones rise back to the surfacebehind the advancing slick where they usually coalesce to form a raggedtail (figure 3-3).

3.2.2 Evaporation

The most important process removing the oil from the water surface isevaporation. The speed and extent of the evaporation depends mainly onthe proportion of low-boiling fractions in the oil. Evaporation rates alsodepend on initial spreading of the oil since the larger the surface area thefaster the light components will evaporate. Rough seas and higher temperatures and wind speeds also tend to encourage faster evaporation.

Generally, volatile components with boiling points up to 2008C will beevaporated within 24 hours. Light oils such as gasoline, kerosene and light fuel oil may evaporate completely within a few hours and light crudes canlose up to 40% during the first day. Heavy crudes and fuel oils undergomuch less and in some cases virtually no evaporation. A major consequence of evaporation will be an increase in density and viscosity of any remaining oil.


12





Figure 3-3 – Spreading of oil on the water

Spreading of oil on the water


13





3.2.3 Natural dispersion

Usually liquid oils will disperse as droplets under moderate to rough sea conditions. The oil droplets will disperse through the upper layers of thesea and will be suspended in the water or rise back to the surfacedepending on the density difference between the oil and water and the sizeof the droplets. The formation of small oil droplets greatly increases thecontact between water and oil and degradation of the oil by micro-organisms is enhanced. The relationship between wind, wave height andsea state in open seas is shown in table 3-1.

The rate of natural dispersion, together with evaporation, largely determines the lifetime of oil on the sea surface. Natural dispersionreduces the volume of the oil at the sea surface and reduces evaporative

loss, but it does not lead to changes in the physical and chemicalproperties of the spilled material in the way that evaporation does. Most small slicks of lighter oils will disappear within a few hours through thisnatural dispersion, providing there is sufficient wave action.

3.2.4 Water-in-oil emulsion

Some crude and fuel oils exhibit a tendency to absorb water droplets toform a water-in-oil emulsion. The most noticeable feature of a stable water-in-oil emulsion is its red-brown or orange colour. Because of its

consistency it is often referred to as ‘‘chocolate mousse’’.

Water-in-oil emulsion

The stability of an emulsion is largely dictated by the asphaltene content of the oil. Those with more than 0.5% tend to form stable emulsions whilst those containing less are unlikely to be stable. The sea state is important


14





to emulsion formation and in calm waters emulsification is less apparent,although with some very light oils it may still occur with only minor waveaction. More commonly, in sea states associated with winds of Beaufort

Force 3 and higher, many lighter oils have a tendency to form emulsionsthat incorporate 60–80% seawater by volume in just a few hours. Water-in-oil emulsion can be generated with some crude oils in areas with wavelets/chop of less than 100 mm (4’’). These would be considered to be calmconditions. In contrast, highly viscous oils may only reach up to half this volume under the same or stronger sea conditions, and this after a few days.

The viscosity of water-in-oil emulsions is much higher than that of the oilfrom which they were formed. They are usually thixotropic, which meansthat they may be relatively fluid when being stirred about by waves, etc.,but become stiffer when resting on still water or on a beach. The density also increases and can approach that of seawater. If absorption of suspended solids occurs the oil may eventually sink. The formation of water-in-oil emulsions can increase the volume of the spill by a factor of upto 5. The stability of emulsions depends on the composition of the oil andits temperature. In hot climates, emulsions may break down under certainconditions.


15





Table 3-1 – Description of weather and sea conditions

Beaufort scale of weahter and sea conditions

Beaufortwindforce

Mean

windspeed

in knots

Limits

of windspeed

in knotsDescrip-

tiveterm

Sea criterion

(see photographs in Marine Observer’s Handbook – H.M.S.O.)

Probableheight of waves in

metres

Probablemaximumheight of waves inmetres*

Measured ata height of 10 mabove sea level

0 00 Lessthan 1

Calm Sea like a mirror. –

1 02 1-3 Light air

Ripples with the appearance of scales areformed, but without foam crests.

0.1 0.1

2 05 4-6 Light breeze

Small wavelets, still short but more pro-nounced, crests have a glassy appearanceand do not break.

0.2 0.3

3 09 7-10 Gentlebreeze

Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered whitehorses.

0.6 1.0

4 13 11-16 Moderatebreeze

Small waves, becoming longer, fairly frequent white horses.

1.0 1.5

5 19 17-21 Freshbreeze

Moderate waves, taking a more pronouncedlong form, many white horses are formed(chance of some spray).

2.0 2.5

6 24 22-27 Strong breeze

Large waves begin to form, the white foamcrests are more extensive everywhere (prob-ably some spray).

3.0 4.0

7 30 28-33 Near gale

Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks along the

direction of the wind.

4.0 5.5

8 37 34-40 Gale Moderate high waves of greater length, edgesof crests begin to break into spindrift. Thefoam is blown in well-marked streaks along the direction of the wind.

5.5 7.5

9 44 41-47 Strong gale

High waves. Dense streaks of foam along thedirection of the wind. Crests of waves begin totopple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect

visibility.

7.0 10.0

10 52 48-55 Storm Very high waves with long overhanging crests. The resulting foam in great patches isblown in dense white streaks along the di-rection of the wind. On the whole the surfaceof the sea takes a white appearance. Tum-

bling of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like. Visibility affected.

9.0 12.5

11 60 56-63 Violent storm

Exceptionally-high waves. (Small and me-dium-sized ships might be for a time lost to

view behind the waves.) The sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying along the direction of the wind. Everywherethe edges of the waves’ crests are blown intofroth. Visibility affected.

12 – 64andover

Hurr-icane

The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea completely white with driving spray, visibility

very seriously affected.

14or

over

–

* These columns are added as a guide to show roughly what may be expected in the open sea, remote from land.In enclosed waters, or when near land with an offshore wind, wave heights will be smaller, and the wavessteeper.

Notes.1 It must be realized that it may be difficult to estimate wind force by the sea criterion. The wind force and

direction may therefore be estimated by other means, e.g. the feel of the wind or the smoke, making dueallowance for course and speed of ship (see Marine Observer’s Handbook).

.2 The lag effect between the wind getting up and the sea increasing should be borne in mind.

.3 Fetch, depth, swell, heavy rain and tide effects should be considered when estimating the wind force fromthe appearance of the sea.


16





3.2.5 Other processes

Other processes also contribute to the fate of spilled oil. The lightest compounds in the oil can, to a certain degree, be dissolved in the water (termed dissolution). Solar radiation over the oil film can promoteoxidation reactions that change the structure of the hydrocarbonmolecules in the oil.

An additional process is the biodegradation of some oil components.Seawater contains a range of marine micro-organisms such as bacteria,moulds and yeasts which can utilize oil as a source of carbon and energy.Such organisms are widely distributed throughout the world’s oceansalthough they tend to be more abundant in polluted waters, such as thosethat receive industrial discharges and untreated sewage. Each micro-

organism tends to degrade a specific group of hydrocarbons and whilst a range of bacteria exist which between them are capable of degrading most of the wide range of compounds in crude oil, some components areresistant to such attack. At sea, the creation of oil droplets, either naturalor by chemical dispersion, increases the oil/water interfacial area availablefor biological activity and so enhances biodegradation.

The processes of dissolution, oxidation and biodegradation tend to be moresignificant in tropical and sub-tropical environments. However, they are of minor significance to the on-water phase of cleanup operations as their

combined contribution to the reduction of the volume of oil on the water surface or to a change in its properties is very small.

Because the density of both seawater and of oil varies with temperature,the oil may alternate between positive and negative buoyancy. Thus oilmay temporarily submerge to a limited depth, only to rise to the surfaceagain within hours or days. Oil that is buoyant in seawater may submergein coastal areas where freshwater influences decrease the density of theupper layer of water.

Very few crude oils are sufficiently dense or weathered to such an extent that their residues will sink. Sinking is usually brought about by adhesionof particulate matter to the oil. Some heavy crudes, as well as most heavy fuel oils and water-in-oil emulsions require very little particulate matter toexceed the specific gravity of seawater. There is also a possibility of tar balls forming. Tar balls or tar lumps are compact semi-solid or solidmasses of highly weathered oil formed through the aggregation of viscous,high molecular weight hydrocarbons with sediments and debris present inthe water column. Tar balls can form anywhere at sea and some of thesesink to the bottom as a result of their high specific gravity. They can be

transported either floating on the water surface or along the sea-bed andmay eventually arrive on beaches.

In coastal areas, oil may be carried by surface currents and winds ontoshorelines and into estuaries, and be deposited in the intertidal zone.Some of this oil may be lifted off again and re-deposited in the same area or carried to other places, through tidal action. Depending on the shorelineprofile, sediment/substrate characteristics and available wave energy; oil


17





may thus be deposited on the surface in the higher reaches of theintertidal zone, become mixed with surface sediments, or on occasion beburied in layers under the beach sediments. Erosion or scouring of oiled

beach sediments can remobilize some of this oil which may then bedeposited in shallow subtidal zones.

Sometimes stranded oil may become buried

3.3 Movement of oil slicks

An oil slick will rarely stay in the same position, tending to move under thecombined influence of winds, waves, tides and currents. The movement of surface waters in the sea, due to the wind, waves and currents, is difficult to predict due to the many parameters involved. However, some generalfeatures of oil slick movements on the sea surface have been observed inoil spill incidents. The downwind portion of the slick will generally bethicker than the upwind or trailing portion of the slick. While the slick isdrifting, it will generally become elongated and will form windrows. Thespeed with which an oil slick drifts under the influence of the winddepends on wind strength and oil thickness, but typically in open water, it

will move at about 3% of the speed of the wind measured 10 m above the water surface.

3.3.1 The influence of currents

If the wind is negligible, which is rarely the case, the oil will move only under the influence of currents or tides. Current regimes may be constant but more commonly vary in strength and direction over time. The strength


18





and direction of tides will influence the movement of the slick in the short term. However, tidal currents rarely cancel each other completely, and thisgives rise to a residual current which will determine the long-term

movement of the oil slick.

3.3.2 Assessment of the drift of a slick

Having calculated separately the wind induced effect and the surface water current, the movement of a slick on the surface can be determined by drawing a vector diagram. This can be represented by the following simplified formula:

V oil ¼ V current þ ð V wind x QÞ

in which:

Voil ¼ velocity of the oil

Vcurrent ¼ velocity of seawater

Vwind ¼ velocity of wind at a height of 10 m

Q ¼ empirically established wind speed factor (usually about 3%)

The movement of the oil can be determined by the technique illustrated infigure 3-4.

Figure 3-4 – The influence of 3% of the wind speed combined with 100% of the current speed results

in the movement of oil from A to B

3.4

Combined movement, weathering processesand modelling

The different processes that change the oil properties and encouragespilled oil to be removed from the water surface, or to remain for longer,have been described briefly. All these processes are dependent on a number of factors, such as oil type, temperature, weather and sea conditions. The processes of spreading, evaporation, dispersion, emulsifi-


19





cation and dissolution are most important during the early stages of a spill whilst oxidation, sedimentation and biodegradation are more important later on and determine the ultimate fate of the oil. To understand how

different oils change over time whilst at sea, one needs to know how these weathering processes interact. To predict this, some models have beendeveloped based on oil type.

One such model uses the half-life for a group of oils classified roughly according to their density, to describe the persistence and the time neededfor the oil to dissipate. Generally, oils with a lower density will be lesspersistent but some apparently light oils can behave more like heavy onesdue to the presence of waxes. The half-life is the time needed for 50% of theoil to disappear from the sea surface. After six half-lives have passed, about 1% of the oil will remain. This model is shown in figure 3-5. Weather andclimatic conditions will alter the rates shown, for example; in rough weather a group 3 oil may dissipate in a timescale similar to a group 2 oil.

Although simple models, such as this, cannot predict the changes an oilundergoes very precisely, they can provide a broad indication of whether an oil is likely to dissipate naturally or whether it will reach the shoreline. This information can be used by spill responders to decide upon the most effective spill response techniques and whether such techniques can be

initiated quickly enough.

The volume of oil and oil-in-water emulsion remainingon the sea surface is shown as a percentage of thevolume spilt.

Oils are grouped according to specific gravity.Group I : S.G. <0.8 e.g. Gasoline Kerosene.Group II: S.G. <0.8-0.85 e.g. Beatrice crude,

Abu Dhabi crude, gas oil.Group III: S.G. >0.85 e.g. Arabian light crude,

Iranian heavy crude.Group IV: S.G. >0,95 e.g. Heavy fuel oil, Minas crude.

The rate of removal of oil from the sea surface according to their physical properties.

Figure 3-5 – The rate of removal of oil from the sea surface according to their physical properties


20





Group Specific Gravity API Gravity

Group I 5 0.8 445

Group II 0.8 – 0.85 45 – 35

Group III 0.85 – 0.95 35 – 17.5

Group IV 40.95 5 17.5

Many computer models of varying sophistication have been developedmore recently for predicting the physical and chemical changes of the oiland its movement (trajectory) on the sea surface. These models can only provide a reliable output if the input information is correct. The results will

stand or fall with the input data and accurate information, particularly on winds and currents, may not be available. Reliance on simple formulaeusing limited information can still give predictions that are useful andadequate for on-scene commanders during cleanup operations. Theprediction of the fate of an oil spill, based on an understanding of the weathering processes, supplemented by reference to reliable modelling,and backed up by regular surveillance and monitoring in the field, is one of the most important aspects for an optimal oil spill response.


21









Chapter 4 Effects of oil on marine

and coastal resources

4.1 Introduction

Research in the 1970’s and 1980’s led to a dramatic increase in theawareness and understanding of the effects of oil on the marine environ-

ment. Ongoing research continued to add to this, and more recently hasbeen supported in the 1990’s by comprehensive studies following major oilpollution cases. The following discussion therefore reflects some thirty years of research and study, from which an extensive range of knowledgehas been established, confirmed by experience in the field.

The effects of a particular spill situation will depend on many factors. These include the volume of the oil spilled, its physical, chemical andtoxicological characteristics (particularly those that determine the oilsability to persist in the environment) and condition (as a floating slick or dispersed in the water column); local conditions at the time of the spill (e.g.temperature, wind); time of year; the presence of structures or resources inthe path of the spill; and location of the spill in relation to the nature andmixing of sediments, sea bottom topography and geomorphology of thecoast. The variability of these and other factors and their interaction canlead to a wide range of ecological, economic and physical effects.

Oiled shoreline

23





The topic discussions that follow are not intended to suggest any particular order of priority with regard to effects. The ultimate valueplaced on various impacts will depend upon the circumstances surround-

ing the particular spill event.

A distinction should be made at the outset between the effects of spilled oilitself and the effects of cleanup measures. Major categories of remedial(control and recovery) measures include manual, mechanical andchemical means. In some instances, the remedial measures themselvesmay have adverse consequences, which are more fully discussed insubsequent chapters.

4.2

Ecological effectsDepending upon the factors noted in the introduction to this chapter, therecan be a variety of ecological effects resulting from a spill. These may include physical and chemical changes in habitats; changes in growth,physiology and behaviour of individual organisms and species; toxicity and increased mortality in individual organisms and species anddestruction or modification of entire communities of organisms throughthe combined effects of toxicity and smothering.

4.2.1 Physical contamination of biota and habitat

Floating oil may contaminate mammals, birds, and sea turtles that swimor dive through the surface of the water. If fishing activities take place inthe immediate vicinity of a spill, fishing gear and catch are likely to becontaminated as a result of contact with oil floating on the surface,dispersed or suspended in the water, and on rare occasions, with oil that has settled on the seabed. Any sunken oil may cover valuable habitats (for example, spawning grounds for herring).

The magnitude and persistence of oil contamination in the intertidal zone

depend greatly on the geomorphology and the sediment characteristics of the coast. Steep, exposed rocky coasts tend to deflect the wave energy andhold floating oil away from shore. Long-term effects are likely to be minimalon the ecosystems of such areas, where oil does not persist and rapidrecolonization by plants and animals may occur.

On fine sandy beaches the oil is likely to remain on the surface where it can be removed. However, in some instances, oil on sandy beaches may becovered by the sand and emerge again later due to the action of wind andtides. On beaches of cobble, gravel or even coarse sand, the oil may

penetrate with the tidal water table down to hard substrata.In sheltered tidal flats, mangroves and saltmarshes, oil can penetrate intothe anoxic muds, facilitated by animal burrows, decaying root masses andinterstitial water movement where it may cause local biological effects for long periods. In such areas, biota are susceptible to physical smothering inthe early stages of a spill and may exhibit chemical contamination of their tissues for extended periods.


24





4.2.2 Ecotoxicology

In addition to the direct physical effects of smothering or fouling, much of

the mortality that occurs during the early stages of an oil spill results fromtoxicity of the more water-soluble, lighter aromatic components of oil. These more toxic components (e.g. alkyl-substituted benzenes andnaphthalenes) generally disappear relatively quickly. The toxicity of a spillto marine organisms therefore varies according to the presence andamount of these components in the oil and whether they have dissipatedbefore exposure to the organisms in question. The more toxic oils, such asgas oil and kerosene contain higher proportions of a variety of more toxiccomponents, but they also tend to dissipate quickly and leave little residue.Crude oils and medium fuel oil contain less toxic components but are more

persistent and can still exhibit toxicity to marine organisms. Heavier crudeoils contain lower amounts of toxic components but heavy fuel oils may contain light products blended in, which are more toxic to marineorganisms than the heavy fuel designation might otherwise suggest.

Bioassays have been used extensively to estimate the toxicity of different oil types to different species and life stages of organisms. Most tests havemeasured the mortality of test organisms during an acute exposure period(usually 96 hours). The 96-hour LC-50 (concentration of oil producing mortality of 50% of the test organisms over the specified period) for most

organisms tested falls in the range of 0.5 mg/‘ to 10 mg/‘ (parts per million). Standard toxicity test conditions, however, may have limitedrelevance to actual field exposures in open water habitats, which usually are more dynamic and transient. Also, since laboratory tests cannot readily estimate reproductive potential or survival of organisms under fieldconditions, these bioassay results represent very incomplete informationabout the potential long-term effects of an oil spill in the naturalenvironment. Nonetheless, they do provide a measure of the potential for toxicity of a spill during its early stages when concentrations of oil in the water column are highest. The highest concentrations of oil measured in

the water column during most spills have generally been in the range of 0.2 mg to 0.5 mg/‘. Much higher concentrations of 0.5 mg/‘ to 1.0 mg/‘have been measured under surface oil slicks within 20 km of a subsurfaceblow-out. Near the wellhead, measured concentrations exceeded 10 mg/‘in surface waters. However, concentrations in this range are very short-lived, and exposure of water column organisms to these levels is likely tobe short-term.

The effects of acute toxicity during the early stages of an oil spill may belocal or transient or may persist for several years after the spill depending

on the size, location and season of the spill and the impacted species. If thespill occurs during a peak period of reproduction, the entire current-year class of organisms in the immediate area of the spill could be lost, along with the adults and juveniles. Effects of such magnitude, however, haverarely been observed on a population scale. The ultimate impact on thepopulation depends on the life span, adult mobility and reproductivestrategy of the species (i.e. planktonic versus sessile larvae). Species with

Chapter 4 – Effects of oil on marine and coastal resources

25





short life cycles, high adult mobility and/or planktonic larvae typically exhibit only short-term effects. Long-term effects may be evident inlocalized or confined areas where oil is highly persistent.

4.2.3 Bio-accumulation and tainting

Organisms that survive the initial effects of a spill take up petroleumcompounds, both from the surrounding water and sediments, and fromcontaminated food, and may deposit them in their tissues. In theseinstances, it is often difficult to assess the specific, long-term toxic effectsof petroleum compounds on organisms, as these components commonly act together with other toxic substances already present in the marineenvironment. However, it can be generally stated that vertebrates

metabolize and eliminate aromatic compounds very rapidly and efficiently, whereas invertebrates metabolize aromatic compounds slowly andinefficiently. In rare cases, accumulated concentrations may reach levelshigh enough to affect behaviour (e.g. ability to escape predators), growth or reproduction and may lead to disease or early death.

Seafood may become tainted if directly exposed to oil

Fish, crustaceans and molluscs that are exposed either to high concen-trations of oil, or to moderate concentrations for long periods, may acquirean objectionable, oily odour or flavour, and, as a result, the flesh may beunmarketable. This is a temporary problem since the components causing the taint are lost when normal conditions are restored or when the


26





organisms are maintained in clean water. Depending on the type of oil andprevailing hydrographic and meteorological conditions, tainting may persist for periods ranging from a few days to several months. External

contamination does not necessarily lead to tainting of the flesh, and will vary as the lipid content and metabolic rates of the organism change withseason. Because of the serious economic consequences arising from a lossof sales, considerable care is necessary to prevent contaminated fish andshellfish from reaching the market. Ideally this should involve organizedtasting and chemical analysis by qualified personnel at the time of thespill. This issue is described in more detail in the IMO/FAO publicationGuidance on managing seafood safety during and after oil spills.

4.2.4 Rates of recovery

Ecological recovery of a spill-impacted area is not dependent solely on theamounts and composition of contaminants that persist after a spill.Repopulation usually occurs through several phases, involving different species at different times. Recovery rates depend on the populationdynamics (reproduction, growth and maturation) and ecological interac-tions (predation, competition, etc.) of replacement species well after toxicity has decreased below significant levels.

In general, recovery of populations is very rapid in the water column.Significant effects on plankton populations have not been observed in

open water, and those seen in near-shore systems have been local andtransitory, with full recovery in a few weeks. Toxicity and malformationshave been observed in the floating eggs and larvae of some fish species.However, effects on subsequent year-class strength or overall productivity are unknown because of high natural variability. Short-term, sublethaleffects on local finfish populations have been observed in heavily oiledareas after some oil spills, but effects on region-wide productivity weresmall or not detectable.

After initial destruction of intertidal or benthic organisms, resistant or

opportunistic species may undergo dramatic population increases andfluctuations in the affected area. Repopulation by the original species may sometimes be slow. Some near-shore benthic communities oiled by a major crude oil spill began to show significant recruitment only in thesecond year and recovery was still not complete after three to four years inthe most heavily impacted areas. Damage to marshy areas or mangrovescan be transitory, but in other cases may persist for decades if the loss of vegetation leads to extensive erosion and changes in soil characteristics or elevation. Damage may also continue if oil persists in the sediment or insurface tar mats.

4.3 Recreational beaches and sea areas

Interference with recreational use and enjoyment of coastal areas is a common feature of many oil spills. Bathing, diving, fishing, boating, andother watersports may all be disrupted, particularly when the oil is washedashore. Tourists can leave the affected resorts or may entirely avoid the


27





area if there is a general perception of it having been polluted. As a result,hotel and restaurant owners and others who gain a livelihood from thetourist trade can be affected. The economic damage is greatest if the spill

occurs just prior to or during a major tourist season. Impacts are typically short term and recreational activities normally resume shortly after cleanup has been completed, although small island states whoseeconomies rely largely on tourism may experience relatively greater andlonger impacts as a result of the spill.

Amenity activities can be disrupted by oil pollution

The need to restore a high degree of cleanliness rapidly at important amenity sites may call for highly effective cleaning techniques, but these

may also be harmful to local marine life. Certain activities may damagenatural sea defences leading to potential erosion problems. Sea walls,harbours, and other man-made structures can also be affected by severecleaning measures. Care must be taken to ensure that effects of suchremedial measures are minimized, and that restoration of recreation andamenity areas is balanced against potential adverse ecological impacts.

4.4 Ports and marinas

A major oil spill occurring within, or in close proximity to ports, harboursand marinas could have far-reaching effects on a variety of activities andresources. These might include commercial vessel and cargo handling operations, ship building and repair, passenger ferry services, watersport activities and waterfront tourist attractions, as well as any environ-mentally sensitive sites present within the area. In major ports, thepotential for serious economic consequences is high, due to indirect costs


28





associated with measures that might need to be taken during the responseand cleanup itself.

The principal concern at the outset of an oil spill is one of public and vesselsafety. Spills that occur in areas where the oil remains confined increasesthe initial risk of fire or explosion. Public and vessel safety must beaddressed immediately and the necessary actions that are taken tomitigate potential safety hazards could be economically costly. Areas may need to be closed or access temporarily restricted for vessels, vehicles, andpersonnel. Operations such as welding, cutting, or other spark-generating activities may need to be restricted or prohibited until the risk of firehazard no longer exists. Such restrictions and interferences may affect normal operations in the port, harbour, or marina, to the extent that the

indirect costs could exceed the direct costs associated with any physicaldamage from collision, explosion or fire, loss of cargo and cleanup.

Actions taken to minimize or prevent the spread of floating oil, such as thedeployment of booms, or the closure of dock or lock gates, may affect vesseltransits through the affected area. Depending on the nature and extent of a spill, these restrictions could be broad in scope and may need to becontinually adjusted to reflect the changing situation.

Various port operations may be affected

Direct contamination of vessel hulls, mooring ropes, fenders, and work access points such as steps, ladders, and slip-ways is a commonoccurrence. An oily film may adhere to surfaces extending between thehigh-water and low-water marks of all structures and objects subject to


29





tidal influence. Inclement weather can impede cleanup efforts and canserve to spread the oil more quickly to unaffected areas. Restrictions onnormal activities may be needed or imposed until such time as safe

working conditions have been restored and cleanup has advancedsufficiently to allow normal operations to resume.

Interrupting, restricting, or prohibiting normal shipping and commercialport and harbour activities, commercial and sport fishing, recreationalboating, or other waterborne activities at port and harbour facilities and/or marinas could affect many segments of the local economy and extend tothose of other communities. In addition, unsightly oil-covered docks, boat hulls and other structures, as well as the persistence of an oily smell, may discourage recreational and commercial use of waterfront facilities, and

adversely affect tourism in the area. Some ports and harbours may alsocontain environmentally important areas, whose features and sensitivity to oil pollution are described elsewhere in this chapter.

4.5 Industrial installations

Industries that rely on seawater for their normal operations can beimpaired or damaged by oil. Power stations, in particular, are often locatedclose to the coast in order to have a ready supply of large quantities of seawater for cooling. If a substantial quantity of floating or sub-surface oilis drawn into the intakes, it may pass through the protective screensnormally present to remove debris and other material from the water. If oilthen reaches the heat exchangers there is a concern that their efficiency may be lowered, or, in the case of very viscous or weathered oils, that thecondenser tubes may become blocked, necessitating a shutdown whilethey are cleaned. In addition to the deployment of booms or nets across

water intakes when oil is confirmed to be close to the facilities, someinstallations may operate at reduced power or even temporarily suspendtheir operations. In practice, recorded instances of damage being caused toheat exchangers are very rare.

Desalination plants may also be affected if oil is drawn into the water intakes. The two processes widely in use for the production of drinking water from seawater are multistage flash distillation and reverse osmosis. The distillation process would be affected in a similar way to the condenser tubes in power stations and the membrane filters in reverse osmosis

installations could be damaged if oil were to reach them. Installationsusually have filters and pretreatment processes that prevent thecondensers and membranes from being contaminated during normaloperations. In addition to any measures being taken during an oil spill toprotect the intakes, an added precaution may sometimes be taken tointerrupt or slow down operations to avoid any possible damage, but potentially causing temporary water supply problems for consumers.


30





4.6 Fish

4.6.1 Direct oil spill effects

Direct kills of adult fish have been observed at only a few oil spills. At other major spills, some fish were found to have ingested oil and oilcontamination of muscle tissue was found in several instances, giving rise to tainting. Reproductive effects have been noted after some incidents.Some laboratory experiments have indicated that fish eggs are very sensitive to extremely low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons and reducedhatching of fish eggs has been attributed to oil exposure at some spills.

4.6.2 Sub-lethal effects

The effects of sub-lethal exposures of fish to petroleum have been

extensively examined in laboratory experiments. In some cases, exposureto realistic concentrations (i.e. similar to those observed under fieldconditions) have produced effects on reproductive processes including behaviour, fecundity, and success of fertilization and hatching; haveinduced aberrations (e.g. of development, behaviour, biochemicalprocesses, and subcellular structure) that could lead to premature deaththrough increased susceptibility to predation or disease; and also inducedcarcinogenesis and mutagenesis. Some of these laboratory observationshave been supported by field observations, either under spill circum-

stances or in chronically contaminated marine environments. Detectableeffects have usually been confined to the immediate vicinity of the spill, or the effects of the oil have been obscured by the presence of other contaminants at the site.

The formation of tumours has been detected in field populations of fishand molluscs, and the incidence of tumours has been related to exposureto polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons or petroleum products arising fromsources other than oil spills.

Existing data indicates biomagnification of hydrocarbons does not occur

in marine food webs, and the concentrations of polynuclear aromatichydrocarbons in human foods of marine origin are not usually highcompared with other dietary sources. Consumption of fish and shellfishfrom coastal areas that receive repeated oil spills along with chronicdischarges of oily wastes from ships or from land-based sources would,however, increase the intake of hydrocarbons by human consumers.

4.6.3 Long-term effects on fish stocks

Fish stocks probably have not been affected significantly by individual oilspills, isolated in time and space from others. While it is clear that large

spills can impact local populations or year-classes of fish for periods of upto two years, these effects have not been detectable in regional catch data. The lack of demonstrated effects is due to many factors, including confinement of serious effects to localized areas, ability of adult fish toavoid the spill, ability of adult and juvenile fish to repopulate an impactedarea after the spill has dissipated, the dispersion and transport of fish eggsand larvae from adjoining areas, the high degree of natural variability in


31





fisheries populations and in the levels and effects of overfishing. As a result of the mobility of the fish and the other sources of variability in thecatch data, it is unlikely that changes in future catches can be attributable

to spill effects, except in extremely localized or confined areas, or in areassubjected to repeated spills and discharges.

4.6.4 Fish and shellfish farming and seaweed cultivation

Fish and shellfish that are confined in floating cages or in near-shoreenclosures or pens cannot escape from the path of an oil spill, and may suffer mortality or tainting unless they can be removed prior to arrival of

the oil. Organisms that may be suspended in the water column beneathfloating racks or buoys (e.g. oysters, seaweed, kelp) are less subject to direct mortalities from oil spills. Contamination of these organisms may stilloccur through bio-accumulation of dispersed or dissolved oil, or throughphysical contact with floating oil, as they are harvested. If bio-accumulation and tainting are minimal, recovery of the harvest may besatisfactory following a period of depuration either on site after the spillhas dissipated or by relocation.

Intertidal areas of shellfish culture are particularly susceptible to spill

effects. The shoreline effectively traps any oil that may be transportedthere and holds it while successive tides deposit and redeposit it in theintertidal zone. Wave action may disperse the oil throughout the shallow water column and mix it into sediment layers. Together, these processescan cause direct physical contamination of the shellfish; bio-accumulationand tainting of the edible tissues and persistent chemical contaminationof the sediment, rendering the environment potentially unsuitable for shellfish production for several years. In areas remote from the spill,shellfish may be saved by immediate harvest before the spill arrives.Shellfish in moderately contaminated areas may be relocated to cleanareas for depuration or cleansing of the tissues. Shellfish in more heavily contaminated areas might have to be destroyed. Where sediments havebeen contaminated, restoration may be accelerated in a number of waysduring shoreline cleanup.


32





Seaweed cultivation in the inter-tidal zone

Economically important algae and other plants in the intertidal zone may be broken away from their rocky substrata by the weight of oil clinging to

the fronds. Small decreases in population density may occur for a year after the spill. Cultured seaweed grown on floating nets are particularly prone to contamination by floating or dispersed oil. Submerged plants,such as kelps, are less vulnerable to spills because of the depths at whichthey occur.

4.6.5 Commercial considerations (fisheries)

Apart from the effects of oil on fish stocks, an oil spill can have animmediate physical and economic impact on fishing activities. Fishing ports may be unusable, either because they are contaminated by oil or because they have been closed to avoid contamination. Fishing vesselsand gear may be fouled by oil. Fishing grounds, regardless of whether or not stocks have been damaged by oil, might be inaccessible either becauseof oil or because of counter-pollution activities in the area. The oilcontamination might present fire or health hazards to fishermen.

Clearly all these factors are likely to have an effect on the amount of fishavailable to be sold but, in addition, adverse publicity arising from theincident might lead to public concern about the quality of fish on themarket. This can result in loss of sales over a wider area than that actually affected by the spill.


33





Fishing vessels in port

4.7 Marine mammalsMany types of marine mammals (including seals, otters, whales, porpoises,dolphins, walruses and dugongs etc.) can be observed in areas affected by oil spills, either swimming in oil covered waters or in some cases, coming ashore, for example to breed. These observations suggest that thesemammals do not actively avoid oil, at least under some circumstances.Most reports of spill effects on marine mammals involve oil fouling of thepelage or fur of seals and otters. Although mortalities have no doubt beenassociated with oil exposure in some cases, the actual cause of death for

an oiled marine mammal found dead on a beach is difficult to establish with certainty.

4.7.1 Kinds of effects

Exposure to oil may occur through physical contact with floating,dispersed or stranded oil, by ingestion of oil or contaminated food or by inhalation.

Animals that depend on fur or hair for thermal insulation (such as ottersand fur seals) suffer loss of body temperature when their fur is fouled with

oil. Most other sea mammals rely on blubber and vascular constriction for controlling their body temperatures and thus are more resistant to thethermal effects of oiling.

Marine mammals confined close to the source of a spill, or surfacing repeatedly in fresh oil slicks, will inhale vapours of petroleum. Whileprolonged inhalation of high vapour levels could cause death or nervoussystem damage, short-term inhalation is likely to produce only mild


34





inflammation of mucous tissues. Because the volatile components of oildisappear within hours of a spill, animals away from the immediate area of a spill are not likely to suffer serious consequences of inhalation.

Mammals other than otters are unlikely to consume significant quantitiesof oil except through ingestion of contaminated food. During feeding,baleen whales may encounter oil dispersed in the water column, but they are more likely to consume oil that was ingested first by their zooplanktonic prey.

4.7.2 Seals and otters

During pupping season, seals are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Sealpups may be smothered by thick deposits of oil. New-born seals possesslittle fat and depend on their fur for temperature regulation, and thereforeare susceptible to hypothermia as a result of oil fouling. Oiled fur seal pupssuffer from high rates of mortality. Because seals are sensitive to all typesof disturbances when pups are present, wildlife management officialsshould be consulted in carrying out cleanup activities near breeding or pupping areas.


35





Fur seals and pups during breeding season

Unless otters are quickly and properly cleaned, fouling of their fur is likely to cause death, either through hypothermia or as a result of oil ingestion or aspiration of oil into the lungs during grooming. Although ingestion of oilfor short periods usually does not result in serious effects, prolongedconsumption may lead to organ damage and hormonal imbalances.

4.7.3 Other marine mammals

Documented effects of oil spills are rare or non-existent for most other marine mammals, including walruses, whales, porpoises and manatees.Due to their herbivorous habits, it is possible that ingestion of oil, for example by manatees, could disrupt the normal digestive functions of

microbes in the gut; but this has not been documented.

4.8 Sea turtles

Sea turtles can be exposed to spilled oil while feeding, surfacing to breatheor nesting on beaches contaminated by stranded oil. Observed effectsinclude toxic responses to vapour inhalation and oil ingestion, interference with salt gland function, skin irritation and lesions, and blockage of throat passages by ingested oil and tar balls. Fresh oil is also highly toxic to turtleeggs, especially during the later stages of development.

4.9 Marine birds

Aquatic birds are the most visibly vulnerable to oil spills. Many speciesdepend on the sea and coastal areas for food and nesting habitat. Somespecies reside permanently in one area, while others migrate seasonally over long distances. Those species that spend most of their time on the water, stay in groups, and have a low reproductive rate, are particularly vulnerable to oil spill effects. In addition, some species (auks and sea

ducks) cannot fly during their moulting period, and others (penguins) donot fly at all. Sea-birds may come into contact with floating oil at sea by swimming into the slick, diving through it or surfacing into it from below.Shorebirds may also be impacted while feeding or nesting on oiledbeaches.

4.9.1 Direct physical effects

High mortality is likely when sea-birds encounter oil at sea because it clogsthe interstitial spaces of the feathers which provide thermal insulationand water repellency for the bird. Loss of insulation leads to increased

metabolic activity and depletion of energy reserves leading to hypothermia. The loss of repellency allows water to soak the plumage, decreasing buoyancy and increasing the energy required for the bird to remain afloat.During extended periods of stormy weather, birds may be more vulnerabledue to limited feeding and diminished energy reserves, and starving results. While drowning and hypothermia are considered the principalcauses of death for oiled birds, sea-birds that ingest oil may also starve to


36





death due to the formation of bleeding ulcers on the mucous membranesof the birds’ stomach and guts. Even a small patch of oil on the birds’plumage may lead to death through the causes noted above and most sea-

birds usually die within days after fouling by oil.

4.9.2 Long-term effects

Birds are known to ingest oil, both through preening of their oiled plumageand through consumption of contaminated food. In laboratory experi-ments with birds, oil ingestion has led to a variety of pathological effects,along with depression of egg production, decreased hatching success, andreduced growth in young birds. Direct application of fresh oil to the surfaceof incubating eggs (as may occur if a brooding adult were to become oiled)can also cause abnormal development or death of the embryo. During oneactual spill, shorebirds avoided the oiled beaches along the coast andmoved to less preferred feeding habitats. Oiled shorebirds also spent lesstime feeding than did unoiled birds. The significance of these effects hasnot been demonstrated under major spill conditions in the field, but it islikely to be small relative to the direct mortalities due to oiling.

Sea-birds are vulnerable to oil pollution

4.9.3 Effects on populations

With only a few possible exceptions, oil spills appear not to have had major effects on the overall populations of the species involved. The annualmortality may be naturally high for many species of sea-birds, especially during winter storm events, relative to mortality caused by spills. Speciesthat are dispersed over large ranges, therefore, are unlikely to suffer notable population decreases except on small and local scales. By contrast,


37





species that are very restricted in their ranges, or that congregate at sometime of year in a restricted location, are much more vulnerable to impactsfrom a major spill. Most vulnerable, perhaps, are those species with limited

ranges that are subjected to repeated spills and low-level oil pollution fromnearby shipping routes or oil terminals. Once impacted by a spill, localpopulations may recover quickly if the mortality is minimal.

4.10 Coral communities and ecosystems

Coral reefs are highly productive ecosystems in tropical and sub-tropicalareas of the world supporting a diverse range of organisms, including many commercial fish species. Coral reefs may be important in providing income to local communities through tourism and they also act as a barrier, reducing coastal erosion. Their location in near-shore watersmeans they can potentially be affected by oil spills. In more recent years,field studies have been made of the effects of oil spills, and research isongoing. Further information is available in the IMO publication Field

guide for oil spill response in tropical waters.

4.10.1 Effects on corals

The likelihood of oil affecting corals depends on factors such as the size of the spill and type of oil, the type of coral reef and its depth, the local wave

energy and the current state of stress of the corals (arising from other external influences, such as sediment loading).

The greatest damage is likely to occur through physical smothering if anoil slick is stranded on the upper parts of the reef (the reef flat) at low tide.Submerged reefs may be exposed to oil droplets in the water, especially if the oil is either dispersed through high wave energy or by the applicationof chemical dispersants. If oil slicks float over submerged reefs, without significant dispersion, adverse effects are likely to be minimal and recovery very rapid. Deep corals are unlikely to come into contact with oil unless it

adheres to sediment particles that are being deposited on the coral.Oil spills have occurred in the vicinities of coral reefs and near shorelines with fringing intertidal reef communities. These spills have causedsubstantial mortality among the fish and invertebrates (including lobsters,crabs, gastropods, bivalves, octopus, sea urchins, sea stars, and sea cucumbers) in intertidal areas, on the surfaces and margins of coastalfringing reef platforms and in adjacent shallow subtidal areas. Naturalalgal species and sea grasses were also destroyed in many of these areas.In general, however, the subtidal reef corals tend to survive these

individual events.Many corals generate large quantities of mucus when exposed to oil andthis may protect them from more serious damage. Exposure of corals todispersed oil causes a variety of responses that may influence the long-term effects of pollution. Oiling impairs the reproductive process, reducing both the numbers of breeding colonies and the number of larvae producedper coral head and decreasing the rate of larval settlement on artificial


38





substrates. Some coral larvae are ordinarily released only at night andexposure causes premature release of the larvae and decreases chances of their survival. Impaired feeding responses have also been noted in corals

exposed to oil. These reproductive and feeding effects may account for decreases in coral and fish diversities observed in areas near oil terminals where there is considerable tanker traffic and where more regular, smalloperational spills may occur.

Dense growths of green algae frequently appear in impacted reef zonesafter the initial mortalities associated with a spill. These blooms probably result from an abundance of available nutrients and the absence of largepopulations of grazing organisms. After the initial toxicity has dissipated,recruitment of planktonic larvae and adult organisms can begin from

nearby unaffected areas. Recovery of impacted reef communities occurs inmost cases within a few years.

4.11 Wetland communities and ecosystems

The plant communities of coastal areas are important for their contribu-tion of organic production to coastal marine ecosystems, provision of habitat to large numbers of marine invertebrates and vertebrates, andstabilization of shorelines against the erosion effects of sea and wind. These plant communities (mangrove forests in tropical areas and salt

marshes at higher latitudes) and their associated fauna are highly vulnerable to impact from oil spills in coastal waters.

4.11.1 Factors affecting impacts of oil

Saltmarsh and mangrove ecosystems possess several physical features incommon which contribute to their sensitivity to oil spills. These include a network of channels that help to transport oil deep into the vegetatedcoastal margin; low wave energy (so that natural dissipation is minimal)and a preponderance of fine, highly organic, anaerobic sediments that entrap the oil and hold it for long periods. Mangroves are particularly sensitive because a coating of oil may impede the uptake of oxygenthrough the pores on their aerial root systems.

4.11.2 Effects, persistence and recovery

The immediate effects of an oil spill in temperate saltmarsh systems aredestruction of invertebrates and those portions of the marsh plants aboveground. Unless the marsh area is subjected to very rapid erosion, or tophysical disruption of surface sediments (i.e. during cleanup operations),the extensive underground root system of the plants is likely to survive the

oiling. If the sediment surfaces are not greatly disturbed, recovery of theplant community usually begins within one year, although the plants may exhibit reductions in growth and reproductive capacity and abnormalitiesin seed formation. Vegetative recovery is likely within three to ten years,even though oil components will probably persist in the soft, fine-grainedsediments for up to ten years or more. Disruption or removal of sediment surfaces and the underground root system, by contrast, may result in very


39





long-term changes in nutrient content of the sediments and prolong theprocess of recovery.

Oiled mangrove

Oiling of mangroves decreases the rate of successful rooting in seedlings.Mature trees are generally less sensitive than young trees. Minor oiling of

plant aerial roots can usually be survived. Severe oiling leads to partial or complete loss of leaves, and trees that lose all their leaves generally do not recover. Partially defoliated trees, however, may begin recovery within four months, although recovery varies according to the severity of the initialimpact. Functional recovery of an impacted area may take five to ten years,including recovery of the leaf canopy and the detritus cover on the root mats. A totally devastated mangrove forest may take several decades toreturn to a fully mature state. Restoration of both mangrove and saltmarshcommunities may be enhanced by artificial reseeding or by transplanting young plants from other unaffected areas.

4.12 Nature reserves and marine parks

Effects of oil on nature reserves and marine parks will vary, depending upon the ecological characteristics of the area and the particular speciesthey support. Effects may be especially significant with regard to naturereserves and marine parks that have been accorded special status inrecognition of their unique characteristics or because they support rare,endangered or threatened species. Oil spilled in such areas may result inirretrievable loss. For this reason, special protection is advised for those

areas. See the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II – Contingency Planning.

Nature reserves and marine parks that are established primarily for recreational purposes will suffer consequences similar to other recrea-tional areas. Such consequences are often temporary.

40






Chapter 5Situation evaluation

and response options

5.1 Source identification and incident details

In the case of major oil spills, it will not usually be difficult to identify theorigin of the oil and to obtain information about its characteristics.

However, smaller oil slicks may appear in harbours, anchorages andcoastal waters whose origins are unknown. Unless the incident is witnessed, identification of the source can be difficult, although chemicalanalysis can assist in such identification.

Initial reports of an incident may be received from any one of a number of sources including the general public. Attempts must be made to learn asmuch as possible about the incident, to identify those responsible for thespill, to monitor developments and to pass information promptly as it isreceived to the Government agencies and any other organizations

responsible for dealing with the oil spill. The type of information requiredis outlined in the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II – Contingency Planning.

Should an oil spill originate from an offshore installation, the operators of the installation will normally be the source of information. Usually,information about the type of oil together with an estimate of the quantity will be readily available.

In the case of spills from certain vessels, information may be available fromthe ship’s Master or other designated person on board, in accordance withthe spill notification and reporting procedures set out in a shipboard oil

pollution emergency plan. The type of information that this may include, isoutlined in the IMO publication Guidelines for the development of shipboard oil pollution emergency plans.

For oil handling facilities onshore, as with offshore installations, theoperators of the facility will normally be the source of information anddetails of the type and quantity of oil should be readily available.

5.2 Prevention or reduction of further spillages

Should a vessel have been involved in an accident leading to an oil spill,the first and most important oil spill response action is, if possible, toprevent further spillage and this must be given utmost priority.

The master of the ship should be asked to identify the damaged tanks and,if possible, to transfer the oil contained in those tanks to any other, intact tank space available, provided this does not endanger the integrity or stability of the ship.

41





Consideration should be given to transferring some or all of the oil toanother ship or ships to stop the outflow of oil and to allow the vessel toproceed safely to a suitable port for complete discharge and for repairs.

This transfer operation needs experience, expertise and usually specializedequipment, such as pumps, which will often be provided by the shipowner,cargo owner or salvage company, under the supervision of an appropriateGovernment agency. The whole operation will have a much greater chanceof success if it can be conducted under calm water conditions and thispossibly means moving the damaged ship to a more sheltered position. The overall risk of further spillage is thereby reduced, but it may thenmean that the operation takes place much closer to shore than it otherwise would.

Should the vessel be aground, in such a position that another ship cannot get alongside, it may be possible to use a shallow draught barge or floating storage tank to remove part of the oil cargo and bunker fuel. Alternatively,floating hoses may be used to transfer the oil to a ship in deeper water.Such operations will call for the expertise and experience only likely to befound in a salvage company, tanker operator or Government agency.

Additional information on oil cargo recovery and vessel salvage mattersmay be found in the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution, Section III – Salvage , andthe ICS/OCIMF publication Peril at Sea and Salvage – A Guide for Masters.

5.3 Aerial surveillance, including remote sensing

Information concerning the movement and behaviour of oil that has beenspilled is of vital importance in determining the overall response strategy and choosing specific response options. An indication of the oil’s move-ment and behaviour might be derived from the prediction methodsdescribed in chapter 3, but more reliable information must be obtainedfrom visual sightings and the best way to obtain this is from an aircraft.

Surveillance from the air should be conducted by trained observers whocan accurately identify and assess oil on the water surface, supported when appropriate by the use of electronic sensors as described later in thischapter.

The purpose of aerial surveillance is:

.1 to determine the size, quantity and location of the spill;

.2 to determine the movement of the oil;

.3 to note changes in the appearance and distribution of the oilover time;

.4 to guide any vessels combating the oil spill, in order to ensurecleanup operations at sea are carried out in the most effective way,

.5 to forecast which marine and coastal resources or areas areunder threat; and

.6 to observe and report on effectiveness of response measures.


42





At the outset of an incident, reports from surveillance flights are vital toestablish a picture of the scale and nature of the pollution problem.Subsequent flights should be made regularly and the results used to best

advantage in planning and controlling ongoing operations. As the pollutionsituation is brought under control, with oil at sea having largely dissipatedor come ashore, and the at-sea operations scaled down or stopped, theneed for flights will reduce and the frequency may be steadily decreasedand then terminated. The role that aerial surveillance plays in the overallspill response must be clearly understood, with the frequency, extent andtiming of flights during the ongoing response being tailored to suit clearly defined objectives, so that the benefits of these surveillance operations canbe maximized.

Aerial surveillance aircraft

Safety must always be of paramount importance and the aircraft pilot should be consulted on all aspects of the surveillance operation. Thosetaking part must be briefed regularly on the safety features of the aircraft and procedures to be followed in the event of an emergency. Suitablepersonal protective equipment and clothing should be available and used

as appropriate.Suitable aircraft, which may be fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters, shouldhave good all-round visibility and appropriate navigational aids andcommunications equipment. When selecting an aircraft, considerationneeds to be given to the location of the spill and the sea and coastline areasto be surveyed. Over near-shore waters the flexibility of helicoptersprovides an advantage in surveying intricate coastlines. The use of

Chapter 5 – Situation evaluation and response options

43





helicopters to monitor or direct certain components of an oil combat operation can also be advantageous. Over open sea, there is less need for rapid changes in flying speed, direction and altitude and instead the speed

and range of fixed-wing aircraft, when doing surveillance, may bedesirable. If dedicated aircraft are not available, consideration should begiven to use of suitable Government, commercial or private aircraft.National regulations may demand multi-engined aircraft for long-rangeoperations over the sea.

There should preferably be two observers on a flight, although if one is ableto readily observe the entire sea and coast area beneath the aircraft, thesecond observer is not essential. However, the same observer(s) shouldcarry out a series of flights to ensure continuity and consistency of

reporting.

If a large sea area has to be searched, a flight plan must be prepared inadvance using all available information, including the prediction methodsdescribed in chapter 3, to reduce the search area. Various search patternshave been devised for search and rescue, and these may be used for aerialsurveillance of oil spills, the most likely pattern being a ladder search, (seefigure 5-1).

When planning a ladder search, attention must be paid to visibility, altitude,the likely flight duration and fuel availability, together with any advice thepilot may give on operational or safety aspects. Visual surveillance isusually conducted from an altitude of 300 m–500 m (1,000 ft–1,500 ft). It can be difficult to distinguish between floating oil and a variety of other phenomena so initial sightings of suspected oil must be verified by overflying the area at sufficiently low altitude to allow positive identification.

Figure 5-1 – Movement of oil from A to position B three days later, predicted by combining 100% of the current speed and 3% of the

wind speed as shown. The arrows from A represent current,wind and oil movement for one day. A cross-wind ladder

search pattern is shown over position B.


44





As oil spreads and the thickness reduces, its appearance changes fromblack or dark brown coloration of thick oil patches to iridescent and silver sheen at the edges of the slick. A common feature of spills of crude spills of

crude oil and some heavy fuel oils is the rapid formation of emulsion whichare characterised by brown/orange coloration and a cohesive appearance.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between oil and a variety of other,unrelated phenomena. It is necessary to verify initial sightings of suspected oil by overflying at a sufficiently low altitude to allow positiveidentification. Phenomena that often lead to mistaken reports of oilinclude: cloud shadows, ripples on the sea surface, differences in thecolour of adjacent water masses, suspended sediments, floating or suspended organic matter, floating seaweed, algal/plankton blooms,

seagrass and coral patches in shallow water and industrial discharges.

It is very hard to assess accurately the quantity of oil observed at sea, dueto the difficulties of gauging the thickness and coverage. The informationprovided here is not intended as guidance for mounting surveillanceoperations to detect illegal discharges under international regulationssuch as MARPOL. However, by considering certain features, it is possibleto assess the correct order of magnitude of an oil spill, which will help when planning the required level of response.

Aerial observation of oil pollution at sea

Oils with low viscosity spread very rapidly and so oil layers can quickly reach an average thickness of about 0.1 mm. However, the thickness of theoil layer can vary considerably within a slick or patch of oil from less than0.001 mm to more than 1mm. For more viscous oils the oil thickness can


45





remain well in excess of 0.1mm. The appearance of oil can give anindication of its thickness (table 5-1).

Some oils form an emulsion, by inclusion of tiny water droplets, whichincreases their volume, with typical water contents reaching approx-imately 50–75%. The thickness of emulsion can vary greatly, depending on whether it is free floating, or held against a barrier such as a boom or theshoreline. A figure of 1 mm may be used as a guide, but a thickness of 1 cmcan be encountered. When the sea is rough, it may be very difficult or impossible to see less buoyant types of oil as they can become swamped by waves and remain just sub-surface. In cold water, some oils with high pour points may solidify and the appearance of the visible portions may disguise the total volume of oil present. Ice flows and snow in such

conditions can confuse the picture further.In addition to the oil’s thickness, its area needs to be assessed, with dueaccount being taken of the patchy incidence or percentage coverage of thefloating oil, so that the actual areas of oil covered are estimated rather thanthe general area of sea affected. If the aircraft is fitted with GPS (GlobalPositioning System) equipment, this will enable the limits of the mainareas to be recorded relatively easily and accurately. If not, the extent of oilmust be established by a timed overflight at constant speed.

Table 5-1 – A guide to the relation between the appearance,

thickness and volume of floating oil.

Oil type Appearance Approximate

thickness

Approximatevolume

(m3 /km2)

Oil sheen Silver 40.0001 mm 0.1

Oil sheen Iridescent (rainbow)

40.0003 mm 0.3

Crude and fuel oil Brown to black 40.1 mm 100

Water-in-oil emulsion Brown/orange 41mm 1000

This demonstrates that although sheen may be observed covering a relatively large area of sea surface, it makes a negligible contribution to the volume of oil present. It is crucial therefore that observers are able todistinguish between sheen and thicker patches of oil.

The data derived from the aerial surveillance must be presented promptly to those making decisions about the response, usually a Government agency. A record should be kept of continuous slicks, patches and streaks

of black oil and emulsion and expanses of brown, iridescent and silver sheen. A range of other features may also be recorded, depending on thecircumstances, including response activities and environmental, commer-cial and amenity resources potentially being affected the incident.

To assist in the detection and investigation of oil slicks at sea, variousremote sensing devices are available for fitting to a dedicated aircraft. Nosingle sensor can meet all detection needs and the most common


46





combination involves Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) and downward-looking infra-red and ultra-violet detectors such as line scanners (IRLS andUVLS) or imaging systems such as Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR).

SLAR and IR/UV systems have been used fairly widely during oil spills.SLAR can be flown at sufficient altitude to provide a rapid sweep over a wide area, up to 20 miles either side of the aircraft. It may be used at night and in poor weather conditions, and can assist in the early stages of a response with locating a slick and defining its extent, but it cannot distinguish between very thin layers of sheen and thicker oil patches sothe images need careful interpretation. An additional IR/UV system candefine the total extent of oil as well as providing qualitative information onslick thickness and the areas of heavier pollution. The UV sensor can

detect, but not distinguish between, thin sheen and thicker oil, whilst theIR sensor delineates thicker layers. FLIR works in similar fashion todownward-looking IR/UV but points forward at an angle, so the imagesneed careful interpretation given the oblique view and changing effects which can result from the angle of the sun.

Remote sensing equipment on aircraft using other techniques is being developed to improve the quantification and characterization of oil. Theseinclude laser flourimetry, microwave radiometry and spectrographicimagers. However, the full potential of this equipment has yet to berealized and is not presently available in many parts of the world.

Satellites with optical sensors or radar may be used to detect oil on water.Optical sensors can only be used with clear skies, but radar sensors arenot limited by clouds although the resulting images need carefulinterpretation. Satellite imagery has traditionally been constrained by a long time-lag before images are delivered, so they have not generally beensuitable when rapid and regular information is required. However, somecommercial companies are developing faster services and so satellites may offer more opportunity in the future.

The results from a remote sensing operation should always be co-ordinated with and confirmed by the findings from visual observations.In the right circumstances remote sensing can provide useful data toassist with the response but all systems have inherent limitations. Remotesensing should therefore be used in support of and not in place of visualobservation with trained and experienced observers.

5.4 Assessment of the threat

As information about an oil spill is received the response organization

must assess the threat it presents before deciding on appropriate action.Factors to be considered in assessing the threat include:

.1 the size of the spill and the likelihood of further spills;

.2 the type(s) of oil – physical and chemical characteristics;

.3 the weather including wind direction and force, sea state, sea temperature, and tide or current;


47





.4 the position of the spill in relation to marine and coastalresources;

.5 the likely movement of the spill; and

.6 areas and resources at risk, such as:

– fisheries interests;

– birds and other wildlife;

– areas of particular environmental significance, e.g. marineparks, nature; reserves and wetlands;

– industrial users of seawater, e.g. power stations;

– desalinization plants;

– amenity beaches;– yachting and other recreational facilities; and

– ports and harbours.

5.5 Spill response options and their limitations

For an oil spill response to be effective, an overall strategy needs to beestablished and then adjusted in light of the changing pollution situation,the sensitivity of areas likely to become affected, and the possible

measures that might be available to prevent or mitigate damage.

Responsibility for oil spill response and cleanup may lie with a nationalauthority, the polluter, or elsewhere as set out in the contingency plan. Indeciding what action to take, the relative importance of the variousresources at risk should be considered, and due account taken of the likely success of available response measures at sea and the difficulties of thesubsequent shoreline cleanup.

Different views may be expressed during an emergency about theimportance of various resources. The relative order of importance of these

resources is likely to vary at different times of the year, for example, withfish and bird breeding seasons or a tourist season. Decision-making willbe easier if environmental sensitivity mapping has been conducted inadvance and is used to assist those responsible for the resources to reacha consensus, based upon the net environmental benefit of the variousresponse options available. These issues of NEBA and sensitivity mapping are dealt with in more detail in the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II –Contingency Planning, and the IMO/IPIECA Report Series, Volume 1,Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response.

All response measures to deal with oil spills have limitations. Givenunfavourable circumstances, there is a real possibility that no effectiveresponse will be available and the oil will have to be left to the effect of natural forces. However, where response options can offer opportunity tomitigate or prevent damage, decisions to implement them need to be taken very rapidly. Some techniques, such as the application of dispersants andin situ burning, have inherent limited windows of opportunity. While they


48





may offer an appropriate option at the outset of an incident, delays in their selection or implementation may in practice rule them out as an effectiveresponse option. It is important therefore that the criteria for selection are

clearly set out in the contingency plan, are fully understood by thosetaking decisions and can be properly implemented as quickly as possible.

A combination of response options will usually be needed, particularly in a large spill. As the pollution situation changes over time, some of theseresponse techniques become ineffective and will need scaling down or terminating, while others become more appropriate and need to becommenced or scaled up. Response options should therefore be continu-ously re-evaluated. Only by having a good understanding of the features,advantages and limitations of the different options, can those responsible

for responding to the spill make the best possible decisions and select themost appropriate options and techniques to suit the circumstances.

The possible response options are:

.1 no action other than monitoring and evaluating the oil: Thismight be the appropriate option, for example, if the oil is not moving shoreward, or if no important resources are threatened,or if the oil is breaking up and dissipating naturally or if conditions are such that positive response actions are not practicable;

.2 containment and recovery of the oil at sea: In some circum-stances the appropriate response will be to contain floating oilin booms towed behind vessels and to recover it from the sea surface with a skimming device for storage on-board prior toreprocessing or disposal on land. The advantages and limita-tions of these techniques are described more fully in chapter 6;

.3 chemical dispersion of the oil at sea: In some circumstances theappropriate response will be to enhance the dispersion of oil

from the surface into the water column by the application of dispersant chemicals from boats, helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft. The advantages and limitations of this technique arediscussed in chapter 7;

.4 burning the floating oil at sea: The containment and burning of floating oil is a possible alternative to the more conventionalcontainment and recovery option, whereby the oil that iscontained in special booms is set alight and allowed to burn,rather than having to be collected and then disposed of. The

advantages and limitations of this technique are discussed inchapter 8;

.5 shoreline cleanup: In many circumstances, it is highly likely that some oil will come ashore and shoreline cleanup will benecessary. Practical advice on shoreline cleanup is to be foundin chapter 9, and further information specifically on thetechniques of bioremediation is provided in chapter 10.


49





There has been a growing awareness to the difficulties encountered inresponding to spills of heavy fuel oils and emulsified fuel oils. Additionalinformation specifically on the special features of responding to these

incidents is found in chapter 12.


50





Chapter 6Containment and recovery of oil

6.1 Introduction

When oil is spilled at sea, measures should be taken to minimize pollutiondamage to marine resources and the environment. As described in chapter 3, spilled oil will be carried by currents and blown by the wind, spreading rapidly away from the spill site, forming scattered slicks and patches over

wide areas of sea. Generally, it would be preferable to deal with this oil while it is still at sea, before it has had a chance to spread to such a largeextent, and before it reaches sensitive areas. One of the preferred methods, where practicable, is to contain and recover it using specialized equipment.

One option is to pursue the oil with vessels towing booms to corral thefloating oil and using skimming devices to recover it off the sea surface for temporary storage in tanks or other holding devices. Purpose-built vesselshave been constructed that have all of the necessary equipment andfacilities on board to recover oil without the need for booms. Alternatively,

more static measures may be used, positioning booms in places wherefloating oil will naturally collect, either in open waters or more commonly close to shore, ready for recovery using skimmers and pumps.

Containment and recovery of floating oil during calm sea conditions

51





The physical and chemical properties of oil can vary enormously and a range of different equipment, particularly skimmers and pumps, but alsostorage devices, may be needed depending on the particular type of oil to be

handled. In addition, the properties will change once the oil has beenspilled, for example with viscosity increasing rapidly as evaporation takesplace, or the formation of an emulsion. These changes can have a significant influence on the effectiveness of the equipment, either calling for modifications to be made in the equipment being used or even for operations to be suspended altogether.

With oil spreading into scattered slicks and patches over a wide expanse of sea, a containment and recovery response operation needs to be mountedrapidly. Vessels should be guided by spotter aircraft to the heaviest

concentrations of oil to maximize encounter rates. Vessels must becarefully controlled at low speeds to prevent oil escaping from the booms,the booms themselves must function properly in the prevailing waveconditions and skimmers need to be suited to the sea state and thecondition of the oil that is to be recovered.

Weather and sea conditions significantly influence the effectiveness of theoperations. Even in ideal, calm conditions, with the right equipment and with operations well organized and controlled, generally only a relatively small proportion of the spilled oil may often be recovered. Nonetheless,

containment and recovery operations offer opportunities to minimizepollution damage to marine resources and the environment in the right circumstances. The chance of success is greatest in sheltered waters, inports and harbours and, with appropriate vessels, equipment, monitoring and control procedures and experienced operatives, in some open sea areas.

In addition, those in charge should ensure appropriate safety proceduresare in place for containment and recovery operations which comply withlocal and national legislation, and operators should be properly trained in

the execution of their operations.

6.2 Containment booms

6.2.1 Applications and standard features

In containment and recovery operations, booms may be used in a variety of ways and for different purposes:

.1 to prevent the initial discharge from spreading, if used

promptly;.2 to prevent both continuous and further discharges from

spreading;

.3 to corral oil for recovery, when used in conjunction with vesselsand skimming devices;

.4 to protect sensitive resources and environments;


52





.5 to deflect a spreading slick away from sensitive resources andenvironments; and

.6 to deflect a spreading slick to areas which it can be more easily

recovered.

Containment booms generally consist of the following components:

.1 freeboard – to prevent or reduce splash over

.2 subsurface skirt – to prevent or reduce escape of oil under theboom

.3 flotation – by some buoyant material (often includes air)

.4 longitudinal tension member – to withstand the effects of wind,

waves and current .5 ballast – to provide stability and keep skirt below water surface

.6 coupling – to ensure good connection between adjoining sections.

Figure 6-1 – Typical boom components

6.2.2 Types of boom

There are many different types of boom to suit a variety of different needsand conditions. While their structure may vary, they generally fall into four main groups:

.1 curtain-type boom – these generally have distinct buoyancy chambers and a skirt. They include solid flotation, air-inflatableand self inflatable

.2 fence boom – including standard fence and external tensionmember booms

.3 shore-seal boom – comprise a combination of water-filledchambers that seal the boom against the shore when the tideis out and flotation chambers that keep the boom bouyant when the tide is in; and

.4 fire-proof boom – further information on this type of boom isprovided in chapter 8.

53

Chapter 6 – Containment and recovery of oil





The following information provides an overview of the general featuresassociated with different types of boom. In spill response, equipment suchas booms can be used in a variety of ways and combinations, and there

may be some features, such as operating parameters, which may vary intheir application from those presented. Nonetheless, the informationprovided can be used as broad guidance on the features generic toparticular types of boom. Photographs and typical schematic diagrams areprovided to illustrate the general principles.

6.2.2.1 Solid flotation curtain boom

These booms are generally constructed using hydrocarbon resistant closed cell foam integrated into a fabric sleeve or pocket. The freeboardranges from 33% of overall boom height for calm protected and open water booms to 50% of overall boom height for high current booms. Ballast isusually provided using a chain, cable or weights. The boom fabric providesthe longitudinal tension member, enhanced sometimes with a chain and/or cable ballast. In some cases, an additional cable tension may be provided above the flotation. To facilitate handling and deployment, thesebooms are often supplied in 15–25 m lengths and are joined by connectors.

Figure 6-2

Advantages Disadvantages

Puncture of flotation cylinder doesnot result in measurable loss of freeboard

Moderate to low cost

Available in a wide range of configurations and material types

Large freeboard booms are bulky and difficult to handle

Rectangular float booms do not follow wave profiles well

Requires large storage space andmay be susceptible to deformationduring storage


54





6.2.2.2 Air-inflatable buoyancy boom

These booms have an inflatable air chamber to provide buoyancy. They aregenerally constructed of PVC, polyurethane or nitrile/neoprene materials.

Flotation chambers are either divided into 2–3 m sections or run for theentire length. The flotation chambers are normally fixed with non-return valves and in some instances pressure relief valves. Ballast is provided by a chain, cable or a water-filled compartment. Inflatable buoyancy boomsused for shoreline protection usually have two water-filled ballast chambers in place of a skirt, allowing the booms to provide a positiveseal against the shoreline as the tide recedes. Air-inflatable booms areoften compact to store, have a high buoyancy to weight ratio and are wellsuited for transportation by air to remote locations.

Figure 6-3Advantages Disadvantages

Generally good wave-following characteristics

If divided air compartments areprovided, puncture leads to only a partial loss of freeboard

A single large air cylinder

decreases inflation time (but puncture can lead to total lossof freeboard)

Requires little storage space andcan be stored and transported on a reel system ready for deployment

Puncture may cause a total lossof freeboard over the section(separate compartments or entire boom length)

If divided air compartments areprovided, it can be slow to deploy as each compartment is inflated

individually

The reel systems for the largest sized booms can be very heavy

55






6.2.2.3 Self-inflatable buoyancy boom

Self-inflating booms are constructed of PVC or polyurethane material andare similar in outline to the air-inflated buoyancy booms. However, they

include a mechanism for automatically expanding the buoyancy chamber and drawing in air once deployed. They utilize the boom fabric as a tensionmember in combination with the ballast member which is usually provided in the form of a chain. It should be noted that some variationsof air inflated booms exist where a separate mechanical system is used toinflate the booms as they are deployed. These should more accurately beconsidered as ‘‘air-inflatable booms with enhanced inflation process’’.

Figure 6-4


Compartments are generally sealed which reduces the chances of a loss of freeboard over sectionlength

Single large air cylinder decreasesinflation time

Excellent for handling and storage

Quick to deploy

Well suited for air freight to remoteareas

Air compartments may be lessrobust and easier to puncture,leading to total loss of freeboardover an entire section

Tend to be expensive and can bedifficult and expensive to repair

Can be difficult to recover ontostorage reel


56





6.2.2.4 Fence booms

Fence booms are constructed in a number of different ways. External floatsmay be bolted onto a heavy PVC, polyurethane or nitrile/neoprene

sheeting. Flat closed-cell foam floats may be integrated into a lighter PVC/polyurethane material. The latter may be constructed using sewing or welding processes. Ballast may be provided using chain cable or weights. Tension members may use one or all of the following: Skirt material, sewnor welded webbing or the ballast member (chain or cable).

Figure 6-5


Quick to deploy

Excellent for handling andcompact storage

Booms can be of very simpleconstruction, and may eveninclude improvised materialssuch as old conveyor belts withexternally bolted floats, making them robust and relatively cheap

Poor wave-following characteristicsdue to inflexibility of skirt and low buoyancy-to-weight ratio.

Have a tendency to lay over under the influence of winds andcurrents

Physical damage may causeinstability and loss of freeboard

Sometimes difficult to handle


57





6.2.2.5. Fence boom with external tension member

These booms are generally constructed of PVC/PU material and are similar in design to fence booms. They have a longitudinal tension member located

horizontally opposed, deployed in the direction from which prevailing conditions are coming and attached to the boom at intervals. Their mainintended application is for strong wind and current conditions and in ice. Whilst effective in such adverse conditions, they can be difficult to deploy.

Figure 6-6


Good for towing in high currents,

winds and seasExcellent roll and heave response

Suited for infrequent large oil spillsin exposed water

External tension member givesthe boom excellent wave following characteristics and reduces skirt damage

Booms form a concave shapeunder tow or when held against a current which assists inretaining oil

Difficult to rig, deploy, recover and

clean Tension members can tangleduring deployment

Booms can only function in onedirection to the current

58






6.2.2.6. Shore-seal booms

These booms are generally constructed in PVC or polyurethane materials. They comprise three separate chambers running the full lengths of eachboom section. The top chamber is filled with air for buoyancy and the lower pair are filled with water. When the tide recedes the boom provides a positive seal against the shoreline while at other times it acts as a moreconventional floating barrier.

Figure 6-7


Excellent shore-sealing propertiesGood wave following characteristics

Requires little storage space

Single large air chamber decreasesinflation time (but puncture canlead to a total loss of freeboard)

Generally less quick to deploy,owing to the inflation and water filling operations involved

Maintenance requirements after use are generally more extensivethan for conventional booms

6.2.2.7. Alternative boom types There are a number of other, alternative boom systems available that donot fall into the main definitions described above. These includepneumatic barriers, net booms and improvised barriers.

Pneumatic barriers

These employ a screen of air bubbles released below the water surface,usually from a fixed pipe on the seabed. Rising air bubbles generate anupward water flow which diverts horizontally at the surface. This current

flows in both directions away from the bubble stream and can retainfloating oil in low currents. The advantage of pneumatic barriers is that they do not obstruct shipping traffic and are easily activated and so aremost commonly used as a contingency in ports. Disadvantages includetheir limited effectiveness in deep water and strong currents and winds. They are also susceptible to clogging by silt and require substantive infra-structure (such as air compressors) to provide the levels of air required.

59






Net booms

A number of netting booms are available, designed primarily to contain viscous oils. These are constructed on the same basis as fishing trawls.

They are prone to clogging and are difficult to clean once contaminated.

Improvised barriers

In remote locations, containment booms may be created locally fromreadily available materials using the basic principles of boom design andconstruction. Booms may be improvised using any materials that can float,such as empty oil drums, logs, air bags, straw bales and naturally-occurring sorbent materials packed into nets.

Improvised protection of fish farms using plastic sheetingwith subsurface skirt weighted by bricks suspended on rope

6.2.3 Selecting a containment boom

There are many features to be considered when selecting a containment system and the choice of the most suitable boom for a particular situationcan have a significant influence on the success of the operation.

A boom needs to be large enough, strong and robust to withstand the

forces exerted on it. It must be sufficiently flexible to follow the prevailing wave conditions, be made of tough material that will resist puncture (a particular necessity for pressure-inflated booms), easily transportable tosite and readily deployable. It should also be readily visible in daylight oncedeployed. There may be other conditions and criteria that also needconfirming for any particular situation under consideration, such as for example, the suitability for deployment in ice conditions. Table 6-1


60





provides some general guidance on the selection of boom types for variousoperating conditions.

Table 6-1 – Boom selection for different operating conditions

Calm water Calm water

current Protected water Open water

Open roughwater

Wave height(m)

5 0.3 5 0.3 0–1.0 0–2.0 42

Conditions small short non-breaking waves

currents of 0.4 m/s or

greater

small waves andsome white caps

moderate wavesand frequent white caps

large waves,foam crests and

some spray

Suitable boomtype or group

CurtainFence

Curtain withfreeboard of 50%

of boom height Fence

Curtain

Fence

Curtain

Fence withexternal tension

support

Curtain

Boom height(mm)

150–600 200–600 450–1,100 900–2,300 1,500+

Buoyancy-to- weight ratio

3:1 4:1 4:1 8:1 8:1

Minimum tensilestrength of boom

(Newtons)

6,800 23,000 23,000 45,000 45,000+

6.2.4 Containment boom limitations and failures

Booms may fail operationally in one of five main modes: entrainment,drainage, splash over, submergence and planing. Of course, booms canalso fail structurally if conditions become too severe.

Entrainment failure

In strong currents, a head wave is often generated upstream of the boom. At high current velocities, turbulence occurs and the upstream end of theslick detaches from the water surface and is carried underneath the boom(figure 6-7). Typically this occurs when the difference in velocity between

the boom and the water exceeds about 0.35–0.5 m/s (approximately 0.7–1.0 knot). Entrainment failure can be delayed by reducing theapparent velocity perpendicular to the boom by deploying the boom at an angle to the current. Figure 6-8 shows current speeds that give a critical velocity of no more than 0.7 knots perpendicular to the face of the boom for various angles of deployment.


61





Figure 6-8 – Boom failure:Splash-over (1), Drainage (2), Entrainment (3)

Drainage failure

As oil collects at the boom face it increases in depth until eventually it flows down the face of the boom, escaping to the other side. This loss isknown as drainage failure. It occurs because water at the boom face isdiverted downward, accelerating to keep up with water that is flowing below and under the skirt. The critical velocity at which drainage failureoccurs depends on the skirt depth, oil viscosity, the oil’s specific gravity,and the depth of oil being retained by the boom. This velocity is generally greater than the velocity for entrainment failure, so entrainment failure ismore likely to occur first.

However, entrainment failure begins to occur at about 0.7 knots, based onthe condition that there is deep water under the skirt of the boom. If the water is not deep, for example only twice the submerged portion of theboom, then the water velocity is significantly higher under the boom anddrainage failure can occur at around 0.3–0.4 knots. For maximum boomeffectiveness, and to avoid drainage failure, the water depth should

generally be at least five times the draft of the boom.

Splash-over failure

This occurs in choppy sea when oil splashes over the freeboard of theboom. This may occur if the wave height is greater than the boomfreeboard and when the wave-height-to-length ratio falls much below 10:1.


62





Figure 6-9 – Angling of boom to current direction to reduce effective velocity difference between boom and water

Submergence failure

Submergence failure may occur when a boom is deployed or anchored in a

fast current, or is being towed at high velocity. The tendency to submergeat a given velocity is determined by the reserve buoyancy of the boom.Submergence failure is not common as entrainment failure usually occursearlier at a lower speed.

Planing failure

A strong wind and strong current moving in opposite directions may causea boom to lay flat on the water surface, termed planing failure. This is most likely to occur when a boom has inadequate ballast or when a fence boomhas a low buoyancy-to-weight ratio, a too narrow float system or when an

internal tension member is near or above the waterline.

Structural failure

Structural failure is the most catastrophic failure mode. Loading from wind and currents, amplified by the dynamic effects of waves, can result inthe boom structure tearing apart. This is normally associated with thedeployment of booms in conditions for which they were not designed.

6.2.5 Boom deployment The optimum deployment of a containment boom will depend on location, weather conditions, sea state and other factors. It is also necessary todetermine the quantity required and information in table 6-2 providessome general planning guidance on boom lengths for different protectionapplications.

63






Table 6-2 – Guide to boom length requirements

Application Quantity

Booming to aid a stricken vessel(encircle) 36

ship’s length

Containment of an operationalspill from a vessel at a terminal

1.5 6 ship’s length plus distancebow and stern to shore

Protection of an entrance toestuary, stream, river etc.

3–4 6 width of the body of water

General booming in bays andharbours

1.5 + current in knots 6 width of water body

Depending on the circumstances and the desired aim of the operations,there are a variety of different deployment methods:

.1 Encircling: This method may be employed at an early stage of the spill to try to prevent oil from escaping much beyond thestricken vessel, or to try to capture further losses. In practice,the sea conditions may preclude an effective operation and thebooming may well impede lightering and salvage operations. Anchoring may also prove difficult or impractical. The length of boom in this application generally needs to be at least three

times the length of the object, e.g., a ship, to be encircled. Thismethod is employed primarily in calm or sheltered sea area. If the source of the spill is a shore facility, the shoreline may constitute a part of the encircling barrier or when it is a ship,the ship’s hull may constitute a part of the barrier.

.2 Waylaying: Waylaying deployment may be used in situations where sufficient lengths of boom are not available, but anattempt is desired nonetheless, to try to capture oil before it spreads far from the vessel. In this case booms are laid at somedistance from the source of spill to intercept the approaching

oil. However, sea conditions and any variation in wind direction will tend to restrict or preclude success. This method should beemployed primarily in calm or sheltered sea areas. In tidal waters, there is the added complication that another set of booms needs to be laid on the other side of the source, inanticipation of a reverse of the current.


64





Booms

Wind and

current

Figure 6-10 – Boom deployment – Waylaying

.3 Deployment in channels and rivers: The spread of oil in a narrow channel or river may be prevented by the deployment of boomsfrom the channel or river banks, at an appropriate angle,depending on the current velocity. A limited opening may beprovided in the centre of the configuration to permit passage of

vessel traffic. Care must be taken to prevent the oil fromescaping from the connections at the shore mooring pointsduring all stages of the tide.

Flow Ebb

Figure 6-11 – Boom deployment in channels and rivers

.4 Deflection deployment: It is sometimes possible to deflect oilaway from sensitive areas and toward a carefully chosen sitefrom where recovery may be easily accomplished. Again,deflection is achieved by laying the boom at an angle to thedirection of the current flow.

.5 Towing booms: If the oil has spread away from the spill site,booms can be towed at low speed (less than 0.5 m/s) through

the water to corral the oil for recovery with a skimming device. This method may be used in open sea areas, although operating conditions may prevent success, for example due to boomfailure as described earlier. Greater success can be achieved when towing booms, if the operations are carried out in calmer or sheltered waters, where conditions are more amenable. Towing and corralling should often be carried out moving in the


65





same direction as the current, to reduce the relative velocity of oil/water and boom, so that entrainment or other boom failureis avoided.

Figure 6-12 – Boom deployment – Deflection

.6 Free drift containment: If the current velocity is too high or the water is too deep for effective mooring of booms, it may bepossible to allow the oil encircled by the booms to drift freely whilst recovery is undertaken. The rate of drift may be reducedby use of sea anchors or drogues. In shallower waters lengths of chain or other material may be used for the same purpose.

Figure 6-13 – Boom deployment – Free-drift containment

.7 Multiple setting: If oil is escaping from a stationary boombecause of entrainment, it may be desirable to set further linesof boom behind the first one. If multiple deployment of booms is

necessary, some separation must be maintained between thebooms. At current velocities high enough to tilt the skirt or tocause entrainment, a separation of 1–5 m between the booms iseffective for the escaping oil to be held by the secondary barriers. It should also be noted however, that if entrainment isreadily occurring, it may simply be unfeasible to try to containthe oil using multiple boom placements.


66





.8 Netting: This rather complicated system involves the deploy-ment of booms, buoys, anchors, weights and sheets of net. Netsare set between buoy and weight, and between skirt and weight,

thus alleviating stress on the boom and improving retentioncapability. In cases where tar balls or mats are floating below the surface, it may be necessary to protect water intakes or sensitive areas from such pollution by attaching nets extending to the seabed to the skirt of the boom. Normally this deployment method is used near the shore, particularly in areas where it isnoted that once a beach is cleaned of tar balls or mats, they reappear. Oil floating at negative buoyancy is very difficult totrack and on most occasions it is not noticed until its presenceis detected through visual sighting in shallow water or when it

is deposited on a beach.

Figure 6-14 – Net-type booms

The deployment of booms can be arduous and potentially hazardous andmust be properly supervised. A sound deployment strategy needs to beestablished, preferably with reference to pre-planned scenarios in the

contingency plan, taking account of the type of oil spilled, source of spill,quantity involved, extent of spread, environmental sensitivity etc. Inpreparing such a strategy, the deployment sites, boom types and lengthsavailable, the method of deployment and the availability of work boats andother logistics resources must be taken fully into account. In practice,many booming strategies fail because the logistical arrangements have not been thoroughly planned, or the length of the boom is simply under-

67






estimated because the need to angle the boom in the currents has beenoverlooked.

6.2.6 Precautions in boom deployment

The outer covers of commercially available booms are quite robust, but stillsusceptible to rips and tears when dragged on hard rough surfaces suchas warehouse floors, jetties and across rough terrain. When deploying booms, care should be taken to avoid twisting and kinking them since it isdifficult to correct this from the deck of a vessel or once the boom is in the water.

The forces imposed by the wind, current and the dynamic action of the waves, particularly during rough weather, can damage booms, their connectors and can cause moorings to drag. Care should be taken toensure booms are not deployed in situations where they are likely tobecome damaged in this way. Their chances of being effective in suchconditions will in any case be very limited.

The configuration of booms deployed at sea may be difficult to maintainbecause of waves and wind, and their effectiveness in retaining oil may bereduced. If booms are held in place by anchors, consideration should begiven to the number of anchors and the distance between the anchoring points, to ensure adequate control. If booms are encircling a vessel whichis at risk of losing further oil, improvised spacing devices, such as floating pontoons should be placed at intervals between the ship’s hull and theboom, to stop abrasion and to allow space for any new losses of oil to becontained. It should be noted, however, that containment of fresh oil,especially lighter and more volatile products, can significantly increase therisk of fire and explosion and should be considered with some caution.

6.2.7 Mooring and anchoring booms

Booms are most commonly moored using anchors or concrete blocks. Thenumber of anchoring points required depends on the configurationintended and wind and current strength. Usually, mooring ropes of fivetimes the depth of water are required, and when ropes of buoyant materialare used, this must be compensated for by adding extra chain or weights to

the ropes. It is important to avoid vertical tension on the boom. This can bedone by installing a buoy on the mooring line 3–4 m from the boom. To aid with positioning and recovery of anchors, a tripping buoy is generally attached to the anchor, with a line length of 1.5 times the depth of high water.


68





Figure 6-14a – Mooring of booms during response

It is important to select the correct size and number of anchors to prevent dragging. A Danforth type anchor is effective in sandy or muddy substrates, but a fisherman’s anchor has better holding capability on a

rocky bottom.

To estimate the approximate force F c (kg) exerted on a boom with a subsurface area As (m2) by a current with velocity V c (knots) the following formula can be used:

F c ¼ 26 6 As6V c2

Thus, the force acting on a 100 m length of boom with a 0.6 m skirt placedat right angles to a 0.5 knot water flow would be:

F c ¼ 26 6 (0.6 6 100) 6 (0.5)2 ¼ 390 kg (force)

It can be seen that doubling the current velocity would entail a four-foldincrease in load.

The force ( F x ) exerted by wind (V w ) directly on the freeboard ( Af ) of the boomcan also be considerable. A similar formula can be used to estimate windage:

F x ¼ 26 6 Af 6 (V w /40)2

For example, the force on a 100 m length of boom with a 0.5 m freeboard ina 15 knot wind would be:

F w ¼ 26 6 (0.5 6 100) 6 (15/40)2 ¼ 183 kg force

In the above example the combined forces of current and wind would be573 kg if they were acting in the same direction on a rigid barrier. In fact,booms are flexible and form a curve. In addition, the boom would bemoored at an angle to the flow. Both these factors lead to a reduction of theforces acting on the boom so that a considerable safety margin is included


69





in the result of this calculation. Nevertheless, it provides a useful guide tomagnitude of such forces and can help in the selection of appropriatemoorings. The table below gives the holding strength of Danforth type

anchors in different substrates.

Table 6-3 – Holding strength of Danforth type anchors

Anchor weight(kg)

Holding strength (kg force)

Mud Sand Clay

15 200 250 300

25 350 400 500

35 600 700 700

It is important to ensure that a good seal is achieved between the end of a boom and any structures or hard surfaces up to which the boom isattached. Several devices are available to ensure oil-tight connection of oneend of the boom, for example, to a wharf or ship’s hull:

.1 I-beam terminal: This device uses a piece of I-beam driven vertically into the sea-bed or fixed on a jetty face as a terminal. A sliding floater, to which booms are connected, is fitted on thebeam. The floater can slide to accommodate tidal changes.

.2 Magnetic connectors: One end of the boom is attached to a magnetic connector which holds fast to a steel surface such asa ship’s hull or jetty piling. These may have to be manually adjusted to compensate for changes in a ship’s draft or tidallevel.

.3 Weighted guy line: A length of weighted guy line is thrown over the booms and the booms are pulled close to the sea wall. Theline can then be secured to a bollard.

Other than the I-beam terminal fixed to a sea wall, jetty or other structure,

the holding power of the attachment is usually insufficient to withstandthe tension sustained on the boom and measures to alleviate the stresslevied directly on the boom may be necessary. This may be achieved by using a guy rope extending from a bollard on the wharf or cleat on theship’s deck to a section of the boom.

6.2.8 Storage of booms

To maintain booms in a good condition and to facilitate rapid mobilization,transport and deployment, the following precautions should be observed:

.1 Period checks should be made for wear and tear of the boommaterial from handling, for deterioration of the fabric over time,and for corrosion/damage to the connectors. Any deficienciesshould be repaired or replace as necessary.

.2 Storage areas should be easily accessible to vehicles and if possible the equipment should be kept on standard pallets for easy handling by forklift. If possible, in some circumstances the


70





booms may be best stored close to the area where they would beexpected to be used, for example, at particular jetties or wharvesin a port area.

.3 Booms that have been deployed at sea for extended periodsmust be brought ashore and cleaned to remove marine growthand check for corrosion.

.4 Booms should not be stored outside in hot climates, must beprotected from direct sunlight and should be located in a well-drained position.

.5 When folded in storage, booms should be placed on pallets or shelves to avoid deformation due to excess weight and must be

periodically (once every few months) refolded to prevent permanent creases in the fabric.

.6 When stored on reels, care must be taken to avoid twisting andundue stress.

.7 When stored indoors, the storage space should be free frommoisture and vermin. The storage space must be well ventilatedor air-conditioned to avoid high temperature and humidity which can lead to the formation of mould.

.8 Immediately after use in oil, booms should be cleaned andessential repairs carried out before returning them to storage.

.9 Further information on the storage and maintenance of response equipment in general can be found in a later chapter of this Manual.

6.3 Recovery devices – Skimming equipment

6.3.1 Types of skimmers and their application

A diverse range of skimmer equipment is available, designed to recover floating oil from the sea surface. They have been developed to work indifferent ways and under a variety of operating conditions. Generally, they fall into four main categories, although some incorporate features found inmore than just one category:

.1 Weir devices: These have a weir located at the oil/water interface, to allow only the floating oil film to flow over it intoa collection point from where the oil is transferred by pump or

other device to a separate storage unit/facility. These skimmersoften have adjustable floats to allow the weir to be positionedoptimally to collect as much oil and as little water as possible. They are available in a number of configurations including basic saucer type weirs and self-levelling weirs. Some weir unitshave been incorporated into containment booms and aretermed ‘combination weir booms’.


71





.2 Adhesion devices: These make use of oleophilic (‘oil-loving’)surfaces to which oil readily adheres. The surfaces may comprise discs, ropes, brushes or drums. The oil that adheres

to the oleophilic parts is lifted from the water and depending onthe construction, these are then scraped or squeezed to removethe oil, which is then held in a collection area for transfer to a separate storage unit/facility.

.3 Induction devices: These use the motion of the water current in which the skimmer is placed, or the flow created by theequipment as it is drawn through the water, to induce a flow of floating oil through the device for separation and collection.Because of the way they operate, they are usually built into

vessels, which may or may not have means of propulsion. Theseinduction devices include advancing weir, submersion plane,hydrocyclone, vortex, water jet and filter belt skimming systems.

.4 Devices using other principles: There is a range of non-specialized equipment that can be used for the improvisedrecovery of oil in some circumstances. These include vacuumsystems, mechanical grabs, trawls and nets.

When selecting a skimmer, the sea and wave state together with the oiltype and its weathered condition, need to be considered. No skimming

device operates in all conditions and for all oil types and properties. It istherefore important to understand the performance characteristics of the various skimmer types and to select the most appropriate one for thecircumstances being faced. This also needs to be considered carefully inthe contingency planning process, to ensure that a range of equipment isavailable to meet all of the situations that might arise.

In making a selection of various devices, reference should also be made toinformation from manufacturers. However, when determining how much‘skimming capacity’ may be available based on equipment specifications,

some adjustment is needed, particularly for the quoted ‘name-plate’recovery rate of a skimmer. While the data can reflect the operationalcapacity of a particular skimmer under test-tank conditions, it does not reflect the operating conditions in the field, such as the sea state,encounter rate and the actual nature of the oil which might be less thanoptimal, even for the skimmer selected. A common practice in contingency planning, when considering the type and number of skimmers needed, isto de-rate the name-plate figures, either by use of a formula, or by a simple% figure. In some national contingency plans, for example, a straightfor- ward figure of 20% of manufacturers’ name-plate recovery rates is used todetermine a realistic skimming/recovery capability for planning purposes.

The following information provides an overview of the general featuresassociated with different types of skimmers. In spill response, equipment such as skimmers can be used in a variety of ways and combinations, andso there may be some features, such as operating parameters, which may vary in their application from those presented. Nonetheless, the informa-


72





tion provided can be used as broad guidance on the features generic toparticular types of skimmers. Photographs and typical schematic dia-grams are provided to illustrate the general principles.

6.3.2 Features of skimmer equipment

6.3.2.1. Category: Weir device Skimmer type: Basic weir

There are many versions of the basic weir available and all work according to similar principles. They are intended to collect oil floating on the very topof the sea surface. This oil flows over the weir into a collection point and istransferred to storage by a suction pump.

Oil and floating debris

Suction line

Water

Oil

Figure 6-15

Expected performance

Light oil Medium oil Heavy oil Maximum

currentAdvancing

mode

Good Good Moderate 5 1 knot No


Good for shallower water

Good in slicks thicker than 5 mm

Calm debris free conditions

Easy to handle

Poor oil/water recovery ratio

(water can splash over weir anddevice tilts in waves which allows water to flow in)

Limited to calm conditions

Sensitive to all types of debris

Minimum water depth varies but usually 300 mm

6.3.2.2. Category: Weir device Skimmer type: Heavy duty weir This skimmer uses a simple weir to skim the top layers of fluid. Flotation isby fixed and/or remotely adjustable floats. The collected oil is pumped via a reversible screw type pump. These pumps employ one or two internalrotating rotary discs to maintain the required pressure when pumping. Anadvantage of these systems is that the weir and floats can be removed toallow use as a stand-alone pump.


73





Figure 6-16


Light oil Medium oil Heavy oil Maximumcurrent

Advancing mode

Moderae Good Good 2 knots No


Good for shallow water (41m)

Capable of pumping highly viscousoils

Pump does not require priming

Easy to deploy and operate

Rugged construction

Limited to sea state 5 2 Beaufort

Heavy oil sometimes requiresmanual assistance to flow over weir

High back pressure can develop indischarge lines when pumping viscous oils


74





6.3.2.3. Category: Weir deviceSkimmer type: Combination weir/boom

The weir device is integral with the boom itself, and the weir/boom

combination is often towed behind two vessels in a J configuration. Theskimmer section is generally located near to the vessel used for oil recovery and attached to the end of a longer length of conventional boom. Alternatively, the combination boom system may be anchored so that the local current carries oil into the weir area. The oil is pumped away fromthe weir either by a built-in pump or by a remote suction pump.

Figure 6-17



currentAdvancing

mode

Good Good Moderate 1 knot Yes


Can accommodate small debris

Good wave following ability

Limited to sea states 5 2 Beaufort

Water depth must be4

1.5 mCollection efficiency generally low

Difficult to deploy and retrieve


75





6.3.2.4. Category: Weir deviceSkimmer type: Vacuum system with skim head

This skimmer is basically a floating suction head. The skimmer head floats

with radially spaced openings just below the surface. In some models, thehead is flexible so it can follow waves. This type of unit can significantly improve oil recovery by vacuum trucks.

Figure 6-18



currentAdvancing

mode



Good for any water depth

Blockages due to debris can becleared easily on models that canreverse flow or have liftable lids/flaps

High recovery rate inslicks 45 mm thick

Simple non mechanical unit haslow maintenance

Limited to Beaufort calmconditions

Can be blocked easily with debris

Poor recovery in slicks 5 5 mmthick


76





6.3.2.5. Category: Weir device Skimmer type: Self-levelling weir

In these devices, the pump draws fluid from the body of the unit causing the weir to depress into the liquid and increase the recovery rate.

End view

Handles (4)

Suction line

Debris screen

Buoyancy tank

Skimmed oil

Figure 6-19



currentAdvancing

mode

Good Good Poor 5 1 knot No


Good for shallow water

Easy to deploy and operate instationary mode

Simple construction easy tomaintain

Inexpensive to purchase andmaintain

Limited to sea state 0 Beaufort –calm conditions

300 mm minimum water depthrequired

If hose or suction touches bottom, weir tilts and operates poorly

Heavy oil and debris blocks weir

Oil/water ratio is low in thin slicks


77





6.3.2.6. Category: Oleophilic device Skimmer type: Disc

An array of oleophilic discs is arranged in a linear, triangular, circular or square configuration. Each row of discs is powered by an air or hydraulic

motor. Oil adheres to the oleophilic discs from where it is scraped as they rotate, into a collection well. The oil is then transferred to storage by a pump, which is either integral with the skimmer or remote. Some discskimmers have toothed discs to physically grab thicker oil to the skimmer.

Figure 6-20



currentAdvancing

mode



Small units have draft of less than 300 mm

Few moving parts means goodreliability

Good recovery rates inslicks 45 mm

Small units can be handled by 2 people

Power packs and pumps areremote, which improves wavefollowing of the skimmer

Oil/water ratio is high

Limited to sea states up toBeaufort 2

Fibrous floating debris can wraparound disc axles and stop rotation

Will not recover weathered or solidified oil

May lose some pickup capability for oils that have been treated withdispersant

Remote pumps can encounter difficulty handling viscous oils

6.3.2.7. Category: Oleophilic device Skimmer type: Rope mop

An endless rope of synthetic oleophilic material is pulled through the slick.Commonly the mop is positioned in the water by one or more strategically placed pulleys. Oil adheres to the mop, which is then squeezed betweenrollers. The squeezed-out mop is returned to the water surface and the


78





process is repeated in a continual cycle. In cold weather, steam can beinjected into the collection device area to facilitate the recovery of viscousoil. Recovered oil is collected in a sump beneath the wringer where it can

gravity-drain or be pumped to a storage tank. The device can be mountedon shore or on a vessel. Alternatively, depending on its design it may besuspended above the sea from a crane or derrick with multiple rope loopshanging vertically between the collection device and the water surface.

Figure 6-21



currentAdvancing

mode

Moderate Good Moderate 5–6 knots No


Effective in sea states up toBeaufort 3

Can operate in any water depth

Good recovery rate

Debris generally does not interfere with oil pickup

Wide reach when long ropes areused

Rope can act as boom in low

currentsCan operate in places difficult toaccess and through deep narrow holes

Good in rough weather

Can operate in broken ice

High wear rate on ropes/rollers if used in sandy areas

Does not recover oiled debris

Can be difficult to deploy

Not good at picking up highly viscous oil


79





6.3.2.8 Category: Oleophilic deviceSkimmer type: Rope mop (catamaran mounted)

Continuous oleophilic rope mops are suspended between the hulls of a

catamaran. The mops travel at the same speed as the vessel and so they contact the oil/water interface at zero relative velocity. The ropes aresqueezed out by hydraulically-driven rollers.

Integral pump andmanifold system

Vessel travel

MOP wringer units

MOP travel

Collecteddebris

Oil pollution

Figure 6-22



currentAdvancing

mode




Good oil recovery in slicks thicker than 5 mm

Good oil/water ratio in collectedfluid

On-board oil storage

Operates in water depths greater than 1 m (most models)

Difficult to transport to remoteareas

High capital cost


80





6.3.2.9 Category: Oleophilic device Skimmer type: Brush

Closely spaced brushes pick up oil on the surface of the water. The oil isscraped off as the bristles pass through a comb-type cleaner. Brushes are

either drum or chain mounted.

Figure 6-23



currentAdvancing

mode

Moderate Good Good 2 knots Yest


Good for weathered, emulsifiedand residual oil

Mechanically simple

Usually not affected by debris and waves

Little excess water is contained inthe collected oil

Side collectors can lose oil under boom sweeps

Bow mounted units may beaffected by vessel movement andassociated interference

81






6.3.2.10 Category: Induction deviceSkimmer type: Advancing weir

Oil and water are initially separated with an adjustable bow plane. Oil

flows over the adjustable weir near the back of the unit and water isdischarged through a gate below the weir.

Figure 6-24



currentAdvancing

mode

Good Good Moderate 5 3 knots No


Can handle some debris if debrisscreen is manually cleanedperiodically

Suitable for calm, open sea recovery of large oil slicks

High recovery rate in largeconfined oil slicks

Easy to operate

Limited to sea state 5 2 Beaufort

Limited to water depths over 1.2 m

High percentage of fluid collected(water/oil/emulsion)

Some models have no on-board oil

storage or pumping system


82





6.3.2.11 Category: Induction deviceSkimmer type: Submersion plane

As this skimmer is moved into the oil, the oil is forced down a plane at the

front of the unit and then stripped off by an adjustable vane. Theremainder of the skimmer consists of a separator with an open bottom.Baffles cause the oil to gather and rise to the top while water flows throughthe skimmer.

Figure 6-25



currentAdvancing

mode

Good Good Moderate 2.5 knots Yes


No power is required except for vessel power and discharge pump

Excess water is discarded as part of the collecting process

Prevention of oil carry-over intoeffluent depends on the separationefficiency

Debris entering the skimmer willfoul the separator

Throughput and collectionefficiencies decline in higher sea states


83





6.3.2.12 Category: Induction deviceSkimmer type: Upward-moving belt

The belt is advanced to make contact with the oil slick. In addition, water

may be drawn through the belt by an induction pump. Oil and floating debris are brought up the belt. The debris is scraped off into a storage bin,and oil is squeezed out of the belt into a holding tank.

Figure 6-26 Expected performance


currentAdvancing

mode

Poor Good Good 0.75 knots Yes


Effective in sea states to Beaufort 3

Some types allow debris collectionHigh pickup rate

Mobility of self-propelled modelsallows self transport to spills andtracking down of individual slicks

Effective in highly viscous oils

Effective in a wide range of oil types

Cannot operate in shallow water

Mechanically complicatedRecovery belt life is poor

Expensive to buy and operate


84





6.3.2.13 Category: Induction deviceSkimmer type: Sorbent belt – downward moving

Debris is kept from the belt by a debris screen. The oleophilic belt pushes

floating oil below the waterline. Oil that is not absorbed on the belt isrecovered in a holding area behind the belt. Oil that is carried up the belt isrecovered at the top of the system by a squeeze belt or scraper blade. Thisoil and the oil in the area behind the belt are then pumped to storage.

Figure 6-27



currentAdvancing

mode

Good Good Poor 5 2 knots Yes



Some types allow debris collectionHigh pickup rate

Recovery belt life is good

Mobility allows self-transport tospills and tracking down of individual slicks

Cannot operate in shallow water

Mechanically complicated

Difficult to maintain

Difficult to transport to remoteareas

Expensive to buy and operate


85





6.3.2.14 Category: Induction deviceSkimmer type: Hydrocyclone/circus

Water and oil enter a skimming chamber where centrifugal effect occurs.

Water goes to the outside of the chamber and is discharged through thebottom. Oil, being less dense than water, collects in the centre and ispumped out through the top of the unit to storage. Open units may be usedin conjunction with weir skimmers. The stability of the vortex issignificantly affected by wave action.

Figure 6-28



currentAdvancing

mode

Poor Poor Poor 2 knots Yes


Can operate in current up to2 knots

Can be mounted on any offshoresupply or similar size vessel

Limited to calm sea state

Closed systems adversely affectedby and cannot collect debris

Poor throughput and collectionefficiency

Affected by bow wave of vessel on which it is mounted


86





6.3.2.15 Category: Induction deviceSkimmer type: Induced vortex

A rotor with a series of vanes or a propeller rotates beneath the water

surface and draws oil over a weir into a sump. The rotor induces a slow rotation in the oil/water mixture. The difference in induced velocity between the water and oil concentrates the oil which is then pumped tostorage.

Figure 6-29



currentAdvancing

mode



Some models are lightweight andcan be easily deployed andretrieved

Draws oil to the skimmer fromseveral feet away

When operating in thick slicks,pickup rate limited by pumps

Pumping must be carefully watched to keep the oil/water ratiohigh

Susceptible to debris in oil pickup

Waves and currents can interfere with flow of oil induced by vortex


87





6.3.2.16 Category: Devices using other principles

Several other methods of recovery are available and include:

Drum skimmer: These have a helical drum that rotates to grab floating oil.Excess water escapes through small holes in the drum while the oil isdirected into a central channel and pumped to remote storage. It is good for use with heavy oils but poor for light oils.

Mechanical lifting belt: A typical paddle belt pulls oil up a ramp using four or more paddles. In one model, the paddles draw a wedge of oil/water over a ramp. The water settles through holes in the ramp leaving an oil richmixture. The paddles pull the fluid wedge mixture over the top of theincline and into a sump where it is pumped off. One-way flapper valves onthe machine’s underside permit water to flow away. A second type haspaddles that draw oil up the underside of the ramp.

Figure 6-30



currentAdvancing

mode

Moderate Good Moderate 5 1.5 knots


Can pick up very viscous oil

High pickup in thick oil

Mechanically simple and robust

Moveable head on some modelscan skim over a boom

Works best only in calm water conditions

Perforated plate models can block easily with long stringy debris

High water pickup with very viscous oil on perforated platemodels

Expensive


88





Screw pumps: These are principally designed to handle viscous fluids andare based on the principle of the Archimedes screw. They are tolerant of debris. Some proprietary skimmers have this screw pump as an integral

part of their construction. On occasion, for very thick and viscous oils, theskimmers may be stripped down to enable the oil to be simply recoveredusing the action of the pump itself, often with the oil having to be manually drawn to the collection/pump head.

Nets: Nets can be useful as collection devices for oily seaweed and other oily materials such as sorbents, and sometimes for semi-solid emulsionsand other highly viscous oils. However, in high current conditions the oilcan be drawn through the mesh.

Vacuum trucks: Tank trucks normally used for collection of industrial,

agricultural or sewage sludge can be effective in recovering floating oil. They are particularly effective in collecting viscous oils and emulsions andcan be operated in a range of situations, in ports and harbours, on beachesand in canals. For thin layers of oil they require a special inlet head inorder to spread their suction out sufficiently to draw oil into the collectionhose rather than puncturing through the slick. Primary separation of oiland water can take place in the tank itself and water may be periodically drained off from the bottom to maximize the capacity of the truck.

Mechanical grabs: Grabs and clam shell buckets operating from the shore

or mounted on a suitable vessel can in some cases be an effective devicefor recovery of very viscous oils. They may also be used in ice conditions, tocollect oily chunks for temporary staging on the vessel. Heating thecollected ice and draining of the water can also be undertaken to maximizerecovery and storage capacity.

6.4 Temporary storage

The provision of temporary storage for recovered oil is crucial to thesuccess of containment and recovery operations. If oil is successfully recovered at a significant rate, the temporary storage resources can beoverwhelmed in a very short time, even within just a matter of hours.Experience has shown that this aspect of containment and recovery isoften overlooked, or given insufficient attention and unrealistic assump-tions are often made on the availability of various resources at thecontingency planning stage. The types of temporary storage facilities that can be used to support recovery operations along shorelines is describedin a later chapter of this Manual. For at-sea operations, the main optionsare:

Vessel tanks: There may be separate tanks on board the vessels being usedfor the containment and recovery operations. Once the available storagecapacity has been exhausted, response vessels need to return to port todischarge oil and oily water, limiting the actual time that recovery operations are in action. In many cases, the vessels are not specially designed for these operations and tank capacity may be limited or unsuitable for the operation. A common problem with vessel storage tanks


89





is that once oil has been pumped into them, it is often very difficult to get it out again, especially with viscous oils. Heating coils may be needed toreduce the viscosity sufficiently to enable discharge to be achieved. The

tanks will also need cleaning afterwards, which can be a time-consuming and difficult operation.

Barges: Barges may be available in ports and harbours that can be hiredfor use in an oil spill. They are often very large and difficult to manoeuvre,and their freeboard may mean pumping over a significant head, whichmay not be possible for all skimmer and pump types, especially if heavy or viscous oils are involved. Small, manageable barges with open hatches aremore suitable, preferably with heated tank facilities to make it easier tohandle and pump out the stored oil. Oil/water separator facilities are also

preferable, so that decanting of water back to the sea can be done,maximizing the space available for oil storage.

Towable tanks: These come in a variety of forms and, in contrast to barges which are general purpose vessels, towable tanks are specifically designedfor oil spill response. One simple type comprises a long, flexible tube-liketank, with its own flotation/buoyancy members so that it floats whenempty. Once full, most of the tank is submerged below the water. They canbe very difficult to empty again, sometimes entailing their suspensionlength-wise from a crane to encourage oil to flow under gravity.

Another type of towable tanks comprises a large, inflatable barge-type vessel, with an open top and segregated sections to contain oil. The tanksare open but they may also have plastic or tarpaulin covers. Capacitiesfrom different manufacturers range from 5–100 m3. They have theadvantage that submersible pumps may be dropped in to discharge oil,or accessed by grabs and clam-shell buckets, if the oil is very viscous.

A third distinct variety are pillow tanks, which often have only smallopenings/access points to allow oil to be pumped in. Some do have a larger access/discharge hatch to facilitate emptying, but like the tube-like tanks,they can be very difficult to discharge. However, some have facilities sothey may be pumped out directly.

6.5 Integrated containment and recovery operations

6.5.1 Sweep systems

To concentrate floating oil at sea, booms are towed in U or J configurationsusing two vessels. The skimmer is deployed from one vessel (although

sometimes a specialized skimmer device may be built integral with theapex part of the boom). Often vessels will corral oil in a U configuration andthen once sufficient oil has been collected, they move to a J configurationto allow the skimmer to be lowered into the oil and recovery to commencefrom the trailing vessel. Storage will be in the vessel tanks, or possibly to a floating tank system. Sometimes, three vessels may be used, two being used to tow the boom in a U or V configuration and the third one stationed


90





at the apex of the boom, to support more continuous collection andrecovery.

Skilful handling of the vessels and equipment is called for, withcontinuous adjustments as conditions change. Ideally the vessel used asa working platform should have lifting gear on board and all should havesufficiently good maneouvreability to quickly get in position and maintaincourse at slow speeds, against the winds and currents.

Figure 6-31 – Integrated containment and recovery operations –U and J configurations

To allow greater flexibility, the oil concentration, recovery and storagefunctions can be combined on one ship. This has a rigid or flexible sweepsystem extended from one or both sides of the vessel. Oil collected in theapex between boom and vessel is recovered either using a skimmer, or for some specialized vessels, by allowing the oil and water to pass into a special compartment in the hull that recovers the oil from where it is

pumped to storage tanks on board.

For all at-sea containment and recovery operations, the sea conditions,including wave height, wind direction and relative wind speed, should befully understood otherwise recovery efforts will prove unsuccessful. Thorough training in vessel control and system operation is necessary. A high level of seamanship is required to maneouvre multiple vessels incombination at slow speeds (less than 0.7–1 knot).

Given the rapid spreading of oil into patches that can be scattered over large sea areas, it is important for vessels involved in at-sea containment and recovery operations to be guided by spotter aircraft (rotary or fixed wing), to the locations where oil concentrations are heaviest. An adequatecommunications system is also required for information to be transmittedto relevant vessels from the spotter aircraft.


91





Figure 6-32 – Examples of purpose-built single and double sweep recovery vessels

Combination buoy tender,

oil and chemical response vessel,

emergency tug and ice breaker

Action area North (Baltic) Sea

Length o.a. 78.91 m

Breadth o.a 18.63 mDraft max. 5.79 m

Tank capacity 1,000 m3

(oils, chemicals)

Combatting 2 sweeping arms,

equipment 400 m booms,

lightering pumpsspecial separation

plant Sweep breadth 44 m

Combination buoy tender,

oil and chemical response vessel,

emergency tug and ice breaker

Action area North (Baltic) Sea Length o.a. 80.45 mBreadth o.a 15.10 m

Draft max. 5.80 m Tank capacity 910 m3

(oils, chemicals)

Combatting 2 sweeping arms,

equipment 400 m booms,

lightering pumps

special separationplant

Sweep breadth 41 m

Combination buoy tender and

oil and chemical response vessel

Action area Baltic (North) Sea

Length o.a. 56.12m

Breadth o.a 14.23 m

Draft max. 4.68 m

Tank capacity 430 m3

(oils, chemicals)

Combatting 2 sweeping arms,equipment 400 m booms,

lightering pumps

special separation

plant

Sweep breadth 37 m


92





Oil response vessel

Action area Baltic (North) Sea

Length o.a. 46.1 mBreadth o.a 8.6 m

Draft max. 3.7 m

Tank capacity 215 m3 + 100 m3

sack

Combatting 2 sweeping arms,equipment skimmers

300 m booms,

lightering pumps

Sweep breadth 30 m

Oil response vessel Action area North Sea

Length o.a. 83.02 m

Breadth o.a 12.80 m (mid)

Draft max. 7 m Tank capacity 1060 m3

Combatting 2 sweeping armsequipment 15 m

pumps 450 m3 /h

400 m booms,

fenders, mop.

Sweep breadth 38 m

6.5.2 Specialized oil recovery vessels

Some vessels have been specifically designed with all of the necessary equipment on board and a special facility for corralling oil without the needfor booms. Some of these are built for work in open sea areas, but most arerelatively small and intended to be used in harbours and sheltered waters.

Figure 6-33 – Principles of a specialized recovery vessel


93





Depending on their construction, the recovery device may be a weir type,oleophilic (e.g. brushes or absorbent belt) or induction. Many of these vessels have a dual purpose, for general floating debris collection under

normal circumstances, mainly in ports and harbours, and oil recovery inemergency situations.

6.6 Recovery of subsurface oil

6.6.1 Recovery of sunken oil

As described in chapter 3, very few crude oils are sufficiently dense or weathered to such an extent that their residues will sink. Sinking isusually brought about by adhesion of particulate matter to the oil. Some

heavy crudes, as well as most heavy fuel oils and water-in-oil emulsionsrequire very little particulate matter to exceed the specific gravity of seawater.

Recovery of sunken oil is not an easy operation and must be planned andequipped properly before being undertaken. For removal of subsurface oilin water less than 20 m depth, the following techniques may be used:

.1 Peripherical injection jet suction pump: Sunken oils can bepicked up using a peripherical injection jet suction pump. The viscosity of oils to be recovered may be reduced through the use

of heated water..2 Air lifting: An air lift can be used to recover oil from the seabed.

A compressor on the support vessel provides air to the mouth of the air lift. The air rising in the central tube generates suction inthe tube. The air lift is most useful for recovery of oil in 10 to20 m water depth.

.3 Oleophilic sorbents: Small patches of subsurface oil may berecovered using oleophilic rope mops.


94





Figure 6-34 – Airlift dredge for recovery of oil from the sea-bed

Figure 6-35 – Airlift dredge system in shallow water

6.6.2 Recovery of oil from a sunken vessel

In the event that oil needs to be recovered from a sunken vessel or wreck,specialized operations are needed. There are two systems that might beemployed:


95





.1 DOLS – Diving oil lightering system: This is an underwater system for drilling holes in a ship’s plate and lightering oil froma sunken vessel. A hydraulic punching drill is attached by a

magnet to the ship. After drilling the lightering hose flange isattached. The DOLS is guided into position manually by divers.

.2 ROLS – Remote oil lightering system: The remote offloading system is similar in principal to the DOLS, however it has beendesigned to be positioned using a ROV (remotely operated vehicle) controlled from the operating/combating vessel.

The ROLS and DOLS operations can be affected by a range of factors,including weather, currents (surface and subsurface), position and aspect of the wreck, underwater visibility, viscosity of oil to be pumped and debris

around the wreck.

6.6.3 Precautions when considering recovery of subsurface oil

The operations to recover sunken oil and oil trapped in a sunken vessel arehighly specialized and should be carried out only by experienced andqualified personnel. A clear plan of all actions should be prepared, safety procedures and associated checklists developed and implemented, clear roles and responsibilities defined, contingencies developed for changes in

various factors (such as weather), and appropriate and adequate equip-ment supplied for all stages of the operations, with backups for criticalitems.

6.7 Sorbents

6.7.1 General principles

The recovery of floating oil is carried out principally using skimmersdeployed from vessels. Oil sorbents comprise a wide range of productsused to soak up oil in preference to water. They may be used in some

limited cases, as an alternative when oil recovery with skimmers is difficult or prevented, for example because of shallow or inaccessible waters, andfor small slicks.

Sorbents work either by adsorption or absorption. Adsorption occurs whenthe liquid recovered (i.e. oil) is distributed over the surface of the adsorbent material. Absorption occurs when the liquid is incorporated into the body or pores of the material. Given the wide range of products and materialsavailable, and the different ways in which they can act, to avoid confusion,all materials tend to be referred to simply as ‘sorbents’. A sorbent material

used in oil spill response needs to have good sorbent properties, be in a suitable form for its intended purpose, be easy to handle, readily recoverable after use and not present problems for disposal.

Sorbent materials may comprise:

.1 Inorganic materials (e.g. vermiculite, volcanic glass);

.2 Synthetic materials (most commonly polypropylene fibre); and


96





.3 Natural organic material (e.g. peat, pulp, cotton, pine bark etc.)

Most synthetic sorbents are made of polypropylene fibre and are available

in a variety of forms, but most conveniently, as pads, rolls or booms. Thegeneral properties of various sorbent materials are shown in table 6-3.

Table 6-3 – Oil absorbing capacity of sorbents

Sorbent

Maximum oil absorbing capacity gm/gm sorbent Buoyancy

afterprolonged

contact with

oil on water

Highviscosity oil

3,000 cStat 258C

Low viscosity oil

5 cStat 258C

Inorganic Vermiculite Volcanic ashGlass wool

420

4

363

SinksFloatsFloats

Natural organicCorn cobPeanut husksRedwood fibre

Wheat straw Peat moss Wood cellulose fibre

65

12

64

18

526

27

10

SinksSinksSinks

SinksSinksSinks

Synthetic organicPolyurethane foamUrea formaldehyde

foamPolyethylene fibresPolypropylene fibre

Polystyrene powder

7060

3520

20

6050

307

20

FloatsFloats

FloatsFloats

Floats

The oil absorbing capacity figures indicate the amount of oil the materialmay take up, relative to its own weight. The highest figures shown in thetable generally correspond to the lightest materials; indicating that they can take up a relatively high proportion of oil relative to their weight.However, given their intrinsic lightness, the actual amount of oil may not be particularly high. In terms of practical logistics and material selection,consideration should also be given to the volume of sorbent that is neededto absorb a given quantity of oil.


97





6.7.2 General applications

Some features of sorbent use are shown in table 6-4.

Table 6-4 – Sorbent material applications

Form of sorbent

Application

Pads(squaresand strips)

Placed in confined areas to pick up small quantities of light oil. They should be left for a period of time for greater effectiveness, but care should always be taken to ensurethey are properly recovered.

They should not be spread in open waters, because oilslicks break up and scatter over wide areas making oilencounter rates very low. When in contact with floating oilthey tend to become coated and do not absorb significant quantities of oil, unless the oil is of a very light nature. It is very easy to broadcast hundreds or thousands of padsquickly from many vessels, but they are rarely recoveredsuccessfully, and will float over great distances to washup on unaffected shorelines.

Rolls Convenient since they can be torn or cut off at theoptimum length.Effective in protecting walkways, boat decks, working areas, and previously uncontaminated or cleaned areasMay simply be rolled up and readily taken away once they have served their purpose.

Pillows Can be used to pick up small quantities of oil in coastalsituation (for example in shoreline clean-up). These are made of loose material contained in a permeable mesh.

Much easier to recover than loose material alone.

Snarespom-poms,hanks or mops)

Comprise strips of polypropylene bound together by wire.Can be used individually or secured at intervals on a ropeto cover a greater area.Effective with heavy and viscous oils.

Booms Can serve a dual function by absorbing oil and acting as a boom – but only effective in very calm waters. The tightly compacted sorbent material encased in meshrestricts oil penetration. With more viscous oils the

surface becomes coated and prevents any oil being transferred into the boom itself.

Loose(or bulk)materials

Loose sorbent materials are not recommended for use inoil spills on water. (However, loose organic materials havebeen successfully used to stabilize stranded oil in remoteor inaccessible locations).


98





6.7.3 Storage and disposal of recovered sorbent

Recovered sorbent must be temporarily stored and then processed or disposed. The separation of oil and sorbent (for reuse of the sorbent) istechnically difficult and oil remains to a certain degree in sorbent form,therefore the reuse of the sorbent is not generally a feasible option.Disposal options are discussed in a later chapter of this Manual.

99










Chapter 7Chemical dispersion

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 General principles

Oil spilled on the sea surface will float and spread out to form a slick – thisprocess is described in chapter 3. Wave action and turbulence due to tidesand currents will cause some of the oil to break up into small droplets which can be carried down into the water column. This process, which isknown as dispersion, can be enhanced by the application of dispersants.

Dispersants are chemical agents that alter the physical behaviour of oil onthe sea surface. They consist of a mixture of surface-active agents,dissolved in a solvent that assists penetration of the mixture into the oil. The surface-active agents reduce the surface tension of the oil, soincreasing the rate of droplet formation and inhibiting coalescence of thedroplets. By dispersing the oil into the water column dispersants:

.1 prevent the wind driven movement of the oil (often towards thecoastline). Dispersants can therefore contribute to the protec-tion of the shoreline or other sensitive areas that would be

affected if the oil remained on the sea surface;

.2 increase the exposure of marine life to the oil at the location where oil is dispersed; thus dispersants enhance the local oiltoxicity; and

.3 enhance the biodegradation of the oil in the marine environ-ment. Finely-dispersed oil presents a large oil/water interfacethat is favourable to the oil biodegradability.

Between the potential for enhanced toxicity and enhanced biodegradation,

the advantages or disadvantages of the dispersant use lie in the possibility of the rapid dispersion and dilution of the oil into the marine environment.If the concentrations of dispersed oil decrease rapidly to a safe level, theeffects will be insignificant. But if the dispersed oil dilution is not sufficient or too slow, for example due to poor water interchange, in a restricted area or in shallow waters, the dispersion of the oil may impact sensitivecomponents of the environment.

101





Plume of dispersed oil (viewed from the air)

Early dispersant formulations (sometimes known as first generation) werethemselves highly toxic. However, over the last 30 years, formulations have

been developed that mean dispersants have moderate or low toxicity. As a general rule, modern dispersants are no more toxic than dispersed oil and when used at a proper dosage, the toxicity that results from dispersion isequivalent to the toxicity of the dispersed oil.

7.1.2 Environmental considerations

The decision to use dispersants should be made following a comparison of potential damage to the marine environment from both treated anduntreated oil with consideration of both short and long-term effects. Whenidentifying the locations where dispersants can be applied, areas of a highdilution capacity and a high flushing capability, such as open waters, aregenerally preferred. Conversely, areas where the dispersant/oil mixturemay remain concentrated and have a high residency period, such as inconfined waters, small bays, closed harbours and marshes, shouldgenerally be avoided. However, these generalizations are dependent upona third important consideration: the sensitivity of environmental resourcesto dispersed oil. Some environments or components thereof are sosensitive that, despite ideal dilution and flushing systems, they will benegatively affected by the toxicity of dispersed oil. However, it is often

observed that even these short-term effects may be less damaging than if the environment had been left exposed to untreated oil.

It is important to identify specific sensitive resources (both subsurface andsurface) in the area being considered for dispersant use. In addition,consideration should be given to the prevailing wind, which more directly influences untreated oil, and the current(s), which would more directly influence dispersed oil. The decision to use dispersants is largely


102





dependent upon balancing the consequences of response options andchoosing the one that will best preserve the most highly valued resources.

7.1.3 Contingency planning

Negative environmental impacts may be avoided by adopting a means of identifying sensitive areas and resources, determining the high-risk regions susceptible to oil pollution and consequently developing a strategy that is set out in a national contingency plan. Further plans should bedeveloped on a local level within the context of this national contingency plan. See the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II – Contingency

Planning.

Contingency plans should contain the national policy with respect to

dispersant use. For those maritime areas shared with neighbouring countries, a strategy for dealing with the use of dispersants should bedescribed in bilateral or multilateral contingency plans.

It should be recognized that ‘time’ is the most formidable adversary whenconsidering the use of dispersants: Once the oil has weathered signifi-cantly the increase in viscosity will most probably render dispersant useineffective. The window of opportunity for dispersant use is often no morethan 24–48 hours from the moment of spillage. Contingency plans shouldtherefore allow for a rapid response, if the circumstances are appropriate

and various planning criteria are met. Modern contingency plans oftenhave provisions for testing and pre-approving dispersant use in particular areas, prior to a spill occurring, so that the decision to use them or not,may be made rapidly in the event of a spill.

The contingency planning process is very important in the identification of those areas where dispersant can or cannot be used, based on environ-mental resource sensitivity and the hydrological conditions (depth,distance offshore, currents, etc). If such information is set out onoperational maps, it allows responders to take a quick decision on

dispersant use.In preparing a contingency plan, provision should also be included for thepossibility of a large spill that may result in the depletion of the localstockpile of dispersants. In the event of these and other types of logisticproblems, for example, the provision of aircraft fuel to remote airfields, thecontingency plan should include provisions for restocking and replenish-ment.

7.1.4 Response decisions

Dispersants can be used to reduce the threat posed by surface oil tosensitive resources such as bird colonies, coastal habitats and amenity beaches. An oil spill in an area of high dilution capacity heading towards a sensitive environment can be treated with dispersants to reduce theharmful effects of the slick.

An untreated oil slick will undergo natural dispersion as a result of mixing energy generated by wind, waves and tides. The dispersant option should

103

Chapter 7 – Chemical dispersion





be considered when it is evident that natural dispersion will not suffice inprotecting sensitive environments. However, dispersants do not physically remove oil from the sea, they simply enhance the rate of natural dispersion

into the water column. The dispersing plume of oil can be more harmful tosubsurface organisms than the surface slick. Care needs to be taken,therefore, that dispersants are used only in situations where the benefitsof reducing the surface slick outweigh the risk of damage by the plume of dispersed oil, and in situations where containment and/or recovery of theoil would be impractical. It should also be recognized that even in idealconditions the use of dispersants may not remove all the oil from the sea surface and a proportion is still likely to reach sensitive resources if windsand currents move the oil in that direction.

Public health considerations are primarily focused on the short-term effect of making the oil more available to organisms in the water column and thepossible consequences on food palatability. As a precautionary measure,dispersant use in shallow marine environments or areas containing aquaculture and shellfish should tend to be avoided. Further informationon the possible effects of dispersed oil on seafood, are provided in the IMO/FAO publication Guidance on the management of seafood safety duringand after an oil spill.

Water intakes for desalination and cooling should receive special

consideration due to the risk of oil becoming entrained and drawn intothe plant. In most cases, low concentrations of dispersed oil can betolerated by such installations. However, the concentrations at which theoperation of such plants may be compromised are difficult to predict andso it is prudent to avoid the use of dispersants close to water intakes.

It should be recognized that each oil spill poses different circumstancesand the decision of whether or not to use dispersants, when, how and why,should be confirmed on a case-by-case basis. The process of making decisions on dispersant use that are based on a comparison of what would

be the impacts of the oil when treated against those from leaving the slick untreated, is called Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA). The IMO/UNEP publication Guidelines on oil spill dispersant application and environmental considerations gives a more detailed account of NEBA-related issues, and when and under what circumstances dispersantsshould be used.

7.1.5 Initiating a response

The application of dispersants must take place before the oil weathers

substantially. To conduct an effective response and to save time, fuel anddispersant for spraying, units should be available for immediate loading and subsequent replenishment. Supply and communication links shouldbe maintained at the highest level of readiness.

To minimize any delays in the response, the on-scene commander shouldcarry the authority to commence a dispersant spraying operation withinthe geographical and other limits set out in the contingency plan. If the on-


104





scene commander does not carry this authority then it should be possiblefor such authority to be obtained rapidly, with the process for obtaining it being set out clearly in the plan.

Any significant application of dispersants should be carefully monitored toconfirm its effectiveness in that particular environment. Comparisonsshould be made of treated and untreated areas. Beyond the immediateconfirmation of dispersant effectiveness, local concentrations of dispersedoil and any significant environmental consequences, whenever possible,appropriate monitoring should be extended to confirm any long-termenvironmental effects.

7.1.6 Limitations on dispersant effectiveness

Dispersants will only work effectively under certain rather limitedcircumstances and not all oils are amenable to dispersant treatment. The effectiveness of dispersants will depend on the oil type and its specificcharacteristics. Of these, the viscosity is generally used as a key parameter in determining whether an oil is amenable to dispersants. Under most circumstances heavy fuel oils and heavier crude oils will not disperse,because of their high viscosity. While there is no definitive criteria, it hasbeen generally accepted that an oil with a viscosity of higher than 2,000–5,000 centistokes (cSt) is difficult to disperse. Dispersants are likely to be

ineffective for oils that have viscosities in excess of 5,000 cSt. Oils that have been spilled in temperatures below their pour point, and are thereforesemi- or wholly solid, are not possible to disperse. Lubricating oils are alsodifficult to disperse because of the additives they contain.

Similarly, dispersants will not usually work effectively on oils that have weathered to an emulsified state in which their viscosity is substantially greater than 5,000–10,000 cSt. Emulsification is an important limiting feature, and many oils that would be readily dispersible when initially spilled lose their dispersibility within a few hours as this emulsification

occurs. For these oils it is important to apply the dispersant as soon aspossible after the spill. If the oil is already partly weathered, the slick may be treated more effectively, by applying dispersant in two stages. The first application would be at a low dosage rate (Dispersant to Oil Ratio, DOR,1:50) to break the emulsion and reduce the viscosity. This would befollowed by a second application at normal dose rates (DOR, 1:20) todisperse the oil itself. Once the oil has weathered to the extent that themajority has formed a stable emulsion, dispersion is rarely feasible.

At the other end of the spectrum, light fuel oils such as diesel disperse

naturally so rapidly that there is often little to be gained by the use of dispersants, except possibly to reduce a potential fire hazard.

Because dispersants work by enhancing the rate of natural dispersion,some turbulence is necessary for the dispersant to be effective. Windstrengths of Beaufort force 3 or higher are normally required to giveadequate natural mixing energy. Mechanical turbulence may be effectiveon small quantities of oil.

105






7.2 Dispersants

7.2.1 Types of dispersant

The first dispersants were developed in the 1970’s and are known as‘conventional’ or ‘hydrocarbon-based’ (Type 1 in the UK classificationsystem). The solvent used was kerosene, with a low aromatic content, andthey contained a low concentration of surfactants. Some of thesedispersants are still available today, but because of their low effectivenessthey need to be used at very high treatment rates.

Higher performance dispersants were also first produced in the 1970’s by making a blend of different surfactant types. These are known as‘concentrate’ (or 3rd generation) dispersants. Improvements in theformulation continued throughout the 1980’s and 1990’s and modernconcentrate dispersants contain a much higher surfactant content thanthe older ones. They can be sprayed undiluted (as a Type 3 dispersant inthe UK classification system) or diluted with seawater (Type 2 in the UK classification system).

Table 7-1 shows in general terms the types of oil and the probableeffectiveness of these various types of dispersant.

Table 7-1 – Oil and dispersant types and uses

Oil Type

Dispersant type

Conventional

Concentrate

Water dilutedapplication

Neatapplication

Light distillate fuels (1) (1) (1)

High spreading rate(low viscosity) productsand crudes

H H H

Low spreading rate(high viscosity) asphalticcrudes, residuals and weathered oil

(2) X (2)

Waxy crudes (2) X (2)

Water-in-oil emulsions (2) X (2)

Non-spreading oils X X X

Notes

1 Application of dispersants in this case should be solely for the purpose of controlling a fire hazard. Dispersants are not normally used on such fuels becauseof their high rate of evaporation and because of their high toxicity.

2 Effectiveness will be severely limited or not effective.

X Dispersant will not be effective.

H Dispersant should be effective on fresh oil.


106





7.2.2 Approval

Because dispersants may be used in large quantities, it is important that only low toxicity products are used. All dispersant types are available informulations that, on the basis of laboratory tests, do not measurably increase the toxicity of the dispersing oil plume to marine organisms.Some other tests have been designed more recently to assess a dispersant’s biodegradability.

Tests have also been established for measuring dispersant efficiency. It should be noted that some dispersants are more effective on particular oilsthan others. Despite some discrepancies in the dispersants’ efficiency according to the type of oil, efficiency tests are suitable to select the moreefficient products. It is recommended that only those products are

stockpiled which have been tested for toxicity and efficiency under localconditions and against the oils most likely to be spilled in the area of interest.

Approval procedures are in force in many countries; these procedures arebased on toxicity, efficiency and sometimes biodegradability tests. In thesecountries, only the dispersants that pass these tests can be used.

7.2.3 Storage

Dispersants that are exposed to air or moisture may become ineffective within a few years. However, they should retain their efficiency for many years if they are free from water and kept in airtight containers. Someproducts may corrode mild steel containers. If drums are used for storageit is advisable to use high-density polythene liners and to keep the drumsunder cover, out of direct sunlight. Long storage may cause separation of the ingredients; the containers should be rolled or tumbled vigorously toachieve good mixing before application. It is recommended that the quality of oil spill dispersants stored in the stockpiles is checked periodically against the standard efficiency and toxicity laboratory tests.

7.2.4 Dosage

In determining the proper dosage, manufacturers of dispersants offer recommendations on the containers. The problem with recommendationsis that they cannot account for all the variables experienced in the field.Recommendations are defined as dosage per unit area. In actual spills thedistribution of oil on the water surface and the thickness of the slick arenot uniform. The selection of the proper dosage is largely judgmental,using the recommendations as an initial guideline and as modified on site

to suit prevailing conditions. Recommendations are most accurate during the period immediately following the spill before the oil has spread and weathered to any extent.

Because of their low effectiveness, conventional dispersants should beused at relatively high treatment rates, with a recommended starting rateof dispersant-to-oil of 1:2–3. Dosage rates for concentrate dispersantsdepend on whether they are being used with or without dilution. When


107





sprayed undiluted from aircraft or ships, the recommended rate is a dispersant-to-oil ratio of 1:20–30. Most modern concentrate dispersantscan also be sprayed from ships as mixtures of dispersant and seawater.

This can only be done using appropriate spraying equipment that mixesthe correct mount of dispersant (10% volume) into seawater (90% volume)as the mixture is sprayed. Although this method is suitable for dispersing light to medium crude oils, it should not be used on heavy oil, or on oilsthat have begun to weather, because the water-diluted dispersant will be washed off by wave action before it can have the required effect.

Dispersed oil plume (viewed close-up)

When considering dosage in the field, a general assumption should be that

the minimum amount of dispersant should be applied to yield the greatest result. If a dispersant is having little or no effect and a slightly higher doserate does not improve the effectiveness, then it is likely that no matter how much dispersant is used, the operation will not prove effective. In suchcases, ‘over-dosing’ an oil slick to try to get a better result will not achieve a positive result and dispersant operations should be curtailed on that particular area.

Generally, a coffee-coloured plume in the water is an indication of theeffective dispersion of a slick. An absence of such a visual indication,

especially if accompanied by the presence of large amounts of whitematerial in the water, is regarded as evidence of the dispersant not working. The white material is the dispersant itself, which has failed tohave any dispersing effect and has washed off the oil into the water.

108






Ineffective dispersant use on a heavy fuel oil spill

7.3 Application techniques

7.3.1 Application of dispersants

All appropriate precautions need to be made to ensure contact withdispersants is avoided: Operators should wear protective clothing,including goggles and masks, and all non-essential personnel shouldkeep a suitable distance from the spraying operations. In addition, those incharge should ensure appropriate safety procedures are in place for thehandling of dispersants and their application, which comply with local andnational legislation, and operators should be properly trained in the

execution of their operations.Dispersants can be applied to a slick either from aircraft or from ships. Aircraft can be deployed rapidly from a base that can be some distancefrom the spill. This offers a significant advantage when time is of theessence and there is a likelihood of rapid emulsification or the spilled oil’s viscosity increasing beyond the threshold where dispersants are no longer effective. Table 7-2 shows typical operating characteristics and table 7-3shows the performance of various aerial and ship-borne systems.

Whether ships or aircraft are used it is important to plan in advance for a

fast response to an incident. Forward operating bases (airfields or harbours) should be identified. Means of supplying those bases withadequate stocks of approved dispersants and spraying equipment shouldbe arranged. National aviation authorities should be consulted about theuse of aircraft for spraying over the sea. Environmental protection or fishery management authorities should be consulted in advance about any restrictions on dispersant use that may be in force.

109






The design of spraying equipment is critical. Dispersant will be wasted if it does not reach the oil. This can happen if the droplets are too small so that the spray is blown away from the oil or if they are too large and pass

through the oil layer. Excessive variation in spray rates will result inunder- or over-dosing. Spraying equipment should be tested before use tocheck flow rates, droplet size and that an even distribution of dispersant isdelivered across the width of the sprayed swath.

It is difficult to see oil from a ship or low flying aircraft. It is important,therefore, for a spotter aircraft to guide the spraying ships or aircraft ontothe thickest part of the oil. The description of the slick can be transmittedfrom the spotter aircraft by use of a grid on which the contours can beplotted. The orientation and scale of the grid and the boundary co-ordinates of the slick can then be passed by radio to the spraying ships or aircraft. Alternatively, the spraying platform (ship or aircraft) can be guideddirectly onto the oil by the spotter aircraft.

The effectiveness of the dispersant, whether sprayed from aircraft or from vessels, should be monitored to ensure the operation is successful. It ispossible that due to the uneven thickness of a slick, some portions may not be dispersed in the first application. A second spray could be done to try todisperse the remainder. If however, it is observed that the dispersant is

having little or no effect after this, the operation in that area should becurtailed and the appropriateness of using dispersants should bereconsidered.

7.3.2 Spraying from ships

Almost any size ship has a useful role to play in dispersant spraying. Largetugs, supply vessels or even warships can carry substantial loads of

dispersant and remain on site, spraying, for long periods. Smaller vessels,such as inshore fishing vessels are versatile and manoeuvrable and canmake a useful impact on patches of oil close to shore.

While ships are readily available in most coastal areas, can carry largeloads of dispersant and are versatile, they are also very much slower thanaircraft. This means that for a fast response, potentially available vesselsshould be identified, with spraying equipment permanently mounted or stored nearby. In some circumstances, for example if the oil is weathering rapidly or drifting rapidly towards the shore, ships may be too slow to

make any useful contribution. They are however, very useful for spills that occur close to ports and harbours, especially if they are stationed nearby. The effective use of ships is dependent on sea state and their treatment capability is strongly reduced when the sea becomes rough (Beaufort sea state 53–4). To maximize efficiency, vessels should apply dispersants when heading into the wind.


110





Spraying dispersant from a vessel

7.3.3 Shipborne spraying equipment

A number of different sizes of spray set are available, ranging from large,permanently mounted equipment for use on tugs to small, portableinshore spray sets for use by small vessels. Spray booms extend fromeither side of the vessel and produce a flat fan-shaped pattern from each

nozzle striking in a line perpendicular to the boat’s course (figure 7-1).Because of the tendency of the bow wave to move oil aside, the spray booms should be mounted as far forward as possible. Spray nozzlesshould match pump rates to give a uniform spray of coarse droplets.Energy is needed to ensure the dispersant and the oil are well mixed. This will happen naturally in Beaufort sea states of 3 or more. The bow wave of the vessel also provides wave mixing energy and the ship’s propellers canalso be used to create mixing. In the past, proprietary mechanical devices were used, towed behind the ship to actively mix the dispersant and oil. This practice has not been used much recently, given the development of

newer dispersant formulations that require less active physical mixing and for which the other sources of mixing are usually sufficient.

Figure 7-1 – Typical vessel dispersant spray boom


111





One example of a widely available dispersant spray system is a low pressure portable unit that can deliver about 75 ‘ per minute, either undiluted or diluted with seawater. An inshore version is available which

is smaller and suitable for use on launches or other small vessels and which will deliver about 20 ‘ per minute. High pressure spray boomsystems are also available delivering about 1,000 ‘ per minute.

Spray booms usually need support from masts and wires that must belight, easily demountable and protected from corrosion. The length of a boom should be such that in normal conditions, when the vessel is rolling from side to side, the boom will not enter the water – safety considerationsare paramount and, in any case, dispersant sprayed under water cannot reach the oil.

If purpose-made spray equipment is not available, it may be possible to usefire systems with the dispersant fed into the water stream via an eductor.However, as noted above, concentrate dispersants must be diluted at a controlled rate (10% dispersant by volume to 90% seawater by volume) and will generally be effective in a diluted condition on only some crude oilsbefore they have weathered. Water jets should not be pointed directly intothe oil slick but should be elevated so that the diluted dispersant falls likerain. Alternatively, spray or coarse fog nozzles may be used. In all cases it is

important to avoid the spray penetrating the oil and being lost in the water below.

Considerable control is necessary to ensure the dispersant/seawater mixture is sprayed onto thicker oil patches and should also be usedminimally to ensure over-dosing is avoided. As well as to avoid using excessive quantities of dispersant, this is also an important logistical issue when spraying from vessels. The rate of usage is relatively high and the on-board stocks of dispersant can be exhausted in a short time, necessitating a return to the operating base for more supplies, during which time the oilcontinues to weather, becoming less amenable to dispersants.

7.3.4 Spraying from aircraft

Fixed wing aircraft and helicopters can be used to apply oil spilldispersants from the air. Some aviation authorities prefer the use of aircraft with at least two engines for safety reasons. However, it isrecognized that turbine engines provide a higher degree of reliability than

piston engines and for this reason other aviation authorities allow singleengine turbine powered aircraft to be used for over-water spraying operations.


112





Dispersant spraying using light aircraft

Small aircraft carry a lesser load of dispersant, but can manoeuvre over broken areas of oil more readily than larger aircraft. Typically, a small twin-engine aircraft can carry 800–1,250 ‘ of dispersant, large single turbinepowered agricultural aircraft 1,850–3,100 ‘, DC3’s 5,000 ‘, DC6’s 13,000 ‘,L188 Electra’s 15,000 ‘, and a C130 Hercules fitted with an AirborneDispersant Delivery System (ADDS) 20,000 ‘. The larger aircraft operatefrom established airports. Agricultural type aircraft have the ability tooperate from rural airstrips or landing grounds close to the scene of anincident.

Some fixed-wing aircraft can carry a large payload

113






Helicopters offer a flexible aerial spraying option. They are moremanoeuvrable than most fixed wing aircraft, and can be a preferableoption for use on small spills or in areas that are inaccessible by surface

vessels and fixed wing aircraft. The main disadvantage of helicopters istheir relatively low transit speed and carrying capacity and limited range.In comparison with fixed wing aircraft, helicopters cannot cover largedistances with significant payloads.

7.3.5 Aerial spraying equipment

Spray sets for aircraft can be either permanently mounted or portable. A

pump system delivers dispersant to a spray boom mounted under thefuselage or along the wings. Only concentrate dispersants are recom-mended for aerial spraying, and the pumps and pipework should beappropriate for use with these higher viscosity products. Some crop-spraying equipment may need to be modified to provide an adequate flow rate.

The rate of delivery of the equipment should be appropriate to the dose raterecommended by the dispersant manufacturer (see table 7-2). For example,a typical dose rate of 1 part of dispersant to 20 parts of oil will require 50 ‘

of dispersant per hectare to treat oil 0.1 mm thick.

Although droplet size is important, experience has shown that it is difficult to regulate. Ideally, droplets should be between about 300 and 1,000microns in diameter. At this size they are too large to form mists which aresusceptible to wind drift, but are not so large that they pass through the oilto be lost in the sea below. Fortunately, the wind shear behind an aircraft tends to cause the dispersant to break up into droplets of about this size,almost regardless of nozzle diameter. However, it is desirable to run a

small-scale test spray to confirm the effectiveness of the spray systembefore full-scale application.

For maximum efficiency a reasonably uniform distribution of dispersant across the width of the swath is required. Careful attention to the spacing of nozzles along the boom will achieve this. Again a test spray should becarried out.


114





Helicopter dispersant spraying system

There are two types of helicopter spray systems. The integral or on-boardtype has a tank and pump in the helicopter with a spray boom in theforward part. The pump can be powered directly from the engine or by electricity. In the second type, commonly referred to as a bucket system,the whole unit is carried below the helicopter in a pod. Spray pumps areusually powered by a diesel or gasoline power pack mounted on the pod,

and controlled through an electrical cable connected to a control unit inthe cockpit.

7.3.6 Strategy for application at sea

Dispersant sprayed on sheen, or at the edges of thicker oil that is already turning to sheen, is wasted. Vessels and aircraft should be guided onto thethick patches of oil, which will be coloured black or brown. The thicker oilin a slick is usually found towards the down-wind edge, but if the slick arises from a continuous source, such as a well blow-out, the thicker

patches will be near the source.Larger aircraft generally spray while heading into the wind to control therate of application over the water. Downwind spraying may be practicable when the wind velocity is low or when aircraft fitted with GPS and moderncomputer controlled spray systems carry out the spraying. GPS measuresthe speed of advance over the water and an on-board computer adjusts thespray rate. Crosswind spraying may sometimes be useful but can result inunder-dosing and wastage of dispersant. If the slick is large enough, vessels should align in an overlapping echelon formation, but where it is

broken into windrows they should break formation and be guidedindividually onto the thicker patches.

7.3.7 Application on shore

Many administrations do not permit the use of dispersants on shorelinesprimarily because concentrations of dispersed oil are likely to besignificant and risk damage to environmental resources in the immediate


115





vicinity. Elsewhere, and particularly in countries where there is strong tidal flushing, carefully controlled shoreline use may be approved under specific circumstances. Dispersants can only be used on shorelines after

the bulk oil has been removed and are generally reserved for cleaning rocks and man-made surfaces in high amenity areas. Some of thosecountries where the use of dispersants on shorelines is permitted, only approve the use of products which have passed a separate toxicity test specifically for shoreline use.

Manual application of dispersants to a rocky shore

For best results dispersants are sprayed on the oily surface from a backpack sprayer at a dose rate of 20:1 (oil:dispersant) and thenmechanically mixed into the oil using stiff brushes. The oil/dispersant mixture can either be flushed off with seawater or, provided the area to becleaned is in the intertidal zone, it can be left to be washed off by the rising tide.

Further information on the use of dispersants on shorelines is provided inthe chapter dealing with shoreline cleanup.


116





Table 7-2 – Dispersant application systems – typical operating characteristics

117


( y )

( x )

( x 6

y )

D i s p e r s i n g

s w a t h

w i d t h

m e t r e s

D i s p e r s i n g

s p e e d

k m / h

D i s p e

r s a n t

p a y l o a d

l i t r e s

D i s p e r s a n t

p u m p r a t e

‘ / s e c

R a n g e

w i t h

f u l l l o a d

k m

T r a n s i t

s p e e d

k m / h

T i m e t o

d e p l e t e

p a y l o a d

m i n

R u n

w a y

l e n

g t h

m e

t r e s

A e r i a l

c o v e r a g e

r a t e

k m

2 / m i n

A e r i a l

c o v e r a g e

m 2

H e r c u l e s / E l e c t r a

3 0 – 6 0

2 4 0 – 3 1 0

7 6 0 0 – 2 1 0 0 0

1 9 – 4 0

6 5 0 – 1 3 0 0

3 2 0 – 4 8 0

7 – 1 9

1 5

0 0

4 3 2 – 1 1 1 6

3 0 2 4 – 2 1 2 0 4

D C 6 ,

D C 4 ,

D C 3

3 0 – 6 0

2 4 0 – 3 1 0

5 0 0 0 – 1 2 0 0 0

1 9 – 4 0

6 5 0 – 1 3 0 0

3 2 0 – 4 8 0

5 – 1 1

1 5

0 0

4 3 2 – 1 1 1 6

2 1 6 0 – 1 2 2 7 6

S m a l l , s i n g e e n g i n e d

1 2 – 1 8

1 1 0 – 1 5 0

3 8 0 – 1 1 4 0

2 . 5 – 6 . 5

1 4 0 – 2 8 0

1 5 0 – 1 8 0

2 . 5 – 3

6 0 0

7 9 2 – 1 6 2 0

1 9 8 0 – 4 8 6 0

H e l i c o p t e r s

1 5 – 2 4

7 5 – 1 5 0

3 8 0 – 2 3 0 0

2 . 5 – 7 . 5

7 5 – 2 2 0

1 5 0 – 1 8 5

3 – 5

n

/ a

6 7 5 – 2 1 6 0

2 0 2 5 – 1 0 8 0 0

V e s s e l s

1 2 – 3 0

9 . 5 – 1 9

1 0 0 – 1 0 0 0

0 . 3

2 – 1 . 2

5

V a r i a b l e

1 8 . 5 – 3 7

V a r i a b l e

n

/ a

V a r i a b l e

V a r i a b l e









Chapter 8 In situ burning

8.1 Introduction

There have been many instances of oil spilled from vessels accidentally being ignited and largely consumed in the resulting fire. The intentional

burning of spilled oil on the sea surface, known as in situ burning, under certain conditions is a potentially effective way of removing largequantities of oil in a relatively short period of time. The techniques havebeen researched since the early 1970’s but have rarely been used in actualoil spill cases.

Given the potential for dealing with large oil volumes, however, it is stillconsidered promising and worthy of some development. If proven methodsare realized, it will offer an advantage in some cases over more conven-tional techniques such as containment and recovery, because logistically,

it is relatively simple and reduces the need for storage, handling andtransfer, treatment and then disposal of any oil and oily water collected.

Accidental ignition and burning of oil cargo

119





One of the conditions where in situ burning has been proved effective is for oil spills in ice conditions. In these circumstances, the successfuldeployment of booms and skimmers is less likely, or even unfeasible,

while the ice can act as a natural barrier against/amongst which the oil isheld in sufficient quantities and thickness to be burnt effectively. In situ burning offers opportunities in remote areas, where the logistical require-ments of other techniques become severe or prohibitive. For open sea conditions, fireproof booms have been developed to corral floating oil for burning, but most are presently heavy and cumbersome to handle anddeploy, and further developments are needed before at-sea operations arebroadly feasible. In-situ burning may offer promise for salt marshes andsimilar sensitive sites where conventional cleanup is often restricted toavoid further damage.

8.2 Features of in situ burning

Ignition of an oil slick occurs when the surface temperature of the slick reaches its flashpoint – the point where hydrocarbons are vaporized insufficient quantities to support combustion. For flames to spread andcombustion to be sustained, the slick surface temperature must reach its

‘fire point’, which is usually several degrees higher than the flashpoint. This fire point is the temperature at which the rate of vaporization is equalto, or greater than, the rate of combustion. As burning progresses, the slick becomes thinner, thereby reducing the insulating capacity of the oil layer.Extinction occurs when the heat loss has increased to the point where theslick surface temperature drops below the fire point. A burning slick willgenerally self-extinguish once the slick thickness has decreased to about 1 mm.

The properties of the oil, at the time of trying to burn it, will determine the

level of heat input required to reach the fire point. Most oils will burnsuccessfully if the slick is thick enough and sufficient energy is availableto ignite the slick and maintain the burning process. Fresh crude oils aremore amenable to burning, weathered oils generally require a longer heating time for ignition. Emulsions are difficult to ignite and usually impossible once the water content has passed 25%, although emulsion-breaking chemicals can be used prior to ignition to alleviate this.

If the slick is too thin, heat escapes to the underlying water, the slick never reaches its fire point and a sustained burn cannot be achieved. Generally,

a slick thickness of 2–3 mm is needed to ensure successful ignition, but for weathered crudes this may need to be 3–5 mm, and for residual fueloils as much as 5–10 mm.

Strong winds or high sea states may prevent ignition of a slick or extinguish the fire. The limit for successful burning is a wind of about 20 knots and waves of about 1 m.


120





In situ burning using fire-proof booms

To achieve the minimum slick thickness prior to ignition and to prevent

spreading once ignited, the oil will generally need to be contained. This canbe done using a fire-resistant boom, or through natural means such asagainst a shoreline or within broken ice. In open waters, a fire-resistant boom would be towed in a U-shape configuration behind two vessels, untilsufficient oil had been collected for it to be thick enough to burn. Of course,such operations are susceptible to the same difficulties experienced inconventional containment and recovery operations in so far as oilencounter rates are often very low, sea conditions preclude oil remaining within the boom and vessel operations need very careful control to besuccessful.

Most fire-resistant booms resemble conventional containment booms but are made of fire-resistant materials such as refractory fabrics or stainlesssteel. Others achieve their fire-resistance through the cooling action of water that is actively supplied to the boom fabric. Because of the materialsused to provide fire-resistance, most fire booms are heavier and bulkier instorage than conventional booms. Research is ongoing to develop productsthat are more durable, more fire-resistant, and more easily deployed.

The method of ignition will depend on the circumstances of the spill and a range of igniters have been developed, generally to be hand-thrown, either

from ground-level or from helicopters. These igniters use a variety of fuelsincluding solid propellants, gelled kerosene cubes and reactive chemicalcompounds, or a combination of these. A helicopter-slung ignition systemhas also been adapted from forest fire-fighting operations which dispensesa stream of burning gelled gasoline to heat and ignite the slick. Oil slickshave also been ignited with rags or sorbent pads soaked in diesel fuel.Explosive and other highly energetic devices have proven to be ineffective

Chapter 8 – In situ burning

121





because they disrupt the slick surface upon ignition and do not effectively transfer heat to the slick surface.

The term ‘burn efficiency’ is often used when describing in situ burning. It is simply a measure of the amount of oil removed by burning compared tothe amount of residue left. For example, burning a 2 mm thick slick downto 1 mm thickness would be deemed 50% efficient, while a 20 mm thick slick reaching the same 1 mm thickness would be deemed 95% efficient.

8.3 Environmental and health considerations

There are two main issues related to in situ burning: the production of a large and dense, black plume of smoke, and the residues of material that remain after the burning has stopped.

The generation of a dense smoke plume is unsightly and its existenceraises public concerns over possible health risks. The smoke plumeconsists largely of carbon particles and gases and it is the particulates that commonly give rise to greatest concern. The smoke particles vary greatly insize and those below 10 microns are small enough to be inhaled into thelungs (often referred to as PM-10’s). The emissions from in situ burning and particulate concentrations in the plume are greatest at the burn site,diminishing away from there, primarily through dilution, dispersion and

fallout, but also through washing out by rain and snow. Other substancessuch as Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH’s) and Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOC’s) are found to drop to background levels a short distance from the burn site, and highly toxic dioxins and dibenzofuranshave not been recorded. As a general precaution, in situ burning should beavoided directly upwind of heavily populated areas and a recommendedsafe distance downwind of a burn site is in the range of 1–5 km, depending on meteorological conditions.

The fallout of soot and atomized oil particles, which can cause secondary

damage, has been reported in incidents, for example, where tankers havecaught fire. The actual smoke plume behaviour and the rate of soot fallout will be influenced by the type of oil burned, the surrounding terrain andthe environmental conditions, such as wind and rainfall, during and after the burning.

Depending on the oil type and the circumstances of the burn itself, varying amounts of residue will be left after the burn has extinguished. Theresidue is a highly adhesive, tar-like substance in the form of mats andsemi-solid masses composed of unburned and partially burnt oil, highly

evaporated oil and re-precipitated soot particles. The properties of the burnresidue vary with burn efficiency, initial oil properties and the initial slick thickness. However, it is often neutrally-buoyant or in some cases moredense than seawater and can sink. Recovery of this residue is important, toavoid creating other problems, but the viscosity and adhesiveness of theresidue will restrict the use of heavy oil skimmers and pumps and sub-surface oil will be difficult or impossible to collect.


122





The toxicity of burn residue is not greatly different from, but generally lessthan, that of the original oil. However, residue in the water column or onthe sea-bed can interfere with fishing activities and cause damage to

equipment, and residue deposited on the sea bed can smother benthicorganisms and damage fishing grounds.

In many jurisdictions, Government approval will be required prior to theuse of in situ burning of an oil spill. The main concerns are the trade-offsbetween the sensitivity of nearby populations and other resources to theair emissions and residues created by the burning oil, and the feasibility of other response techniques that might be available. As with other responsetechniques, it is essential that contingency planners evaluate the potentialnet environmental benefit of in situ burning for various scenarios within

their scope of operations and take steps prior to the spill to facilitate thedecision-making and approval process.

8.4 Safety considerations

There are a number of safety issues to consider in preparing a burn planfor response to an oil spill. Of primary concern is that the burn does not flash back to the source of the spill, for example, the stricken vessel. Caremust be taken to ensure that the fire does not spread to other combustiblematerial in the area, such as other oil slicks and floating debris, to

response vessels and when close the shore, to forested or inhabited areas.In addition, those in charge should ensure appropriate safety proceduresare in place for in situ burning operations, which comply with local andnational legislation, and operators should be properly trained in theexecution of their operations.

Portable explosimeters can be used to detect flammable vapour concen-trations in the vicinity of a planned burn to confirm safe approachdistances. The nature of the spill, the weather conditions, and thereliability of communications and spotter aircraft, should all be considered

carefully in establishing a well understood and clearly defined burn plan. A burn plan must also include contingencies for unexpected conditions suchas a shift in the wind direction or a vessel power failure.

Good communications must be maintained throughout in situ burning activities, including all vessels, aircraft and ground-based operations.Radio contact would be used among the various parties involved in theoperation to apprise each other of their positions relative to each other, theleading edge of the burning oil, the spill source and other slicks in the area. Aeroplanes or helicopters would be used to provide guidance to surface

vessels in locating thick portions of the slick and to co-ordinate multi- vessel operations.

Safe operating zones should be established for surface vessels and aircraft. The size of the fire will dictate the distance that vessels and responsepersonnel should maintain from the fire. Based on measurements fromlarge oil fires, a minimum of 3–5 fire diameters is recommended as a safeapproach distance. Personnel located on boats or aircraft that may be in

Chapter 8 – In situ burning

123





close proximity to the burn or find themselves temporarily in the path of the smoke plume should be equipped with appropriate personal protectiveequipment. Such protection might include fire-resistant outer garments,

full-mask or half-mask respirators (with safety goggles) and filtersdesigned to handle particulates as well as organic vapours.


124





Chapter 9Shoreline response

9.1 Introduction

Based on past experience, if an oil slick is moving towards the shoreline it is likely that, regardless of response measures taken at sea, oil will reachthe shore. This can result in contamination of the shoreline, and cleaning operations may be necessary to allow the coast to recover its natural stateand socio-economic value.

Shoreline cleanup can be labour intensive and rarely utilizes specially designed equipment. Consequently, locally available labour and equip-ment is often used. The use of unskilled labour means that cleanup teams

need to be trained on site and closely supervised. Similarly, the use of equipment that is not designed specifically for shoreline cleaning requiresclose monitoring of cleanup operations.

The decision whether or not to clean the affected shoreline will depend onfactors such as:

.1 the potential effect of stranded oil on biological resources;

.2 the potential effect of stranded oil on commercial activities;

.3 the potential effect of the stranded oil on recreational activities;

.4 the possibility that stranded oil might be remobilized andcontaminate other, perhaps more sensitive, areas;

.5 the potential effects (both beneficial and harmful) of cleanup;

.6 the feasibility of cleanup operations;

.7 political and public pressure; and

.8 cultural factors.

125





Oiled rocky shore

The selection of the most appropriate methods and equipment to be usedin each case will then be determined by other factors such as:

.1 presence of hazards;

.2 character, amount and distribution of stranded oil;

.3 character of the shoreline;

.4 tidal range and times;

.5 prevailing weather and sea conditions;

.6 availability of equipment;

.7 accessibility of the contaminated areas for equipment;

.8 availability of personnel;

.9 presence of sensitive wildlife or other features which may bedamaged by cleaning operations;

.10 availability of local transport, storage and treatment anddisposal facilities for the recovered material;

.11 costs; and

.12 national, State or regional policies and priorities.

For some high risk areas, many of these factors are already known and sopre-spill planning can be undertaken.

Shoreline response may comprise five stages:

.1 Pre-spill contingency planning;

.2 Shoreline spill assessment;


126





.3 Primary cleanup stage, which consists of removal of free oil andheavy contamination. This is undertaken as soon as possible inorder to avoid remobilization of the oil and further pollution;

.4 Secondary cleanup stage, which consists of the removal of further oil and oily material and then residues and stains fromshoreline. This stage may also include longer-term measuressuch as bioremediation;

.5 Site restoration, during which damage caused by the oil or thecleanup is repaired.

9.2 Pre-spill contingency planning

Whether or not to clean particular shorelines and the selection of techniques to be used, should be documented in the relevant contingency plan for the area. Wherever possible this should be based on anassessment of the considerations noted above. In most cases the featuresthat might arise in a particular spill cannot be predicted with certainty andso considerable flexibility is required in most contingency plans. Never-theless, delays in the response could mean the pollution situationdeteriorates further. For example, the oil may become mixed with, or buried by, fine sediments such as sand; or may weather and adhere to

rocks, vegetation or structures such as piles and sea walls. Stranded oil or oily debris may also be remobilized and spread. These processes willincrease the difficulty and costs of cleaning.

9.2.1 Shoreline character

The character of a shoreline will influence the distribution and persistenceof oil and also the applicability of the various cleanup strategies. Along with the cleanup method used, it will also influence the quantity and typeof waste produced. Large quantities of oily material may be collectedduring shoreline cleanup and disposal of this material can be a major constraint. Waste management is dealt with in a later chapter of thisManual.

Shoreline character comprises four components:

.1 substrate type – the material that the shore is comprised of;

.2 shoreline form – the shape of the shoreline;

.3 energy (or exposure) – a function of currents, wind and waves;and

.4 biological character – the plant and animal communitiespresent.

These features are interrelated. For example, the energy of a shorelineinfluences the shape of the shoreline and also the type of material that it ismade of (substrate). The plants and animals present also tend to reflect theenergy of a shoreline and its substrate.

Chapter 9 – Shoreline response

127





Oiled cobble shore

The physical characteristics of a shoreline influence the potentialbehaviour and distribution of oil and this is summarised in table 9-1. The influence of shoreline character on the suitability of the variouscleanup methods is discussed below.

The biological character of a shoreline can also present a major constraint on cleanup activities. The presence of sensitive wildlife on the effectedshoreline may mean that cleanup cannot be attempted without theassistance of trained wildlife officers, e.g. the presence of seals or sea lions,particularly if pups are present. In some situations cleanup may not be

possible at all, e.g. the presence of nesting birds in adjacent areas or thepresence of dangerous wildlife.

In other cases, where the biological features can be protected from theeffects of cleanup, the presence of plants or animals on a shoreline may result in a shoreline being assigned a high priority for cleanup.


128





Table 9-1 – Behaviour of oil on some common types of shoreline

Physical characterEnergy and comments

Substrate FormBedrock Cliffs and

platformsOil can be held off outcrops and cliffs by reflected

waves but may be thrown above the splash zone by waves and wind where it may accumulate on roughor porous surfaces. In tidal regions, oil collects inrock pools and may coat rocks throughout the tidalrange. This oil is usually rapidly removed by waveaction but is more persistent in sheltered waters. Oilmay persist in crevices and on porous substrates.

Artificial Sea walls

Boulder (4250 mm)

Beachesand rip-rap

Oil may penetrate deeply into the cracks and crevicesin these shorelines. In high energy conditions they

tend to self-clean rapidly. Oil may persist in deepcrevices or in associated fine sediments (e.g. pebble,gravel and grit).

Cobbles,pebbles andshingle(52 to 250 mm)

Beaches Generally, oil penetration decreases with decreasing substrate particle size. In areas experiencing strong

wave action, surface sediments are cleaned quickly by abrasion whereas buried oil may persist for sometime. Low viscosity oils may be flushed out of thebeach by natural water movement.

Sand

(5

2 mm)

Beaches,

spits or banks

Particle size, water table depth and drainage

characteristics determine the oil penetration of sandbeaches. Coarse sand beaches tend to shelve moresteeply and dry out at low water enabling somedegree of penetration to occur particularly with low

viscosity oils. Oil is generally concentrated near tothe high water mark. Fine-grained sand is usually associated with a flatter beach profile remaining wet throughout the tidal cycle so that little penetrationtakes place. However, oil can be buried in theseshorelines under surf conditions or during periods of beach accretion (build-up).

Mud and silts Intertidalflats,mangrovesand salt marshes

Extensive deposits of mud are characteristic of low energy shorelines. Little penetration of the substrateby oil occurs if the sediment is waterlogged,particularly if the oil is viscous. Oil can persist on thesurface over long periods. Oil may percolate intomuds that are dry at low tide or contain numerousanimal burrows and plant root channels. If the spillcoincides with a storm, oil may become incorporatedin the sediment and subsurface oil may persist for many years.

Corals Reefs Most corals are submerged at all stages of the tide

and so are unlikely to be affected by floating oil. Insome parts of the world, corals are exposed at low water and oil may impact the coral resulting inserious damage to the reef communities. However,the strong currents and wave conditions associated

with coral reefs are likely to bring about rapidcleaning.


129





9.3 Shoreline spill assessment

Shoreline assessment involves the documentation of the features of an

oiled shoreline that need to be considered in planning a suitable response.In addition to the shoreline character noted above, assessment teams needto document the character and distribution of the oil and any logistical or environmental constraints that may be present.

The degree of oiling and oil character will vary over time and different methods may need to be selected as the cleanup progresses. Ongoing assessment of shorelines will assist in the selection of the most suitablecleanup method.

Oil distribution should be documented as accurately as possible and not using subjective terms such as heavy, medium or light oiling. The use of simple terms such as those defined in table 9-2 is recommended.

Table 9-2 – Parameters used to describe the distribution of oil on shorelines

Parameter Notes

Length (m) The distance along a shoreline that is oiled

Width (m) The distance from the top of the highest elevation of the shore that is oiled to thebottom

Percentage cover An estimate of the percentage of thesubstrate surface within the area that isoiled

Thickness (mm or cm) The distance from the substrate surface tothe top of the oil layer. Often this cannot bemeasured accurately because the surface

layer is too thin.

Depth The depth below the surface that is oiled. For buried oil, depth should be measured fromthe top of the substrate surface to the oily layer.


130





Saltmarsh – a low energy shoreline

9.4 Shoreline cleanup methods A number of methods are available for shoreline cleanup, ranging frommanual cleanup to the use of mechanical cleaning equipment. Table 9-3summarises the methods that may be utilized for both primary andsecondary cleanup of different types of shoreline. It provides guidance ontechniques which are generally recommended, possibly useful or whichare not applicable or recommended.

Oils may pose hazards to human health, in particular from prolonged skincontact and inhalation of vapours. Some crude oils contain hydrogen

sulphide gas which is highly toxic. Proper safety precautions should beexercized by all response personnel coming into contact with oils.

The most flammable and acutely toxic components of the oil will probably have evaporated by the time the oil has reached the shore. Nevertheless,the oil may still generate disagreeable vapours and require the wearing of protective masks or breathing equipment. Cleanup personnel should besupervised and given adequate rest periods. Suitable protective clothing –gloves, overalls and boots – should be provided and used to prevent oilcontacting the skin of cleanup personnel. All personnel should have ready

access to personal hygiene and sanitary facilities. Oil can make working surfaces slippery and all personnel should be advised to take great care when climbing or working on oil-covered rocks and man-made structures.

131






Table 9-3 – Application of techniquesto different shoreline types


132

P R I M A R Y C L E A N U P

F I N A L C L E A N U P

P u m p i n g /

s k i m m

i n g

M e c h a -

n i c a l

r e m o v a l

M a n u a l

r e m o v a l

N a t u r a l

r e c o v e r y

C o m m e n t s

L o w

p r e s s u r e

f l u s h i n g

H i g h

p r

e s s u r e

w a

s h i n g /

s a n d

b l

a s t i n g

D i s p e r -

s a n t s

N a t u r a l

o r g a n i c

s o r b e n t s

B a t c

h

w a s h i n g

N a t u r a l

r e c o v e r y

C o m m e n t s

R o c k s ,

b o u l d -

e r s a n d a r t i f i -

c i a l s t r u c t u r e s

V

N / A

V

+

P o o r a c c e s s m a y

p r e v e n t p u m p i n g /

s k i m m i n g .

E x p o s e d / r e m o t e

s h o r e l i n e s b e s t l e f t

t o n a t u r a l r e c o v e r y .

N / A

V

+

+

N / A

V

A v o i d e x c e s s i v e

a b r a s i o n o f r o c k s /

a r t i f i c i a l s t r u c t u r e s .

C l e a n u p o f b o u l d -

e r s d i f f i c u l t a n d

o f t e n g i v e s p o o r

r e s u l t s .

C o b b l e s ,

p e b b l e s a n d

s h i n g l e

V

X

V

+

E x p o s e d / r e m o t e

s h o r e l i n e s b e s t l e f t

t o n a t u r a l r e c o v e r y .

V

X

+

+

+

+

I f l o a d b e a r i n g

c h a r a c t e r g o o d ,

c o n s i d e r p u s h i n g

o i l e d m a t e r i a l t o

s u r f z o n e t o

e n h a n c e n a t u r a l

r e c o v e r y .

S a n d

V

+

V

+

H e a v y e q u i p m e n t

o n l y a p p l i c a b l e o n

f i r m

b e a c h e s .

V

X

+

N / A

+

+

S o l i d o i l c a n b e

r e c o v e r e d u s i n g

g e n e r a l b e a c h

c l e a n i n g m a c h i n e s .

E n h a n c e n a t u r a l

r e c o v e r y b y p l o u g h -

i n g / h a r r o w i n g .

M u d f l a t s ,

m a r s h e s a n d

m a n g r o v e s

+

X

+

V

O p e r a t i o n s p r e f -

e r a b l y c a r r i e d o u t

o n t h e w a t e r f r o m

s m a l l , s h a l l o w

d r a u g h t v e s s e l s .

+

X

X

+

N / A

V

O p e r a t i o n s s h o u l d

p r e f e r a b l y b e

c a r r i e d o u t o n t h e

w a t e r f r o m

s m a l l ,

s h a l l o w d r a u g h t

v e s s e l s .

N o t e : S o m e o f t h e s

e t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h a s t h e u s e o f d i s p e r s a n t s , m a y r e q u i r e p r e - a p p r o v a l b e f o r e u s e .

V

¼

v i a b l e

+

¼

p o s s i b l y u

s e f u l

X

¼

n o t r e c o m

m e n d e d

N / A

¼

n o t a p p l i c

a b l e





9.4.1 Natural recovery

In certain cases the only practical option will be to leave stranded oil todissipate naturally. This may be justifiable in areas of very high ecologicalsensitivity in which any cleanup operation is likely to cause more damagethan the oil itself. Alternatively, it may be applicable in areas not considered to be economically, socially or environmentally sensitive andespecially those exposed to rough sea conditions where natural cleaning may be rapid. Oil may have to be left to degrade naturally if access to thecontaminated area is difficult because of its isolated location or difficult terrain.

Periodic monitoring is recommended in order to measure the rate of natural degradation or cleaning of the oiled areas. Notices should be

posted warning the public of the presence of stranded oil.

9.4.2 Manual removal of oil and oily sediment and debris

Manual collection has wide application and can be used on any type of coastline but is particularly appropriate for sensitive and inaccessibleareas. It is more selective than techniques involving machinery, but thecleanup can be relatively slow. The recovery of manually cleaned areastends to be more rapid, due to less physical disturbance.

Manual removal of oil (Note: heavy equipment is being kept in the cleaned areas)

Oiled material is collected with rakes, shovels or scrapers, depending onthe type and form of pollution. It is then transported either using vehicles,or manually, in dustbins or heavy gauge plastic bags. If bags or bins are tobe moved manually they should not be overloaded to allow safe and easy handling. Generally these should not weigh more than 25 kg. In remote


133





areas with limited access the removal of collected oily waste may call for improvisation using boats, rafts, non-specialized locally available resour-ces, or even helicopters and cargo nets, but care is needed in the execution

of any such activities to ensure safety and to avoid spillage.

9.4.3 Use of sorbents

Sorbents assist in the recovery of thin floating layers of oil which havebeen dislodged during cleaning operations. They may also be used in somecircumstances to protect beaches from incoming oil. Types of sorbents andtheir use are described in the earlier chapter of this Manual dealing withcontainment and recovery techniques.

Sorbents may be spread manually or by using special application

equipment. Oiled sorbents may be collected manually or with recovery units, depending on the type and quantity to be picked up.

9.4.4 Mechanical removal of oil and oily sediment and debris

Depending on local conditions, various types of earth-moving machinery such as graders, scrapers and front-end loaders can be used. On large,accessible beaches, such machinery can remove and transport large volumes of oiled sand. These devices can deal effectively with fresh and viscous oil on sandy beaches.

However, this technique is not selective and has a tendency to remove a very large amount of clean sand also. Typically, oil comprises only 1% to 5%of the collected material. This may be even lower if the layer of oil on thesediment surface is thin, or if oil has been worked below the surface by wave action. The use of machinery can also result in the mixing of the oilinto the beach. Wherever manual labour and basic tools are readily available and can be organized effectively to remove oil efficiently, they should be considered before mechanical means are used, to avoidgenerating excessive amounts of waste materials.

Large amounts of unwanted clean material are collected when using heavy machinery


134





Wherever possible the use of tracked vehicles should be avoided. Caremust be exercised to ensure that excessive removal of sand does not result in beach erosion. Thorough briefing of equipment operators is required.

Mechanical removal is not recommended for sensitive areas, but might beapplicable in the case of heavy pollution of recreational beaches that might need very rapid improvement.

When using mechanical removal equipment, the oiled material is usually skimmed by graders into ridges parallel to the shoreline, working downfrom the top of the beach. It is recovered by front-end loaders or elevating scrapers (see figure 9-1). Vehicles and equipment must not cross areas which have been cleaned to avoid mixing the remaining oil further into thesediment. The precise method of recovery depends on the equipment used,

but should operate from the clean side of the beach. The oily waste pickedup is then either conveyed directly to a vehicle alongside, or into a temporary storage area above the high tide mark.

In some areas beach cleaning machines are available. Although these havebeen specially designed for cleaning recreational beaches of litter andother debris, they are also suitable for the collection of solid oil in the formof tar balls. They may be self propelled or towed by a tractor. The most common operating principle is the removal of the top layer of the pollutedbeach followed by separation of the pollutant from the sand by sieving.

Like earth-moving machinery they should work from the top of the oiledbeach towards the water.

Figure 9-1 – Motor grader/elevating scraper sequence

9.4.5 Vacuum recovery of liquid oil, oily sediment and debris

Vacuum devices are the most efficient way of pumping stranded, pooled oilbecause the pollutant, which generally contains debris and sand, need not come into contact with the pump mechanism. Industrial, sanitary or agricultural vacuum trucks can be used to pump oil from open water or


135





pools provided there is good access to the beaches. The efficiency of pumping equipment may be increased by attaching a flattened (fishtailshaped) suction head to the hose, which permits the collection of thin

layers of oil. A specialized suction head may be attached to the vacuumtruck to allow continuous pumping. Other pumping methods may beuseful if the depth of the oil is sufficient, although the pump must have a high tolerance to solids. The throughput of vacuum systems varies.

Pooled oil, or oil on water, can be sucked or pumped directly into collection vessels. If the area covered is extensive, or if the liquid oil layer is thin, theoil can be scraped into trenches or pits dug into the sand and thenpumped into containers. These trenches or pits should be cleaned beforethey are filled by the tide. Oily debris should be scraped towards the

vacuum hoses.Entrainment of air into the hoses will often reduce efficiency and shouldbe avoided, except in the case of very viscous oil, where entrained air or water can assist the flow through the hoses. If vacuum systems are usedon the beach it should first be ascertained that the beach is firm enough tosupport the weight of the loaded trucks.

Vacuum recovery of oil using agricultural equipment

9.4.6 Sediment reworking

This technique can be used to clean lightly contaminated boulders, cobble,pebble and gravel and relies on natural wave action to slowly remove oilfrom sediments. It is particularly appropriate before or during thoseseasons when storms and heavy seas are expected.

One way of achieving this is to push the contaminated material into thesurf using a grader or bulldozer. The oiled material will be returned to the


136





beach by wave action and tidal movements and in the process wave actionand abrasion will remove the oil from the substrate. Remobilized oil may be collected using snare or other booms. If oiling is light or in the form of

weathered oil stains remobilized oil may be allowed to naturally disperse.

The technique can result in a change of beach profile and experts shouldbe consulted to ensure that this does not result in erosion or other problems. Pebble banks often provide important protection against coastalerosion. If they are pushed into the surf to remove oil, it is necessary toensure that they will be re-established by tide and wave action. Generally,it is recommended that this method should be used during a period of beach sediment build-up. Otherwise, action should be taken to replace thebanks. If the banks are naturally eroding or being reworked it is likely that they will self-clean and, if possible, should be left alone.

If a lightly contaminated beach has no recreational value or is not in use at the time, oily sediment can be left in place to weather, degrade and beremoved naturally. The rate of natural removal can be increased by reworking the sediment using a harrow, such as a disc-plough or a rotavator towed by a tractor. As the surface is cleaned by wave action theharrow is used to bring oily lower layers to the surface so that they can beexposed to wave action. The harrow is operated along the entire length of

the beach, parallel to the water’s edge, starting from the back-shore edge of the contaminated area. This process may need to be repeated a number of times.

This method is not suitable for fine sediments, such as sand, or where thebeach is rapidly accreting.

Deluge flushing of pebble beach


137





9.4.7 Low pressure washing or sediment flushing

Flooding the beach with seawater can be used to flush fluid oils and oily

debris from a variety of shoreline types. This method has less potential for damaging fauna and flora than most other methods and, providing thesubstrate is not significantly disturbed, the technique can be used in somesensitive areas. Since the oil displaced could re-contaminate another part of the shoreline, it should be contained by booms or channelled/directed tocollection sumps and recovered by skimmers, pumps or vacuum units.

Flushing should begin at the highest contaminated point and continuetowards the water’s edge. Care should be taken that oily runoff does not

contaminate clean parts of the shoreline below the oily band or that, if thisdoes occur, it can be cleaned and that no additional environmentaldamage is caused. If this is not possible, flushing of oily sediments in theupper intertidal zone may be restricted to times of high or rising tides.

9.4.8 High pressure washing

The use of high pressure water jets is sometimes used to remove weathered oil from hard surfaces. For substrates with little or no fauna or flora, hot water is sometimes used. Suitable equipment delivers water at a pressure ranging between 80 to 150 bar, if hot water is required a temperature of between 608C and 958C may be needed. If hot water is to beused the use of seawater is not recommended and a plentiful supply of fresh water is required. Some devices can also be used to deliver steam.High pressure washing should only be used on hard surfaces such asbedrock, boulders, cobble and artificial structures. Artificial structuresshould be monitored to ensure that this method is not damaging thestructure. This technique will destroy most of the marine biota living on

the surface, therefore expert environmental advice should be sought. The washing should begin at the top of the surface which has to be cleared andproceed downwards to its base. Bunds, trenches or booms should be usedto collect the oil and water mixture before recovery using skimmers or vacuum systems.


138





High pressure hot-water washing of rocks

High pressure washing may in some occasions be used to rework pebbleand cobble beaches. The high pressure water jets should be used to push

the sediment down the beach and then back up the beach. This may berepeated a number of times and the beach profile can be left close to itsoriginal contour after each reworking. However, care should be taken that the oil is not forced further down into the substrate.

9.4.9 Use of chemical agents

A number of agents are available for shoreline cleanup usually used inassociation with pressure washing or with flushing action of the tide.

Solvent-based products can be applied in advance of pressure washing toenhance the removal of oil, which may then be collected in the runoff.Surfactant based products, including all types of dispersant, are used in a similar way, but the oil that is released in the flushing process is held insuspension in the runoff and carried away in local shore currents todisperse naturally. Manual scrubbing of the chemical agent into an oilcoating on hard surfaces will assist with mixing and encourage theremoval process.

The efficiency of agents is limited, generally, by the viscosity of the oil,

although much less than when used at sea. Environmental considerationsmay also limit their use, particularly where runoff is carried away from thesite, for example near sensitive areas such as salt marshes, mangrovesand corals. They should not be used near seawater intakes or where the oilcould be carried further into the substrate, for example in cobbles, pebbles,gravels and dry sands. All products should be tested and approved prior touse on site.


139





Personnel using any chemical agent should wear suitable personalprotective equipment. The relevant Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)should be consulted before handling or applying any chemicals.

9.4.10 Sand and grit blasting

This method can be very efficient on flat hard areas, such as artificialstructures and leaves a very clean finish but the removed oil, sand/grit andsurface material needs to be collected. This method is very damaging toany marine fauna and flora and it can also damage the surface being cleaned, both natural and artificial e.g. sandstone sea walls. Cleanupshould proceed from the top downwards. Removed material can be pickedup from the beach by manual or mechanical means.

Operators and people nearby must be equipped with personal protectiveequipment, including breathing apparatus. In some countries the use of sand is prohibited.

9.4.11 Bioremediation

Bioremediation is the process of accelerating the degradation of oils by bacteria, yeasts and fungi. Usually the method involves the application of fertilizer mixtures to oiled sediments and sometimes aeration of the oily materials by sediment reworking. Naturally occurring micro-organisms are

utilized. Not all oils or oil components are biodegradable and so someresidues may remain. These will usually be removed by other naturalprocesses such as wave action. The degradation process is slow andbioremediation is not a cleanup method but may be considered as a possible polishing or restoration option. More information on bioremedia-tion techniques is provided in a separate chapter of this Manual.

9.5 Managing shoreline response

9.5.1 Organization

Those in charge should ensure appropriate safety procedures are in placefor shoreline cleanup operations, which comply with local and nationallegislation, and operators should be properly trained in the execution of their operations.

Proper organization of the work force engaged in shoreline cleanup is vitalto the success of the operation. Although organization structures andresponse role names may vary, generally a two-level organization structureis established:

.1 a command centre group, which directs the overall response, co-ordinates the collection and evaluation of data, monitors theefficiency of the cleaning operations, and organizes theallocation of resources for cleanup of the impacted shoreline;

.2 field teams, which undertake the cleanup operations. Theseteams also assess the situation on site and provide thecommand centre with the required data.


140





These aspects are covered in detail in the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution,Section II – Contingency Planning.

Overall direction of the cleanup operations should be by the incident commander of the response team. In larger responses, responsibility for shoreline response may be delegated to a shoreline co-ordinator.

All areas of field operations should be supervised, with regular reportsbeing provided to the command centre group detailing the activities andprogress/achievements, together with estimates of ongoing daily resourcerequirements for cleanup, temporary storage and disposal.

9.5.2 Command centre

A central command centre should be established from which the responseis directed. This centre should be easily accessible, sign-posted if necessary, and equipped with the necessary telecommunications equip-ment and basic office facilities.

If possible, accommodation and food for the members of the response teamshould be close to the base. For prolonged operation, establishment of a shift system may be necessary.

In a large response, forward command centres may need to be establishedcloser to the cleanup sites. Mobile command centres can be used for these.

These mobile units can also be used for the central command centre for small localized cleanups.

9.5.3 Communications

The command centres should be equipped with radio communications,telephone, fax and modem lines. Permanent contact should be kept with all working teams involved in a shoreline cleanup operation. Portable radio,radio-telephone systems and mobile phones are the most convenient means of communication between working sites and headquarters.Repeater stations may be needed for remote areas. Supervisors of field

teams should report to the command centre once or twice daily.

9.5.4 Security

Security may be required at both the command centre and on-site. Accessto oiled shorelines should be controlled to prevent the spread of contamination from the beach. Often the posting of suitable warning signs is sufficient but police or other security may be required. Large itemsof equipment may be left on site and this must be protected from theft or interference. Oiled equipment can also pose a health and safety risk to the

public.

9.5.5 Ongoing assessment

A good knowledge of the developing situation is essential for effectivecontrol of operations. A mechanism for regular reporting of progress madeby working teams should be established. Generally the assessment of shoreline oiling or progress of cleanup should be done by ground surveys.


141





Availability of a helicopter or a fixed wing aircraft may prove to be anadvantage in obtaining an overall picture of the situation especially if moreoil is expected to come ashore. Aerial surveillance is dealt with in more

detail in chapter 5.

9.5.6 Field support

Field teams must be supplied with a range of supplies and support facilities including:

.1 accommodation;

.2 food;

.3 washing and toilet facilities;

.4 first-aid facilities;

.5 shelter and rest areas;

.6 personal protective equipment;

.7 transport to and from the work site; and

.8 on-site cleaning facilities

9.5.7 Site management

In addition to controlling unauthorised access to oiled areas, a shoreline work site should be managed in order to prevent the spread of oil fromcontaminated to clean areas, to control access to hazardous areas and toprovide security to support areas such as refuelling and rest areas.Generally, three zones are identified:

.1 the ‘‘contaminated zone’’, the oily beach where cleanupoperations are undertaken or where oily waste is stored – oily equipment would also be in this zone;

.2 the ‘‘support zone’’ where clean equipment, rest areas, canteens

toilets, etc., would be located; and.3 the ‘‘public zone’’, which includes all areas with unrestricted

public access.

Generally, decontamination facilities are placed on the boundary of thecontaminated zone and the support zone so that all personnel andequipment may become clean as they move away from the oiled beach. Waste storage areas are also located at this boundary. Site security, if needed, would be at the boundary of the support zone and the public zone.

9.5.8 Training

It is often necessary to provide on-site training for personnel involved inshoreline cleanup. This will usually include training on appropriatetechniques and use of equipment, health and safety and instruction on theoverall management of the spill response. An ongoing training programme will be required during any prolonged response so that new personnel canbe inducted and so that existing personnel can be instructed in the


142





changing cleanup methods employed. Training procedures are describedmore fully in a later chapter of this Manual.

Training of shoreline cleanup workers

9.5.9 Equipment maintenance:

Maintenance of equipment used in the marine environment is necessary to avoid mechanical failures. A mechanic should be available to assist operators in maintaining and repairing equipment. Maintenance proce-dures are more fully described in a later chapter.

9.6 Site restoration

The final phase of shoreline response consists of repairing the damagecaused to the environment by oil contamination or by the cleanupactivities. Restoration may include:

.1 replacement of beach material or repair of structures;

.2 stabilization of sand dunes; and

.3 replanting vegetation.

In all cases it is recommended that the advice of specialists be sought inchoosing the best way of restoring the affected sites.

9.6.1 Replacement of beach material

The use of machinery to remove or rework oily sediments may result in an

altered beach profile and this could lead to erosion. Shoreline cleanupshould be carried out to ensure this is minimized or preferably avoidedaltogether. However, in some cases, where this has been unavoidable,sediments may need to be replaced, with clean material of approximately the same particle size range and the beach reworked to the original profile.Most shorelines will naturally recover their original profile, particularly if little sediment was removed and if cleanup occurred during an accretion


143





phase of the beach, i.e. at a time when sediments are being deposited onthe beach.

9.6.2 Restoration of sand dunes

Sand dunes may be affected by the movement of machinery, vehicles or people to and from the beach. In order to limit damage, traffic must bedirected along existing roads or tracks or along a few prepared routes.Some damage may, nevertheless, occur and after the cleanup, these may still have to be stabilized. This can be achieved through replanting damaged plants, deploying protective screens or mats or by limiting publicaccess. Specialist advice should be sought to ensure the choice of vegetation reflects the types indigenous to the affected area.

9.6.3 Replanting vegetation on saltmarshes

As a first step, it is necessary to evaluate the nature of any damage in order to determine if natural recovery is likely. If so, a monitoring programmeshould be established to observe the rate of natural recovery. Re-vegetationmay be advisable if:

.1 the affected area is used by rare or endangered species or migratory birds: lack of cover for a season could endanger thebiota;

.2 the marshland is exposed to erosion; and

.3 the marshland is used for fishing, hunting or recreation.

Two techniques are available to restore marsh vegetation, each with itsadvantages and disadvantages:

.1 Seeding: seeds can be sown manually or by aircraft. Thistechnique can be low cost but has some limitations: waves andcurrents may wash the seeds away before growth, migrating water birds may damage young plants, and there will be somedelay before the cover will be high enough to protect wildlife and

prevent erosion.

.2 Transplanting: this consists of planting young seedlings incleaned areas. Planting is done manually, ensuring precisecontrol concerning depth of planting, spacing between seed-lings, seasonal timing and tidal elevation, which requires advicefrom experts. This technique is labour intensive, but gives rapidresults: it is advisable to concentrate on the most important sites, i.e. those susceptible to erosion or providing specialhabitats.

9.6.4 Mangrove restoration

Restoration of mangroves following oil spill damage is feasible in somecases once the oil in and on the sediments has weathered, althoughsuccess to date has been variable. Success is dependent on expert controlas well as a range of natural factors such as wave action, tidal elevationand availability of seeds/propagules or young seedlings.


144





Several techniques have been used, including manual or aerial sowing of seeds/propagules and transplanting of local nursery seedlings. Planting isunlikely to be feasible in remote locations or for restoring large areas. The

sowing of seeds/propagules has greatest potential since it is likely to causeleast physical damage and, if obtained from local sources, minimal logisticand equipment support is required. Seeds and propagules should beobtained from the same location or region to ensure that local character ismaintained.

9.7 Care of wildlife

When an oil spill occurs, efforts should be made to minimize direct andindirect effects on shore ecosystems and on wildlife including fish, marine

mammals, aquatic reptiles and birds. Aerial, boat and pedestrian surveillance should be conducted to determine where the wildlife is concentrated and whether they are affected by the oil,or may be affected in future. Such surveillance should be conducted so asnot to cause unnecessary disturbance. Significant wildlife feeding, resting and breeding areas can sometimes be protected by boom deployment. Thesensitivity of coastal areas and priorities for protection should beestablished by contingency plans as described in the IMO Manual on Oil

Pollution, Section II – Contingency Planning.

Cleaning oiled birds is a specialized task

Noise-making devices, such as propane cannons, planes, helicopters, scareguns and other harassment methods have been effective in driving away some bird species threatened by oil spills. Visual scare techniques may also be used for birds. These could for example include balloons and kites with images of large birds of prey in silhouette. These techniques are called‘Bird hazing’. If birds are scared away from feeding and roosting areas it must be ensured that other suitable feeding and roosting sites, unaffected


145





by oil, are available. Such sites should then be protected from disturbanceso as to provide a stress-free environment. Bird hazing should not be usedin breeding sites as this may lead to abandonment of young. Such sites

should preferably be protected by booms as soon as possible and kept freefrom disturbance of personnel, boats, and aircraft.

The effective and humane treatment of oiled wildlife is a very specializedmatter and must be left to experts assisted by trained personnel. Handling of oiled wildlife carries with it health and safety risks. Wildlife can bedangerous to handle and can carry diseases and organisms harmful tohumans. Specific training in oiled wildlife techniques is essential for key personnel. If capture and treatment is necessary, it must be undertakenonly by personnel such as zoo or wildlife veterinarians or wildlife agency

officers who have experience in appropriate immobilization and anaes-thesia techniques and in the treatment of concomitant medical problems. Training for key personnel should take place prior to any oiled wildliferesponse and regular refresher courses are recommended.

Prevention should be the goal of any health and safety programme for oiled wildlife care workers. Protection equipment such as disposable suits, eyeprotection, gloves and where needed masks or breathing apparatus shouldbe issued to oiled wildlife care workers with instructions on its use.

Rehabilitation centres may have to be set up for treatment, cleaning rehabilitation and quarantine. Facilities should ideally be situated close toappropriate transportation routes, have substantial hot water supply, andbe well ventilated. Disposal oil/water/detergent mixtures resulting from washing wildlife must be carefully considered prior to the establishment of a rehabilitation facility. Expert personnel should be familiar withappropriate quarantine measures to prevent the spread of zoonoticdiseases from wildlife to humans. Quarantine protocols are also neededto prevent disease outbreaks amongst captive wildlife. Diseased wildlifemust be treated by experienced wildlife veterinarians.

It must be stressed that wildlife rehabilitation efforts must be conducted

with the view that animals are only to be held captive for the shortest timepossible. Where possible, a necropsy should be undertaken on all wildlife which dies in captivity to establish the cause of death. Pathology resultscan significantly contribute to the development of improved treatment andrehabilitation protocols for wildlife still in care.

The health status of wildlife must be assessed prior to release to ensurethat released animals do not pose a health risk to any wild population.Rehabilitated animals must also be fit, free of injury, waterproof, and fully capable of returning to life in the wild. Prior to release it must also be

established that any residual oil in the environment will not lead to re-oiling of wildlife. Prior to release it should also be confirmed that wildlifefood sources are deemed as adequate in the proposed release site.

Deceased wildlife left on shorelines may pose a health risk to humans andother wildlife and must be disposed of responsibly in consultation withlocal waste management authorities and in accordance with relevant waste management regulations.


146





Chapter 10 Bioremediation

10.1 Introduction

A wide variety of naturally-occurring micro-organisms are present in theenvironment that break down a range of substances, including hydro-carbons, into less complex forms. This process of biodegradation is a feature of all environmental systems. The introduction of hydrocarbons,for example during an oil spill, presents an opportunity for theseorganisms to proliferate if the conditions are right. Bioremediation is theactive use of techniques to mitigate the consequences of a spill using biological processes. It refers to the stimulation of pollutant biodegrada-tion and to enhanced ecosystem recovery

Although bioremediation has been used on occasion in spills, thetechnique is still subject to developments. Opportunities where bioreme-diation offer the most promise include low energy shoreline environments,low concentrations of oils that are readily biodegradable, generally warmer

climates and possibly areas where conventional cleanup are restricted dueto their inherent potential to cause further and longer-term damage.

The biodegradation of hydrocarbons may take place in the presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobicconditions). However, under anaerobic conditions the process occursmuch more slowly and is of little operational interest for bioremediation. The bacteria, moulds, yeasts and algae that are responsible for thebiodegradation process, also need additional food sources in the form of nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P), which are commonly available in the

marine environment. The following formula represents the typical patternof biodegradation under aerobic conditions:

1 kg Hydrocarbon + 2.6 kg O2 + 0.07 kg N + 0.007 kg P ¼41.6 kg CO2 + 1 kg H2O +

1 kg biomass

The products of the biodegradation process are therefore carbon dioxide, water and micro-organism biomass.

10.2 Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons

Not all components of oil will biodegrade to the same degree and the type of oil and its characteristics are therefore very important. The properties of different types of oil are described in detail in chapter 2. For bioremedia-tion, it is the complexity of individual components that determines whether they can be degraded and to what degree. Different groups of compounds may be identified, in order of biodegradability, from saturatedhydrocarbons (alkanes and cycloalkanes), through unsaturated hydro-

147





carbons and aromatics (including Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons – PAHs), toasphaltenes, resins and polar compounds.

Different parts of an oil will therefore exhibit very different degradationtendencies, with generally the lighter components being much morereadily broken down and the heavier, more complex componentsbiodegrading less readily over a much longer period of time, or indeednot breaking down at all. A light crude oil with a relatively high proportionof simple components may offer more opportunity for bioremediation than,for example a heavy crude oil or heavy fuel oil, which has relatively highproportions of the more complex components. It should also be noted that light petroleum products and diesel contain a relatively high proportion of toxic compounds, which can affect or even kill the micro-organisms

responsible for biodegradation.

Alkanes (or saturates) are degraded rapidly in the presence of oxygen by a wide range of micro-organisms. They can be subdivided into normalparaffins (straight-chain compounds, n -alkanes), branched-chain satu-rates and cyclic saturates (or napthenes or alicyclics). Whereas straight-or branched-chain saturates can degraded quickly and completely (degradation begins with straight-chained compounds), cyclic com-pounds degrade much slower and to a lesser extent.

Aromatics are compounds with one or more condensed aromatic (or benzene) rings that can also be branched (these include benzene and itsderivatives, substituted benzenes, two, three, four and even five ringedPAHs). Whereas light compounds (with 1 or 2 benzene rings) degradequite well and quickly, heavy compounds (with 5 or 6 benzene rings) aremuch more resistant to degradation.

The asphaltenes and resins are poorly defined mixtures of hydro-carbons found in heavy fractions (compounds with high molecular weight) of crude oils and heavy refined products, and may contain

compounds that are the by-products of crude oil degradation. Their rateof biodegradation has been shown to be slow (and incomplete) incomparison to the other hydrocarbon components in crude oil. Although asphaltenes and resins usually make up a small proportionof petroleum products, they are extremely resistant to biodegradation.

10.3 Bioremediation techniques

Bioremediation measures may conveniently be divided into those taken in situ and those carried out ex situ . In situ bioremediation techniques arethose that can be used directly on the polluted site. Ex situ bioremediationtechniques are conducted on material that has been removed from thepolluted area and placed in designated treatment sites. Ex situ techniquesinclude landfarming, composting and biopiling and some of these havebeen utilized successfully for many years, principally landfarming, which


148





has been exploited as a way of dealing with oily waste. The ex situ techniques are described in more detail in the chapter on disposal.

The main factors that influence the biodegradation process are theavailability of oxygen and nutrients. Many techniques are thereforefocused on measures that might be taken to manipulate the oxygen andnutrient levels to create optimum conditions for enhanced biodegradation. These are commonly termed biostimulation techniques. An alternateapproach is to introduce additional micro-organisms, to supplement thosepresent, and this is commonly termed bioaugmentation. Biostimulationand bioaugmentation are not mutually exclusive and may be carried out together.

An additional measure, phytoremediation, takes advantage of an alternate

biological process, namely the tendency of some plants to draw contaminants from the ground or alter them in the bio-chemical processof their growth, or enhancing microbiological activity in the sediment (around the roots). Phytoremediation is also considered to be a bioreme-diation technique.

10.3.1 Biostimulation

Most porous shorelines (sand, gravel, pebble and cobble) have very limitedamounts of carbon available and the introduction of hydrocarbons during

an oil spill will encourage micro-organisms to proliferate. At low oilconcentrations (provisionally estimated by research to be 51g of oil per kg of shore sediment), the availability of oxygen and the ambient concen-trations of nitrogen and phosphorous, should be sufficient for the oildegradation process to take place rapidly. However, at higher oilconcentrations, the growth of micro-organisms will become restricteddue to limiting levels of either oxygen or nutrients. Biostimulation is theactive provision of sufficient quantities of oxygen and nutrients to sustainthe micro-organisms so that they will continue to proliferate and maintainthe biodegradation process.

Nutrient addition

Nutrients may be applied to the shoreline to maintain sufficient concentrations. A commonly accepted ratio between carbon, nitrogenand phosphorus is C:N:P ¼ 100:10:1. The biodegradation process takesplace at the interface between hydrocarbon and water molecules.Nutrients therefore need to be available in soluble form amongst theindividual sediment particles that make up the shoreline. Trials have beencarried out on a variety of application methods. They include liquid

fertilizers and commercial agricultural fertilizers which may be obtainedreadily and easily applied. Solid, slow-release forms, such as briquettes,have also been tested, but need to be sufficiently dense and well tethered toavoid physical abrasion and rapid dissolution by tides and wave action.Slow release pellets and granules may offer an alternative, releasing nutrients on contact with sea or rain water, but can also be washed away before being effective. More recent developments include oleophilic

149

Chapter 10 – Bioremediation





nutrient formulations that may be attracted to the oil itself, reducing thetendency to be washed away. When applying nutrients in any of theseforms, care must be taken to avoid over-application and nutrient

accumulation, as this can cause eutrophication and toxic algal blooms.

Aeration

A shortage of oxygen can occur when the permeability of the shoresediment is insufficient to let the oxygen through to the micro-organisms.In some cases, it may be the presence of the oil itself that has reduced thepermeability, clogging the sediment interstitial spaces. To maintainaerobic conditions, the sediment may need to be physically disturbed by periodic raking, tilling or harrowing, either by hand or with a rotavator.

This is a common feature of the ex situ technique of landfarming and trialsalso indicate some success for in situ scenarios. However, some environ-mental systems are particularly sensitive to physical intrusion of any kind.Conventional shoreline cleanup methods are generally precluded or severely restricted in these places, and physical disturbance to encourageaeration should be considered if, and only to the extent that, noenvironmental damage will be caused. Also, when moving or disturbing materials on any shore, care should be taken not to bury the oil deeper inthe sediment.

10.3.2 Bioaugmentation

Some research has focused on the addition of micro-organisms to increasetheir quantity and diversity, so that biodegradation is accelerated.However, the introduced varieties are rarely as well adapted to that particular environment as indigenous ones. Competition favours the pre-existing micro-organisms, in part, as they are adapted to the environ-mental conditions at the site of interest. There is also a more generalconcern over the intentional introduction of foreign and/or genetically engineered micro-organisms into an ecosystem. Trials have shown little or

no success and this technique presently offers much less promise whencompared with possible biostimulation options.

10.3.3 Phytoremediation

This is the process of utilizing plant growth to accelerate the biodegrada-tion of oil. The hydrocarbons in the ground are either altered in the processof plant growth, or are taken up and metabolized by vegetation itself. Thesefeatures have previously received attention more as a possible long-termremediation technique to improve land contaminated by industrial

activity. Nonetheless, phytoremediation may offer opportunities in oilspills, particularly in freshwater wetlands and saltmarshes. In these areas,only minimal conventional cleanup is usually carried out. Phytoremedia-tion may offer opportunities, either through the addition of fertilizers tostimulate existing plant growth, or by introducing new plants that aretypical of the affected area, once the residual oil concentrations havediminished to levels that the plant can tolerate. In some cases, restoration


150





of plant growth has the added benefit of preventing or minimizing detrimental effects of erosion.

10.4 Opportunities for bioremediation

There may be a variety of shorelines affected by an oil spill, each with itsown features that need to be considered when deciding on shorelineresponse strategies. These will include the area’s sensitivity to oil pollutionand its sensitivity to different cleanup techniques. It is an important part of the contingency planning process to identify these features and toassess each area’s characteristics, importance and priority for cleanup,based on environmental, social and economic criteria.

There are several stages in any shoreline response, described in detail in a separate chapter of this Manual. In brief, primary cleanup should becarried out to remove free oil and heavy contamination, as quickly aspossible, to avoid remobilization and pollution of other areas. Secondary cleaning may be necessary, to remove further oil and oily material andthen, if necessary residues and stains.

Bioremediation is not a technique to be used generally during the primary stage of cleaning. A possible exception to this may be for sensitiveshorelines such as saltmarshes and wetlands, where only limited

conventional cleaning is possible, and reliance is generally placed onnatural recovery. Bioremediation offers promise, at the secondary stage, insome circumstances, to enhance the final breakdown of remnants to anacceptable level for habitat restoration.

Bioremediation is not viable as a response option either at sea or onexposed shores, since the bioremediation agents are likely to be diluted or washed away before they can have any potentially beneficial effect.

The type of oil and its condition when it comes ashore are also important.Light refined products, diesel and some very light crude oils can contain

compounds that are toxic to micro-organisms, causing death or inhibiting their activities if the concentrations are high enough. Weathered crude oilsand very heavy crude oils may contain high levels of complex compoundsthat are poorly degradable, reducing the scope for bioremediation.

Bioremediation is also sensitive to ambient temperatures (sediments andseawater): when the temperature drops, biodegradation activity slowsdown. As a general rule, bioremediation is less effective at temperaturesbelow 58C.

Bioremediation requires careful consideration if it is to be used in practice.

Biostimulation, nutrient addition and aeration, appears at this stage tooffer the most promise. In practice, steps need to be taken on site toestablish the nature of the shoreline and the residual oiled conditions after conventional cleanup has been terminated together with other environ-mental parameters that influence the biodegradation processes (such astemperature, nutrient ambient levels and oxygen availability). Thepossibility of using bioremediation needs to be feasible in practice, avoids


151





causing further harm in its implementation, offers a reasonable chance of succeeding and is of significance when compared with what would takeplace naturally.

If bioremediation is implemented, the situation will need to be periodically monitored to take into account changes in conditions resulting fromnatural processes or consequence of the treatment. Bioremediationtreatments should be terminated when it is deemed that the contaminant concentrations are reduced to acceptable levels (according to the usageand environmental specificity of the site) or if detrimental effects from thetreatment strategy are identified. Cost-benefit analysis should also beconsidered in this decision-making process.

As with all spill response measures, it is unrealistic to expect bioremedia-tion techniques to remove all traces of residual hydrocarbons. In terms of ecological relevance, clear evidence of habitat recovery such as toxicity limits within regulatory guidelines and/or the return of original commun-ity structure should be considered as measurement criteria.

10.5 Contingency planning

As with all oil spill response measures, bioremediation requires carefulplanning in order to achieve the desired results. It is a complex processthat clearly is not suitable for all scenarios and should be applied only onthose sites satisfying specific criteria. The identification of such sitesrequires detailed analysis and consideration before inclusion in thecontingency plan. Clear guidance should be set out in contingency plans,addressing such issues as its validity and opportunities for use at different sites, together with procedures for approvals for the different processesand products. The most important criteria to be examined whendetermining site suitability are:

.1 geomorphological characteristics (particularly the shoreline

substrate topography);

.2 vegetation features (i.e. ecological association and protectedspecies);

.3 oceanographic features (such as shoreline exposure), wavecharacteristics, tidal range and near-shore current regimes;

.4 climate (particularly seasonal ambient temperatures and rain-fall); and

.5 shoreline usage and sensitivities.

Additional more specific information relevant to the application of bioremediation techniques should be included in maps covering eacharea. These include sediment characteristics, background nutrient con-centrations and oxygen availability (dissolved interstitial oxygen). Inaddition, those in charge should ensure appropriate safety proceduresare in place for bio-remediation operations, which comply with local and


152





national legislation, and operators should be properly trained in theexecution of their operations.

Where the potential for bioremediation has been confirmed, the resourcerequirements for its application should also be identified in thecontingency plan. In many situations there is insufficient knowledge andexperience for bioremediation to be readily used in practice and it may often be necessary to call on specific external expertise if this is not locally available.

Bioremediation has attracted attention, offering the impression of being environmentally friendly, relatively simple and possibly inexpensive.However, the feasibility, applicability and overall benefits must be carefully evaluated in applying this technique. The environment is a complex

system that often may not be manipulated as easily as hoped. Nonetheless,in some scenarios bioremediation can offer opportunities to increase therate of natural degradation and in some circumstances results of a successful operation could be deemed to be of significant benefit.


153









Chapter 11 Management and disposal

of oil and oily debris

11.1 Introduction

The management and disposal of oil recovered at sea and from the shore isan integral part of any oil spill response and should therefore be includedas an essential part of the oil spill contingency planning process.Consideration should also be given to the minimization of waste and theseparation and segregation of different types of wastes, both at thecontingency planning stage and throughout all stages of a cleanupoperation, as this can significantly simplify subsequent decisions ontreatment and disposal options. The methods for temporary storage, wastemanagement and routes for final disposal should be chosen with care tominimize environmental impact caused by those operations.

Consideration should always be given to cleanup techniques and

treatment methods that will reduce the amount of material to be sent for final disposal. These methods, which should be considered as a priority during oil spill contingency planning, should follow the establishedprinciples of sustainable waste management, namely:

.1 prevent and minimize;

.2 recovery through reuse and recycling;

.3 disposal without harm to human health or the environment.

The final disposal of very large amounts of oil and oily debris can present major logistical problems. The selection of the disposal route for any particular waste stream must be based upon an assessment of the best environmental option and fully reflect any local regulations covering wastedisposal that may restrict where contaminated materials can be disposedof and in what concentrations and quantity.

155





Floating oil and oily debris

Where possible, recovered oil should be recycled or processed through anoil refinery. Although some recovered oil may be suitable as a supple-mentary fuel for process heating, provided that it can be blended into a

‘clean’ fuel stream, recycling to produce other oil products is rarely possible due to weathering of the recovered oil and contamination withsand, salt and debris.

Health and safety precautions must always be considered for the handling,transport and storage of both recovered oil and oily debris. Those in chargeshould ensure appropriate safety procedures are in place which comply

with local and national legislation, and operators should be properly trained in the execution of their operations.

11.2 Types of collected material

The recovered materials may consist of:

.1 oil or emulsified oil recovered at sea;

.2 oil or emulsified oil recovered during shoreline cleanupoperations;

.3 oiled sand;

.4 oiled beach debris (wood, plastic or seaweed), birds and

mammals;.5 tar balls;

.6 oil contaminated cleanup materials, equipment and protectiveclothing; and

.7 residues generated by wash-down stations employed to cleanresponse equipment.


156





Oil recovered from the sea may be contaminated with floating debris(flotsam and jetsam) and many oils will have also emulsified to incorporateup to 70–80% by volume water. Generally emulsified oils are always more

difficult to collect than fresh oil and the formation of an emulsionsignificantly increases both the volume of material to be handled and thedegree of treatment required. In order to reduce the overall volume of emulsified material to be handled, de-emulsifying chemicals can be addedto separate the seawater and free oil that can be removed by conventionalmethods. The separation process will however generate large quantities of oily water, which will often require further treatment before release back into the environment. Oiled debris may be separated by recovery devicesand stored as a separate waste stream for future treatment and disposal.

Oil-contaminated cleanup equipment and materials

There is significant benefit to be gained if during the recovery operations

different waste streams are segregated as a routine activity. This can makesubsequent treatment and disposal of the waste cheaper and often lessproblematic. At the very least, contaminated materials should besegregated into solid and liquid non-biodegradable (oiled plastics,contaminated cleanup equipment etc.) and biodegradable (for example,oiled seaweed) types, as this facilitates more effective waste treatment.

Wherever possible further segregation into individual waste streamsshould be carried out. Oiled beach material (sand, pebbles etc.) may beamenable for in situ treatment, e.g. beach material washing and

subsequent return to the original location.Oil or emulsified oil recovered from the shoreline will always contain somebeach material such as sand, shingle, pebbles or cobbles plus other debrissuch as seaweed. Recovery techniques should always ensure that themaximum amount of oil contamination is removed with the minimum of uncontaminated material. Care must always be taken during shorelineclean up to minimize the amount of sand collected with the oil.

Chapter 11 – Management and disposal of oil and oily debris

157





Table 11-1: – Options for separation and disposal of oil and debris

Type of material

Separation methods Disposal and recovery

methods

LIQUIDS

Non-emulsifiedoilsy

Gravity separation of free water Mechanical removal of

separated oil

Use of recovered oil as fuel or refinery feedstock

Separated water dischargedback into the environment

Emulsified oils Emulsion broken to release water by:– heat treatment – emulsion-breaking

chemicals

– mixing with sandMechanical removal of

separated oil

Use of recovered oil as fuel or refinery feedstock

IncinerationReturn of separated sand to

source

Separated water may requirefurther treatment beforedischarge back into theenvironment

SOLIDS

Oil mixed withsand

Collection of liquid oil leaching from sand during temporary storage

Extraction of oil from sand by washing with water or solvent

Removal of solid oils by sieving

Use of recovered liquid oil asfuel or refinery feedstock

Direct disposalStabilization with inorganic

materialDegradation through land

farming, composting on siteBioremediationIncinerationBurial in well aerated sandy

soils (biodegradation)Separated water may require

further treatment beforedischarge back into theenvironment

Oil mixed withcobbles, pebbles

or shingle

Collection of liquid oil leaching from beach material during

temporary storageExtraction of oil from beach

material by washing with water or solvent

Direct disposalIncineration

Separated water may requirefurther treatment beforedischarge back into theenvironment

Oil mixed with wood, plastics,seaweed andsorbents

Collection of liquid oil leaching from debris during

Temporary storageFlushing of oil from debris with

water Mechanical removal of

separated oil

Direct disposalIncinerationDegradation through

landfarming, composting or on site

BioremediationSeparated water may require

further treatment beforedischarge back into theenvironment

Tar balls Separation from sand by sieving

Direct disposalIncineration


158





11.3 On-site temporary storage and separationfor liquids and solids

Temporary storage facilities are needed when the recovered materialrequires processing or treatment before disposal or, when the location of the cleanup operations, or the quantity of oil and oily debris collected,makes transport of waste directly to the final disposal site impractical or uneconomic.

Oil recovered at sea will normally be stored in integral tanks on board therecovery vessels, in towed floating tanks or in towed or self-propelledbarges prior to offloading into larger vessels or direct to storage facilities onland, for onward transportation to the final disposal site. These sites

should be identified and established at an early stage, and where possibleshould be identified in local contingency plans.

Temporary on-site storage facilities during shoreline cleanup operationsshould also be identified and established at an early stage, and wherepossible should be identified in local contingency plans. The size, number and type of facilities required will depend on the amount and the nature of the material to be recovered. It is important to make sure segregation intothe various waste streams is possible and to keep separate the liquids (oiland emulsified oil) from the solids (oiled sand, oiled debris and used

cleanup materials). The temporary storage facilities should be near to the centre of cleanupoperations with good access to public roads. Cleaning facilities for personnel, equipment and vehicles should be established close to thestorage area so that pollution is not spread from the facility onto publicroads and into personnel accommodation areas. Due attention should begiven to clear delineation of oily areas and clean areas. Temporary storageareas should be selected and operated in such a way that any risk of contamination of the surrounding environment is minimized and should

ideally be identified as part of the contingency planning process. The areasshould be:

.1 remote from residential areas;

.2 outside any area that is considered to be vulnerable togroundwater contamination;

.3 outside any area that is considered to be of high environmentalsensitivity;

.4 not within 10 m of any watercourse and ideally as remote as

practically possible; and.5 provided with facilities to treat or contain spillages and rainfall.

On occasion it may be unavoidable to locate temporary storage facilities inan area that is particularly sensitive to groundwater or surface water contamination. In such cases it will be necessary to provide additionalcontainment safeguards including bunded and sealed lagoons or double-


159





lined cells, together with drainage to prevent contaminated surface water run-off from access and handling areas.

Temporary storage pit, lined with heavy-duty plastic sheeting

In less sensitive areas, a pit lined with heavy gauge continuous plasticsheet can be used for the temporary storage of recovered oil and oily debris. Should the plastic liner be damaged, oil will leak from the pit andcontaminate the environment. It is essential therefore that liners are laidon a bed of sand or fine gravel to avoid damage (see figure 11-1) and that the top of the liner is covered with a protective layer of sand before use. The

thickness of the protective layers and the need for multiple liners will vary depending upon the proposed operational activity. If for example the linedarea is to be subject to heavy traffic movements then multiple linersshould be used. All liners however should be checked for integrity at regular intervals. The width of the pit (at the bottom) should be more than2–3 m so that there is easy access, while the length could be 10–20 m or more. In order to reduce the risk of overflow during heavy rainfall, pitsshould not be over-filled and liquid levels regularly controlled andadjusted.


160





Figure 11-1 – Pit for storage of liquid oil and debris

161






A large quantity of seawater will normally be collected with the recoveredoil. A method of separating the oil and water should be provided near to thetemporary storage area. Separation can be achieved by allowing the

mixture to settle for some time and then removing the floating oil with a small skimmer, or by means of more specialized oil/water separationequipment. The seawater separated from the oily water mixture can bereturned to the sea, provided the oil content is sufficiently low to meet therequirements of the regulatory authority. The remaining oil should beremoved for final disposal. Figure 11-2 illustrates a simple portable plant for the separation of oil/water mixtures. The separation and treatment area should be subject to the same environmental controls as any temporary storage area.

Figure 11-2 – A simple portable plant for separation of oily-water mixtures

Solid waste materials that need temporary storage include contaminatedsand, pebbles, shingle, debris and cleanup materials such as oiledsorbents, as well as drums and plastic bags containing recoveredmaterials. All of these items should be stored on a suitable level surface,e.g. a parking area or field adjacent to the shoreline, for subsequent

collection and transportation to the final disposal site. This area shouldfirst be covered with a continuous heavy gauge plastic liner andsurrounded by a perimeter bank of soil or sand. If vehicle access isrequired to this storage area, the plastic liner should be protected with a layer of sand or soil. Drainage from the site may require collection andtreatment prior to controlled discharge into the environment. Figure 11-3illustrates such a temporary storage site. The site should be managed to


162





allow physical segregation of the different waste streams and also facilitate waste separation activities to take place.

Figure 11-3 – Temporary storage for solid oil-contaminated wastes

11.4 Land transport

11.4.1 Transport of liquids

Any conventional road tanker can be used for out the transportation of liquids from the collection area to an interim storage site and the finaldisposal site. If these are not available, improvisation will be required and

vacuum trucks, gully-suckers and agricultural vacuum tank vehicles canall readily be used. The use of flatbed lorries fitted with open tanks is not an attractive option because of the inherent environmental and health andsafety risks of spillage. Attention to safety, regulations and codes of practice must always be of prime consideration when using vehicles totransport volatile and liquid oil.

11.4.2 Transport of oily debris

Ordinary open backed trucks are suitable for transporting solid wastematerial. A lining of heavy-duty plastic sheeting should be used to prevent oil or emulsion leaking from the vehicle.

Heavy-duty plastic bags of about 25 kg capacity (or larger, provided that they are only filled to a maximum of 25 kg) can be used to collect oily beachmaterial and debris. This is a convenient method of collection, but problems can be encountered at the final disposal site since it may provenecessary to separate oily waste from the plastic sacks.

163






Stockpile of bagged oily waste material

200 ‘ oil drums are useful for collection, storage and transporting oily materials from a beach. For ease of handling, they should only be partially filled. Metal or plastic dustbins or other liquid-tight garbage containers canalso be used. Collected material should not be stored in drums or bags for extended periods of time since they tend to deteriorate rapidly.

Before transporting oily waste from the temporary storage area to the finaldisposal site, the appropriate authorities should be consulted on a suitableroute. A place for cleaning vehicles, in particular road wheels, should beestablished at each end of the route to prevent oil contamination of theroads. The vehicles and hauliers used must also fully comply with allregulatory requirements and controls.

11.5 Waste treatment methods

Several methods are available for the separation of liquid waste from solid waste and for separating liquid oil and emulsified oil from oil contami-nated water. Such techniques reduce the overall amount of material for final disposal.


164





Oiled beach materials, such as sand and pebbles, can be washed withsolvents (to be recovered) or with water (plus oil/water separation by centrifugation or hydrocyclones). This may lower the oil content to a level

that may permit the cleaned material to be returned to the beach. Any aqueous effluents may require additional treatment before discharge intothe environment.

11.6 Waste disposal methods

The principle methods for the disposal of recovered oil and oily debris are:

.1 Oil reclamation, where the oil is recovered for further use as a fuel at an oil refinery or other heavy industry applications, such

as cement kilns;.2 Stabilization, where the oily wastes are treated in such a way

that they no longer constitute a threat to the environment;

.3 Direct disposal, where the oil is disposed of at a pre-designatedand regulated waste disposal site;

.4 Incineration, at or near the spill site or at a fixed incinerator;

.5 Bioremediation, either in situ at the spill site or at a landfarming location and composting;

.6 Dune disposal, either near the spill site or at another location.

In practice several waste disposal methods can be employed becausedifferent recovered materials are amenable to treatment by different methods. The primary aim should be to recover as much of the oil for useas a secondary raw material, such as low-grade fuel for industry, and tominimize the quantities buried in landfills.

11.7 Reclamation of oil

When planning for the final disposal of recovered oil, refineries andindustries using heavy oil should be asked if they are able to receive andprocess recovered oil. Refineries may be able to accept such oil even if it ismixed with water and some sand but the presence of salt may causedifficulties. Recovered oil can often be taken as refinery ‘slop’ or acceptedin the reception facility of an oil terminal.

Free water collected with oil should be separated at the on-site temporary storage either by decanting or by means of a skimmer. However, some

water will inevitably be present in the oil in the form of an emulsion

containing typically from 50% to 80% seawater. Where possible, theseemulsions should be treated on site to minimize the volume of liquid to betransported.

11.7.1 Emulsion-breaking

Some emulsions can be separated into oil and water components on a large scale by simple gravity separation or by heat treatment followed by

165






gravity separation. Heating the emulsion reduces the oil viscosity andpromotes a faster and more efficient separation. Emulsified oils aregenerally of very high viscosity and as a result convection cannot be relied

upon to transport heat throughout the contents of a storage tank. Theemulsion should preferably be heated by circulation through an externalheat exchanger. The temperature should be controlled within safe working limits. Generally, a working temperature range of 60–668C should be used

with a maximum temperature of 808C to maintain operational safety. Theduration of treatment can be established empirically.

Stable emulsions can be broken by the use of commercial demulsifying chemicals (emulsion-breakers or demulsifiers). These are added at relatively low concentrations (0.1%–0.5% of the bulk volume to be treated)

and they reduce the stability of an emulsion which leads to separation of the oil and water. There is no single chemical that is suitable for breaking of all types of emulsion and it may be necessary to carry out trials todetermine the most effective chemical and the optimal dose rate.Demulsifying chemicals should be added during transfer of emulsionfrom the collection device to a tank to ensure good mixing and thereforeminimum dose rate. The chemical can be injected into the inlet side of a pump or into an in-line static mixer incorporated into a vacuum intake.

After separation, the water phase will contain most of the emulsionbreaker and a small volume (up to 0.15%) of oil, so care should be exercized

when disposing of the separated water.

Some emulsions can be partially broken by mixing thoroughly with sandin a concrete mixer. An emulsion containing 70% water, when mixed withapproximately 50% by volume of sand, can reduce the water content by half. The separated free water can often be returned to the beach althoughsome additional effluent treatment may be required. The oiled sand willalso need to be disposed of through an identified route.

11.7.2 Recovery of oil from beach material

If the recovered beach material contains greater than 20% oil it may bepossible to recover this oil by washing the oiled material with water,sometimes in conjunction with a suitable solvent such as gas oil. Oiledbeach material contained in a pit can be water-washed at low pressure tofloat the oil off the debris. The resulting oil/water mixture can then bepumped away and separated by gravity. Separation can also be achieved ina closed system using hot water.

A range of equipment is available for washing oiled material. This rangesfrom small concrete mixers for small-scale operations to specialist sand

washing equipment and mineral processing equipment such as that usedin mining and quarrying for large-scale continuous treatment. The cost of cleaning large amounts of beach material on site may compare favourably

with other methods that involve transporting the materials some distancefrom the coast.

166






Beaches that are moderately polluted with tar balls are not usually amenable to cleanup by conventional plant and in most cases manualcleanup should be used. The oil and sand mixture can be sieved either

mechanically or manually to reduce the quantities of oily waste generatedmaterial. Oil lumps can be collected for disposal and the sand returned tothe beach, thus reducing any risk of erosion.

11.8 Stabilization of oiled beach materials

A useful approach adopted in past incidents is to dispose of oily sand by binding it with inorganic substances such as quicklime, cement,pulverised fuel ash waste, etc. This forms an inert product, which does

not allow the oil to leach out. Subject to local regulation, the stabilisedmaterial may then be disposed of under less stringent conditions than oily sand and can also be used for land reclamation and road construction

with no requirement for high load-bearing properties. There are also a number of commercial products, based on the same raw materials but treated with various chemicals, which are claimed to improve theefficiency of the technique. This application is inappropriate if the oily sand contains large amounts of wood and seaweed. The area where thestabilization process is carried out should be subject to the sameenvironmental controls as any temporary storage area and should be

identified in the contingency planning process. The amount of binding agent required is primarily dependent on the water content of the waste rather than the amount of oil and is best determinedexperimentally on site. The process is likely to be more efficient if the oily

waste is well mixed, producing a homogenous oil distribution through thesolid fraction. For quicklime the amount required is between 5% and 20%

weight of the bulk material to be treated. Treatment can be either carriedout using a mixing plant or a layering technique. The former, whilst offering better quality control and less land area, requires the use of

expensive equipment including a continuous drum mixer. Smaller quantities could be treated in a batch process using standard concretemixers. Provided there is sufficient land available close to the location of the spill, the layering technique is probably the most cost effective. The

waste is spread out to a depth of about 0.2–0.3 m and mixed using a pulverising mixer to incorporate the lime.

In some situations it may be preferable to carry out primary mixing inlined pits at the site of the spill to render the oiled material more suitablefor transport. The final treatment can then be undertaken at a larger

reception facility, subject to at least the same environmental controls asany temporary storage area and which should be identified in thecontingency planning process, using specialized equipment.

Inevitably, stabilization techniques give rise to a great deal of corrosivedust and if possible the treatment site should be selected so as to minimizeits spread to adjacent property. It is also important that operating personnel wear protective clothing and facemasks to protect skin, lungs

167






and eyes. It is always advisable to consult with health and safety consultants with appropriate expertise.

11.9 Direct disposal

Direct disposal includes disposal of the waste at a landfill site specifically for industrial waste or for co-disposal with domestic wastes. Direct disposal is only appropriate for wastes containing less than 20% oil.

The choice of direct disposal sites must always be agreed with the localauthorities responsible for waste issues. Waste disposal sites are oftenregulated with respect to the type and quantity of waste that can beaccepted. In some countries this method of disposal is prohibited and in

many others is severely restricted.

When burying oil or oily debris in landfill sites, extreme care must beexercized to prevent oil leaching into aquifers or surface water. The siteshould be adequately lined to contain any leachates and test wells at thesite should be established so that water quality monitoring can take placeto be sure that oil is not leaching into groundwater.

Co-disposal of oily material with domestic waste at a landfill site

When regulatory controls allow, co-disposal of oil or oily wastes withdomestic waste may be an acceptable method at some sites even though

oil biodegradation is likely to be relatively slow due to the lack of oxygen.However, oil appears to remain firmly absorbed by all types of domestic

waste with little tendency to leach out. Local regulations may control thehandling of such wastes at a site. As a general guide, oily waste should bedeposited on top of at least 4 m of domestic refuse either in surface strips0.1 m thick or in slit trenches 0.5 m deep to allow free drainage of water.

The oily material should be covered by a layer of soil followed by a

168






minimum of 2 m of domestic waste to facilitate degradation and prevent the emergence of oil to the surface when subjected to compression by site

vehicles.

11.10 Incineration

The open burning of oily debris is not recommended except in very remoteareas since it causes atmospheric pollution. Close attention must be givento national environmental legislation. When oil is burnt in the open it alsotends to spread and can leach into the ground. In addition, a tarry residuemay remain since it is rarely possible to achieve complete combustion.

These problems can be overcome by using an incinerator. Portable

incinerators may be available which are able to contain the oily wasteand create the high temperatures necessary for total combustion. Therotary kiln and open-hearth types are most appropriate for oils with a highsolid content. As a general rule, incinerators used for domestic waste arenot suitable since chlorides from seawater may give rise to corrosion. Hightemperature industrial waste incinerators, whilst likely to tolerate salts,may not have sufficient capacity to deal with the additional burden createdby a large quantity of oily waste. However, if long-term storage is available,this may be an appropriate route. In some countries both portable andfixed incinerators are subject to stringent regulatory controls which

should be adhered to at all times.

Improvised small-scale incinerator

One of the devices developed to dispose of oil and debris in remotelocations consists of a kiln that can be assembled on site from low cost materials such as 200 ‘ drums. Oil-contaminated beach material is

169






introduced manually at one end of the kiln at a rate of up to seven tonnesper hour and clean sand and pebbles are discharged at the other end.Combustion is self-sustaining if the feed material contains at least 25% oil

and no more than about 50% water. The lifetime of the unit may be quiteshort but should be capable of dealing with at least 100–600 tonnes of contaminated sand. A simpler portable burner suitable for the small-scaleburning of tar balls and debris can be constructed from a single open 200 ‘

drum. Air is supplied tangentially from a suitable compressor or fanblower to support combustion. The construction and use of such devicesshould be subject to a health and safety risk assessment. It should benoted that the gaseous products of incomplete combustion of waste oilscan be particularly noxious.

11.11 Bioremediation

Landfarming and burial in sand dunes are disposal options that make useof biodegradation. Information on other bioremediation techniques isprovided in a separate chapter.

11.11.1 Landfarming

It is well established that populations of hydrogen degrading microbesincrease rapidly in the sea in the presence of oil and in the soil around an

oil spill on land. A number of oil refineries around the world haveconstructed landfarms to deal with oily wastes for many years. Land-farming involves the spreading of the oily material over the soil in thinlayers and ploughing it in. In many cases, aerobic decomposition of oily debris is largely completed in one to three years. Although low temper-atures slow down the rate of oxidation, landfarming has been successfully applied in cold conditions. In subtropical and tropical climates rates of hydrocarbon degradation are more rapid.

Landfarming

Landfarming requires adequate areas of land within a reasonable distanceof the spill site. Landfarming sites should not be located where under-

170






ground and other water supplies would be affected by the possible releaseof contaminants. In addition the soil permeability should be low to avoidpercolation of leachates into the ground water. Sites may be divided into

sections by roads to provide access for heavy trucks. In some areas it may be necessary to establish temporary roads. Sites should be cleared of brush, timber and rocks larger than about 30 cm. Before applying a layer of oily debris, the top soil is best broken up using a bulldozer or a ripper and runoff diversion channels should be constructed to prevent surfacedrainage from flowing through the area. A bund and a gravity interceptor are necessary to retain any oil leached out by rainwater. Oily debris shouldbe free of large solids and should be spread evenly over the surface in a layer 2 to 10 cm thick. The material should be allowed, if possible, to

weather until it no longer appears wet and sticky. After weathering the

debris should be thoroughly mixed into the soil with a plough, discer or a roto-tiller. If the area is frequented by shorebirds the ploughing shouldtake place immediately. The mixing should be repeated at increasing intervals to increase aeration and hence the rate of natural biodegrada-tion.

The optimal soil pH to support this process is a value higher than 6.5, if necessary this can be achieved by the addition of lime. Fertilizers such asurea, ammonium phosphate etc. may be added to enhance oil degradationrates: as a rule 10 parts nitrogen to 1 part phosphate should be added per

100 parts of oil.If landfarming techniques are to be employed the use of natural sorbentssuch as straw and bark during the clean up are preferable to syntheticmaterials since they break down more rapidly.

Once most of the oil has degraded, the soil should be capable of supporting a wide variety of plants, including trees and grasses. After use of the site,particularly agricultural use, requires careful consideration and assess-ment as the possibility of contamination of the food chain may exist.

Another effective means of enhancing degradation is to employ composting techniques, particularly for biodegradable waste materials such as oiledseaweed or for the treatment of any natural sorbents, such as straw, peat and bark, used in the clean-up operation. Provided the mixtures containrelatively low levels of oil, they can be stacked into heaps to facilitatecomposting. Because the heaps retain heat the technique is particularly suitable in colder climates where degradation through land farming isslow. However, this method is only applicable for small-scale operations.Biodegradable waste materials, such as oiled seaweed, may be composted,provided that the degree of oiling is not too great. Most types of oil will be

biodegraded during this process. Successful composting techniques willresult in material to be considered as non-oiled waste.

11.12 Dune disposal

It has been demonstrated that significant quantities of oiled sand can bedisposed of through biodegradation by burying in areas of stable coastal

171






sandy areas and dune pastures, in areas of low environmental sensitivity. This technique appears to work best when the oily sand is buried where it will not become waterlogged.

172






Chapter 12Spills of heavy fuel oils – Features

and countermeasures

12.1 Introduction

Heavy fuels oils and emulsified fuels may exhibit unusual properties whenspilled, and may pose unusual problems for cleanup. These products may

have densities that are close to or greater than that of water and have very high viscosities at ambient temperatures. This section of the Manual is a summary of key information on heavy fuel oils including their behaviour

when spilled and potential strategies for cleanup measures. The emphasisis on highlighting the main differences in the behaviour and cleanup of such spills; techniques that are comparable to those for more typical oilsare not repeated in detail here.

Heavy fuel oil and emulsified products are used as fuels for power generation, and are being shipped by tank vessels. They are also being

used to a limited extent as fuel for marine vessels. Although they presently represent only a fraction of the oil shipped on a world-wide basis, they arenonetheless of great importance in ports that handle these fuels.

As a group, these products are referred to by a variety of names andclassifications. In U.S. Coast Guard regulations they are known as Group

V oils, which are defined as persistent oils with a specific gravity greater than 1.0. They are also known as LAPIO oils, or Low API Oils – a low APIgravity corresponds to a high density or non-floating oil.

In either case these are generally heavy residual oils with few light endcomponents. They may be blended with lighter oils to make them easier tohandle. Other products in this category are very heavy crude oils, bitumen,and emulsified fuel, which is a bitumen-in-water emulsion.

12.2 Characteristics of heavy huel oils

Compared with most crude oils and lighter refined products, heavy fueloils have a much lower concentration of light ends or light aromaticcomponents. This leads to the following key property differences:

.1 density or specific gravity is higher, and may be close to or exceeding that of water – these oils may be neutrally buoyant or may even sink when spilled;

.2 viscosity is much higher – the oil will have less tendency tospread out once spilled (in many cases it will not spread at all)and the spill will be very persistent; and

173





.3 the pour point is often higher, and may be close to or exceedambient water temperatures – the oil will gel and resist spreading and natural dispersion.

A summary of the key physical properties as compared with diesel andcrude oil is shown in table 12-1.

Table 12-1 – Typical properties of heavy fuel oils vs. other oils

Diesel Crude oil Heavy fuel oil Emulsified

fuels Bitumen

specific gravity @ 158C 0.81 to 0.85 0.8 to 0.98 40.95 1.01 1.02

viscosity,cSt @ 308C 5 10 5 100 4300 4300 4100,000

pour point, 8C –30 –30 to +25 0 to +20 0 to +10 +40

Due to their high viscosity and pour point, these products are difficult topump. To facilitate their handling, the properties of these oils may bemodified by the addition of chemicals or may be diluted with lighter products to decrease their viscosity. In many cases, the product is heatedand kept at an elevated temperature for the same reason. In either case,this advantage may be lost if the product is spilled, as the diluent or chemical leaches out of the oil, or the product cools to ambient temper-atures.

In the case of emulsified bitumen, the emulsion will generally separate

when the product is spilled with the loss of the chemical emulsifier or surfactant. This means that the spill behaviour will be that of bitumenparticles rather than the original emulsion.

12.3 Behaviour of heavy fuel oils when spilled

In chapter 3, the behaviour of spilled oil was described in terms of themain processes of spreading, evaporation, natural dispersion, emulsifica-tion, and spill movement. The following are the main differences in each of these processes with heavy fuel oils. The general behaviour of emulsifiedfuels is also described below.

Spreading

As noted above, the very high viscosity and relatively high pour points of these oils means that they will resist spreading once spilled. Rather thanforming thin slicks that will rapidly spread over the water surface, spills of heavy fuel oils will more likely form mats and clumps of oil that may beseveral millimetres thick or even several centimetres, especially with theeffects of the wind. Slicks are unlikely to be uniform, with large variations

in thickness. After only a short period on the water surface, the slicks willlikely be patchy with areas of open water between the thick mats andclumps of oil.

Evaporation

Evaporation is of little significance for heavy fuel oils as they have very few light components.

174






Natural dispersion

The high viscosity of these oils means that they will be unlikely to disperseeven in strong seas. (The exception to this is emulsified fuel, which isdiscussed separately, later in this chapter.)

Emulsification

Heavy fuel oils may form an emulsion. This means that the viscosity of thespilled material may increase even further and that the volume of spilledmaterial can increase substantially.

Spill movement

Oils that are at near-neutral or negative buoyancy may tend to submergebelow the water surface, particularly in an environment with waves or strong currents. In this event, their movement will no longer be governedby wind-driven surface currents. Instead they will be carried by subsurfacecurrents, which could include tidal and other components.

Emulsified fuels

Emulsified fuels present a special case for spill behaviour. When spilled,the surfactant is released into the aqueous environment and the emulsion

generally separates into its components of water and bitumen. The rate at which this occurs depends on the salinity, temperature, and energy of the water.

A number of laboratory experiments and field trials has indicated that thespilled product will involve up to three components: a sheen; a subsurfacecloud of dispersed bitumen droplets; and coalesced bitumen particles that may resurface or float just beneath the water surface. In high energy seasthe droplets will disperse through the water column.

For small spills and when there is no containment, the vast majority of emulsified bitumen can be expected to disperse. On the other hand, if thespill can be contained and significant dilution is prevented, then a greater percentage of the bitumen will probably re-coalesce and refloat.

Submergence

Due to their relatively high density, heavy fuel oils will have a greater tendency to submerge below the water surface and in some cases sink tothe sea bottom. This will be particularly true in heavy seas, and infreshwater (which has a lower density than seawater and hence a lessbuoyant effect).

Sinking may also occur in nearshore areas where freshwater influencesdecrease the salinity and hence the water density. Oils with a density near that of water may submerge in one area only to resurface in another due tolocal differences in water density. When oil picks up particulate or silt material, the density may increase and promote sinking.

175

Chapter 12 – Spills of heavy fuel oils – Features and countermeasures





Persistence

Compared with crude oils and lighter refined products, heavy fuel oils arenot as affected by the processes of evaporation and dispersion. As a result,they tend to be very persistent in the marine environment.

Shoreline effects

In general, heavy fuels are quite viscous and will adhere to most shorelinematerials. Even in heavy seas, they are unlikely to be naturally cleaned off shorelines and will persist until removed by cleanup operations.

After a few days of exposure to the elements, emulsified bitumen droplets will weather and lose much of their stickiness. Like other heavy fuel oils

they will be very persistent on shorelines and will require treatment inmost cases.

Compared with crude oils and lighter refined products, heavy fuels are lesslikely to penetrate shoreline sediments due to their poor flow properties.

They may however, may penetrate coarser sediments, and fine-grainedsediments in warm climates or when heated by the sun.

12.4 Response strategies

12.4.1 Surveillance and spill assessment

For spills of most oils, visual surveillance will be an important component of spill monitoring and assessment. Monitoring a spill of heavy fuel oil canbe complicated by the potential submergence of the spill. While areas of submerged oil in shallow waters are often readily evident via helicopter overflights, those in deeper waters may require more sophisticatedtracking and monitoring techniques.

For spills that do submerge, spill tracking models can be used to forecast possible slick movements. When these are used, their accuracy will dependto a great extent on local knowledge concerning subsurface water currents,

which can change in magnitude and direction at different water depths. It is important to note that oil which is submerged or dispersed will beaffected only by subsurface currents and not by wind-driven currents at the water surface.

Subsurface drifting buoys or markers can be used to supplement modelforecasts. These devices are designed to float at a specified depth and drift at a similar rate to submerged oil.

It may be possible to detect submerged and clouds of dispersed oil using sophisticated instrumentation such as towed fluorometers and sonar or underwater video camera systems. Furthermore, divers are often especially effective at locating submerged oil in deep water natural collection areasthat have been previously identified through a review of bottom top-ography charts.

176






12.4.2 Containment

As with more conventional oils, containment is a preferred strategy for minimizing the area affected by a spill and for concentrating the spill for subsequent recovery. Containment of heavy oils can be complicated by their tendency to submerge, but containment may be possible using specially designed deep-skirted boom. A second option would be the use of silt curtains, which are normally used to control turbidity during dredging and construction operations. Silt curtains resemble conventional contain-ment boom but have skirts that extend up to 3 to 5 m in depth, with a

weighted bottom edge to hold them against the sea bottom. The use of deep-draft booms or silt curtains is probably applicable to harbours andprotected waters. Their use in unprotected waters or in a current will also

result in significant tow forces, which must be accounted for in the designof the boom and towing or anchoring equipment.

When attempting to use a traditional sweep-type configuration for containment, care must be taken to tow the containment boom at a slow speed (i.e., 0.5 knots or less). In higher currents, submerged or dispersedoil will most likely be carried past a boom. Tow vessels with variable-pitchpropellers are useful in this regard. Towing down-wind or down-current isalso useful to reduce the relative current speed.

Net-type booms may also be applicable to containment of oil that is

submerged or dispersed. Such booms have skirts made of fine-pore mesh. The mesh is fine enough to provide a barrier to viscous oil, but its porousnature allows water to pass through and thus reduce the towing loads onthe boom.

In protected waters or in calm conditions offshore, a teardrop config-uration could also be used instead of a sweep-type strategy. In this case,attempts would be made to surround the spill or portions of the spill. Thistechnique would be most applicable to a low-current situation, but couldalso be used in the presence of currents by allowing the containment

configuration to drift with the current while recovery operations arecarried out.

12.4.3 Recovery techniques

Recovery of heavy fuel oil may be complicated by two factors: the high viscosity of the oil and its potential for submergence.

For oil that is on or near the water surface, conventional skimming strategies can be employed. Some skimmers, such as oleophilic devicesand weir systems are largely ineffective. However, there are a number of

skimming devices that are better suited to highly viscous oils, including brush, toothed-disc, hopper weir, and some belt skimmers. Brush-typeskimmers and toothed disc skimmers are both noted for their applicability for highly viscous oils. When recovering such highly viscous oils, the mainproblems are the low recovery rates (as compared with less viscousproducts) and difficulties in handling such highly-viscous materials oncethey are recovered.

177






For suspended or dispersed bitumen, it would generally be impractical torecover and treat the large volume of water that would be involvedalthough this might have application for small spills and in localized

concentrations of suspended oil.One strategy of dealing with suspended bitumen is to facilitate the re-coalescence and refloating of bitumen particles. This can be achieved by operating a submersible pump within a contained area of bitumendroplets and injecting air into the pump inlet. The shear created by thepump along with the air droplets will allow the droplets to rise to the water surface where they can be more easily removed through conventionalskimming. The reflotation can be accomplished within the containment area or within a floatation tank on a skimming vessel. This strategy could

be applicable only for relatively small spills in confined areas such as a harbour.

Oil that has sunk to the sea bottom will require pumping and/or dredging techniques to recover pockets of pooled product. While this method can beused to quickly cover large areas of oiled sea bottom, care must be taken tominimize the total amount of material that is recovered.

Oil that has sunk to a sandy or gravely bottom, will most likely mix withthe sediments to some extent. The amount of material to be recovered andthe amount of sediments within the oil will govern the selection of pumping/dredging equipment, which could include clamshell dredges,suction dredges, or submersible pumps directed by divers. In underwater areas that have a high ecological value (e.g., seagrass beds, coral reefs),smaller pockets of submerged oil can be manually removed by scuba divers equipped with sorbent snares and strong polythene bags. Diversdirecting dredging or pumping operations in heavily contaminatedsubmerged oil areas must use personal protective equipment and surfacesupplied air systems in order to avoid oil ingestion and relatedcontamination.

Pumping and storing recovered fluids is a major challenge with heavy fueloils due to their extremely high viscosities and, in some cases, high pour points. Key problems include: difficulties in maintaining a suction withfluids that resist flowing to suction lines; low pumping rates due to thehigh viscosities; and high flow-line pressures, again due to the high

viscosities. In some instances, the line-pressures generated when pumping these highly viscous fluids may lead to failure of discharge hoses and hosefittings.

Special techniques are required to deal with these pumping and storage

issues. These could include injecting a less viscous fluid at the pump inlet to make the viscous product more fluid, in effect, creating a slurry, which ismore easily pumped. Another technique is the use of annular steam or

water injection, where a relatively small volume of steam or water isinjected through a specially designed flange at either the inlet or dischargeside of a pump. The steam lowers the viscosity of the oil and the flangecauses the water to form a thin layer that coats the inside of the hose or

178






pipe. This thin film tends to lubricate the flow of fluid and greatly reduceline pressures.

When pumping highly viscous fluids, high-strength hoses and fittingsshould be used, and line pressures monitored to ensure that operating limits are not exceeded. The use of larger diameter hose (i.e., 6-inchdiameter, minimum) and moderate length hose systems (less than1,000 feet) will also alleviate line pressures.

Temporary storage is extremely difficult, with many devices, such asflexible, towable tanks, being extremely difficult to empty, once they havebeen filled. Heating systems for tank storage will be necessary and thisneeds careful logistical planning to ensure continuity of ongoing contain-ment and recovery operations.

12.4.4 Dispersants and in situ burning

Neither dispersant use nor in situ burning are generally applicable to spillsof heavy fuels due to the physical properties of the oil.

12.4.5 Shoreline protection

As with spills of floating oils it is desirable to protect shorelines tominimize the extent of oiling. Standard tactics would include containing

approaching oil in low currents and deflection in higher currents.Conventional booms can be used to contain or deflect slicks of floating oil, with deep-skirted booms, silt curtains, and net booms used for submerged or dispersed products.

Other options for nearshore protection include booms or arrays of sorbent material, in particular, oil-snare type sorbents or pom-poms. Shorelinebarriers such as plastic sheeting or geotextile materials can be used toprevent oil from contacting and penetrating shoreline sediments. Standardprotection techniques such as shoreline berms and trenching can also be

used to minimize the extent of shoreline oiling.

12.4.6 Shoreline cleanup and disposal

The cleanup of shorelines affected by heavy fuel oils will be comparable inthe selection of techniques to shoreline oiling with tar balls or moreconventional oils that have weathered or emulsified. In either case, the oilis very persistent and will resist natural flushing and dispersionprocesses.

To minimize shoreline effects, preference should be given to low-impact techniques such as low-pressure flushing of oiled beaches, pumping of pooled oil and selective manual removal of weathered oils. Depending onthe type of beach sediment and the amount and condition of the oil,sediment relocation and surf washing may be applicable.

Mechanical screening of beach sediments can be used for removal of weathered bitumen and discrete patches of heavy fuels oils.

179






The disposal of wastes recovered from a heavy fuel oil spill would usesimilar techniques to those for spills of more conventional oils that have

weathered or emulsified. Factors that can limit the selection of techniques

include the high viscosity of the product along with the volumes of emulsified water and debris that are generally recovered along with the oil.

For liquid wastes, the viscosity of the oil will probably preclude the use of reclamation or recycling techniques as well as the use of most trans-portable incinerators. Large-scale municipal or process incinerators may be applicable for both liquid and solid wastes.

Biological treatment methods, including landfarming, composting and in situ bioremediation, are not applicable to heavy oils due to the long treatment times required.

Solidification or stabilization of oily wastes has promise as a technique for encapsulating and immobilizing waste materials.

180






Chapter 13 Training, exercises,

equipment maintenanceand storage

13.1 Introduction

When an oil spill incident occurs, decisions have to be made quickly andequipment must be ready for deployment at very short notice. The only reliable way for this to be achieved is to develop contingency plans andconduct exercises to test them, and maintain pollution response equip-ment and train personnel in its use. However, training should not belimited to learning how to use particular items of equipment, but must cover a whole range of issues, including roles and responsibilities of

various parties, response strategies and the realities of putting the

contingency plan into action. The adequacy of such preparations shouldbe tested thoroughly in practical and desktop exercises and the lessonslearned from actual oil spills should be fed back to improve thecontingency plan and the training/exercise programme.

13.2 Training

Two types of training are generally recognized, each with separateobjectives. The first, often referred to as ‘‘hands-on’’ training, is intendedto train a crew to become proficient in the deployment and operation of particular types of equipment or in the execution of a particular cleanuptechnique. After the initial instruction, proficiency comes with frequent practice and exercise.

The second type of training is concerned with the various levels of management and organization of a cleanup response and is intended toprovide a thorough briefing so that all those potentially involved can

understand their role and are able to function well in a real incident. A degree of overlap between the two is beneficial since this providesmanagement with a clear appreciation of the factors likely to affect theperformance of a particular technique or piece of equipment and at thesame time gives equipment operators a better understanding of the overallstrategy. Both types of training call for a balanced mix of theory andpractice.

181





‘‘Hands-on’’ training to improve proficiency

13.2.1 Hands-on training

The typical outline of a ‘‘hands-on’’ training course is shown in table 13-1. The general approach usually followed is an introductory talk on eachtechnique followed by detailed instruction on the operation of equipment available within the contingency plan. As far as possible, practicalsessions follow immediately to reinforce the salient points of the theory and to facilitate this groups are best kept to between 10 and 20 people.

Table 13-1: – Typical outline of a hands-on equipment training course

.1 Health and safety considerations.

.2 General theory of containment and recovery.

.3 Detailed instruction in deployment and use of different booms.

.4 Practical exercise mooring and towing booms.

.5 Detailed instructions in deployment and use of different skimmers.

.6 Practical exercise of skimmers in different oil types.

.7 Detailed instruction in use of temporary storage facilities and transfer pumps.

.8 Practical operation of pumps.

.9 Practical deployment of booms, skimmers, temporary storage and transfer pumps:

.1 from shore;

.2 on open water.

.10 General theory of use of dispersants.

.11 Detailed instruction in use of different dispersant application systems.

.12 Practical deployment of spraying equipment at sea.

.13 In situ burning (if available)

.14 General outline of shoreline cleanup techniques.

.15 Detailed instruction in use of different equipment types.

.16 Practical beach cleanup exercise comparing different techniques.

.17 Quiz.

.18 General discussion.

.19 Course assessment.

182






The main objective is to familiarize each trainee with the equipment and with the conditions to which it is best suited. In addition, its limitationsand the most probable causes of failure should be identified with

suggested remedies. Obviously, if the same personnel operate andmaintain the equipment there is a better chance of keeping equipment fully operational in the field.

Following an instructional course, frequent exercises are the best way tomaintain familiarity with the deployment and operation of equipment. This

will help to avoid mistakes during an actual spill. After an exercise, a debriefing meeting should be held to resolve any difficulties and to discussany improvements that can be made. For boom deployment exercises inparticular, observation, photography or video recording, either from the air

or from some elevated vantage point is valuable in assessing theconfiguration of a boom with respect to currents. The use of somebiodegradable material such as bark or wood chips to simulate oil is alsohelpful in demonstrating whether or not the oil would, in fact, bechannelled to the collection point.

Training exercises should be conducted at a frequency related to the risk of spills and the likelihood that a response team would be called out.However, as a minimum, exercises should be held four times a year so that operating difficulties under different seasonal conditions can be identified.Such exercises should be conducted in addition to any more generalexercises of the contingency plan.

In cases where a number of teams of different disciplines are to be trained,it would be useful to initiate general notification exercises regularly topractise co-operation and interaction of the different teams and equip-ment. This will help to control and improve the complete contingency arrangements.

13.2.2 Training on management of oil spill cleanup

Table 13-2 shows the typical outline of an oil spill training course which would usually be implemented through lectures, supported by videorecordings and practical demonstrations or exercises. The optimum size of a group is between 20 and 50 and each should be provided with some

written support material before presentations are made, followed up with a bibliography of sources of further information.

183

Chapter 13 – Training, exercises, equipment maintenance and storage





Table 13-2: – Typical outline of an oil spill training course

.1 Overview of spill response

.2 Relevant contingency plans

.3 Sources and causes of oil spills

.4 Oil spill behaviour and fate

.5 Initial spill assessment and surveillance

.6 Protection of resources

.7 Containment and recovery of oil

.8 Dispersants

.9 In situ burning and bioremediation

.10 Oil transfer and storage

.11 Shoreline cleanup

.12 Disposal

.13 Deactivation of response

.14 Roles and responsibilities

.15 Operational planning

.16 Communications and documentation

.17 Evidence gathering

.18 Liability, compensation and claims handling

.19 Communications and media relations

.20 Site safety

.21 Debriefing and contingency plan revision

.20 Exercise.21 General discussion

.22 Course assessment

Broadly, there are two ways to present such a course, either for a specificarea of interest or as a general course. The principles established in a moregeneral course would then need to be developed further by the participantsto relate to their own areas of interest. If a course is designed around a particular area, then the risk of spills can be discussed in terms of operations carried out in the area and the types of oil handled. The

approach and techniques for assessing the probable impact of a spill onlocal sensitive resources can be explained and the contingency arrange-ments devised to mitigate such effects outlined.

Having completed a training course, a trainee should become familiar withtheir area of responsibility, both physically, on the ground, and within theorganization set up to implement the contingency plan. This can beaccomplished through exercises, which will also allow participants to get to know the other people involved in the plan.

184






Training course

IMO has developed a series of model training courses, designed by aninternational group of experts from Government and industry based uponsome thirty years experience in oil-spill preparedness and response. The

courses address specific purposes/needs, as described in table 13-3.

Table 13-3 – IMO Model Training Courses

Course Content and issues

Level 3Senior managers andadministrators

Provides an overview of the roles and responsibilities of senior personnel in the management of incidents, cause and effect of oil spills, response policy and strategies, contingency planning,crisis management, public affairs and media relations,administration and financial aspects, and liability andcompensation.

Level 2:Supervisors andon-scene commanders

Intended for those personnel with significant management responsibility under the contingency plan to co-ordinate andsupervise response operations in order to deliver a timely,organized and effective response.

Provides detailed training in oil-spill behaviour, fate and effects;spill assessment; operations planning; containment, protectionand recovery; dispersant use; shoreline cleanup; site safety;storage and disposal of waste; media relations; record keeping;command and control management; communications andinformation; liability and compensation; response terminationand post-incident review/briefing.

Level 1:First responder Aimed at operator-level personnel, responsible for undertaking on-site cleanup.

Provides training on practical aspects of oil properties, responsetechniques, health and safety, boom and skimmer deployment,dispersant application, use of sorbents, shoreline cleanup,debris/waste handling and disposal, and wildlife casualties.

185






13.3 Exercises

The level of exercises ranges from the type of paper exercise run during a training course, through exercising communication links, up to fullmobilization and deployment of equipment. This latter type of exerciseserves several functions, not least of which is training. In addition,

weaknesses in the contingency plan are exposed, ‘‘bottle necks’’ in thearrangements for equipment deployment can be identified and thetimescales required to implement instructions realistically assessed. They also bring all those involved in the contingency plan together and can beused to develop a team spirit. No matter what lengths are taken to simulatea spill, real experience can only be gained from actual spills and theopportunity of attending as an observer should not be passed up. There is

nothing like learning from other people’s experiences.

13.3.1 Exercise types

In general, there are four different levels in which exercises can be carriedout. These range from level 1 (small spill size) to level 4 (larger spill size).

The level at which an exercise is conducted normally depends on the size,severity, likely consequence of a spill and the range of organizationsinvolved in the response to such a spill. If one expects to encounter every type of spill, then exercises at each level should be conducted (levels 1–4).However, if for example smaller, operational spills are normally experi-enced, then only level 1 or 2 exercises need be conducted. Each exerciselevel will need to reflect the numbers and range of organizations likely to beinvolved in such an incident. The features of each exercise level are:

Level 1

Spill scenarios are focused on smaller, higher probability, operational-typespills. The operational exercises are focused on emergency operating procedures, initial response actions, on-site equipment readiness andequipment deployment.

Level 2

Spill scenarios involve the need for assistance and additional resourcesfrom outside the individual organization. Operational exercises are aimedat initial response actions and equipment deployment.

Level 3

Spill scenarios reflect an incident of significance to general/wider areasand call for involvement of a range of different organizations. These are

larger scale and more complex operational exercises and involve quitelarge numbers of personnel, together with extensive equipment deploy-ment and operation.

Level 4

Spill scenario involves major consequences to a very wide range of resources, threatening national interests and requiring national and

186






regional co-operation and co-ordination. Exercise involves very wide rangeof personnel from many organizations, possibly in various locations,together with a range of equipment deployment opportunities.

13.3.2 Planning an exercise

Once the exercise level has been determined, the next step is to plan andprepare for the exercise. There are nine basic stages of exercise planning:

.1 establish priorities – identify the objectives that should beaddressed through the exercise;

.2 plan the exercise – select the type of exercise (operational or hands-on) that will best achieve the initial objectives;

.3 identify exercise personnel – select individuals or teams for thedesign, control and evaluation functions;

.4 design the exercise – produce a comprehensive exercise designand communicate it to the exercise design organization;

.5 plan the evaluation – plan the evaluation process with respect to the exercise design;

.6 prepare for the exercise – complete all necessary preparationsfor the exercise;

.7 conduct the exercise – conduct the exercise safely, ensuring that participants focus on achieving exercise objectives, areinvolved in a meaningful way and that the exercise follows thescript unless changes are approved by the exercise manager;

.8 evaluate the exercise – conduct an exercise evaluation that relates directly to the exercise objectives and that participantsconsider accurate, thorough, objective, fair and credible; and

.9 learn from the exercise – ensure the recommendations from theexercise lead to tangible improvements in the organization’sspill response capabilities.

187






‘ Table-top’ exercise

13.4 Equipment maintenance and storage

For the operator/owner of the oil-spill pollution equipment there are somebasic guidelines which need to be considered if a reliable response is to be

achieved:

13.4.1 Equipment design and application

.1 pollution equipment is often stored for long periods of time without being required. Then suddenly it is required to operatein all conditions for extensive periods continuously – a very tallorder for any item of machinery or equipment;

.2 the industry is relatively small and numbers of units of any particular item of equipment are modest. All testing and

development costs have to be built into the price of the unit and consequently the development and proving trials have to be very carefully controlled;

.3 the conditions in which the equipment is required to operate vary considerably with oil types, local circumstances, sea states,etc;

.4 historically the operational forces on equipment from prevailing in the marine environment have not always been appreciated;and

.5 due to the nature of the work, hydraulic power is used exten-sively, being the only practical form of power transmissionsuitable for the work required. Hydraulic power is relatively safeand reliable providing good torque and load characteristics todrive the specialized equipment. It is essential, however, that it be properly designed for the extreme environmental conditionsin which it may be required to operate.

188






In light of the above factors, some failures and breakdowns might beexpected during an oil spill and operators should be sufficiently familiar

with their equipment to be able to make repairs on site, or find other

solutions so that optimum ongoing use can be made of their equipment.

13.4.2 Types of maintenance

Assuming that all the design problems have been resolved and theequipment is fundamentally sound, the decision then has to be made onthe type of maintenance to be carried out. There are a number of forms of maintenance that can be considered. These are normally included in themanufacturers’ maintenance schedules and will be based on one of thefollowing systems:

.1 calendar system – the equipment is inspected and certainroutines are carried out on a fixed time schedule, i.e., weekly,monthly, annually;

.2 equipment running hours – as certain running hours arereached, the equipment maintenance routines are activated;

.3 equipment breakdown – equipment is repaired as defects arereported;

.4 condition monitoring – measurements made on the equipment

at regular intervals to ensure that it remains within designedcriteria; and/or

.5 a combination of all or some of these maintenance methods.

Before deciding which form of maintenance procedure to adopt, it isessential to analyse what is actually going to be best for the equipment.Requirements for pollution equipment are totally different from themajority of operations normally requiring maintenance. From experience,failures tend to result from a lack of use of the equipment rather than over-

use, and it is important that the maintenance procedures take this intoaccount.

Repair and maintenance of response equipment

189






When planning these maintenance requirements it is most important toconsider the personnel who will be used to carry out the maintenanceroutines. Unlike most other items for maintenance, the equipment should

not require a great deal of attention. After its ‘‘maintenance’’ it willprobably be placed back on the shelf until the next time it is due for ‘‘inspection’’. There is not very much job satisfaction in this and after a time it is likely that the potentially well-designed maintenance procedures

will not be carried out satisfactorily, unless good supervision is exercised.

13.4.3 A working system

To ensure the equipment will be effective in the field, all three areaspreviously described must be satisfied:

.1 well-designed and tested equipment;

.2 competent, trained operators; and

.3 correctly- and well-maintained equipment.

To link these requirements together, a comprehensive planned main-tenance system is necessary to ensure that the training of personnel andmaintenance of the equipment is co-ordinated and executed in a cost-effective manner. A factor that has been firmly established is that nomatter how reliable the equipment may be, it will be proven useless unless

good reliable trained operators are available to use the equipment. Oneproven method to achieve these objectives, fundamental to the system, isto use a single team who all deploy, test and maintain the equipment. Withthis system, each operator is given the responsibility for sections of anequipment stockpile. They must ensure that the maintenance isappropriate and that their equipment is in a continual state of readiness(this includes packaging, documentation and spares) and, where neces-sary, they must update and modify procedures as required.

A computerized maintenance system can be of considerable help in the

planning of the workload, for unlike planned maintenance, oil spills areanything but planned. As a consequence, maintenance routines arecontinually having to be updated – an almost impossible task to achievemanually. With the use of a computer, information on equipment can bepresented in almost any form – analysis of hours worked – maintenancehours – frequency of equipment failure, etc., all can be used to indicate

whether the correct level of maintenance is being carried out. In certaincases it can even be used to help justify the replacement of an item of equipment.

13.4.4 Storage

As far as possible, equipment should be stored under cover in a dry, well- ventilated store. In order to prolong equipment life, humidity, temperatureand exposure to ultraviolet radiation should be controlled. In addition,equipment should be protected from potential damage from pests. Someequipment, such as booms, which may be folded or reeled in storage,

190






should be regularly unfolded or unreeled to prevent the material sticking together or creases forming which will lead to points of weakness.

Ideally, the store should provide a clear working area where equipment canbe cleaned to remove oil and salt-water and some maintenance carried out.Good access to the equipment is essential, both to facilitate inspection andmaintenance and also to give access to road vehicles and lifting equipment so that equipment can be deployed quickly in an emergency. Security arrangements must also be considered to prevent vandalism and theft.

191










Chapter 14Cleanup cost considerations

14.1 Introduction

In the event of an oil spill, all of the response actions undertaken willgenerate costs, for example in the deployment of equipment, materials andmanpower. Also, there may be damage to coastal resources caused by thepollution and, on occasions, by the cleanup operations. The focus of thischapter is specifically on the cost of responding to an oil spill, but someinformation is also provided on sources of advice and compensation for claims in general.

The cost of responding to an oil spill can vary enormously. Statisticsindicate that when measured simply in terms of the overall response cost per tonne of oil spilled, figures can vary from approximately $US 650 per tonne to around $US 650,000 per tonne – a range encompassing threeorders of magnitude. Some of the many factors that can influence the cost of a spill response are described below.

14.2 Factors affecting response costs

It is commonly thought that the more oil that is spilled the more costly thespill response will be. However, some of the largest spills ever recordedhave called for relatively modest or indeed virtually no response (becauseof natural dissipation), whilst far smaller spills have required extensiveresponse and cleanup in an effort to mitigate potential damage. Thequantity of oil spilled cannot therefore be used as a reliable guide to thecost of a spill response.

The location of a spill and the prevailing current and weather conditionsare important factors in determining the appropriate nature and level of response. For example, spilled oil may be carried away from important areas or, depending on its properties, may naturally dissipate before it reaches them. If the same spill were to occur close to the sensitive areashowever, a substantial spill response may be necessary, in an attempt toprevent or mitigate damage.

The properties of an oil will determine how it will behave when spilled and

whether a response is called for, and which response techniques will beeffective. Persistent oils, for example crude oils, fuel oils heavy diesel andlubricating oils are usually slow to dissipate naturally and are thereforelikely to require cleaning up. Non-persistent oils tend to evaporate quickly

when spilled and do not usually require cleaning up.

Between different persistent oils, there can be a marked variation inproperties, which in turn affect the response techniques that may be

193





selected. For at-sea operations, for example, a spill of crude oil may betreated effectively with chemical dispersants but a similar spill of heavy fuel would not be treatable. In this case, an alternative response technique,

such as containment and recovery may be relied upon instead and there would be different cost implications connected with these two options.

The spill response policy of a country can also affect spill response costs. The at-sea response techniques that are available and their advantagesand drawbacks are described in earlier chapters. Selecting the most appropriate techniques to suit the circumstances is an important part of managing and controlling an effective spill response. Many countries haveestablished a response policy and often emphasize a preference for particular techniques. Certain response options may be specified as first

priority or conversely may be restricted or even ruled out. This can haveimplications for the cost-effectiveness of a response based on thosetechniques that remain available.

During shoreline cleanup, the importance attached to each site, theselection of cleaning techniques and the degree of cleaning deemednecessary can all have a significant impact on response costs. Thedifferent stages of shoreline cleaning are described in an earlier chapter and it is important to select the most appropriate cleaning techniques at each stage. For example, amenity areas affected during the tourist season

will usually be given a high priority and intensive manual and mechanicalcleaning may be undertaken to restore clean conditions rapidly. However,remote areas that are not heavily oiled may be less intensively cleaned andthose sites that are sensitive to physical intrusion, while still being considered very important, may be left alone to recover through naturalprocesses.

It is also important to determine appropriate criteria to terminate cleanupoperations before the efforts and associated costs escalate out of allproportion to any benefits that might be derived from continuation. Indeed,

selection of inappropriate techniques and excessive attempts to removeevery trace of oil can themselves cause damage to the shoreline, whichmay in turn call for further and costly restoration measures.

The options available for the disposal of oily waste generated during at-sea and shoreline cleanup operations can also become a significant part of theoverall response costs. Each option will have different cost implicationsdepending on the circumstances in a particular country. Factors willinclude national policy, legislative and operational controls, availability and location of suitable sites, transportation and the need for pre-

treatment and temporary storage. In some cases, the recycling of waste,for example through reprocessing at an oil handling facility, or treatment and then use as a secondary raw material, may prove a cost-effectivealternative to direct final disposal.

Effective management and control of operations are vital if a technically justified and cost-effective response is to be achieved. A clear responsestrategy, based on sound technical criteria, needs to be established at the

194






outset, implemented and then adjusted over time to suit the changing conditions and circumstances that develop. Expenditure items should betracked during the course of the response so that the cost-effectiveness of

ongoing activities can be monitored. The tracking process will also be of great benefit in supporting the preparation of claims for compensation.

14.3 Compensation for response costs

Compensation for damage caused by spills of persistent oil from tankers isgoverned by an international regime, the framework of which wasoriginally the 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for OilPollution Damage (1969 CLC) and the 1971 International Convention onthe Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil

Pollution Damage (1971 Fund Convention). This ‘old’ regime was amendedin 1992 by two Protocols, which increased the compensation limits andbroadened the scope of the original Conventions. The amended Con-

ventions, which entered into force in May 1996, are referred to here as the1992 CLC and 1992 Fund Convention.

Many States have now ratified both 1992 Conventions and more are likely to do so in the near future. Because of this the original Conventions havelost their significance and the 1971 Fund Convention has beenterminated. It should be noted that countries that have not ratified the

international compensation Conventions may have their own domesticlegislation for compensating those affected by oil spills from tankers. Someof these may be highly specific, such as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in theUnited States, whereas other countries may rely on broader laws originally developed for other purposes.

It should also be noted that IMO has developed an internationalConvention for compensation for damage caused by spills of oil arising from ships other than tankers. The International Convention on CivilLiability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage was agreed and finalized at a

Diplomatic Conference during 2001 and is now available for ratification by individual States. Once the entry-into-force requirements are met, this willprovide a source of compensation for oil pollution damage arising fromspills from non-tanker vessels.

The 1992 CLC governs the liability of tanker owners for oil pollutiondamage. It lays down the principle of strict liability (i.e. liability even in theabsence of fault) and creates a system of compulsory insurance. Claims for oil pollution damage (including response and cleanup costs) may bebrought against the tanker owner or the owner’s P&I insurer. The tanker

owner is normally entitled to limit his liability to an amount based on thegross tonnage of the tanker causing the oil spill.

The 1992 Fund Convention, which is supplementary to the 1992 CLC,establishes a regime for compensating those affected by oil spills when thecompensation available under the CLC is inadequate. By becoming a Party to the 1992 Fund Convention, a State automatically becomes a Member of the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 1992 (1992 Fund).

195

Chapter 14 – Cleanup cost considerations





Payments of compensation and administrative expenses of the 1992 Fundare financed by contributions levied on oil companies and other privateentities in 1992 Fund Convention States that receive crude oil and heavy

fuel oil after sea transport.For a claim to be admissible it must fall within the definition of pollutiondamage or preventive measures in the 1992 CLC and/or 1992 FundConvention. A uniform interpretation of the definitions and a commonunderstanding of what constitutes an admissible claim are essential for the efficient functioning of the international system of compensationestablished by the Conventions. For this reason, the Member States of the1992 Fund have established clear policies and guidelines, which aresummarised in the organization’s Claims Manual.

Under the 1992 CLC and 1992 Fund Convention, compensation isavailable for the cost of reasonable measures taken to prevent or minimizepollution damage. This may include the cost of removing the oil (cargo andfuel) from a damaged tanker posing a serious threat, as well as the costs of cleanup measures at sea, in coastal waters and on shorelines. The costs of disposing of recovered oil and associated debris are also covered.

To qualify for compensation under the Conventions, the costs as well asthe preventive measures themselves have to be ‘reasonable’. The fact that a Government or other public body decides to take certain response

measures does not in itself mean that the measures are ‘reasonable’ for the purposes of the Conventions. ‘Reasonable’ is generally interpreted tomean that the measures taken or the equipment used in a response to anincident were, on the basis of an expert technical appraisal at the time thedecision was taken, likely to have been successful in preventing or minimizing pollution damage.

The fact that the response measures turned out to be ineffective or thedecision was shown to be incorrect with the benefit of hindsight are not reasons in themselves for disallowing a claim for the costs involved. A

claim may be rejected, however, if it was known that the measures wouldbe ineffective but they were instigated simply because, for example, it wasconsidered necessary ‘to be seen to be doing something’. On this basis,measures taken purely for public relations reasons would not beconsidered reasonable.

14.4 Record-keeping and claims handling

It is essential that accurate and detailed records are kept to show how thecosts for cleanup operations are linked with actions taken on specific work

sites. Major expenditures may be incurred in the use of aircraft, vessels,specialized equipment, heavy machines, trucks and personnel. Some of these may be Government-owned while others may be the subject of contractual arrangements. Supervisory personnel should record daily theoperations in progress, the equipment in use, where and how it is being used, the number of personnel employed, how and where they are deployedand the materials consumed. Standard worksheets, designed to suit the

196






particular circumstances of a spill and the response organization in thecountry concerned, are useful for such records.

Claims for response and cleanup operations should be itemized as follows:

.1 Delineation of the area affected, describing the extent of pollution and identifying those areas most heavily contami-nated (for example using maps or nautical charts supported by photographs or video tapes).

.2 Analytical and/or other evidence linking the oil pollution withthe ship involved in the incident (e.g. chemical analysis; wind,tide and current data; observation and plotting of the movement of floating oil).

.3 Summary of events, including a description and justification of the work carried out at sea, in coastal waters and onshore,together with an explanation of why the various work methods

were selected.

.4 Dates on which work was carried out at each site.

.5 Labour costs at each site (number and categories of responsepersonnel, regular and overtime rates of pay, hours or days

worked, and other costs).

.6 Travel, accommodation and living costs for response personnel.

.7 Equipment costs at each site (types of equipment used, rate of hire or cost of purchase, quantity used and period of use).

.8 Consumable materials (description, quantity, unit cost and where used).

.9 Any remaining value at the end of the operations of equipment and materials purchased.

.10 Age of equipment not purchased but used in the incident.

.11 Transport costs (numbers and types of vehicles, vessels or aircraft used, numbers of hours or days operated, rate of hire or operating cost).

.12 Cost of temporary storage (if applicable) and of final disposal of recovered oil and oily material.

The speed with which compensation claims are settled largely dependsupon how long it takes claimants to provide the P&I Club and the 1992Fund with the information they require in a form that readily permitsanalysis. For this reason it is vital during any spill response that good

records are kept. Unfortunately, pressures to deal with practical cleanupproblems often result in record-keeping being given a lesser priority. Theappointment of a financial controller at an early stage of an incident cantherefore be valuable, both to co-ordinate expenditure and to ensureadequate records are maintained.

Detailed advice on the presentation of claims is contained in the ClaimsManual produced by the 1992 Fund. All those involved with contingency

197

Chapter 14 – Cleanup cost considerations





planning and oil spill response should obtain a copy of this important booklet. During an actual incident, the tanker owner and their P&I Club,and for cases where the 1992 Fund Convention may apply, the 1992 Fund

also, will usually despatch a technical expert to advise the authorities onmethods and techniques for combating the oil pollution. Advice from theP&I Club, the 1992 Fund and their technical experts on the admissibility of claims and the requirements for supporting documentation should beheeded to avoid difficulties arising at a later date.

198






List/table of useful conversion factors

Volume

1 barrel (US) = 42 gallons (US) = 159 ‘

1 barrel (Imp) = 45.1 gallons (Imp) = 205 ‘

1 gallon = 1.2 gallons (US) = 4.546 ‘

1 cubic metre = 1000 ‘ = 6.29 barrels (US)1 ‘ = 0.22 gallons (Imp) = 0.03531 cubic feet 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic metres1 cubic foot = 0.0283 cubic metres1 cubic decimetre = 0.001 cubic metres = 1 ‘

1 tonne (metric) = Approx. 7.5 barrels (US) = 262 gallons (Imp)

Area 1 acre = 0.405 hectares = 4,050 square metres1 hectare = 10,000 square metres = 2,471 acres

1 square kilometre = 100 hectares = 247 acres1 square metre = 1.196 square yards1 square yard = 0.836 square metres = 9 square feet 1 square foot = 0.093 square metres1 square mile = 2.59 square kilometres = 640 acres

Length/Distance1 kilometre = 0.54 nautical miles = 0.622 miles1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometres = 1.151 miles1 mile = 1.609 kilometres = 1,760 yards1 metre = 1.094 yards = 3.282 feet 1 yard = 0.914 metres1 foot = 0.305 metres

1 Inch = 25.4 millimetresSpeed1 knot = 1.85 km/hour = 0.51 metres/second1 metre/second = 3.6 km/hour = 1.94 knots

Mass1 tonne (Metric) = 1,000 kilograms = 0.984 tons1 ton (Imp) = 20 Hundredweight = 1.016 tonnes1 Hundredweight = 50.8 kilograms = 112 lbs.1 kilogram = 2.205 lbs. = 1 (‘ of water)1 gram = 0.035 Ounces

Pressure (Note, gallons are imperial)

1 cubic metre/hour = 16.7 ‘ /minute = 3.671 gallons/minute1 ‘ /second = 2.119 cubic feet/minute = 13.21 gallons/minute1 cubic foot/minute = 0.1039 gallons/second = 0.472 ‘ /second1 gallon/minute = 0.0631 ‘ /second1 barrel/hour = 2.65 ‘ /minute 0.5825 gallons/minute1 gallon (US)/acre = 11.224 ‘ /hectare

Pressure1 Psi = 0.069 bar = 6901 Pascal1 Bar = 100,000 Pascal = 14.49 Psi1 Bar = 30 feet of water

Engine Power1 horsepower = 0.7457 kilowatts

Density (specific gravity) API ¼ 141:5

specific gravity SG ¼ 141:5

ð APIþ131:5Þ

Temperature

8F to 8C deduct 32, multiply by 5, divide by 9. 8C to 8F multiply by 9, divide by 5, add 32.

Celsius 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fahrenheit 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158 176 194 212

199









Bibliography

API (1985) Oil spill response: Options for minimizing adverse ecological impacts. American Petroleum Institute, Washington DC. Publication No.4398. 98pp.

API/NOAA (1994) Environmental impacts of freshwater spill response options. American Petroleum Institute, Washington DC. Publication No.

4558. 146ppCanadian Coast Guard (1995) Oil spill response field guide . CanadianCoast Guard, Ontario, Canada. 194pp.

CEDRE (2000) Re ´connaissance de site pollue ´s par des hydrocarbures; guide operational sur l’e ´valuation de la pollution du littoral. CEDRE, Brest,France. 31pp

CEDRE (1998) Les dispersants/Dispersants. INFOPOL, CEDRE, Brest,France. 18pp.

CEDRE (1995) La lutte contre les pollutions marines accidentelles: Aspectsoperationnels et techniques/Response to accidental marine spills: Opera- tional and technical aspects. CEDRE, Brest, France. 23pp.

CEDRE (1995) Evaluation des techniques de gestion et de traitment desde ´chets a ` la suite d’une pollution accidentelle par hydrocarbures/Evalua- tion of management and disposal techniques for waste from accidental oil

pollution. CEDRE, Brest, France. Report No. R.95.01.C. 125pp.

CEDRE (1993) Manuel pour l’observation ae ´rienne des pollutions pe ´tro-

lieres/Guide to aerial observation of oil pollution. CEDRE, Brest, France.36pp.

CEDRE (1993) Evaluation des techniques de nettoyage des plages/ Evaluation of the techniques for cleaning beaches. CEDRE, Brest, France.85pp.

CEDRE (1991) Utilisation des dispersants pour lutter contre des de verse- ments de pe ´trole en mer: Manuel de traitment des nappes par voi ae ´rienne/ Use of dispersing agents to fight against oil spills at sea: Manual for the treatment of slicks from the air. CEDRE, Brest, France. 28pp

CEDRE (1987) Utilisation des dispersants pour lutter contre des de verse- ments de pe ´trole en mer: Manuel de traitment des nappes par bateau/ Use of dispersants for controlling offshore oil slicks: Field guide for the treatment of slicks by boat. CEDRE, Brest, France. 28pp.

Clark, R.B. (2001) Marine pollution. 5th edition. Oxford University Press,Oxford. 237pp. London, UK.

201





CONCAWE (1998) Heavy fuel oils. CONCAWE, Brussels, Belgium. Product Dossier No. 98/109 48pp

CONCAWE (1992) Bitumens and bitumen derivatives. CONCAWE, Brus-sels, Belgium. Product Dossier No. 92/104. 47pp

CONCAWE (1983) Characteristics of petroleum and its behaviour at sea.CONCAWE, Brussels, Belgium. Report No. 8/83. 47pp.

CONCAWE (1981) A field guide to coastal oil spill control and cleanuptechniques. CONCAWE, Brussels, Belgium. Report No. 9/81. 112pp.

CONCAWE (1983) A field guide to inland oil spill cleanup techniques.CONCAWE, Brussels, Belgium. Report No. 10/83. 104pp.

Cormack, D. (1999) Response to marine oil pollution - review and assessment. 3rd edition. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.

Cracknell, A.P. & Hayes, L.W.B. (1991) Introduction to remote sensing. Taylor and Francis publishers, UK.

De la Rue, C. & Anderson, C.B. (1998) Shipping and the environment. Lawand practice. LLP Limited, London, UK. 1278pp.

Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR) (1998). Field guide for oil spill response in Arctic waters. Environment Canada, Yellowknife, NT Canada. 348pp.

ESGOSS (1994) The Environmental Impact of the Wreck of the BRAER. TheScottish Office, Edinburgh, UK. 207pp

Exxon (1992) Oil spill response field manual. Exxon Production ResearchCompany, Houston. 193pp.

Fingas, M.F. (2000) In-situ burning a new solution for inland waters and offshore response. Environmntal Protection Service, Environment Canada.

Fingas, M.F. (2000) Review of oil spill remote sensing. Paper presented at SPILLCON 2000 8th international conference, Darwin, Australia.

Australian Institute of Petroleum. 17pp.

Fingas, M.F. (2000) The basics of oil spill clean-up. 2nd edition. CRC PressLLC, Florida. Environmental Protection Service, Environment Canada.233pp.

GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution) (1993) Impact of oil and related chemicals and w astes on the marine environment.GESAMP (50) 180pp.

Gold, E. (1998) Gard handbook on marine pollution. 2nd edition. Assuranceforeningen Gard, Arendal, Norway. 480pp.

IMO (1998) Manual on Oil Pollution, Section VI – Guidelines for Samplingand Identification of Oil Spills. IMO, London, UK. 38pp.

IMO (1998) Manual on Oil Pollution, Section V – Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response. IMO, London, UK.

202






IMO (1997) Field guide for oil spill response in tropical waters. IMO, London,UK. 54pp.

IMO (1997) Manual on Oil Pollution, Section III – Salvage. IMO, London

IMO (1995) Manual on Oil Pollution. Section II – Contingency planning. IMO,London, UK. 65pp.

IMO/FAO (expected 2002) Guidelines on Managing Seafood Safety Duringand After Oil Spills. IMO, London, UK.

IMO/UNEP (1995) IMO/UNEP Guidelines on oil spill dispersant application including environmental considerations. IMO, London, UK. 55pp.

Institute of Petroleum (2001) Planning for the use of oil spill dispersants,

3rd edition. Institute of Petroleum, London, UK. 38pp.IOPC Fund 1992 (1998) Claims manual. IOPC Fund 1992, London, UK.30pp.

IPIECA (1996) Sensitivity mapping for oil spill response. IMO/IPIECA Report Series Volume 1. IPIECA, London, UK. 24pp.

IPIECA (1996) Guide to oil spill exercise planning. IMO/IPIECA Report Series Volume 2. IPIECA, London, UK. 32pp.

IPIECA (1991) Guidelines on biological impacts of oil pollution. IPIECA

Report Series Volume 1. IPIECA, London, UK. 15pp.IPIECA (1992) Biological impacts of oil pollution: Coral reefs. IPIECA Report Series Volume 3. IPIECA, London, UK. 16pp.

IPIECA (1992) Biological impacts of oil pollution: Mangroves. IPIECA Report Series Volume 4. IPIECA, London, UK. 20pp.

IPIECA ( 2000) Dispersants and their role in oil spill response, 2nd edition.IPIECA Report Series Volume 5. IPIECA, London, UK. 36pp.

IPIECA (1994) Biological impacts of oil pollution: Saltmarshes. IPIECA

Report Series Volume 6. IPIECA, London, UK. 20pp.IPIECA (1995) Biological impacts of oil pollution: Rocky shores. IPIECA Report Series Volume 7. IPIECA, London, UK. 20pp.

IPIECA (1997) Biological impacts of oil pollution: Fisheries. IPIECA Report Series Volume 8. IPIECA, London, UK. 28pp.

IPIECA (1999) Biological impacts of oil pollution: Sedimentary shores.IPIECA Report Series Volume 9. IPIECA, London, UK. 24pp.

IPIECA (2000) Choosing spill response options to minimize damage: net

environmental benefit analysis. IPIECA Report Series Volume 10. IPIECA,London, UK. 20pp.

ITOPF (2001) Aerial observation of oil. Technical Information Paper. ITOPF,London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1981) Use of booms in combating oil pollution. TechnicalInformation Paper No. 2. ITOPF, London, UK. 8pp.

203

Bibliography





ITOPF (1982) Aerial application of oil spill dispersants. TechnicalInformation Paper No. 3. ITOPF, London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1982) Use of oil spill dispersants. Technical Information Paper No. 4. ITOPF, London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1983) Use of skimmers in combating oil pollution. TechnicalInformation Paper No. 5. ITOPF, London, UK. 7pp.

ITOPF (1983) Recognition of oil on shorelines. Technical Information Paper No. 6. ITOPF, London, UK. 7pp.

ITOPF (1983) Shoreline cleanup. Technical Information Paper No. 7. ITOPF,London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1984) Disposal of oil and debris. Technical Information Paper No. 8.ITOPF, London, UK. 7pp.

ITOPF (1985) Contingency planning for oil spills. Technical InformationPaper No. 9. ITOPF, London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1985) Effects of marine oil spills. Technical InformationPaper No. 10. ITOPF, London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1986) Fate of marine oil spills. Technical Information Paper No. 11.ITOPF, London, UK. 8pp.

ITOPF (1986) Action: oil spill. Technical Information Paper No. 12. ITOPF,London, UK. 8pp.

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1997). The approval and use of oil dispersants in the UK. MAFF Publications, London, UK. 22pp.

Marine Pollution Control Unit of the Department of Transport (1994). Oil spill clean-up of the coastline. A technical manual. 2nd edition. Department of Transport, London, UK.

National Research Council (1985) Oil in the sea. Inputs, fates and effects.

National Academy Press, Washington DC. 601pp.

National Research Council (1989) Using oil spill dispersant on the sea.National Academy Press, Washington DC. 335pp

Neff, J.M. and Andersen, J.W. (1981) Response of marine animals to petroleum and specific petroleum hydrocarbons. Applied Science, London,UK. 117pp.

Owens, E & Sergy, G.A. (2000) The SCAT manual. A field guide to the documentation and description of oiled shorelines, 2nd edition. Environ-

ment Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 108pp.

Owens, E. (1995) A field guide for the protection and cleanup of oiled shorelines. Environment Canada, Atlantic Region, Environmental Emer-gencies Section, Nova Scotia. 114pp.

Owens, E. (1996) Field guide for the protection and cleanup of Arctic oiled shorelines. Environment Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 66pp

204






Schulze, R. (editor) (1999) 1999/2000 World catalog of oil spill response products. World Catalog JV, Maryland, USA. 1,000pp.

Schulze, R. (1998) Oil spill response performance review of skimmers.

American Society for Testing and Materials, PA, USA. 151pp.

SEEEC (1998) The Environmental Impact of the SEA EMPRESS. (Summary Report), HMSO, UK.

SEEEC (1998) The Environmental Impact of the SEA EMPRESS Oil Spill.Final Report of the SEA EMPRESS Environmental Evaluation Committee,HMSO, UK.

205

Bibliography









About IMO

IMO is a technical organization established in 1958. Today (March 2005), ithas 164 Member States plus three Associate Members. Formal arrange-

ments for co-operation and/or consultative status have been establishedwith a large number of international organizations.

The Organization’s chief task, especially in the early years, was to develop a

comprehensive body of international conventions, codes and recommendations which could be implemented by all Member Governments. This

international approach is essential, for the effectiveness of IMO measuresdepends upon how widely they are accepted and how they areimplemented. The fact that the most important IMO conventions are nowaccepted by countries whose combined merchant fleets represent 98% ofthe world total indicates how successful this policy has been.

The governing body of IMO is the Assembly, which meets every two years. In

between Assembly sessions a Council, consisting of 32 Member Stateselected by the Assembly, acts as governing body. The technical work of IMOis carried out by a series of committees. The Maritime Safety Committee is

the most senior of these and has sub-committees dealing with the followingsubjects: safety of navigation, radiocommunications and search and rescue,standards of training and watchkeeping, carriage of dangerous goods, solidcargoes and containers, ship design and equipment, fire protection, stability

and load lines and fishing vessel safety, bulk liquids and gases and flag Stateimplementation.

The Marine Environment Protection Committee deals with pollutionprevention. IMO also has a Legal Committee, originally established to dealwith legal problems resulting from the Torrey Canyon pollution disaster of

1967 but later made a permanent body.

The Technical Co-operation Committee handles IMO’s growing technical co- operation programme, which is designed to help Member Governmentsimplement the technical measures adopted by the Organization, and the

Facilitation Committee deals with measures to simplify the documentationand formalities required in international shipping.

The Secretariat consists of some 300 international civil servants headed by a

Secretary-General. The IMO Headquarters is in London, just across the RiverThames from the Houses of Parliament.

About IMO’s publishing activities

IMO’s publishing activities provide to the world maritime community the

numerous texts (conventions, codes, regulations, recommendations, guidelines, etc.) prepared by the Organization as part of its work programme. The

207





world-wide dissemination of this information plays an important role in the

promotion of maritime safety and the prevention of marine pollution.

Today, IMO has over 250 titles available in English. They are translated into

French and Spanish and an increasing number also into Arabic, Chinese andRussian. IMO also produces a wide range of publications in electronic format.All items may be ordered via IMO’s website (www.imo.org).

For further information:

International Maritime Organization4 Albert Embankment

London SE1 7SRUnited Kingdom

Tel: + 44 (0)20 7735 7611Fax: + 44 (0)20 7587 3210e-mail (general enquiries): [email protected] (publications): [email protected]

www.imo.org

208





Related titles

All titles may be ordered from IMO’s website (www.imo.org) or from any distributor of IMO publications. A list of local distributors can also be found onthe website.

MARPOL 73/78 (Consolidated edition, 2002)

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (better known as

MARPOL 73/78), is one of the most important international agreements onthe subject of marine pollution.

MARPOL – HOW TO DO IT (2001 edition)

This manual provides useful practical information to Governments, particularly those of developing countries, on the technical, economic and legal

implications of ratifying, implementing and enforcing MARPOL 73/78. Theaim is to encourage the further ratification and proper implementation and

enforcement of the Convention, but it should be noted that, for legalpurposes, the authentic text of MARPOL 73/78 should always be consulted.

ANTI-FOULING SYSTEMS (2001 Edition)

The International Conference on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systemsfor Ships, 2001, adopted the International Convention on the Control of

Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships, 2001 (the AFS Convention),together with four Conference resolutions, relating to the early and effectiveapplication of the AFS Convention, approval and test methodologies for anti-

fouling systems on ships and the promotion of technical co-operation.

BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT CONVENTION (2004 edition)

It has been widely recognized that the uncontrolled discharge of ballast

water and sediments from ships has led to the transfer of harmful aquaticorganisms and pathogens, causing injury or damage to the environment,human health, property and resources. In response to this, guidelines for the

control and management of ships’ ballast water to minimize the transfer ofharmful aquatic organisms and pathogens were adopted by IMO in 1997 tosupersede earlier MEPC guidelines. Following further extensive consideration of the subject, an International Conference was convened in 2004 at

which the International Convention for the Control and Management ofShips’ Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted.

This publication contains the texts of the Convention in English, French andSpanish, plus four resolutions that were adopted by the Conference.

209





GUIDELINES FOR THE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF SHIPS’ BALLAST

WATER TO MINIMIZE THE TRANSFER OF HARMFUL AQUATIC ORGANISMS

AND PATHOGENS

These guidelines are intended to assist Governments and appropriateauthorities, ship masters, operators and owners, and port authorities, as well

as other interested parties in minimizing the risk of introducing harmfulaquatic organisms and pathogens from ships’ ballast water and associatedsediments while protecting ships’ safety.

POLLUTION PREVENTION EQUIPMENT REQUIRED UNDER MARPOL 73/78

(1996 edition)

The purpose of this publication is to provide easy and up-to-date reference toall applicable IMO resolutions on shipboard pollution-prevention equipment

required under MARPOL 73/78. This includes equipment for the separationof oil from water, the treatment of sewage and the incineration of garbageand other shipboard wastes.

MANUAL ON OIL POLLUTION

This manual addresses oil pollution problems rather than safety measures. Itis a particularly useful guide for Governments of developing countries and for

those persons directly associated with the sea transportation and transfer ofoil. The manual is divided into six sections:

Section I – Prevention

Out of print.

Section II – Contingency Planning (1995 edition)

Section III – Salvage (1997 edition)

Section IV – Combating Oil Spills (2005 edition)

Section V – Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (1998 edition)

Section VI – IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identification of Oil Spills(1998 edition)

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS,

RESPONSE AND CO-OPERATION (OPRC), 1990 (1991 edition)

OPRC-HNS PROTOCOL 2000

This publication reproduces the text of the Protocol on Preparedness,

Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and NoxiousSubstances, 2000.

210





IMO/UNEP GUIDELINES ON OIL SPILL DISPERSANT APPLICATION

INCLUDING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (1995 edition)

The Guidelines provide up-to-date information on the use of oil spill

dispersants. They are intended primarily for use by Member Governmentsand other oil spill responders and should be read with the Manual on Oil Pollution, section IV: Combating Oil Spills (IA569E).

IMO/FAO GUIDANCE ON MANAGING SEAFOOD SAFETY

DURING AND AFTER OIL SPILLS (2003 edition)

The IMO/FAO Guidance on managing seafood safety during and after oil spills provides a very useful guide to identify the various problems that will

affect fisheries and aquaculture enterprises in the event of an oil spill. Thisdocument will be useful to spill responders and managers with responsibilities for protecting public health and those in the fisheries sector as well asconsumers concerned about the safety and quality of seafood.

FIELD GUIDE FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE IN TROPICAL WATERS (1997 edition)

MANUAL ON CHEMICAL POLLUTIONSection 1 – Problem Assessment and Response Arrangements (1999 edition)

Section 2 – Search and Recovery of Packaged Goods Lost at Sea (1991 edition)

211





NOTES

212





Section V

MANUAL ON OIL POLLUTION

ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS

OF OIL POLLUTION RESPONSE1998 Edition







by the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SR

Printed in the United Kingdom by Halstan & Co. Ltd., Amersham, Bucks

4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3

ISBN 92-801-1424-7

IMO PUBLICATION

Sales number: I572E



No part of this publication may, for sales purposes,

be produced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted









Foreword

The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), at its thirty-third session, agreed that a new section V of the IMO Manual on Oil

Pollution , dealing with administrative aspects and, in particular, withthe roles and functions of entities which could be involved in an oilpollution emergency and its aftermath, should be developed. The text of this section was approved and authorized for publication by theMEPC at its thirty-sixth session.


Section I Prevention (out of print; revision under consideration)

Section II Contingency Planning (revised edition published in 1995)

Section III Salvage (revised edition published in 1997)

Section IV Combating Oil Spills (published in 1988; revision under consideration)

Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (thispublication)

The MEPC wishes to express its appreciation to the many experts whoassisted in the preparation of the text and contributed tables and dia-grams; in particular, to the International Oil Pollution CompensationFunds, the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited,the International Salvage Union and the International Group of P & I Clubs.

A series of sections of the Manual on Chemical Pollution are currently inthe course of preparation and some of them have already beenpublished:

Section 1 Problem Assessment and Response Arrangements (1987edition; currently under review)

Section 2 Search and Recovery of Packaged Goods Lost at Sea (1991edition)

iii









Contents

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viiIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Part I Roles and functions of entities which could be involvedin an oil pollution emergency and its aftermath

Chapter 1 The shipowner

1.1 General rights and obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Notification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.4 Pollution response and clean-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter 2 The ship operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 3 The master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Chapter 4 The cargo owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 5 The flag State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 6 The coastal State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chapter 7 The salvors

7.1 Professional salvors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7.2 The International Convention on Salvage, 1989. . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 8 The liability underwriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Part II Compensation for oil pollution damage

Chapter 9 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chapter 10 The 1969 Civil Liability Convention andthe 1971 Fund Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chapter 11 The 1992 Civil Liability Convention andthe 1992 Fund Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 12 Recovery of compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Chapter 13 Guidelines for facilitation of response toan oil pollution incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Appendices

Appendix 1 Chapter IX of SOLAS 1974and Assembly resolution A.741(18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Appendix 2 Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78and Assembly resolution A.851(20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Appendix 3 Lloyd’s Standard Formof Salvage Agreement, 1995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

v





Appendix 4 International Group of P & I Clubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Appendix 5 Extracts from IOPC FundsClaims Manual (5th edition). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Appendix 6 Resolution A.869(20): Guidelines for facilitation of response to an oil pollutionincident pursuant to article 7 andannex of the International Conventionon Oil Pollution Preparedness, Responseand Co-operation, 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Contents

vi





Abbreviations

The following explanations of abbreviated expressions used in thisManual may be helpful to the user:

1969 Civil Liability Convention International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969

1992 Civil Liability Convention International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969, as amended by theProtocol of 1992 relating thereto

CLC Certificate Certificate of Insurance or Other Financial Security

in respect of Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage

CRISTAL Contract regarding a Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution

Funds International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds

1971 Fund Convention International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for OilPollution Damage, 1971

1992 Fund Convention International Convention on the Establishment of

an International Fund for Compensation for OilPollution Damage, 1971, as amended by theProtocol of 1992 relating thereto

1969 Intervention Convention International Convention relating toIntervention on the High Seas in Cases of OilPollution Casualties, 1969

1973 Intervention Protocol Protocol relating to Intervention on the HighSeas in Cases of Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil, 1973

IOPC Funds International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds

ISM Code International Management Code for the SafeOperation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention

ISU International Salvage Union

ITOPF International Tanker Owners Pollution FederationLimited

LL 1966 International Convention on Load Lines, 1966

LLMC 1976 Convention on Limitation of Liability for MaritimeClaims, 1976

LOF 1995 Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement

vii





MARPOL 73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as amended by theProtocol of 1978 relating thereto

OPRC 1990 International Convention on Oil PollutionPreparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990

1910 Salvage Convention Convention for the Unification of Certain Rulesof Law relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea,1910

1989 Salvage Convention International Convention on Salvage, 1989

SDR Special Drawing Right. The US dollar equivalents of SDRs vary according to the current exchange rates.

The rate for the present publication is 1 SDR =US$1.34925 (31 December 1997).

SOLAS 1974 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974

1978 SOLAS Protocol Protocol of 1978 relating to SOLAS 1974

STCW 1978 International Convention on Standards of Training,Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978

TOVALOP Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for Oil Pollution

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,1982

Abbreviations

viii





Introduction

This section of the Manual on Oil Pollution is intended to provide thereader, in particular on-scene commanders, lead agencies and othersinvolved in the management of oil pollution response, with anappreciation of the various interests involved in an oil pollutionemergency and its aftermath, as well as a general review of theinternational legal regimes governing limitation of liability andcompensation for oil pollution damage. This section is not intendedto provide an authorized or definitive commentary on the legalrelationships between the various entities involved in an oil poll-ution

emergency or an interpretation of relevant international conventions. The reference section includes sources of more comprehensiveinformation on these subjects, and the reader is encouraged to makeuse of them if more detailed information is required.

1









Part I Roles and functions of entities which could be

involved in an oil pollution emergencyand its aftermath

Chapter 1 – The shipowner

1.1 General rights and obligations

1.1.1 There may be a great diversity of ownership or possessory interestsin a ship. The main ones which a coastal State is likely to encounter in a marine pollution emergency are: the shipowner, bareboat charterer, andmanager or operator. The role of the shipowner is mainly discussed here.

The phrase shipowner is used here, although of course in some cases a ship may be owned by more than one entity in equal or unequal shares. Insuch cases, there is usually an agreement between the different ownersthat one of them will take operational decisions on behalf of all of them,and joint ownership only becomes of particular interest when recovery of

damages is sought.1.1.2 Unless there is a bareboat charterer or manager of the ship, theshipowner is normally the entity responsible for the operation of the ship,and the master will be the agent of the shipowner for that purpose, at least until direct contact is established between the coastal State and theshipowner. For this reason the role of the master is discussed separately inchapter 3.

1.1.3 The interests in the ship are protected under international law to a considerable extent. Not only is there freedom of navigation on the high

seas,* but ships are entitled to the right of innocent passage through theterritorial sea. These rights of the ship are, however, affected where a marine pollution emergency occurs which threatens or actually causesdamage to the coastal State or its territorial sea, so that the coastal Statemay, in accordance with international law and its own internal law, takesteps which interfere with those freedoms. This is dealt with further inchapter 6 under the rights of the coastal State.

1.1.4 The first concern of the shipowner in a marine pollution emergency will be to see that the ship and all the life thereon is preserved, and that as

much as possible of the cargo, which he has contractually undertaken todeliver to the destination named in the bill of lading, is so delivered. He istherefore concerned to protect both his proprietary interest in the ship andhis contractual obligations concerning the cargo. If the ship is aground, he

* In this context, high seas means beyond territorial waters.

3





will want to arrange for it to resume its voyage as soon as practicable, andthis will rightly be the primary focus of his immediate concern, rather thanthe effect upon the sea or coast of polluting substances which may have

escaped or may be threatening to escape. Because he may be liable to pay compensation for pollution caused, the shipowner can be expected,however, either through the master or directly from his office, to liaise

with all others who are directly concerned with the position of the ship inthe emergency.

1.1.5 In addition to the general rights and obligations concerning theoperation of the ship, the shipowner may have certain specific obligationsconcerning: (a) a document to be developed and carried on board for oilpollution preparedness and response; (b) notification of the marine

pollution emergency to the nearest coastal State; (c) pollution responseand clean-up; and (d) compensation.

1.2 Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan

1.2.1 One of the salient documents required to be developed and carriedon board for oil pollution preparedness and response is a Shipboard OilPollution Emergency Plan. Since 4 April 1993, every oil tanker of 150 grosstonnage and above and every ship other than a tanker of 400 grosstonnage and above have had to carry on board such a Plan approved by theflag State. In the case of ships built before 4 April 1993, this requirement shall apply from 4 April 1995 (regulation 26 of Annex I of the InternationalConvention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modifiedby the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78),* and article 3 of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response andCo-operation, 1990 (OPRC 1990),{ which entered into force on 13 May 1995). Such a Plan shall be in accordance with the Guidelines for thedevelopment of Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plans developed by IMO.{ The Plan shall consist of:

(a) the procedure to be followed by the master or other persons to

report an oil pollution incident;(b) the list of authorities or persons to be contacted in the event of

an oil pollution incident; and

(c) a detailed description of the action to be taken immediately by persons on board to reduce or control the discharge of oilfollowing the incident.

1.2.2 The International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (ISM Code),} which will be mademandatory on 1 July 1998 by amendments to the International Conven-

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-520E.{ Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-550E.{ Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-586E.} Refer to IMO sales publications IMO-186E and IMO-117E.

4

Manual on Oil Pollution V: Administrative aspects





tion for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS 1974),* also requires‘‘emergency preparedness’’, i.e., ‘‘the Company should establish proce-dures to identify, describe and respond to potential emergency shipboard

situations’’. In the ISM Code, the Company means ‘‘the owner of the ship or any other organization or person such as the manager, or the bareboat charterer, who has assumed the responsibility for operation of the shipfrom the shipowner and who, on assuming such responsibility, has agreedto take over all duties and responsibility imposed by the Code’’ (regulationIX/1 of SOLAS 1974 and paragraph 1.1.2 of the ISM Code).

Please refer to more detailed information in paragraph 5.6 of this Manual. Also refer to the new chapter IX of SOLAS 1974 and the ISM Code as set out in appendix 1.

1.3 Notification

1.3.1 The shipowner may be obliged by an applicable regulation (under the law of the flag State or of the coastal State, either or both of which may derive from international conventions to which these States are party) tonotify the nearest coastal State of the marine pollution emergency whichhas arisen. Normally this obligation will fall upon the master of the ship,but if the ship has been abandoned, or if the master’s report is incomplete,then the obligation on the shipowner to make a report may arise. Theobligation to report, which Parties to MARPOL 73/78 undertake toimplement in their internal law for ships registered in their territory, iscontained in Protocol I of that Convention. The text of Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78, together with Assembly resolution A.648(16), is set out for convenience in appendix 2. Article 4 of OPRC 1990 is to similar effect.

1.4 Pollution response and clean-up

1.4.1 The obligation of a shipowner to take pollution response and clean-up measures depends upon the law of the State where the pollutionoccurs. The shipowner’s obligation to pay for such measures may begoverned by the 1969 or 1992 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (1969 or 1992 Civil Liability Convention), if theship is registered in a State which is party to those Conventions. TheseConventions require a shipowner to maintain insurance to cover hisliability for pollution and other third-party liabilities under the Conven-tions. The International Convention on Salvage, 1989 (1989 SalvageConvention),{ may also apply if a salvage contract is entered into. The 1989Salvage Convention entered into force on 14 July 1996.

1.4.2 Under most insurance contracts, and indeed under the general

principles of many systems of insurance law, even though he is insured,the shipowner must act as a prudent person without insurance, andtherefore he must act within his capabilities so as to minimize his

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-110E.{ Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-450E.

5

Part I, chapter 1





potential liabilities. The clause in the insurance contract which enshrinesthis principle is often called the ‘‘sue and labour’’ clause. The principle issimple: a shipowner should not be allowed to so act that the liabilities

which the insurer has underwritten will be increased if an alternativecourse of action is open to him. Therefore coastal States should find theshipowner very co-operative in any efforts the coastal State wants to make

which would have the effect of reducing the shipowner’s ultimate potentialliability, although in the past there have been some cases where this hasnot been so. Often, disagreement arises when there is a conflict betweenthe shipowner’s desire to minimize liability and the coastal State’s desiredaction. In any event, whatever response and clean-up assistance theshipowner is able to muster, he will normally have behind him theresources, the technical advice and services of his liability underwriter

(usually a P & I Club). In practice, the liability underwriter is usually very closely involved, and so this is further discussed in chapter 8.

1.4.3 Under article 8(2) of the 1989 Salvage Convention, which enteredinto force on 14 July 1996, the owner is under a duty to the salvor to co-operate fully with him during the course of the salvage operations and, inso doing, to exercise due care to prevent or minimize damage to theenvironment.

1.4.4 These contractual obligations, if they apply, are owed to different people – the first, to the liability underwriter, and the second, to the salvor.None are owed to the coastal State, although the coastal State may wellbecome involved in the owner’s implementation of them.

1.4.5 The shipowner also incurs legal obligations to the coastal State whose waters are being polluted. These legal obligations can conflict withthe shipowner’s contractual obligations. In these cases, it is very important to clarify who will pay the costs involved for any response action requiredby the coastal States.

Chapter 2 – The ship operator

2.1 The ship may be owned by one entity, such as a bank or other financial institution, and leased or bareboat chartered to another entity.

This is a common method of financing, whereby the shipping company which wants to use the ship has the possession of it but the bare legalownership resides in the institution which puts up the money for itspurchase. The relationship between the shipowner and the lessee or bareboat charterer is governed by a contract of lease or bareboat charter –for our purposes there is no significant difference, so we shall refer to thebareboat charterer below. In this connection, it should be noted that the

bareboat charterer will be required to comply with the requirements of theISM Code (see paragraphs 1.2.2 and 5.6).

2.2 It is the bareboat charterer who has the possession of the wholeship, and it is therefore he who is responsible for the commercial andoperational management of the ship, and not the shipowner. Thus, wherethis type of arrangement is in operation, the master will not be the agent of

6






the shipowner but the agent of the bareboat charterer, and the latter willfulfill all of the roles and functions which were discussed above under paragraph 1.1, so that for most purposes one can read bareboat charterer

for shipowner .2.3 The notable exception concerns the liability of the shipowner under the 1969 and 1992 Civil Liability Conventions, which cannot be directly assumed by any other person.

2.4 In any event, the bareboat charterer would wish to avail himself of any right of limitation which he may have under the relevant law, such asthe Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976 (LLMC1976)* (see paragraph 9.2).

2.5 It should be noted that the 1989 Salvage Convention places anobligation on the owner to co-operate with a salvor and in so doing toexercise due care to prevent or minimize damage to the environment. The1989 Salvage Convention does not define owner , and so it is left to eachState Party to define it in its own legislation. Such legislation may or may not provide that a bareboat charterer shall be in the same position as anowner in this respect.

2.6 Another common arrangement which may complicate the picturestill further on the side of the interests in the ship is the appointment of ship managers or operators who run the day-to-day non-commercial sideof the ship’s operation. Managers would normally be responsible for providing the ship with officers and crew and ensuring that the ship ismaintained and insured. Operators have a similar, but lesser, role. In eachcase the shipowner (or bareboat charterer, as the case may be) retainscommercial control of the ship and takes the commercial risks andbenefits of its operation, deciding whether to trade the ship directly for hisown benefit or to charter the ship out. Where there is a manager or operator (who employs the master), the master will still be the agent of the

shipowner or bareboat charterer (as the case may be) for purposes of dealing with the operation of the ship and for salvage purposes. However,the master will additionally represent his employer, and his act or neglect may make his employer liable for compensation. Managers and operatorsusually enjoy the same rights to limit their liability as shipowners andbareboat charterers.

Chapter 3 – The master

3.1 The master is the officer aboard ship entrusted with the prosecu-tion of the entire maritime adventure. He is, therefore, responsible for thesafety of the ship, the cargo and all personnel aboard, and he will takesuch action as he can to achieve this as soon as the incident giving rise to


7

Part I, chapters 2, 3





the emergency occurs. He will give priority to saving life. His responsibility and authority are further described in the ISM Code (see paragraph 5.6 of this manual and the ISM Code, the latter of which appears in appendix 1).

3.2 If the ship is in distress, the master will be responsible to see that a distress signal is sent, and he may, under regulation V/10(b) of SOLAS1974, requisition any ship with which he is in contact and which heconsiders best able to render him assistance, whereupon the master of therequisitioned ship must proceed with all speed to the assistance of thedistressed ship. In addition, under article 11 of the Convention for theUnification of Certain Rules of Law relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea, 1910 (1910 Salvage Convention), every master is bound to render assistance to any person found in danger of being lost at sea, so far as he

can do so without serious danger to his ship and persons thereon. Article10 of the 1989 Salvage Convention is to similar effect.

3.3 The master is usually the person responsible for making notifica-tion to the nearest coastal State of the incident giving rise to the marinepollution emergency (see paragraph 1.3.1 and appendix 2 for details).

3.4 The master is in most, if not all, systems of law the agent of theshipowner in the navigation and shipboard management of the ship.

Where the cargo is in danger, he is usually also deemed the agent of thecargo owner insofar as any action to save the cargo is taken. Coastal States

may therefore deal with the master in confidence that his word will bindthe shipowner and cargo owner insofar as the security of ship and cargoare concerned when their owners are themselves not in contact with thecoastal State.

3.5 The agency of the master is the legal basis for the law of salvage. The role of salvors is discussed in chapter 7, but here it may be noted that the master is therefore able to reach agreement with a salvor himself. Themaster will send out distress calls as appropriate after the incident occurs,and he will call specifically for tugs if that is what he needs. Even if he does

not call specifically for tugs, any salvage tug in the vicinity hearing a distress message is likely to try to contact the ship and may proceed in itsdirection ‘‘on speculation’’. The salvage tug will attempt to secure anagreement for its services with the master.

3.6 Under article 6(2) of the 1989 Salvage Convention, the authority of the master to conclude a contract for salvage operations with a salvor onbehalf of the owners of the ship and the cargo is given effect in the laws of all States Parties thereto. There is also a new dimension to his legalresponsibilities: under article 8(2), the master is under a duty to the salvor

to co-operate fully with him during the course of the salvage operationsand, in so doing, to exercise care to prevent or minimize damage to theenvironment.

3.7 Now that telecommunications are sophisticated, in a marinepollution emergency, a master will often attempt to be in direct contact

with his shipowner’s office once the emergency has arisen, so that the

8






shoreside management may become involved in the decisions which areapparently being made by the master alone. However, it is worth noting that, whether the master is in contact with his shoreside office or not, his

decisions on the protection of the marine environment should not beunduly influenced by instructions given by his shoreside office, taking intoaccount that the protection of the marine environment must be themaster’s prime concern in all situations which arise and that economicand other pressures on the master should not at any time interfere withthe decisions he must take in that regard.

3.8 It was for this reason, therefore, that the IMO Assembly adoptedresolution A.443(XI), in November 1979, on decisions of the shipmaster

with regard to maritime safety and marine environment protection after

the Amoco Cadiz incident in 1978. The resolution invites Governments totake necessary steps to safeguard the master in the proper discharge of hisresponsibilities in regard to maritime safety and the protection of themarine environment by ensuring that:

(a) [t]he shipmaster is not constrained by the shipowner, charterer or any other person from taking in this respect any decision which, inthe professional judgement of the shipmaster, is necessary; and,

(b) [t]he shipmaster is protected by appropriate provisions, including the right of appeal, contained in, inter alia, national legislation, collective

agreements or contracts of employment, from unjustifiable dismissal or other unjustifiable action by the shipowner, charterer or any other person as a consequence of the proper exercise of his professional judgement.

3.9 It should also be noted that when the marine pollution emergency has arisen, the master’s considerable responsibility may very well lieheavily upon him and the pressure on him may be very great. He may very

well feel personally responsible for what has happened. In many cases, aninquiry may follow which could result in his licence being suspended or

revoked. There may be considerable danger in staying aboard ship. It isimportant that anyone dealing with the master during or in the immediateaftermath of the marine pollution emergency is aware of these possibilitiesand acts accordingly.

Chapter 4 – The cargo owner

4.1 The owner of the cargo at the time of the marine pollutionemergency will not necessarily be either the shipper or the consignee, for

the ownership may have changed hands once or more than once since theship sailed. Initially, therefore, it may not be easy to establish who ownsthe cargo, although the chain of enquiry will start with the shipper namedin the bill of lading, a copy of which will be retained on board by themaster. Bulk cargoes tend to be owned by a single entity, or perhaps by a few different entities. Packaged cargoes, on the other hand, are more likely to be owned by a greater variety of different entities.

9

Part I, chapter 4





4.2 While cargo interests collectively are the ones who contribute to thetwo international funds outlined in part II, chapters 10 and 11, theindividual cargo owner would not normally be liable to compensate any

person suffering pollution damage, and certainly there is no internationallegal regime which makes provision for the liability of the cargo owner for such damage. However, that does not mean that the identity of the cargoowner will be irrelevant to the question of compensation.

4.3 Once the cargo owner becomes aware of the marine pollutionemergency, his interest will lie mainly in ensuring that as much aspossible of his cargo is actually delivered to the port of destination. This isthe task which has been delegated to the shipowner, and, under the bill of lading or other contract governing the carriage of the cargo by sea (such as

a charter-party), this responsibility will remain with the shipowner throughout the marine pollution emergency unless and until the ship-owner abandons the voyage. For this reason the cargo owner does not normally feature much in the dramatis personae of a marine pollutionemergency.

4.4 The cargo owner’s interest extends also to a liability to contribute ingeneral average and salvage: in respect of both of these liabilities, he willnormally be insured by the cargo underwriter. Since the cargo owner (or

the cargo underwriter, using the right of subrogation) will look primarily tothe shipowner for compensation for any loss or contamination of the cargo,it can be readily appreciated that the interests of the shipowner and thecargo owner are somewhat in tension.

4.5 The cargo owner’s knowledge of the nature of the cargo will vary enormously according to the type of entity concerned. If the cargo owner isan end-user of the type of cargo involved, he may very well have technicalpeople on his staff who are familiar with the behavioural characteristics of the cargo, which is almost invariably the source of the marine pollution

emergency (the main exception being the escape of marine fuel oil or marine diesel used as bunkers). Therefore the cargo owner may besomeone to whom the coastal State or even the shipowner may turn for advice about the cargo and how to handle it in the emergency. If the cargoowner is a trading company which does not use the cargo itself, suchtechnical expertise is less likely to be available from that source and it may have to be sought from the manufacturer of the cargo or from an industry body. One particular aspect where cargo owners have become involved inthe marine pollution emergency concerns the lightering of the strickenship. It is not uncommon for the cargo owner – particularly an end-user –to assist in the identification of a suitable lightering ship to be hired for the

job.

4.6 Under article 8(2) of the 1989 Salvage Convention, if a salvagecontract to which that Convention applies is entered into, the owner of any property in danger – including the cargo owner and the owner of freight at

10






risk – is under a duty to the salvor to co-operate fully with him during thecourse of the salvage operations and, in so doing, to exercise care toprevent or minimize damage to the environment.

Chapter 5 – The flag State

5.1 The major effects of the flag State’s role are felt to take place beforethe marine pollution emergency, for it is the flag State which is responsiblefor: enacting and enforcing all design and equipment standards, all safety standards, and all crew certification and training; issuing certificatesprovided for by international conventions; setting minimum staffing levelsand standards relating to the prevention of collisions and the prevention of pollution; and exercising jurisdiction and control over the ship while it is

on the high seas. However, there are obligations on a flag State after a marine casualty has occurred.

5.2 Under article 12 of MARPOL 73/78, the flag State is obliged todiscover the facts of a casualty in which one of its ships has been involvedif the casualty has produced a major deleterious effect upon the marineenvironment, so that it can determine whether any change in theregulatory regime is necessary. In addition, most States with sizeablefleets have made provision for holding a marine inquiry when there isserious loss of life, and, under regulation I/21 of SOLAS 1974, a flag State

must hold such an inquiry when it judges that such an investigation may assist in determining what changes in the SOLAS 1974 regulations might be desirable. Apart from SOLAS 1974 as modified by the Protocol of 1978relating thereto (1978 SOLAS Protocol), the International Convention onLoad Lines, 1966 (LL 1966),* and MARPOL 73/78, no other internationalconventions currently in force make extensive provisions for the holding of marine inquiries.

5.3 Under article 94(7) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS), which entered into force on 16 November 1994,

the flag State is under a more extensive duty to hold a marine inquiry,including where there has been serious damage to ships or installations of another State or to the marine environment, and the other State involvedshall co-operate in such an inquiry.

5.4 Under article 5(3) of MARPOL 73/78, the flag State is entitled toreceive notification if any other State Party denies the ship entry to itsports or offshore terminals or takes any action against the ship for thereason that it does not comply with MARPOL 73/78.

5.5 Under article 6 of MARPOL 73/78, the flag State must co-operate

with other Parties in the detection of violations and the enforcement of theprovisions of the Convention; if presented with evidence of a violation, theflag State must investigate the matter and, if satisfied that there issufficient available evidence for proceedings to be brought for a violation, it


11

Part I, chapter 5





must instigate such proceedings. Similar, but less detailed, provisionsexist in regulation I/19 of SOLAS 1974 as modified by the 1978 SOLASProtocol, article 21 of LL 1966 and article X of the International Convention

on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers,1978 (STCW 1978). Where a coastal State presents a flag State withevidence of a violation, it can always contact the flag State to see what isthe outcome of the investigation which the flag State conducts, and to offer assistance in every way with the presentation of oral or written evidence at any subsequent legal proceedings which the flag State may bring.

5.6 SOLAS 1974 was amended in May 1994 at a SOLAS Conference toadd a new chapter IX to the Convention which is designed to makemandatory the ISM Code, which was adopted by IMO in November 1993 by

Assembly resolution A.741(18). The ISM Code takes into account that themost important means of preventing maritime casualties and pollution of the sea from ships is to design, construct, equip and maintain ships and tooperate them with properly trained crews in compliance with internationalconventions and standards relating to maritime safety and pollutionprevention. The Code provides an international standard for the safemanagement and operation of ships and for pollution prevention (seeappendix 1). The amendments will enter into force under tacit acceptanceon 1 July 1998 (unless rejected in the meantime by one third of Contracting Governments or by Contracting Governments whose com-

bined merchant fleets make up at least 50% of world tonnage).

5.7 The new chapter IX of SOLAS 1974 applies to ships, regardless of the date of construction, as follows:

(1) passenger ships including passenger high-speed craft, not later than 1 July 1998;

(2) oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers andcargo high-speed craft of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 1998; and

(3) other cargo ships and mobile offshore drilling units of 500 grosstonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 2002.

Chapter 6 – The coastal State

6.1 Within OPRC 1990, salient features are stipulated in article 6(National and regional systems for preparedness and response) and article7 (International co-operation in pollution response). Specifically, under article 6, each Party shall:

(a) establish a national system for responding promptly andeffectively to oil pollution incidents which has, as a minimum,developed a national contingency plan and designated nationalauthorities and operational focal points responsible for oilpollution preparedness and response, reporting and handling requests for assistance;

12






(b) within its capabilities either individually or through bilateral or multilateral co-operation and, as appropriate, in co-operation

with the oil and shipping industries and other relevant entities,

establish a minimum level of pre-positioned oil spill responseequipment, proportionate to the risk involved, and programmesfor its use; and

(c) commit to co-operate and render assistance to Parties that request assistance to deal with oil pollution incidents, subject tocapability and availability of relevant resources.

6.2 Whether a coastal State is a Party to OPRC 1990 or not, in general,the different roles of the coastal State’s various competent authorities will

be defined in its constitution and in its marine pollution contingency plan. These plans vary from State to State, and the considerations which shouldbe taken into account in preparing them should include those containedin this document. Elaboration of the process of drawing up such a plan iscovered by other documents, such as section II of the Manual on Oil

Pollution, Contingency Planning.* Therefore, here the roles and functions of the various competent authorities of a coastal State will be discussed as if there was but one national authority to deal with the marine pollutionemergency, and this will simply be referred to as the ‘‘coastal State’’.

6.3 When faced with a marine pollution emergency, the coastal Statemust look both to its international rights and duties and to its nationalposition. Insofar as the former are concerned, every State has a generalduty under customary international law to warn other States of a marinepollution threat of which it becomes aware and which is likely to affect them, and this is reinforced by article 8(3) of MARPOL 73/78, whichrequires States to notify the flag State and any other State which may beaffected. Article 5 of OPRC 1990 is to similar effect. Principle 21 of the 1972Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

went so far as to say that

States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations andthe principles of international law ... the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction and control do not cause damage tothe environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

(Articles 194(2) and 198 of UNCLOS contain a specific obligation to notify other States which the coastal State deems likely to be affected.) Therefore,

once a marine pollution emergency is actually within the jurisdiction andcontrol of a coastal State, the coastal State must consider the likely effect on other States and take the appropriate action, which, at the bareminimum, is to notify those likely to be affected and keep them informed.


13

Part I, chapter 6





6.4 Such general obligations may have been given greater precision inan inter-governmental regional agreement which commits the groups of States who are Party thereto to co-operate in responding to major incidents

of marine pollution which are likely to affect more than one State. If a coastal State is a Party to one of these, then its provisions should beimplemented. Under such an agreement, a coastal State is usually under a duty to report marine pollution incidents to neighbouring States whichmay be affected, to take the necessary response actions, and to monitor thesituation. Other Parties to the agreement are usually obliged to use their best endeavours to respond to requests for assistance which may be madeby the coastal State affected and to co-operate in pollution response action.

Any regional mutual aid centre which may have been established

pursuant to such a regional agreement will be able to assist States Partiesin the task of implementing such an agreement in the actual marinepollution emergency, primarily by providing technical advice and liaising

with other sources of assistance. There may also be a list of equipment stockpiles established by oil companies or groups of countries which a coastal State may be able to use.

6.5 If the coastal State chooses to focus its attention on its ownresponse to the marine pollution emergency, then one question which may arise is the extent to which the coastal State may take action against the

wishes of the master or other parties who have interests in the ship or cargo. Ideally, the coastal State will have considered the international law position on intervention in conjunction with the preparation of itscontingency plan before the marine pollution emergency arises, and willhave enacted legislation or made other satisfactory provision for the taking of appropriate steps when an emergency arises. Some coastal States havechosen to establish marine pollution emergency funds which provide for some independence in these decisions.

6.6 A detailed analysis of the international law on the right to interveneis outside the scope of this document, but mention should be made of theInternational Convention relating to Intervention on the High Seas inCases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969 (1969 Intervention Convention),*

which gives greater precision to rights existing under customary interna-tional law. The 1969 Intervention Convention deals only with rights tointervene on the high seas, and does not cover the position in territorial

waters (the position in internal waters being a matter purely for thedomestic law of the coastal State). Under customary international law,

however, the position in territorial waters is similar to that adopted in the1969 Intervention Convention.

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-402E. Also, a relevant protocol extended the coverage of the Convention to include substances other than oil (Protocol relating to Intervention on the Highseas in Cases of Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil, 1973 (1973 Intervention Protocol)).Description of this Protocol is beyond the scope of the present publication.

14






6.7 The 1969 Intervention Convention permits the coastal State tointervene on the high seas against the wishes of the owner of the ship andthe cargo to the extent necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave

and imminent danger to the coastline or related interests from pollution or the threat of pollution of the sea, following upon a maritime casualty, which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmful conse-quences. The measures taken must be proportionate to the damage actualor threatened, and if they exceed this the coastal State must pay compensation to those who have suffered thereby. Also, the right tointervene must be preceded by due consultation with States or persons

whose interests are affected, except in cases of extreme urgency.

6.8 The related interests in protection of which intervention is possible

include tourism, fishing and other marine resources and wildlife, so that intervention under this Convention is possible on purely environmentalgrounds. IMO maintains a list of experts under the 1969 InterventionConvention who may be called upon for consultation in such anemergency.

6.9 One of the possible options for intervention which a coastal Statehas is to require salvage services to be accepted or provided, or even toundertake them itself. There are certain practical problems in implement-ing such an imposed requirement where the responsible Parties areunwilling to take action. However, articles 5 and 9 of the 1989 SalvageConvention recognize that States may wish to control or provide suchservices themselves by providing that nothing in the Convention shallaffect provisions which the coastal State may have made in this respect (although salvors carrying out such services under the control of a publicauthority are still entitled to avail themselves of the Convention’s rightsand remedies).

6.10 In fact it is relatively unusual that the coastal State will need toexercise its rights to intervene or to control salvage operations. The coastalState has an absolute right in international law to deny a ship entry to any

of its ports or offshore installations, and very often this is the only thing the coastal State will want to do that causes disagreement. In most cases,co-operation between the master and the coastal State achieves all that isnecessary, and the coastal State’s task of co-ordinating and arranging allthe pollution response and clean-up actions under its contingency plan isnot hindered by the ship or cargo interests.

6.11 Under article 11 of the 1989 Salvage Convention, Parties to theConvention have to take into account the need for co-operation betweensalvors and others when regulating or deciding upon salvage matters,

such as admittance into ports of ships in distress or the provision of facilities to salvors, so that operations to save life or property in danger, as

well as preventing damage to the environment, are taken into account.

6.12 After a marine pollution emergency is over, a marine inquiry isoften held. Co-operation between flag States in the holding of marineinquiries has already been mentioned in chapter 5.

15

Part I, chapter 6





6.13 One administrative aspect of ‘‘port State’’ which is of interest to a coastal State is worthy of discussion in this chapter. A number of IMOconventions contain provisions for port State control inspections, but

previously these have been limited primarily to certification and the phy-sical condition of the ship and its equipment. However, new regulation 8A of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, which entered into force on 3 March 1996,makes it possible for ships to be inspected when in the ports of other Parties to MARPOL 73/78 to ensure that crews are able to carry out essential shipboard procedures relating to marine pollution prevention.

The procedures for the control of operational requirements relating to thesafety of ships and pollution prevention are contained in Assembly resolution A.787(19).*

6.14 Extending port State control to operational requirements is seen asan important way of improving the efficiency with which internationalsafety and anti-pollution treaties are implemented.

Chapter 7 – The salvors

7.1 Professional salvors

7.1.1 The majority of professional salvors are members of the Interna-tional Salvage Union (ISU). This organization represents some 43

companies based in 32 different countries around the world. The salvagecompanies have tugs and other salvage equipment at a number of different ports and areas throughout the world and some of the companies havesalvage tugs stationed at various strategic locations. Some salvage tugs arebeing maintained at salvage stations in certain coastal States as a result of arrangements made between their owners and other commercial interestsor the authorities in those States. When a salvage company is engaged toassist a marine casualty they will be able to bring specialist expertise tothe task which is unique to the marine industry. Their business is not

without risks, and frequently the skills and efforts of salvage officers havesaved ships and their cargoes from extreme situations. Some companieshave the ability to mobilize equipment, either from their own resources or from elsewhere, together with expert personnel at very short notice.

7.1.2 The number of salvage tugs in operation has significantly decreased in recent years, and those that remain are frequently engagedin ocean towage of rigs, barges, etc., on commercial terms. However, salvageof casualties is still normally undertaken on traditional ‘‘no cure – no pay’’terms, whereby, if successful, the tugowner/salvage company will earn a reward based upon a number of factors, including the risks from whichthe property was saved, the time occupied in the services, the dangers tothe salvor’s property and personnel, the value of the salved property, theskills shown by the salvors and the expenses incurred by them in

* Refer to Assembly resolution A.787(19), Procedures for port State control; see IMO sales publicationnumber IMO-650E.

16






rendering the services. The 1910 Salvage Convention enshrines theseprinciples and forms the basis of salvage law of the States Party thereto.

When the 1989 Salvage Convention entered into force on 14 July 1996, it

replaced the 1910 Salvage Convention, thereby introducing substantialchanges to the salvage industry.

7.1.3 On a traditional no cure – no pay basis, if no property is saved, thesalvor receives no reward for his efforts. This basis of working obviously carries with it considerable financial risk, and a salvor therefore expects tobe rewarded far more generously than on normal commercial terms.Indeed, the 1989 Salvage Convention stipulates that ‘‘the reward shall befixed with a view to encouraging salvage operations, taking into account the following criteria without regard to the order in which they are

presented...’’ (see paragraphs 1(a) to (j) of article 13 of the 1989 SalvageConvention). Statistical data collected and published by ISU have shownthat the revenue from over 2,000 salvage services carried out between1978 and 1992 under no cure – no pay terms has averaged just over 6% of the property values salved. To achieve any such average there areobviously awards at either end of the scale; however, on a traditional nocure – no pay basis, the award cannot exceed the value of the property salved.

7.1.4 Salvage services rendered under other forms of commercial

contract, i.e., ‘‘Daily Rate’’ or ‘‘Lump Sum’’, do not call for elaborationhere. Professional salvors will not normally work on such a basis for normal salvage services. If a non-salvage commercial contract is utilized,there will have been negotiation between the parties, who may include thecoastal State. No special limiting considerations are therefore relevant to a marine pollution emergency in such a case. Salvage services renderedunder no cure – no pay terms do, however, give rise to important considerations for the handling of a marine pollution emergency.

7.1.5 The contract that salvors will normally offer to the master and/or

owners of a ship involved in a marine casualty will be the current versionof Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement (LOF 1995). This form,reproduced in appendix 3, was issued by Lloyd’s following the enactment of the 1989 Salvage Convention into English law on 1 January 1995. Theservices to be provided to the casualty are set out in clause 1(a) of LOF 1995, namely:

The Contractor (salvor) shall use his best endeavours: (i) to salve the[ship to be named] and/or her cargo freight bunkers stores and any other property thereon and take them to [place to be named] or to such other place as may hereafter be agreed either place to be deemed a place of

safety or if no such place is named or agreed to a place of safety and(ii) while performing the salvage services to prevent or minimize damageto the environment.

The Agreement is governed under clause 1(g) by English law and providesfor arbitration in London before one of the panel of Lloyd’s salvagearbitrators, who are all lawyers experienced in marine salvage claims.

17

Part I, chapter 7





7.1.6 LOF 1995 extends an obligation upon the Contractor originally contained in the 1980 edition of Lloyd’s Form, which was ‘‘to prevent theescape of oil from the ship and/or her cargo bunkers and stores’’. For the

first time the Contractor is bound to prevent or minimize damage to theenvironment. The 1989 Salvage Convention defines ‘‘damage to theenvironment’’ as ‘‘substantial physical damage to human health or tomarine life or resources in coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent thereto, caused by pollution, contamination, fire, explosion or similar major incidents’’ (see article 1(d) of the 1989 Salvage Convention). Inreality, salvors have always made considerable efforts during any salvageoperations to avoid pollution and to co-operate with national and/or localauthorities.

7.1.7 It is important to recall that a salvage agreement, be it LOF 1995 or some other form of agreement, is normally entered into between thesalvage company and the master of the ship involved in a casualty as agent for the owners of the ship, cargo, bunkers and stores. The coastal State isnot a party, and usually is not involved in the negotiations. Salvage is a

voluntary arrangement and cannot be imposed on unwilling parties. A coastal State wishing to place a ship under a duty to accept salvageservices may, in certain cases, do so under its law (see chapter 6), but implementing this, if one or both parties is unwilling, may prove to bedifficult.

7.1.8 On occasions, professional salvors may need to engage the servicesof other companies to assist them in the provision of salvage services tothe casualty. It will be appreciated that no company can expect to have allthe ships, other floating plant, equipment and personnel immediately available at the site of a casualty. In such situations the salvage company

will sometimes need to sub-contract assistance from other organizations. This may range from the provision of additional tugs or anti-pollutionships through to lightering ships. Some of these units could be entitled toa salvage award in their own right; however, where a professional salvor

has been engaged, he can be expected to organize such assistance onterms which will not lead to a proliferation of salvage claims. This may involve utilizing, for example, the ISU Sub-Contract Award Sharing

Agreement, or other daily rate or lump sum terms.

7.2 The International Convention on Salvage, 1989

7.2.1 One of the main purposes of the Convention is to reflect theinterests of environmental protection in the way salvage contracts work. Inthis regard it should be noted that LOF 1995 now incorporates the 1989

Salvage Convention.

7.2.2 The Convention applies whenever judicial or arbitration proceed-ings relating to matters dealt with in the Convention are brought in a StateParty (see article 2). It applies to all types of salvage operations except thoserelating to fixed or floating platforms, mobile offshore drilling units whichare actually on location and ships that are entitled to sovereign immunity

18






(unless such immunity is waived). It applies to almost all types of ship and,in particular, it applies to the salvage of ships carrying all types of environmentally hazardous cargo, whether carried in bulk or in packages.

It also applies to unladen ships which themselves present a threat of pollution. Because of the wide definition of damage to the environment inarticle 1, its environmental protection provisions apply not just to damageto flora and fauna, but also to human health, and the cause may bepollution, contamination, fire, explosion or any similar major incident.

7.2.3 By article 6, the parties to a salvage contract can, if they wish, vary the provisions of the Convention in their contract, but they cannot vary theduties to prevent or minimize damage to the environment which theConvention contains. These duties are, therefore, applicable whenever the

Convention applies to a salvage operation, even if the other provisions havebeen varied by the contract.

7.2.4 The main obligations of a salvor, which are owed not to the coastalState but to the owners of the ship and property in danger, are containedin article 8(1). The salvor must not only carry out the salvage operations

with due care, but in doing this, he must ‘‘exercise due care to prevent or minimize damage to the environment’’. In this way, due care to protect theenvironment becomes a legal duty in all of the salvage operations to whichthe Convention applies, and it cannot be varied by the contract. In return,article 13(1) grants to the salvor the right to have the skill he has exercisedand the efforts he has made in preventing or minimizing damage to theenvironment taken into account when the reward for successful or partly successful salvage is fixed. Also, the risk of liability he has run (which

would include liability for damage to the environment) may also be takeninto account.

7.2.5 However, if, despite his due care, the salvage operations were not successful, or if they were only partly successful, or if the value of the

successfully salved ship, cargo and freight at risk was low, it would bepossible for the salvor to have spent considerable sums in fulfilling hisduty to protect the environment which are not recouped, let alonerewarded. Article 14 deals with this situation and intends to give thesalvor an incentive to salve any ship, whatever the value of her hull, cargoand freight at risk and however environmentally dangerous the situationmay be. It does this by making provision for the salvor to be awardedspecial compensation, in certain circumstances. There are two precondi-tions to the award of this special compensation:

(a) the salvor must have carried out salvage operations in respect of a ship which by itself or its cargo threatened damage to theenvironment, and

(b) the amount of any reward he has earned under article 13 must be less than the amount of special compensation assessedunder article 14.

19

Part I, chapter 7





7.2.6 The Convention therefore envisages that, in every case where theship or cargo threatens damage to the environment, two calculations willbe carried out: the reward to be fixed under article 13 and the special

compensation to be fixed under article 14. If the reward figure exceeds thefigure for special compensation, then in fact only the reward is payable. If the special compensation figure exceeds the reward figure, then the rewardis topped up to the level of the special compensation figure (see article14(4)). The salvor does not get paid twice, but his environmental efforts canlead to the enhancement of the total remuneration he receives from thesalvage services he performs.

7.2.7 The special compensation varies according to the circumstances. If there was a threat of damage to the environment, but in fact the salvor did

not by his salvage operations prevent or minimize such damage, then thespecial compensation figure is equal to his reasonably incurred out-of-pocket expenses plus a fair rate for equipment and personnel reasonably used in the salvage operations (which we shall call below the ‘‘salvageexpenses’’). If, on the other hand, his salvage operations did prevent or minimize damage to the environment, then the special compensationfigure may be increased up to 30% of the salvage expenses. Whereexceptional service has been rendered, the special compensation may beincreased still more, but in no case shall the total increase be more than100% of the expenses incurred by the salvor.

7.2.8 There is a lot at stake for the salvor under these and relatedprovisions. If he is negligent, both the reward and the special compensa-tion figures may be reduced. If he is not negligent, at worst he may end upmerely with his salvage expenses reimbursed if there was a threat to theenvironment. He must therefore do his job with the care and skill for whichthe salvage industry is noted before he earns a good remuneration. Hemust also carefully consider the location of the casualty in relation to thedefinition of ‘‘damage to the environment’’, as, if the casualty is not withinor close to coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent thereto, then the

special compensation provisions of article 14 may not apply. In this event,the salvor could be back to the traditional no cure – no pay scenario.

Chapter 8 – The liability underwriter

8.1 The third-party liabilities of the shipowner, and of any bareboat charterer, manager or operator of the ship, will generally be covered by mutual insurance associations called Protection and Indemnity Associa-tions which together cover over 90% of the world’s ocean-going shipping.

These associations are normally referred to as P & I Clubs, the word Club

being used to denote their nature as mutual associations of shipowners.Some discussion of the structure of P&I Clubs is relevant here, as thishelps to account for the particular character of these organizations, whichaffects the way they are able to interact with coastal States in a marinepollution emergency.

8.2 Examples of coverage offered by a P & I Club are:

20






(1) personal injury to or illness or loss of life of crew members andpassengers, and loss of their effects;

(2) one fourth of collision liability;

(3) excess collision liability, including payments in excess of thelimit of the hull policies and items of claim excluded frompolicies such as oil pollution, dock damage, wreck removal andloss of life, personal injury and illness;

(4) oil pollution liabilities;

(5) other claims for damage to property, including damage to other ships and their cargoes without collision, and dock damage;

(6) towage contract liabilities;

(7) removal of the wreck of an entered ship; and(8) liabilities for loss or damage to cargo and other property on

board an entered ship.

8.3 It should be borne in mind that a P& I Club covers only the ship-owner’s legal liabilities in the sense of damage or compensation which theowner is legally obliged to pay to others, together with certain other losses,costs and expenses which are specified in the terms of the insurance givento shipowners.

8.4 A P& I Club is an association of shipowners and others with similar interests in ships. The association is usually incorporated as a company limited by guarantee, and is governed by a board, appointed by themembers. The day-to-day management is often carried out by a separatepartnership or management company. The association insures itsmembers against their third-party liabilities on terms specified in theP&I Club’s Rules, and it raises the funds to enable it to do so by calling upthe necessary sums from its members. After taking a certain measure of the risk itself, a Club will usually arrange reinsurance, first by a pooling arrangement with other P&I Clubs for a certain amount, and then on the

open market. The largest P&I Clubs are members of the InternationalGroup of P&I Clubs, a list of whose members appears in appendix 4.Except in the case of oil pollution risks, once a claim reaches the limit of reinsurance it is further pooled with other P&I Clubs. Therefore, uniqueamong insurance contracts, P&I Clubs currently offer unlimited cover for all risks except oil pollution risks. The availability of cover for oil pollutionrisks varies from year to year according to what the reinsurance market

will bear. As an example, for the year noon GMT on 20 February 1995 tonoon GMT on 20 February 1996, this limit was US$500 million.

8.5 It should, however, be noted that, in practice, the coverage of themaximum amount does not apply except where the shipowner loses hisright to limitation of liability. As already mentioned, since the P&I Clubscover only the legal liabilities of their members, and members are normally entitled to limit their liability under various international conventions or national law, the insurance cover is mostly, in practice, restricted to thelimitation amount applicable to the ship. In oil pollution cases, the

21

Part I, chapter 8





insurance cover is normally limited in accordance with the site of the ship,up to a maximum of 14 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) (US$18.9million) pursuant to the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, or 59.7 million

SDRs (US$80.6 million) pursuant to the 1992 Civil Liability Convention.*8.6 Because the insurance offered has always been related to liabilities,P&I Clubs have traditionally had legal expertise amongst their manage-ment. In the case of a marine pollution emergency, many legal experts with

whom a coastal State would have to deal will not only be qualified lawyersbut they will generally have experience in the handling of pollution claims(mainly oil pollution claims) in many parts of the world. By contrast, theofficials of the coastal State may be dealing with a marine pollutionemergency for the very first time.

8.7 The main job of the liability underwriter in a marine pollutionemergency is to handle all claims against their members and to pay the

valid ones. Under the terms of the insurance, the underwriter will normally have the right to take over the handling of all claims above a certainamount and, because of this, the underwriter will usually get involved indecisions which affect the eventual size of a claim right from thebeginning, even before any formal claim is raised. For this and for other reasons, in a marine pollution emergency, the coastal State may find that

very early on the most important person it is dealing with is not theshipowner himself but his liability underwriter. In the text which follows,the liability underwriter is assumed to be a P&I Club, since P&I Clubsaccount for the vast majority of all shipowners’ pollution liability insurance world-wide, either directly or by way of reinsurance.

8.8 Where a ship is covered by a Certificate of Insurance or Other Financial Security in respect of Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage(CLC Certificate) it should not normally be necessary to arrest a ship, but

where a ship has been arrested, for whatever reason, a P & I Club may put up financial security to ensure the release of the ship. This is commonly done by the claimant accepting a letter of undertaking from the P&I Club

itself. The shipowner may need help with removing the crew from the ship,or with repatriating them, or the master or other officer may need help withlocal officials who are holding them against the payment of a possible fine.

The P & I Clubs have legal and other representatives in many ports all over the world and, either directly or through them, are able to provide suchassistance.

8.9 In an oil pollution case the P & I Clubs have a very close relationship with the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited(ITOPF). ITOPF will be called in by the shipowner or his P&I Club in

almost every case of any size involving oil pollution, so that now it probably has more experience in the practical aspects of response and clean-up, and

* The limits of liability indicated throughout this document are based on specific units of account, i.e.,Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), the US dollar equivalents of which vary depending upon the current exchange rate. The rate of conversion for the purposes of the present publication is 1 SDR =US$1.34925 (31 December 1997).

22






in deciding upon the reasonableness of actions taken, than any other organization. It is, therefore, able to advise the P & I Club and theshipowner on the type and extent of oil pollution which has occurred,

what effect it is likely to have under different scenarios, what needs to bedone to abate or prevent the effects, and the most efficient way in carrying out this advice. This advice is also available to the coastal State, should it ask for it, and in many cases the coastal State has asked ITOPF to helparrange and co-ordinate the pollution response and clean-up. If the oilpollution affects a State Party to the International Convention on theEstablishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil PollutionDamage 1971 or 1992 (1971 or 1992 Fund Convention), there is also closeco-operation between the P&I Clubs concerned and the International OilPollution Compensation Funds 1971 and 1992 (IOPC Funds) (see chapter

10). This co-operation usually extends to the appointment of joint technicalexperts, including those from ITOPF.

8.10 The P & I Club will also be involved in the decision concerning a possible lightering of the ship, since the owners of the lightering ship willusually demand a complete indemnity from the shipowner against any liabilities which they may incur as a result of undertaking the lightering,and the shipowner will want to ensure that his P&I Club will be insuring his liability under that indemnity. If the ship is a wreck and needs to beremoved, then again the P&I Club will be involved, since wreck removal is

one of the risks which they insure.8.11 When the time comes for claims to be presented to the shipowner or others responsible, except in a small case, it will normally be the P&I Club

which is the entity with which the claimant will have to deal – in fact,under the 1969 and 1992 Civil Liability Conventions, the P & I Clubnormally provides the certificate of insurance on which the ship’s CLCCertificate is based. In oil pollution cases, the IOPC Funds may alsobecome involved (see chapter 10). Not only will the P&I Club negotiateclaims with the claimant (directly or through local lawyers or agents), but,

if legal proceedings are commenced, it will usually be the P&I Club whichtakes the decisions concerning how the claim is defended. In all claims, theP&I Clubs aim to provide a service to their members, and part of that service is to ensure that only provable, valid claims are actually paid.Claims which are unreasonable will normally be vigorously resisted withall the considerable expertise of the Club; equally, well-presented, validclaims are normally paid as soon as possible. Considerations relating tomaking a claim are discussed further in chapter 12.

23

Part I, chapter 8









Part IICompensation for oil pollution damage

Chapter 9 – Outline

9.1 The law relating to compensation for oil pollution damage and thecost of measures to prevent such damage is a highly technical one, and a summary of all of the relevant provisions and principles is beyond thescope of this Manual. However, States and others need to bear in mind thequestion of cost recovery when deciding what measures to take in a marinepollution emergency. It should be noted that the discussion in this part IIconcerns, for the most part, liability and compensation regimes derivedfrom international conventions.

9.2 It was the Torrey Canyon incident in 1967 which provided a major stimulus for the development of four international regimes – two voluntary agreements and two international conventions – through which compen-

sation for clean-up costs and pollution damage was made availablefollowing spills of persistent oil from tankers. The two voluntary regimes were the Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for OilPollution (TOVALOP) and the Contract regarding a Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution (CRISTAL). Although originally conceived only asinterim arrangements, the two voluntary agreements co-existed for morethan 25 years with the two international conventions on liability, which

were developed under the auspices of IMO, viz. the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention. However, it was decided inNovember 1995 by the industries concerned that there was no longer a

need for TOVALOP and CRISTAL, and the two voluntary agreements wereterminated on 20 February 1997. Details on these two expired agreementsare, therefore, beyond the scope of this Manual.

9.3 The international system of liability and compensation created by the conventions is unique in the field of environmental pollution. Of particular importance is the fact that the regime applies regardless of

whether or not the tanker causing the spill was at fault. Claimants cantherefore receive compensation promptly, without the need for lengthy andcostly litigation. This also ensures that Government authorities can takeactions to prevent or minimize pollution damage in the knowledge that, aslong as their actions are reasonable for the circumstances, the costs they incur will normally be reimbursed.

9.4 Further details on each of the international conventions on liability and compensation are provided in chapters 10 and 11.

25





Chapter 10 – The 1969 Civil Liability Convention andthe 1971 Fund Convention

10.1 Under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, the registered owner of a

tanker is strictly liable (i.e., liable also in the absence of fault) for pollutiondamage caused by an escape or discharge of oil from the tanker, including measures to prevent or minimize such damage. This strict liability is,however, subject to certain defences.

10.2 The scope of application of the Conventions has the following mainlimitations. The Conventions apply only when the oil concerned ispersistent, for example, crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil, lubricating oil,or whale oil. The Conventions are limited to damage caused in the territory of Contracting States and to measures (wherever taken) to prevent or

minimize such damage. These Conventions apply only to ships which areactually carrying oil in bulk as cargo, i.e., normally ‘‘laden tankers’’. Spillsfrom tankers during ballast voyages are therefore not covered by thisConvention, nor are spills of bunker oil from ships other than tankers.

10.3 The shipowner also has certain defences. The shipowner is not liable at all if he can prove the damage ‘‘(a) resulted from an act of war,hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a natural phenomenon of anexceptional, inevitable and irresistible character, or (b) was wholly causedby an act or omission done with intent to cause damage by a third party, or

(c) was wholly caused by the negligence or other wrongful act of any Government or other authority responsible for the maintenance of lightsor other navigational aids in the exercise of that function’’.

10.4 Unless the pollution damage was caused as a result of the actualfault or privity of the shipowner, the shipowner is entitled to limit hisliability under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention to 133 SDRs (US$179)per limitation ton of the tanker or 14 million SDRs (US$18.9 million),

whichever is the less. These amounts, when expressed in local currency, vary from time to time in accordance with exchange rates.

10.5 Any tanker carrying more than 2,000 tonnes of persistent oil inbulk as cargo must be insured against the liability arising under the 1969Civil Liability Convention. This cover is normally provided by a P & I Club or other insurer.

10.6 Additional compensation may be obtainable from the InternationalOil Pollution Compensation Fund 1971 (1971 Fund) if the affected State isa Party to the 1971 Fund Convention in certain cases when the shipowner is exempt from liability or if the shipowner’s limit is exceeded.

10.7 The 1971 Fund was set up pursuant to the 1971 Fund Conven-tion.* The 1971 Fund will compensate those who have suffered oilpollution damage in the territory, including the territorial sea, of a Con-tracting State to the 1971 Fund Convention. Also, the costs of measures to

* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-420B.

26






prevent or minimize such damage, wherever taken, are compensable under the 1971 Fund Convention. The compensation is available to the extent that a claimant has been unable to obtain compensation from the

shipowner (and his insurer) under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention. This is usually because the damage exceeds the owner’s liability under the1969 Civil Liability Convention, but can also be because the owner isfinancially incapable of meeting his obligations under that Convention or because the owner can invoke one of the defences under that Convention.

10.8 The exceptions and defences of the 1971 Fund are similar to, but less restricted than, those available to the shipowner under the 1969 CivilLiability Convention. The 1971 Fund will compensate victims in thefollowing cases not covered by the 1969 Civil Liability Convention where

the damage:(a) resulted from a natural phenomenon of an exceptional,

inevitable and irresistible character;

(b) was wholly caused by an act or omission done with intent tocause damage by a third party; or,

(c) was wholly caused by the negligence or other wrongful act of any Government or another authority responsible for themaintenance of lights or other navigational aids in the exercise

of that function. The maximum amount payable by the 1971 Fund for one incident is 60million SDRs (US$81.0 million). The amount of compensation availableunder the 1971 Fund Convention is unrelated to the size of the tanker andis inclusive of any compensation actually paid by the shipowner or hisinsurer under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention. Where the amount of established claims against the 1971 Fund exceeds the aggregate amount of compensation payable, the amount available shall be distributed insuch a manner that the proportion between any established claim and the

amount of compensation actually recovered by the claimant under the1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention is the samefor all claimants.

10.9 The owner of a ship registered in or flying the flag of a State Party tothe 1971 Fund Convention is indemnified by the 1971 Fund for a part of the total amount of his liability under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention.

The maximum indemnification payable by the 1971 Fund to the ship-owner is 33 SDRs (US$45) for each ton of the ship’s limitation tonnage(gross tonnage minus net tonnage plus capacity of engine-room space); for

ships over 83,333 tons, the indemnification is somewhat higher, with a maximum of 5,667,000 SDRs (US$7.6 million) for ships over 105,000 tons.

10.10 The 1971 Fund is administered by a Secretariat which has itsheadquarters in London, in the building of the International MaritimeOrganization. The Secretariat also administers the 1992 Fund (seeparagraph 11.3).

27

Part II, chapter 10





Chapter 11 – The 1992 Civil Liability Convention andthe 1992 Fund Convention

11.1 An international conference held in London in 1984 adopted twoProtocols amending the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971Fund Convention. These Protocols provide significantly higher limits of compensation and a wider scope of application than the Conventions intheir original version.

11.2 It became clear in 1990 that these 1984 Protocols would not comeinto force in the foreseeable future. As a result, an InternationalConference was held in 1992 under the auspices of IMO which adopted

two new Protocols to amend the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the1971 Fund Convention. The two Protocols are entitled the Protocol of 1992to amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil PollutionDamage, 1969, and the Protocol of 1992 to amend the InternationalConvention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensa-tion for Oil Pollution Damage. The 1992 Protocols have the samesubstantive provisions as the 1984 Protocols, but have different entry-into-force provisions. The Conventions as amended by the Protocols areknown as the 1992 Civil Liability Convention and the 1992 FundConvention.*

11.3 The 1992 Civil Liability Convention and the 1992 Fund Convention,the latter of which is supplementary to the former, entered into force on 30May 1996. The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 1992 (1992Fund) was established under the 1992 Fund Convention, upon its entry into force, for the purpose of administering the regime of compensationcreated by the Convention. The 1992 Fund is administered jointly with the1971 Fund (see paragraph 10.10).

11.4 The main differences between the ‘‘new regime’’ (1992 Civil Liability

Convention and 1992 Fund Convention) and the ‘‘old regime’’ (1969 CivilLiability Convention and 1971 Fund Convention) are as follows:

(1) special liability limit for owners of small ships and a substantialincrease of the limitation amounts: the limits under the 1992Civil Liability Convention are:

(a) for a ship not exceeding 5,000 units of tonnage, 3 millionSDRs (US$4.1 million);

(b) for a ship with a tonnage between 5,000 and 140,000units of tonnage, 3 million SDRs plus 420 SDRs (US$567)for each additional unit of tonnage; and

(c) for a ship exceeding 140,000 units of tonnage, 59.7 mil-lion SDRs (US$80.6 million);


28






(2) an increase in the limit of compensation payable by the 1992Fund to 135 million SDRs (US$182.2 million), including thecompensation payable by the shipowner under the 1992 Civil

Liability Convention;(3) a simplified procedure for increasing the limitation amounts in

the two Conventions;

(4) the shipowner is no longer indemnified by the Fund for part of his liability under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention (seeparagraph 10.9);

(5) extended geographical scope of application of the Conventionsbeyond the territorial seas to include the exclusive economiczone established under UNCLOS;

(6) pollution damage caused by spills of persistent oil from unladentankers covered, including spills of cargo or bunker oil fromboth laden and unladen tankers;

(7) expenses incurred for preventive measures are recoverable even when no spill of oil occurs, provided that there was a grave andimminent threat of pollution damage (the 1969/1971 Conven-tions apply only to damage caused or measures taken after anincident has occurred in which oil has escaped or beendischarged); and

(8) a new definition of pollution damage, retaining the basic wording of the present definition with the addition of a phraseto clarify that, with regard to environmental damage, only costsincurred for reasonable measures to reinstate the contaminatedenvironment are included in the concept of pollution damage.

11.5 The 1992 Fund Convention provided a mechanism for thecompulsory denunciation of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the1971 Fund Convention. The requirements for compulsory denunciation

were fulfilled on 15 November 1996. As a result, the States which had

deposited instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession inrespect of the 1992 Fund Convention were obliged to deposit instrumentsof denunciation of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 FundConvention by 15 May 1997. These denunciations will take effect on 15May 1998. From 16 May 1998, it will no longer be possible for a State tobelong to both regimes.

Chapter 12 – Recovery of compensation

12.1 Another main role of the coastal State comes in obtaining

compensation for pollution damage. The coastal State needs to keep twoaspects of compensation constantly in mind as it decides its response.

12.2 First, the possibility of recovery needs to be balanced against other important factors, such as the expectations of the local population and theneed to preserve the environment for its own sake. In general, the coastalState will only be able to recover the costs of response measures which

29

Part II, chapters 11, 12





were considered reasonable in the circumstances. Claims for measures toprevent or minimize pollution damage are assessed on the basis of objective criteria. The fact that a Government or other public body decides

to take certain measures does not in itself mean that the measures arereasonable for the purpose of the Conventions. The technical reason-ableness is assessed on the basis of the facts available at the time of thedecision to take the measures. However, those in charge of the operationsshould continually reappraise their decisions in the light of developmentsand further technical advice. The fact that the response measures turnedout to be ineffective or the decision was shown to be incorrect with thebenefit of hindsight are not reasons in themselves for disallowing a claimfor the costs involved. A claim may be rejected, however, if it could havebeen foreseen that the measures would be ineffective but they were

instigated nevertheless, because, for example, it was considered necessary ‘‘to be seen to be doing something’’. In addition, if far more resources thannecessary for the circumstances are mobilized, the full cost of suchmobilization may not be considered reasonable by those responsible for compensation.

12.3 A discussion of what types of damage qualify for compensationunder the various national and international legal regimes is beyond thescope of this publication. However, in the case of persistent oil spillscovered by the international regimes, compensation is normally available

to Governments and public and private bodies for reasonable clean-upcosts. Compensation is also available for damage to property and oncertain conditions for economic loss caused by the spill. The types of claims which are normally covered are:

(1) measures to prevent or minimize pollution e.g., deploying boomsto protect fish farms;

(2) clean-up operations at sea and on the shore;

(3) disposal of recovered oil and oily debris;

(4) the cleaning or replacement of damaged property (e.g., fishing nets);

(5) economic loss suffered as a result of contamination by those who depend directly on earnings from coastal or sea-relatedactivities (e.g., fishermen).

12.4 Compensation is also available under the regimes for reasonablecosts actually incurred in reinstating damaged environments, but not for environmental damage based on a purely notional basis. Attempts have

been made in the past to use theoretical methods for calculating damage tothe environment, which in 1980 prompted the Assembly of the 1971 Fundto pass a resolution which states that the assessment of compensation by the 1971 Fund is not to be ‘‘made on the basis of an abstract quan-tification of damage calculated in accordance with theoretical models’’.

This policy was codified in the new definition of pollution damagecontained in the 1992 Protocols (see paragraph 11.4(8)).

30






12.5 In order to obtain compensation, a claimant must be able to show that he has suffered an economic loss as a result of the contamination andthe amount of this loss. It is essential that comprehensive records are kept

detailing all operations and expenditures resulting from the incident. Daily worksheets should be compiled by supervisory personnel to record theoperations in progress, the equipment in use, where and how it is being used, the number of personnel employed, how and where they are deployedand the materials consumed. Recording such information is facilitated by using standard worksheets, which should be designed to suit theparticular circumstances of the spill and the response organization inthe country concerned.

12.6 Major expenditures are often incurred for the use of aircraft, ships,specialized equipment, heavy machines, trucks and personnel. Some of these resources may be Government-owned whereas others may be thesubject of contractual arrangements. Detailed records should be kept of actual time employed on clean-up and for what purpose. The appointment of a financial controller to the response team may be valuable to ensurethat adequate records are kept and the expenditure is controlled.

12.7 The most difficult claims to prove are those for economic loss other than damage to property. Such losses are usually suffered not by the

coastal State itself but by individuals or businesses in the State. In claimsof this nature, comparative figures for earnings in previous periods andduring the period when economic loss was suffered must be presented. A comparison will be made with similar areas outside the area affected by the spill. This involves a great deal of documentation. The claimant must show that the loss was caused by contamination.

12.8 The speed with which claims are settled depends largely on how long it takes for claimants to provide the information required. It is

advisable to contact those bodies likely to be involved in paying compensation (and their technical advisers) as soon as possible after theincident to discuss the presentation of claims.

12.9 Claimants should submit their claims as soon as possible after thedamage has occurred. If a formal claim cannot be made shortly after anincident, the IOPC Funds would appreciate being notified as soon aspossible of the claimant’s intention to present a claim at a later stage.Claimants will ultimately lose their right to compensation from theshipowner/insurer and the 1971/1992 Funds unless they bring court action against the shipowner/insurer and the 1971/1992 Funds withinthree years of the date on which the damage occurred. Although thedamage may occur sometime after an incident took place, court actionmust in any case be brought within six years of the date of the incident.Claimants are recommended to seek legal advice on the formal require-ments of court actions, to avoid their claims being time-barred.

31

Part II, chapter 12





12.10 The IOPC Funds are closely and actively involved in claimsassessment, and, pursuant to an agreement with the International Groupof P&I Clubs, claims are handled jointly by the IOPC Funds and the Club

involved. Very often the technical assistance of ITOPF will be called upon. The result is that normally claimants need present their claims only once.

12.11 It is important that Governments inform the IOPC Funds promptly of any incidents in respect of which the Funds will have to pay compensation or in respect of which there is a real possibility that theFunds might have to make such payments.

12.12 If there is a reasonable likelihood that the IOPC Funds will beinvolved, potential claimants should consult with the Funds and their technical experts at the earliest possible time, especially in respect of any

major items of expenditure. The objective of the IOPC Funds is tocompensate the victims of pollution under the terms set out in the 1971Fund Convention and the 1992 Fund Convention; the Funds thereforeregard themselves as providing an international public service, and their claims handling is conducted accordingly. Extracts from the IOPC Funds’Claims Manual (5th edition, December 1996) are presented in appendix 5of this publication.

Chapter 13 – Guidelines for facilitation of responseto oil pollution incidents

13.1 The previous chapter outlined the procedures that have to beconsidered for being able to recover compensation for the costs incurred inresponding to an oil spill and any resulting pollution damage. Part of a response operation could involve the use of resources brought into a Statefrom another country. While the costs associated with such outsideassistance may be recovered under existing liability and compensationregimes the manner in which such resources are accessed requires carefulplanning.

13.2 At the first intersessional meeting of the OPRC Working Group inMarch 1993, countries set out to have IMO develop operational guidelinesand recommendations on the means by which States should give effect toarticle 7(3) of the OPRC Convention dealing with facilitation of response toan oil pollution incident.

13.3 Article 7 of the OPRC Convention, ‘‘International co-operation inpollution response’’, inter alia , stipulates the following:

(3) In accordance with international agreements, each Party shalltake necessary legal or administrative measures to facilitate:

(a) the arrival and utilization in and departure from its territory of ships, aircraft and other modes of transport engaged inresponding to an oil pollution incident or transporting personnel, cargoes, materials and equipment required todeal with such an incident; and

32






(b) the expeditious movement into, through, and out of itsterritory of such personnel, cargoes, materials and equip-ment referred to in paragraph (a).

13.4 Following careful deliberation on this issue during the thirty-fourth,thirty-seventh and thirty-eighth sessions of the Marine Environment Protection Committee, the Committee forwarded to the twentieth Assembly of IMO a resolution, which was approved (resolution A.869(20)), to provideguidance for States in implementing the aforementioned article of theConvention. This Assembly resolution is presented in appendix 6 of thispublication.

33

Part II, chapter 13









References

1 Bates, J.H. and Benson, C.J. Marine Environment Law. Loose-leaf,Lloyd’s Shipping Law Library. London, Lloyd’s of London Press,1993. (ISBN 1-85044-452-8).

2 Bernaerts, A. Bernaerts’ Guide to the Law of the Sea. Coulsdon,Fairplay Publications, 1988. (ISBN 1-870093-15-1).

3 Binney, B.F. Protecting the environment with salvage law: risks,rewards and the 1989 Salvage Convention. Washington Law Review65:639–656, 1990.

4 Birnie, P. and Boyle, A. International Law and the Environment.Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992. (ISBN 0-19-876282-8).

5 Brubaker, D. Marine Pollution and International Law: Principles and Practice. London, Belhaven Press, 1993. (ISBN 1-85293-273-2).

6 Churchill, R. and Lowe, A. Law of the Sea. 2nd ed. Manchester,Manchester University Press, 1989. (ISBN 0-7190-2634-2).

7 de la Rue, Colin (Ince & Co.) and CMI. Liability for Damage to the Marine Environment. General Editor: Colin de la Rue (Partner,Ince & Co.). Published in association with the CMI. London, Lloyd’sof London Press, 1993. (ISBN 1-85044-535-4).

8 Darling, G. and Smith, C. LOF 90 and the New Salvage Convention.London, Lloyd’s of London Press, 1991. (ISBN 1-85044-376-9).

9 de Rouw, A.C.J. Emergency response to maritime pollution inci-dents: legal aspects. In: Couper, A. and Gold, E. (Eds.) The Marine

Environment and Sustainable Development: Law, Policy and Science – Proceedings of the Law of the Sea Institute 25th Annual

Conference, Malmo, 6–9 August 1991. Honolulu, The Law of theSea Institute, 1993. pp. 325–348.

10 Drel, M.I. Liability for damage resulting from the transport of hazardous cargoes by sea. In: Couper, A. and Gold, E. (Eds.) The

Marine Environment and Sustainable Development: Law, Policy and Science – Proceedings of the Law of the Sea Institute 25th Annual Conference, Malmo, 6–9 August 1991. Honolulu, The Law of the Sea Institute, 1993. pp. 349–376.

11 Drewry Shipping Consultants. Marine Pollution and Safer Ships:

Implications for the Tanker Industry. London, Drewry Shipping Consultants Ltd, 1992.

12 Dudley, J.R., Scott, B.J. and Gold, E. Towards Safer Ships and Cleaner Seas: A Handbook for Modern Tankship Operations. Arendal,

Assuranceforeningen Gard, 1994. (ISBN 82-90344-06-6).

35





13 Griggs, P. and Williams, R. (Ince & Co., Solicitors). Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims. 2nd ed. London, Lloyd’s of LondonPress, 1991. (ISBN 1-85044-337-8).

14 Gold. E. (Ed.). Maritime Affairs: A World Handbook. 2nd ed. Harlow,Longman Group UK Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0-582-08693-0).

15 Hazelwood, S.J. P & I Clubs: Law and Practice. 2nd ed. London,Lloyd’s of London Press, 1994. (ISBN 1-85044-521-4).

16 Hill, C. Maritime Law. 4th ed. London, Lloyd’s of London Press, 1995.(ISBN 1-85044-888-4).

17 International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPCF).

- Claims Manual. 5th ed. London, IOPCF, 1996.

- General Information on Liability and Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage. London, IOPCF, 1993.

18 International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd (ITOPF).TOVALOP & CRISTAL: A Guide to Oil Spill Compensation. 2nd ed.London, ITOPF, 1990.

19 Kindt, J.M. Marine Pollution and the Law of the Sea. New York, William S. Hein & Co., 1986. 4 vols. (ISBN 0-89941-327-7).

20 Luddeke, C. Marine Claims. London, Lloyd’s of London Press, 1993.

(ISBN 1-85044-540-0).

21 Mensah, T.A. et al. The protection of the marine environment: flag State and port State policies. In: Couper, A. and Gold, E. (Eds.) The

Marine Environment and Sustainable Development: Law, Policy and Science – Proceedings of the Law of the Sea Institute 25th Annual Conference, Malmo, 6–9 August 1991. Honolulu, The Law of the Sea Institute, 1993. pp. 407–410.

22 O’Connell, D.P. International Law of the Sea. 2 vols. Oxford, Oxford

University Press, Vol. 1, 1983 (ISBN 0-19-825346-X); Vol. 2, 1984.(ISBN 0-19-8254469-5).

23 Sasamura, Y. Prevention and control of marine pollution from ships.In: Couper, A. and Gold, E. (Eds.), The Marine Environment and Sustainable Development: Law, Policy and Science – Proceedings of the Law of the Sea Institute 25th Annual Conference, Malmo, 6–9

August 1991. Honolulu, The Law of the Sea Institute, 1993. pp. 306–324.

24 Smith, B.D. State Responsibility and the Marine Environment: The

Rules of Decision. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988. (ISBN 0-19-825581-0).

25 Vincenzini, E. International Salvage Law. London, Lloyd’s of LondonPress, 1992. (ISBN 1-85044-401-3).

36






26 Bureau Veritas. Ship Safety Handbook. 3rd ed. London, Lloyd’s of London Press, 1994. (ISBN 1-85044-814-0).

27 London, International Maritime Organization (IMO):

- SOLAS (Consolidated edition, 1997).

- 1994 SOLAS Amendments. 1995.

- 1992 SOLAS Amendments. 1993.

- International Safety Management Code (ISM Code) (1994edition).

- International Convention relating to Intervention on the High Seasin Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (Intervention), 1969 (1977

edition).

- International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), 1969 (1977 edition).

- International Conference on Liability and Compensation for Damage in connexion with the Carriage of Certain Substancesby Sea, 1984 (1985 edition).

- Official Records of the International Conference on Liability and Compensation for Damage in connexion with the Carriage of

Certain Substances by Sea, 1984, and the International Conference on the Revision of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention, 1992 (1993 edition).

- Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage. 1996.

- International Conference on Salvage, 1989 (1989 edition).

- MARPOL 73/78 (Consolidated edition, 1997).

- 1992 MARPOL Amendments. 1993.

- MARPOL – How to Do It (1993 edition).

- Provisions concerning the Reporting of Incidents Involving Harmful Substances under MARPOL 73/78 (1990 edition).

- International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC), 1990 (1991 edition).

- Guidelines for the Development of Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plans (1992 edition).

- Ship Safety and Pollution Prevention: Ship Management and Port

State Control.- STCW 95: International Convention on Standards of Training,

Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, and STCW Code (1996 edition).

37

References





Directory of publishers

Assuranceforeningen Gard, P.O. Box 1563 – Myrene, 4801 Norway.

Belhaven Press, P.O. Box 87, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2, United Kingdom.Drewry Shipping Consultants Ltd, 11 Heron Quay, London E14 4JF,United Kingdom.

Fairplay Publications Ltd, P.O. Box 96, Coulsdon, Surrey CR5 2TE,United Kingdom.

International Maritime Organization, 4 Albert Embankment, LondonSE1 7SR, United Kingdom.

International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPCF), 4 Albert

Embankment, London SE1 7SR, United Kingdom.International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd (ITOPF), Staple Hall,Stonehouse Court, 87–90 Houndsditch, London EC3A 7AX,United Kingdom.

The Law of the Sea Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa,2515 Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States.

Lloyd’s of London Press, 27 Swinton Street, London WC1X 9NW,United Kingdom.

Longman Group UK Ltd, Westgate House, The High, Harlow, Essex CM20 1YR, United Kingdom.

Manchester University Press, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL,United Kingdom.

Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford OX2 6DP, United Kingdom.

William S. Hein & Co. Inc., 1285 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14209,United States.

38






Appendix 1

SOLAS 1974 – Chapter IX

MANAGEMENT FOR THE SAFE OPERATION OF SHIPS

Regulation 1 Definitions

For the purpose of this chapter, unless expressly provided otherwise:

1 International Safety Management (ISM) Code means the Interna-tional Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for PollutionPrevention adopted by the Organization by resolution A.741(18), as may beamended by the Organization, provided that such amendments areadopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with theprovisions or article VIII of the present Convention concerning theamendment procedures applicable to the annex other than chapter I.

2 Company means the owner of the ship or any other organization or

person such as the manager, or the bareboat charterer, who has assumedthe responsibility for operation of the ship from the owner of the ship and

who on assuming such responsibility has agreed to take over all the dutiesand responsibilities imposed by the International Safety Management Code.

3 Oil tanker means an oil tanker as defined in regulation II-1/2.12.

4 Chemical tanker means a chemical tanker as defined in regulation VII/8.2.

5 Gas carrier means a gas carrier as defined in regulation VII/11.2.

6 Bulk carrier means a ship which is constructed generally withsingle deck, top-side tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo spaces, and isintended primarily to carry dry cargo in bulk, and includes such types asore carriers and combination carriers.

7 Mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU) means a vessel capable of engaging in drilling operations for the exploration for or exploitation of

resources beneath the sea-bed such as liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons,sulphur or salt.

8 High-speed craft means a craft as defined in regulation X/1.2.

Note : Chapter IX was accepted on 1 January 1998, by the ‘‘tacit acceptance’’ procedure, and will enter into force on 1 July 1998.

39





Regulation 2 Application

1 This chapter applies to ships, regardless of the date of construction,as follows:

.1 passenger ships including passenger high-speed craft, not later than 1 July 1998;

.2 oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers andcargo high-speed craft of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 1998; and

.3 other cargo ships and mobile offshore drilling units of 500 grosstonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 2002.

2 This chapter does not apply to government-operated ships used for non-commercial purposes.

Regulation 3Safety management requirements

1 The company and the ship shall comply with the requirements of the International Safety Management Code.

2 The ship shall be operated by a company holding a Document of Compliance referred to in regulation 4.

Regulation 4Certification

1 A Document of Compliance shall be issued to every company whichcomplies with the requirements of the International Safety Management Code. This document shall be issued by the Administration, by anorganization recognized by the Administration, or at the request of the

Administration by another Contracting Government.

2 A copy of the Document of Compliance shall be kept on board theship in order that the master can produce it on request for verification.

3 A Certificate, called a Safety Management Certificate, shall beissued to every ship by the Administration or an organization recognizedby the Administration. The Administration or organization recognized by it shall, before issuing the Safety Management Certificate, verify that thecompany and its shipboard management operate in accordance with the

approved safety-management system.

Regulation 5 Maintenance of conditions

The safety-management system shall be maintained in accordance withthe provisions of the International Safety Management Code.

40






Regulation 6Verification and control

1 The Administration, another Contracting Government at therequest of the Administration or an organization recognized by the

Administration shall periodically verify the proper functioning of theship’s safety-management system.

2 Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3 of this regulation, a shiprequired to hold a certificate issued pursuant to the provisions of regulation 4.3 shall be subject to control in accordance with the provisionsof regulation XI/4. For this purpose such certificate shall be treated as a certificate issued under regulation I/12 or I/13.

3 In cases of change of flag State or company, special transitionalarrangements shall be made in accordance with the guidelines developedby the Organization.*

Resolution A.741(18)

Adopted on 4 November 1993

INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT CODE FOR THE SAFEOPERATION OF SHIPS AND FOR POLLUTION PREVENTION

(INTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT (ISM) CODE)

T HE A SSEMBLY,

R ECALLING Article 15(j) of the Convention on the International MaritimeOrganization concerning the functions of the Assembly in relation toregulations and guidelines concerning maritime safety and the preventionand control of marine pollution from ships,

R ECALLING ALSO resolution A.680(17), by which it invited Member Govern-ments to encourage those responsible for the management and operationof ships to take appropriate steps to develop, implement and assess safety and pollution-prevention management in accordance with the IMOGuidelines on Management for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention,

R ECALLING ALSO resolution A.596(15), by which it requested the MaritimeSafety Committee to develop, as a matter of urgency, guidelines, wherever relevant, concerning shipboard and shore-based management, and itsdecision to include in the work programme of the Maritime Safety

* Refer to the Guidelines on the implementation of the ISM Code by Administrations, adopted by theOrganization by Assembly resolution A.788(19) (refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-117E).

41

Appendix 1





Committee and the Marine Environment Protection Committee an item onshipboard and shore-based management for the safe operation of shipsand for the prevention of marine pollution, respectively,

R ECALLING FURTHER resolution A.441(XI), by which it invited every State totake the necessary steps to ensure that the owner of a ship which flies theflag of that State provides such State with the current informationnecessary to enable it to identify and contact the person contracted or otherwise entrusted by the owner to discharge his responsibilities for that ship in regard to matters relating to maritime safety and the protection of the marine environment,

R ECALLING FURTHER resolution A.443(XI), by which it invited Governments totake the necessary steps to safeguard the shipmaster in the proper

discharge of his responsibilities in regard to maritime safety and theprotection of the marine environment,

R ECOGNIZING the need for appropriate organization of management toenable it to respond to the need of those on board ships to achieve andmaintain high standards of safety and environmental protection,

R ECOGNIZING ALSO that the most important means of preventing maritimecasualties and pollution of the sea from ships is to design, construct, equipand maintain ships and to operate them with properly trained crews incompliance with international conventions and standards relating tomaritime safety and pollution prevention,

NOTING that the Maritime Safety Committee is developing requirements for adoption by Contracting Governments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, which will make compliance withthe Code referred to in operative paragraph 1 mandatory,

CONSIDERING that the early implementation of that Code would greatly assist in improving safety at sea and protection of the marine environment,

NOTING FURTHER that the Maritime Safety Committee and the MarineEnvironment Protection Committee have reviewed resolution A.680(17)

and the Guidelines annexed thereto in developing the Code,H AVING CONSIDERED the recommendations made by the Maritime Safety Committee at its sixty-second session and by the Marine Environment Protection Committee at its thirty-fourth session,

1. A DOPTS the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (International Safety Management (ISM)Code), set out in the annex to the present resolution;

2. S TRONGLY URGES Governments to implement the ISM Code on a national basis, giving priority to passenger ships, tankers, gas carriers,

bulk carriers and mobile offshore units which are flying their flags, as soonas possible but not later than 1 June 1998, pending development of themandatory applications of the Code;

3. R EQUESTS Governments to inform the Maritime Safety Committeeand the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the action they havetaken in implementing the ISM Code;

42






4. R EQUESTS the Maritime Safety Committee and the Marine Environ-ment Protection Committee to develop guidelines for the implementation of the ISM Code;

5 R EQUESTS ALSO the Maritime Safety Committee and the MarineEnvironment Protection Committee to keep the Code and its associatedguidelines under review and to amend them as necessary;

6. R EVOKES resolution A.680(17).

AnnexINTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT (ISM) CODE

Safety and pollution-prevention management requirements

Preamble

1 The purpose of this Code is to provide an international standard for the safe management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention.

2 The Assembly adopted resolution A.443(XI), by which it invited allGovernments to take the necessary steps to safeguard the shipmaster inthe proper discharge of his responsibilities with regard to maritime safety and the protection of the marine environment.

3 The Assembly also adopted resolution A.680(17), by which it further recognized the need for appropriate organization of management to enable

it to respond to the need of those on board ships to achieve and maintainhigh standards of safety and environmental protection.

4 Recognizing that no two shipping companies or shipowners are thesame, and that ships operate under a wide range of different conditions,the Code is based on general principles and objectives.

5 The Code is expressed in broad terms so that it can have a wide-spread application. Clearly, different levels of management, whether shore-based or at sea, will require varying levels of knowledge and awareness of the items outlined.

6 The cornerstone of good safety management is commitment fromthe top. In matters of safety and pollution prevention it is the commitment,competence, attitudes and motivation of individuals at all levels that determines the end result.

43

Appendix 1





1 General

1.1 Definitions

1.1.1 International Safety Management (ISM) Code means the Inter-national Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention as adopted by the Assembly, as may be amended by the Organization.

1.1.2 Company means the owner of the ship or any other organization or person such as the manager, or the bareboat charterer, who has assumedthe responsibility for operation of the ship from the shipowner and who, onassuming such responsibility, has agreed to take over all duties andresponsibility imposed by the Code.

1.1.3 Administration means the Government of the State whose flag theship is entitled to fly.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 The objectives of the Code are to ensure safety at sea, prevention of human injury or loss of life, and avoidance of damage to the environment,in particular to the marine environment and to property.

1.2.2 Safety-management objectives of the Company should, inter alia:

.1 provide for safe practices in ship operation and a safe working environment;

.2 establish safeguards against all identified risks; and

.3 continuously improve safety-management skills of personnelashore and aboard ships, including preparing for emergenciesrelated both to safety and environmental protection.

1.2.3 The safety-management system should ensure:

.1 compliance with mandatory rules and regulations; and

.2 that applicable codes, guidelines and standards recommendedby the Organization, Administrations, classification societiesand maritime industry organizations are taken into account.

1.3 Application

The requirements of this Code may be applied to all ships.

1.4 Functional requirements for a safety-management system

Every Company should develop, implement and maintain a safety-manage-ment system (SMS) which includes the following functional requirements:

.1 a safety and environmental–protection policy;

.2 instructions and procedures to ensure safe operation of shipsand protection of the environment in compliance with relevant international and flag State legislation;

44






.3 defined levels of authority and lines of communication between,and amongst, shore and shipboard personnel;

.4 procedures for reporting accidents and non-conformities with

the provisions of this Code;.5 procedures to prepare for and respond to emergency situations;

and

.6 procedures for internal audits and management reviews.

2 Safety and environmental protection policy

2.1 The Company should establish a safety and environmental-protec-tion policy which describes how the objectives given in paragraph 1.2 will

be achieved.2.2 The Company should ensure that the policy is implemented andmaintained at all levels of the organization both, ship-based and shore-based.

3 Company responsibilities and authority

3.1 If the entity who is responsible for the operation of the ship is other than the owner, the owner must report the full name and details of such

entity to the Administration.3.2 The Company should define and document the responsibility,authority and interrelation of all personnel who manage, perform and

verify work relating to and affecting safety and pollution prevention.

3.3 The Company is responsible for ensuring that adequate resourcesand shore-based support are provided to enable the designated person or persons to carry out their functions.

4 Designated person(s)

To ensure the safe operation of each ship and to provide a link between theCompany and those on board, every Company, as appropriate, shoulddesignate a person or persons ashore having direct access to the highest level of management. The responsibility and authority of the designatedperson or persons should include monitoring the safety and pollution-prevention aspects of the operation of each ship and ensuring that adequate resources and shore-based support are applied, as required.

5 Master’s responsibility and authority 5.1 The Company should clearly define and document the master’sresponsibility with regard to:

.1 implementing the safety and environmental-protection policy of the Company;

.2 motivating the crew in the observation of that policy;

45

Appendix 1





.3 issuing appropriate orders and instructions in a clear andsimple manner;

.4 verifying that specified requirements are observed; and

.5 reviewing the SMS and reporting its deficiencies to the shore-based management.

5.2 The Company should ensure that the SMS operating on board theship contains a clear statement emphasizing the master’s authority. TheCompany should establish in the SMS that the master has the overriding authority and the responsibility to make decisions with respect to safety and pollution prevention and to request the Company’s assistance as may be necessary.

6 Resources and personnel

6.1 The Company should ensure that the master is:

.1 properly qualified for command;

.2 fully conversant with the Company’s SMS; and

.3 given the necessary support so that the master’s duties can besafely performed.

6.2 The Company should ensure that each ship is manned with quali-fied, certificated and medically fit seafarers in accordance with nationaland international requirements.

6.3 The Company should establish procedures to ensure that new personnel and personnel transferred to new assignments related to safety and protection of the environment are given proper familiarization with

their duties. Instructions which are essential to be provided prior to sailing should be identified, documented and given.

6.4 The Company should ensure that all personnel involved in theCompany’s SMS have an adequate understanding of relevant rules,regulations, codes and guidelines.

6.5 The Company should establish and maintain procedures for identifying any training which may be required in support of the SMSand ensure that such training is provided for all personnel concerned.

6.6 The Company should establish procedures by which the ship’spersonnel receive relevant information on the SMS in a working languageor languages understood by them.

6.7 The Company should ensure that the ship’s personnel are able tocommunicate effectively in the execution of their duties related to the SMS.

46






7 Development of plans for shipboard operations

The Company should establish procedures for the preparation of plansand instructions for key shipboard operations concerning the safety of the

ship and the prevention of pollution. The various tasks involved should bedefined and assigned to qualified personnel.

8 Emergency preparedness

8.1 The Company should establish procedures to identify, describe andrespond to potential emergency shipboard situations.

8.2 The Company should establish programmes for drills and exercisesto prepare for emergency actions.

8.3 The SMS should provide for measures ensuring that the Compa-ny’s organization can respond at any time to hazards, accidents andemergency situations involving its ships.

9 Reports and analysis of non-conformities, accidentsand hazardous occurrences

9.1 The SMS should include procedures ensuring that non-conformi-ties, accidents and hazardous situations are reported to the Company,investigated and analysed with the objective of improving safety andpollution prevention.

9.2 The Company should establish procedures for the implementationof corrective action.

10 Maintenance of the ship and equipment

10.1 The Company should establish procedures to ensure that the shipis maintained in conformity with the provisions of the relevant rules and

regulations and with any additional requirements which may beestablished by the Company.

10.2 In meeting these requirements the Company should ensure that:

.1 inspections are held at appropriate intervals;

.2 any non-conformity is reported, with its possible cause, if known;

.3 appropriate corrective action is taken; and

.4 records of these activities are maintained.

10.3 The Company should establish procedures in its SMS to identify equipment and technical systems the sudden operational failure of whichmay result in hazardous situations. The SMS should provide for specificmeasures aimed at promoting the reliability of such equipment or systems.

These measures should include the regular testing of stand-by arrange-ments and equipment or technical systems that are not in continuous use.

47

Appendix 1





10.4 The inspections mentioned in 10.2 as well as the measures referredto in 10.3 should be integrated into the ship’s operational maintenanceroutine.

11 Documentation

11.1 The Company should establish and maintain procedures to controlall documents and data which are relevant to the SMS.

11.2 The Company should ensure that:

.1 valid documents are available at all relevant locations;

.2 changes to documents are reviewed and approved by authorized

personnel; and.3 obsolete documents are promptly removed.

11.3 The documents used to describe and implement the SMS may bereferred to as the Safety Management Manual. Documentation should bekept in a form that the Company considers most effective. Each shipshould carry on board all documentation relevant to that ship.

12 Company verification, review and evaluation

12.1 The Company should carry out internal safety audits to verify whether safety and pollution-prevention activities comply with the SMS.

12.2 The Company should periodically evaluate the efficiency of and, when needed, review the SMS in accordance with procedures establishedby the Company.

12.3 The audits and possible corrective actions should be carried out inaccordance with documented procedures.

12.4 Personnel carrying out audits should be independent of the areasbeing audited unless this is impracticable due to the size and the nature of the Company.

12.5 The results of the audits and reviews should be brought to theattention of all personnel having responsibility in the area involved.

12.6 The management personnel responsible for the area involvedshould take timely corrective action on deficiencies found.

13 Certification, verification and control

13.1 The ship should be operated by a Company which is issued a document of compliance relevant to that ship.

13.2 A document of compliance should be issued for every Company complying with the requirements of the ISM Code by the Administration,by an organization recognized by the Administration or by the Government of the country, acting on behalf of the Administration in which the

48






Company has chosen to conduct its business. This document should beaccepted as evidence that the Company is capable of complying with therequirements of the Code.

13.3 A copy of such a document should be placed on board in order that the master, if so asked, may produce it for the verification of the

Administration or organizations recognized by it.

13.4 A certificate, called a Safety Management Certificate, should beissued to a ship by the Administration or organization recognized by the

Administration. The Administration should, when issuing the certificate, verify that the Company and its shipboard management operate inaccordance with the approved SMS.

13.5 The Administration or an organization recognized by the Adminis-tration should periodically verify the proper functioning of the ship’s SMSas approved.

49

Appendix 1





Appendix 2



GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS AND SHIP REPORTING REQUIREMENTS,

INCLUDING GUIDELINES FOR REPORTING INCIDENTSINVOLVING DANGEROUS GOODS, HARMFUL SUBSTANCES

AND/OR MARINE POLLUTANTS

T HE A SSEMBLY,

R ECALLING Article 15(j) of the Convention on the International MaritimeOrganization concerning the functions of the Assembly in relation toregulations and guidelines concerning maritime safety and the preventionand control of marine pollution from ships,

R ECALLING ALSO resolution 3 of the International Conference on MaritimeSearch and Rescue, 1979, on the need for an internationally agreed format and procedure for ship reporting systems,

CONSIDERING that current national ship reporting systems may use different procedures and reporting formats,

R EALIZING that such different procedures and reporting formats couldcause confusion to masters of ships moving from one area to another covered by different ship reporting systems,

BELIEVING that such confusion could be alleviated if ship reporting systemsand reporting requirements were to comply as far as practicable withrelevant general principles and if reports were made in accordance with a standard format and procedures,

R ECALLING the General Principles for Ship Reporting Systems and ShipReporting Requirements, Including Guidelines for reporting IncidentsInvolving Dangerous Goods, Harmful Substances and/or Marine Pollu-tants, adopted by resolution A.648(16),

R ECOGNIZING that States Parties to the International Convention relating toIntervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (1969)and the Protocol relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil (1973) may take suchmeasures on the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave and imminent danger to their coastline or related interestsfrom pollution or threat of pollution of the sea by oil and substances other

50






than oil following upon a maritime casualty or acts related to such a casualty, which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmfulconsequences,

R ECOGNIZING ALSO the need for coastal States to be informed by the master of an assisting ship, or of a ship undertaking salvage, of particulars of theincident and of action taken,

R ECOGNIZING FURTHER that an incident involving damage, failure or break-down of the ship, its machinery or equipment could give rise to a significant threat of pollution to coastlines or related interests,

H AVING CONSIDERED the recommendation made by the Maritime Safety Committee at its sixty-seventh session and by the Marine Environment Protection Committee at its thirty-ninth session,

1. A DOPTS the General Principles for Ship Reporting Systems and ShipReporting Requirements, Including Guidelines for Reporting IncidentsInvolving Dangerous Goods, Harmful Substances and/or Marine Pollu-tants set out in the annex to the present resolution;

2. URGES Governments to ensure that ship reporting systems andreporting requirements comply as closely as possible with the generalprinciples specified in the annex to the present resolution;

3. URGES ALSO Governments to bring the reporting format and proce-dures to the notice of shipowners and seafarers as well as of the

designated authorities concerned;4. R ECOMMENDS Governments and States Parties to MARPOL 73/78 toimplement the Guidelines, in accordance with paragraph (2) of article V of Protocol I thereof;

5. R EVOKES resolution A.648(16).

Annex

GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS AND SHIP REPORTING REQUIREMENTS,

INCLUDING GUIDELINES FOR REPORTING INCIDENTSINVOLVING DANGEROUS GOODS, HARMFUL SUBSTANCES

AND/OR MARINE POLLUTANTS

1 General principles

1.1 Ship reporting systems and reporting requirements are used toprovide, gather or exchange information through radio reports. Theinformation is used to provide data for many purposes, including searchand rescue, vessel traffic services, weather forecasting and prevention of marine pollution. Ship reporting systems and reporting requirementsshould, as far as practicable, comply with the following general principles:

51

Appendix 2





.1 reports should contain only information essential toachieve the objectives of the reporting system;

.2 reports should be simple and use the standard interna-

tional ship reporting format and procedures; wherelanguage difficulties may exist, the languages used shouldinclude English, using where possible the Standard MarineNavigational Vocabulary, or alternatively the InternationalCode of Signals. The standard reporting format andprocedures to be used are given in the appendix to thisannex;

.3 the number of reports should be kept to a minimum;

.4 no charge should be made for communication of reports;

.5 safety- or pollution-related reports should be made without delay; however, the time and place of making non-urgent reports should be sufficiently flexible to avoid interference

with essential navigational duties;

.6 information obtained from the system should be madeavailable to other systems when required for distress,safety and pollution prevention purposes;

.7 basic information (ship’s particulars, on-board facilities

and equipment, etc.) should be reported once, be retainedin the system and be updated by the ship when changesoccur in the basic information reported;

.8 the purpose of the system should be clearly defined;

.9 Governments establishing a ship reporting system shouldnotify mariners of full details of the requirements to be met and the procedures to be followed. Details of types of shipsand areas of applicability, of times and geographicalpositions for submitting reports, of shore establishments

responsible for operation of the system and of the servicesprovided should be clearly specified. Chartlets depicting boundaries of the system and providing other necessary information should be made available to mariners;

.10 the establishment and operation of a ship reporting systemshould take into account:

.10.1 international as well as national responsibilities andrequirements;

.10.2 the cost to ship operators and responsible authorities;

.10.3 navigational hazards;

.10.4 existing and proposed aids to safety; and

.10.5 the need for early and continuing consultation withinterested parties, including a sufficient period to allow for trial, familiarization and assessment to ensure

52






satisfactory operation and to allow necessary changes to bemade to the system;

.11 Governments should ensure that shore establishmentsresponsible for operation of the system are manned by properly trained persons;

.12 Governments should consider the interrelationship be-tween ship reporting systems and other systems;

.13 ship reporting systems should preferably use a singleoperating radio frequency; where additional frequenciesare necessary, the number of frequencies should be

restricted to the minimum required for the effectiveoperation of the system;

.14 information provided by the system to ships should berestricted to that necessary for the proper operation of thesystem and for safety;

.15 ship reporting systems and requirements should providefor special reports from ships concerning defects or

deficiencies with respect to their hull, machinery, equip-ment or manning, or concerning other limitations whichcould adversely affect navigation and for special reportsconcerning incidents of actual or probable marine pollu-tion;

.16 Governments should issue instructions to their shoreestablishments responsible for the operation of shipreporting systems to ensure that any reports involving pollution, actual or probable, are relayed without delay to

the officer or agency nominated to receive and processsuch reports, and to ensure that such an officer or agency relays these reports without delay to the flag State of theship involved and to any other State which may be affected;

.17 States which are affected or likely to be affected by pollution incidents and which may require informationrelevant to the incident should take into account thecircumstances in which the master is placed, and should

endeavour to limit their requests for additional informa-tion; and

.18 the appendix to this annex does not apply to danger messages referred to under regulation V/2 of the 1974SOLAS Convention, as amended. The present practice of transmitting such messages should remain unchanged.

53

Appendix 2





2 Guidelines for reporting incidentsinvolving dangerous goods

2.1 The intent of these Guidelines and those contained in the appendix

is to enable coastal States and other interested parties to be informed, without delay, when any incident occurs involving the loss, or likely loss,overboard of packaged dangerous goods into the sea.

2.2 Reports should be transmitted to the nearest coastal State. Whenthe ship is within or near an area for which a ship reporting system hasbeen established, reports should be transmitted to the designated shorestation of that system.

3 Guidelines for reporting incidents

involving harmful substances and/or marine pollutants3.1 The intent of these Guidelines and those contained in the appendix is to enable coastal States and other interested parties to be informed,

without delay, of any incident giving rise to pollution, or threat of pollution,of the marine environment, as well as of assistance and salvage measures,so that appropriate action may be taken.

3.2 In accordance with article V(1) of Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78, a report shall be made to the nearest coastal State.

3.3 Whenever a ship is engaged in or requested to engage in anoperation to render assistance to or undertake salvage of a ship involved inan incident referred to in subparagraph 1(a) or (b) of article II of Protocol Iof MARPOL 73/78, as amended, the master of the former ship shouldreport, without delay, the particulars of the action undertaken or planned.

The coastal States should also be kept informed of developments.

3.4 The probability of a discharge resulting from damage to the ship or its equipment is a reason for making a report.

Appendix

1 Procedures

Reports should be sent as follows:

Sailing plan (SP) Before or as near as possible to the time of departure from a port within a reporting system or

when entering the area covered by a system.

Position report (PR) When necessary to ensure effective operation of the system.

Deviation report (DR) When the ship’s position varies significantly fromthe position that would have been predicted fromprevious reports, when changing the reportedroute, or as decided by the master.

54






Final report (FR) On arrival at destination and when leaving thearea covered by a system.

Dangerous goods

report (DG)

When an incident takes place involving the loss or

likely loss overboard of packaged dangerousgoods, including those in freight containers,portable tanks, road and rail vehicles and ship-borne barges, into the sea.

Harmful substancesreport (HS)

When an incident takes place involving thedischarge or probable discharge of oil (Annex I of MARPOL 73/78) or noxious liquid substances inbulk (Annex II of MARPOL 73/78).

Marine pollutants

report (MP)

In the case of loss or likely loss overboard of

harmful substances in packaged form, including those in freight containers, portable tanks, roadand rail vehicles and shipborne barges, identifiedin the International Maritime Dangerous GoodsCode as marine pollutants (Annex III of MARPOL 73/78).

Any other report Any other report should be made in accordance with the system procedures as notified in accor-dance with 1.1.9 of the General Principles.

2 Standard reporting format and procedures

2.1 Sections of the ship reporting format which are inappropriateshould be omitted from the report.

2.2 Where language difficulties may exist, the languages used shouldinclude English, using where possible the Standard Marine Navigational

Vocabulary. Alternatively, the International Code of Signals may be used tosend detailed information. When the International Code is used, theappropriate indicator should be inserted in the text, after the alphabeticalindex.

2.3 For route information, latitude and longitude should be given for each turn point, expressed as in C in the list below, together with type of intended track between these points, for example ‘‘RL’’ (rhumb line), ‘‘GC’’(great circle) or ‘‘coastal’’, or, in the case of a coastal sailing, the estimateddate and time of passing significant points expressed by a six-digit groupas in B in the list below.

55

Appendix 2





Telegraphy Telephone(alternative)

Function Information required

Name of system (e.g.

AMVER/AUSREP/MAREP/ECAREG/JASREP)

Name of system (e.g.

AMVER/AUSREP/MAREP/ECAREG/JASREP)

System identifier Ship reporting system or

nearest appropriate coast radiostation

State in full Type of report Type of report:

SP Sailing plan

PR Position report

DR Deviation report

FR Final report

DG Dangerous goodsreport

HS Harmful substances

reportMP Marine pollutants report

Give in full Any other report

A Ship(alpha)

Ship Name, call sign or ship stationidentity, and flag

B Time(bravo)

Date and timeof event

A six-digit group giving dayof month (first two digits), hoursand minutes (last four digits). Ifother than UTC, state time zoneused

C Position

(charlie)

Position A four-digit group giving latitude in

degrees and minutes suffixed withN (north) or S (south) and a five-digit group giving longitude indegrees and minutes suffixed withE (east) or W (west); or

D Position(delta)

Position True bearing (first three digits) anddistance (state distance) in nauticalmiles from a clearly identifiedlandmark (state landmark)

E Course(echo)

True course A three-digit group

F Speed(foxtrot)

Speed in knotsand tenths ofknots

A three-digit group

G Departed(golf)

Port of departure Name of last port of call

H Entry(hotel)

Date, time andpoint of entry intosystem

Entry time expressed as in B andentry position expressed asin C or D

I Destination and ETA(india)

Destination and ex-pected time of arrival

Name of port and date/time groupexpressed as in B

J Pilot(juliet)

Pilot State whether a deep-seaor local pilot is on board

K Exit(kilo)

Date, time and pointof exit from system orarrival at the ship’sdestination

Exit time expressed as in B andexit position expressed as in C or D

L Route(lima)

Route information Intended track

M Radiocommunications(mike)

Radiocommunications State in full names of stations/frequencies guarded

56






Telegraphy Telephone(alternative)

Function Information required

N Next report(november)

Time of nextreport

Date/time group expressed as in B

O Draught(oscar)

Maximum presentstatic draught inmetres

Four-digit group giving metres andcentimetres

P Cargo(papa)

Cargo on board Cargo and brief details of anydangerous cargoes as well asharmful substances and gases thatcould endanger persons or theenvironment (See detailed report-ing requirements)

Q Defect, damage,deficiency, limitations(quebec)

Defects/damage/deficiencies/otherlimitations

Brief details of defects, damage,deficiencies or other limitations(See detailed reporting require-ments)

R Pollution/dangerousgoods lost overboard(romeo)

Description ofpollution or dangerousgoods lost overboard

Brief details of type of pollution (oil,chemicals, etc.) or dangerousgoods lost overboard; positionexpressed as in C or D(See detailed reportingrequirements)

S Weather(sierra)

Weather conditions Brief details of weather and seaconditions prevailing

T Agent(tango)

Ship’s representativeand/or owner

Details of name and particulars ofship’s representative or owner orboth for provision of information(See detailed reporting require-ments)

U Size and type(uniform)

Ship size and type Details of length, breadth, tonnage,and type, etc., as required

V Medic(victor)

Medical personnel Doctor, physician’s assistant,nurse, personnel without medicaltraining

W Persons (whiskey) Total number of per-sons on board

State number

X Remarks(x-ray)

Miscellaneous Any other information – including,as appropriate, brief details ofincident and of other shipsinvolved either in incident,assistance or salvage(See detailed reportingrequirements)

Y Relay (yankee) Request to delayreport to anothersystem, e.g. AMVER,AUSREP, JASREP,

MAREP, etc.

Content of report

Z End of report (zulu) End of report No further information required

57

Appendix 2





3 Guidelines for detailed reporting requirements

3.1 Dangerous goods reports (DG)

3.1.1 Primary reports should contain items A, B, C (or D), M, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standard reporting format; details for R should be as follows:

R 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.

2 UN Number or Numbers.

3 IMO hazard class or classes.

4 Names of manufacturers of goods when known, or consignee or consignor.

5 Types of packages, including identification marks.Specify whether portable tank or tank vehicle, or

whether vehicle or freight container or other cargotransport unit containing packages. Include officialregistration marks and numbers assigned to the unit.

6 An estimate of the quantity and likely condition of thegoods.

7 Whether lost goods floated or sank.

8 Whether loss is continuing.

9 Cause of loss.

3.1.2 If the condition of the ship is such that there is danger of further loss of packaged dangerous goods into the sea, items P and Q of thestandard reporting format should be reported; details for P should be asfollows:

P 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.







3.1.3 Particulars not immediately available should be inserted in a supplementary message or messages.

3.2 Harmful substances reports (HS)

3.2.1 In the case of actual discharge, primary HS reports should containitems A, B, C (or D), E, F, L, M, N, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standard reporting format. In the case of probable discharge (see 3.4), item P should also beincluded. Details for P, Q, R, T and X should be as follows:

58






P 1 Type of oil or the correct technical name of the noxiousliquid substances on board.


3 Pollution category (A, B, C or D), for noxious liquidsubstances.

4 Names of manufacturers of substances, if appropriate, when known, or consignee or consignor.

5 Quantity.

Q 1 Condition of the ship, as relevant.

2 Ability to transfer cargo/ballast/fuel.

R 1 Type of oil or the correct technical name of the noxiousliquid discharged into the sea.


3 Pollution category (A, B, C or D), for noxious liquidsubstances.

4 Names of manufacturers of substances, if appropriate, when known, or consignee or consignor.

5 An estimate of the quantity of the substances.

6 Whether lost substances floated or sank.

7 Whether loss is continuing.

8 Cause of loss.

9 Estimate of the movement of the discharge or lost substances, giving current conditions if known.

10 Estimate of the surface area of the spill, if possible.

T 1 Name, address, telex and telephone number of the

ship’s owner and representative (charterer, manager or operator of the ship or their agent).

X 1 Action being taken with regard to the discharge and themovement of the ship.

2 Assistance or salvage efforts which have been re-quested or which have been provided by others.

3 The master of an assisting or salvaging ship shouldreport the particulars of the action undertaken or

planned.

3.2.2 After the transmission of the information referred to above in theinitial report, as much as possible of the information essential for theprotection of the marine environment as is appropriate to the incident should be reported in a supplementary report as soon as possible. That information should include items P, Q, R, S and X.

59

Appendix 2





3.2.3 The master of any ship engaged in or requested to engage in anoperation to render assistance or undertake salvage should report, as far as practicable, items A, B, C (or D), E, F, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the

standard reporting format. The master should also keep the coastal Stateinformed of developments.

3.3 Marine pollutants reports (MP)

3.3.1 In the case of actual discharge, primary MP reports should containitems A, B, C (or D), M, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standard reporting format. Inthe case of probable discharge (see 3.4), item P should also be included.Details for P, Q, R, T and X should be as follows:

P 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.

2 UN Number or Numbers.3 IMO hazard class or classes.





Q 1 Condition of the ship, as relevant.

2 Ability to transfer cargo/ballast/fuel.

R 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.



4 Names of manufacturers of goods, when known, or

consignee or consignor.5 Types of packages, including identification marks.

Specify whether portable tank or tank vehicle, or whether vehicle or freight container or other cargotransport unit containing packages. Include officialregistration marks and numbers assigned to the unit.


7 Whether lost goods floated or sank.

8 Whether loss is continuing.9 Cause of loss.

T 1 Name, address, telex and telephone number of theship’s owner and representative (charterer, manager or operator of the ship or their agent).

60






X 1 Action being taken with regard to the discharge andmovement of the ship.

2 Assistance or salvage efforts which have been re-

quested or which have been provided by others.3 The master of an assisting or salvaging ship should

report the particulars of the action undertaken or planned.

3.3.2 After the transmission of the information referred to above in theinitial report, as much as possible of the information essential for theprotection of the marine environment as is appropriate to the incident should be reported. That information should include items P, Q, R, S and X.

3.3.3 The master of any ship engaged in or requested to engage in anoperation to render assistance or undertake salvage should report, as far as practicable, items A, B, C (or D), M, P, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standardreporting format. The master should also keep the coastal State informedof developments.

3.4 Probability of discharge

3.4.1 The probability of a discharge resulting from damage to the ship or its equipment is a reason for making a report. In judging whether there issuch a probability and whether the report should be made, the following

factors, among others, should be taken into account:.1 the nature of the damage, failure or breakdown of the ship,

machinery or equipment; and

.2 sea and wind state and also traffic density in the area at thetime and place of the incident.

3.4.2 It is recognized that it would be impracticable to lay down precisedefinitions of all types of incidents involving probable discharge which

would warrant an obligation to report. Nevertheless, as a general guidelinethe master of the ship should make reports in cases of:

.1 damage, failure or breakdown which affects the safety of ships;examples of such incidents are collision, grounding, fire,explosion, structural failure, flooding, cargo shifting; and

.2 failure or breakdown of machinery or equipment which resultsin impairment of the safety of navigation; examples of suchincidents are failure or breakdown of steering gear, propulsionplant, electrical generating system, essential shipborne naviga-tional aids.

61

Appendix 2





MARPOL 73/78, AS AMENDED

Protocol I

Provisions concerning Reports on IncidentsInvolving Harmful Substances

(in accordance with article 8* of the MARPOL Convention)

Article I

Duty to report

(1) The master or other person having charge of any ship involved in

an incident referred to in article II of this Protocol shall report theparticulars of such incident without delay and to the fullest extent possiblein accordance with the provisions of this Protocol.

(2) In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph (1) of this articlebeing abandoned, or in the event of a report from such a ship being incomplete or unobtainable, the owner, charterer, manager or operator of the ship, or their agent shall, to the fullest extent possible, assume theobligations placed upon the master under the provisions of this Protocol.

Article II

When to make reports

(1){ The report shall be made when an incident involves:

(a) a discharge above the permitted level or probable discharge of oil or of noxious liquid substances carried in bulk for whatever reason including those for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship or for saving life at sea; or

* Article 8 (of MARPOL 73/78): Reports on incidents involving harmful substances:

‘‘(1) A report of an incident shall be made without delay to the fullest extent possible in accordance with the provisions of Protocol I to the present Convention.

(2) Each Party to the Convention shall:(a) make all the arrangements necessary for an appropriate officer or agency to receive and

process all reports on incidents; and

(b) notify the Organization with complete details of such arrangements for circulation toother Parties and Member States of the Organization.

(3) Whenever a Party receives a report under the provisions of the present article, that Party shallrelay the report without delay to:

(a) the Administration of the ship involved; and(b) any other State which may be affected.

(4) Each Party to the Convention undertakes to issue instructions to its maritime inspection vessels and aircraft and to other appropriate services, to report to its authorities any incident referred to in Protocol I to the present Convention. That Party shall, if it considers it appropriate, report accordingly to the Organization and to any other Party concerned.’’

{ Article II(1) incorporates the amendments adopted by the MEPC at its thirty-eighth session by resolution MEPC.68(38), which entered into force on 1 January 1998.

62






(b) a discharge or probable discharge of harmful substances inpackaged form, including those in freight containers, portabletanks, road and rail vehicles and shipborne barges; or

(c) damage, failure or breakdown of a ship 15 metres in length or above which:

(i) affects the safety of the ship; including but not limited tocollision, grounding, fire, explosion, structural failure,flooding and cargo shifting; or

(ii) results in impairment of the safety of navigation; in-cluding but not limited to failure or breakdown of steering gear, propulsion plant, electrical generating system, andessential navigational aids;

or

(d) a discharge during the operation of the ship of oil or noxiousliquid substances in excess of the quantity or instantaneousrate permitted under the present Convention.

(2) For the purposes of this Protocol:

(a) Oil referred to in subparagraph (1)(a) of this article means oil asdefined in regulation 1(1) of Annex I of the Convention.

(b) Noxious liquid substances referred to in subparagraph (1)(a) of this article means noxious liquid substances as defined inregulation 1(6) of Annex II of the Convention.

(c) Harmful substances in packaged form referred to in subpara-graph (1)(b) of this article means substances which areidentified as marine pollutants in the International MaritimeDangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).

Article III

Contents of report

Reports shall in any case include:

(a) identity of ships involved;

(b) time, type and location of incident;

(c) quantity and type of harmful substance involved;

(d) assistance and salvage measures.

Article IV

Supplementary report

Any person who is obliged under the provisions of this Protocol to send a report shall, when possible:

63

Appendix 2





(a) supplement the initial report, as necessary, and provideinformation concerning further developments; and

(b) comply as fully as possible with requests from affected States

for additional information.

Article V

Reporting procedures

(1) Reports shall be made by the fastest telecommunications channelsavailable with the highest possible priority to the nearest coastal State.

(2) In order to implement the provisions of this Protocol, Parties to the

present Convention shall issue, or cause to be issued, regulations or instructions on the procedures to be followed in reporting incidentsinvolving harmful substances, based on guidelines developed by theOrganization.

64






Appendix 3Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement, 1995

65

Appendix 3





66






67

Appendix 3





68






69

Appendix 3





70






Appendix 4

International Group of P&I Clubs

1. American Steamship Owners’ Mutual Protectionand Indemnity Association Inc.

5 Hanover Square Tel: +1 212 269 2350New York NY 10004 Fax: +1 212 825 1391United StatesManagers: Shipowners Claims Bureau Inc.

2. Assuranceforeningen Gard (Gjensidig)P.O. Box 1563 – Myrene Tel: +47 370 191004801 Arendal Fax: +47 370 24810Norway

3. Assuranceforeningen SkuldP O Box 1376 – Vika Tel: +47 220 022000114 Oslo Fax: +47 224 24222Norway

4. The Britannia Steam Ship Insurance Association LtdNew City Court Tel: +44 171 407 358820 St. Thomas Street Fax: +44 171 403 3942London SE1 9RR United KingdomManagers: Tindall Riley (Marine) Ltd

5. The Japan Ship Owners’ Mutual Protection & Indemnity Association2-15-14 Nihonbashi-Ningyocho Tel: +81 3 3662 7211Chuo-ku Fax: +81 3 3662 7225

Tokyo 103 Japan

6. The Liverpool and London Steamship Protectionand Indemnity Association Ltd

Royal Liver Building, 1st floor Tel: +44 151 236 3777Pier Head Fax: +44 151 236 0053Liverpool L3 1HUUnited Kingdom

7. The London Steam-Ship Owners’ Mutual Insurance Association Ltd52 Leadenhall Street Tel: +44 171 488 1444London EC3A 2BJ Fax: +44 171 488 0012United KingdomManagers: A. Bilbrough & Co. Ltd

71

Appendix 4





8. The Newcastle Protection & Indemnity AssociationCentro House Tel: +44 191 232 45913 Cloth Market Fax: +44 191 232 5361

Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 1NT United Kingdom

9. The North of England Protection & Indemnity Association Ltd2-8 Fenkle Street Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 5DS Tel: +44 191 232 5221United Kingdom Fax: +44 191 261 0540

10. The Shipowners’ Mutual Protection and Indemnity Association (Luxembourg)

St. Clare House, Tel: +44 171 488 091130-33 Minories Fax: +44 171 480 5806London EC3N 1BP United Kingdom

11. The Standard Steamship Owners’ Protection & Indemnity Association (Bermuda) Ltd

International House Tel: +44 171 488 3494 World Trade Centre Fax: +44 171 481 95451 St. Katharines Way

London E1 9UNUnited KingdomManagers: Charles Taylor Co. Ltd

12. The Steamship Mutual Underwriting Association (Bermuda) Ltd Aquatical House Tel: +44 171 247 549039 Bell Lane Fax: +44 171 377 2912London E1 7LUUnited KingdomManagers: Steamship Mutual Underwriting Association (Bermuda) Ltd

13. The Swedish Club (Sveriges Angfartygs Assurans Forening)Gullebergs Strandgata 6 Tel: +46 316 38 400P.O. Box 171 Fax: +46 311 56 711401 22 Goteborg Sweden

14. The United Kingdom Mutual Steam Ship Assurance Association (Bermuda) Ltd

International House Tel: +44 171 283 464626 Creechurch Lane Fax: +44 171 283 5614London EC3A 5BA United KingdomManagers: Thomas Miller P&I

72






15. The West of England Ship Owners’ Mutual Insurance Association (Luxembourg)

224 Tower Bridge Road Tel: +44 171 716 6000

London SE1 2UP Fax: +44 171 716 6100United KingdomManagers: The West of England Ship Owners’ Insurance Services Ltd

73

Appendix 4





Appendix 5

Extracts from IOPC Funds Claims Manual

5th edition, December 1996

II Presenting a Claim

The role of the IOPC Funds

The role of the IOPC Funds is to compensate those suffering pollutiondamage. The 1971 Fund and the 1992 Fund endeavour to settle claims out of

court, so that claimants receive compensation as promptly as possible. Claimantsnevertheless have the right to take their claims to the competent national court.

The joint Secretariat of the IOPC Funds is pleased to advise on thepreparation and submission of claims. Claimants may consult the Secretariat onother matters, for example before undertaking preventive measures or engagingexperts for surveying purposes.

Who is entitled to compensation?

Anyone who has suffered pollution damage in a Member State of either the

1971 Fund or the 1992 Fund may make a claim against the respectiveOrganisation for compensation. Claimants may be private individuals, partner-ships, companies, private organisations or public bodies, including States or localauthorities.

If several claimants suffer similar damage, they may find it moreconvenient to submit co-ordinated claims. This can also facilitate claims handlingby the Secretariat of the IOPC Funds.

To whom should a claim be addressed?

Claims for compensation under the 1969 or 1992 Civil Liability Conventionsshould be brought against the shipowner liable for the damage, or directly againsthis insurer. The insurer will normally be one of the Protection and IndemnityAssociations (P & I Clubs) which insure the third-party liabilities of shipowners.

To obtain compensation under the 1971 or 1992 Fund Conventions,claimants should submit their claims directly to the IOPC Funds at the followingaddress:

International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds4 Albert Embankment

London SE1 7SRUnited Kingdom

Telephone: +44-171-582 2606Telefax: +44-171-735 0326Telex: 23588 IMOLDN GE-mail: [email protected]

74






The IOPC Funds co-operate closely with the P & I Clubs in the settlement of claims. The P & I Club concerned and the IOPC Funds usually jointly investigatethe incident and assess the damage. Full supporting documentation should be

submitted either to the shipowner/P & I Club or to the IOPC Funds. If thedocumentation is presented to the shipowner or the P & I Club, the IOPC Fundsshould be notified directly of any claim against it under the 1971 FundConvention or the 1992 Fund Convention.

In some cases, claims are channelled through the office of a designated localsurveyor. Claimants should in such cases submit their claims to that office, forforwarding to the IOPC Funds and the P & I Club for decision. Occasionally,when an incident gives rise to a large number of claims, the IOPC Funds and theP & I Club jointly set up a local claims office so that claims may be processedmore easily. Claimants should then submit their claims to that local claims office.Details of claims offices are given in the local press. All claims are referred to theP & I Club and to the IOPC Funds for decision on their admissibility. Neitherdesignated local surveyors nor local claims offices may decide on the admissibilityof claims.

Within what period should a claim be made?

Claimants should submit their claims as soon as possible after the damage hasoccurred. If a formal claim cannot be made shortly after an incident, the IOPCFunds would appreciate being notified as soon as possible of a claimant’sintention to present a claim at a later stage.

Claimants will ultimately lose their right to compensation under the 1971 or1992 Fund Convention unless they bring court action against the 1971 Fund or1992 Fund, as the case may be, within three years of the date on which the damage occurred , or make formal notification to the 1971 Fund or 1992 Fund, as

appropriate, of a court action against the shipowner or his insurer within thatthree-year period (see Articles 6.1 and 7.6 of the 1971 Fund Convention and of the 1992 Fund Convention). Although damage may occur some time after anincident takes place, court action must in any case be brought within six years of the date of the incident . The same applies to claimants’ right to compensationfrom the shipowner and his insurer under the 1969 or 1992 Civil LiabilityConvention. Claimants are recommended to seek legal advice on the formalrequirements of court actions, to avoid their claims becoming time-barred.

The IOPC Funds endeavour to settle claims out of court. However, claimantsare advised to present their claims against the 1971 Fund or 1992 Fund well inadvance of the expiry of the periods mentioned above. This allows time for claimsto be examined and settled out of court, but also ensures that claimants will beable to sue the 1971 Fund or 1992 Fund for compensation and prevent theirclaims from being time-barred, if they and the IOPC Funds are unable to agree onamicable settlements of the claims.

75

Appendix 5





How should a claim be presented?

Claims against the IOPC Funds should be made in writing (including telefaxor telex). A claim should be presented clearly and with sufficient detail for theIOPC Funds to assess the amount of the damage on the basis of the facts and thesupporting documentation presented. Each item of a claim must be substantiatedby an invoice or other relevant supporting documentation, such as work sheets,explanatory notes, accounts and photographs. It is the responsibility of claimantsto submit evidence supporting their claims.

The IOPC Funds usually appoint surveyors and technical advisers toinvestigate the technical merit of claims. Claims can be settled promptly only if claimants co-operate fully with these surveyors and advisers and provide allinformation relevant to the assessment of the claims.

The speed with which claims are settled depends largely on how long it takesfor claimants to provide the IOPC Funds with the required information.Claimants are therefore advised to follow this Manual as closely as possible. If thedocumentation in support of a claim is likely to be considerable, claimants shouldcontact the IOPC Funds (or where appropriate the designated surveyor or localclaims office) as soon as possible after the incident to discuss claim presentation.

The working languages of the IOPC Funds are English and French. Claimsettlement will proceed more quickly if claims, or at least claim summaries, aresubmitted in one of these languages.

What information should a claim contain?

Each claim should contain the following basic information:

^ the name and address of the claimant, and of any representative

^ the identity of the ship involved in the incident

^ the date, place and specific details of the incident, if known to the claimant,unless this information is already available to the IOPC Funds

^ the type of pollution damage sustained

^ the amount of compensation claimed.

Additional information may be required for specific types of claim. This isdescribed in more detail in Section III (pages 24-26 and 30-31).

Claim settlement procedure

The claim settlement procedure of the 1971 Fund and the 1992 Fund is laid

down in their Internal Regulations, which are adopted by the Governments of Member States.

Claims submitted to the IOPC Funds are dealt with as promptly as possible.

The Director of the IOPC Funds has the authority to make final settlement of claims within certain limits. If those limits are exceeded, the Director has tosubmit the claim settlements to the Executive Committee of the 1971 Fund or the

76






Assembly of the 1992 Fund for decision. These bodies are composed of representatives of the Governments of Member States. The 1971 Fund ExecutiveCommittee normally meets three or four times a year; the 1992 Fund Assembly

will meet when required. These bodies may give the Director extended authorityto settle claims arising from a particular incident.

The Director may make provisional payments before the final settlement of aclaim, if victims would otherwise suffer undue financial hardship. Provisionalpayments are subject to special conditions and limits.

If the total amount of the claims approved by the 1971 Fund or the 1992Fund, or established by a court for a particular incident exceeds the total amountof compensation available under the relevant Conventions, the compensationpaid to each claimant will be reduced proportionately. When there is a risk that

this situation will arise, the IOPC Funds may have to restrict payments of approved claims or provisional payments to a fixed percentage, to ensure that allclaimants are given equal treatment.

III Admissible Claims

Claims policy of the IOPC Funds

The IOPC Funds can accept only those claims which fall within the

definitions of pollution damage and preventive measures laid down in theConventions. A uniform interpretation of the definitions is essential for thefunctioning of the system of compensation established by the Conventions.

The policy of the IOPC Funds on the admissibility of claims forcompensation has been established by the Governments of Member States. Eachclaim has its own particular characteristics, and it is therefore necessary toconsider each claim on the basis of its own merits, in the light of the particularcircumstances of the case. The criteria adopted by the IOPC Funds thereforeallow for a certain degree of flexibility.

General criteria

The following general criteria apply to all claims:

^ any expense/loss must actually have been incurred

^ any expense must relate to measures which are deemed reasonable and justifiable

^ a claimant’s expense/loss or damage is admissible only if and to the extent

that it can be considered as caused by contamination

^ there must be a link of causation between the expense/loss or damage coveredby the claim and the contamination caused by the spill

^ a claimant is entitled to compensation only if he has suffered a quantifiableeconomic loss

77

Appendix 5





^ a claimant has to prove the amount of his loss or damage by producingappropriate documents or other evidence.

A claim is thus admissible only to the extent that the amount of the loss or

damage is actually demonstrated. A certain flexibility is nevertheless exercised inrespect of the requirement to present documents, taking into account theparticular circumstances of the claimant or industry concerned or of the countryin question. All elements of proof are considered, but the evidence provided mustgive the IOPC Funds the possibility of forming their own opinion on the amountof the loss or damage actually suffered.

78






Appendix 6



GUIDELINES FOR FACILITATION OF RESPONSE TO AN OIL POLLUTION INCIDENT PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 7 AND ANNEX

OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTIONPREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE AND CO-OPERATION, 1990

T HE A SSEMBLY,

R ECALLING Article 15(j) of the Convention on the International MaritimeOrganization concerning the functions of the Assembly in relation toguidelines concerning the prevention and control of marine pollution fromships,

R ECALLING ALSO resolution A.625(15) concerning the arrangements for theentry and clearance of marine pollution resources during emergency situations,

BEING AWARE that the International Convention on Oil Pollution Prepared-ness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC Convention), 1990, and inparticular, article 7 thereof, stipulates inter alia , that each Party to theOPRC Convention shall take necessary legal or administrative measures tofacilitate: the arrival and utilization in and departure from its territory of ships, aircraft and other modes of transport engaged in responding to anoil pollution incident or transporting personnel, cargoes, materials and

equipment required to deal with such an incident; and the expeditiousmovement into, through, and out of its territory of such personnel, cargoes,materials and equipment,

BEING AWARE ALSO that the annex to the OPRC Convention makes provisionfor the reimbursement of costs of assistance,

BEING AWARE FURTHER that experience in responding to a major oil pollutionincident requiring resources outside a country has clearly demonstratedthe critical importance of administrative procedures to facilitate rapidprovision of assistance and deployment of human resources and

equipment,NOTING the decisions and recommendations made by the Marine Environ-ment Protection Committee at its thirty-eighth session,

1. A DOPTS the Guidelines for Facilitation of Response to an Oil PollutionIncident Pursuant to Article 7 and Annex of the OPRC Convention set out in the annex to the present resolution;

79

Appendix 6





2. URGES Contracting Parties to the above-mentioned OPRC Conventionto implement the Guidelines;

3. URGES ALSO all Member Governments to implement the Guidelines;

4. R EQUESTS the Marine Environment Protection Committee to keep theGuidelines under review, taking into account experience gained in their use.

Annex

GUIDELINES FOR FACILITATION OF RESPONSE TO AN OIL

POLLUTION INCIDENT PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 7 AND ANNEX OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTIONPREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE AND CO-OPERATION, 1990

1 If a State needs assistance in the event of an oil pollution incident, it may ask for assistance from other States, indicating the scope and type of assistance required. A State to which a request for assistance is directedshould promptly decide and inform the requesting State whether it is in a position to render the assistance required and indicate the scope andterms of the assistance that might be rendered.

2 The States concerned should co-operate to facilitate the prompt provision of assistance agreed to under paragraph 1 of these Guidelines,including, where appropriate, action to minimize the consequences andeffects of the oil pollution incident, and to provide general assistance.

Where States do not have bilateral or multilateral agreements which cover their arrangements for providing mutual assistance, the assistance shouldbe rendered in accordance with the following provisions, unless the Statesagree otherwise.

3 The requesting State is responsible for overall supervision, control

and co-ordination of the response to the incident and of the assistancesupplied. Personnel sent by the assisting State are normally in charge of the immediate operational supervision of its personnel and equipment.

The personnel involved in the assisting operation should act in accordance with the relevant laws of the requesting State, which should endeavour toinform the assisting State of the relevant laws. The appropriate authoritiesof the requesting State shall co-operate with the authority designated by the assisting State.

4 The requesting State should, to the extent of its capabilities, providelocal facilities and services for the proper and effective administration of the assistance, including decontamination activities, and should ensurethe protection and return of personnel, equipment and materials brought into its territory by, or on behalf of, the assisting State for such a purpose.

5 The requesting State should use its best efforts to afford to theassisting State and persons acting on its behalf the privileges, immunitiesor facilities necessary for the expeditious performance of their assistance

80






function. The requesting State should not be required to apply thisprovision to its own nationals or permanent residents or to afford them theprivileges and immunities referred to above.

6 A State should, at the request of the requesting or assisting State,endeavour to facilitate the transit through its territory of duly notifiedpersonnel, equipment and property involved in the assistance to and fromthe requesting State.

7 The requesting State should facilitate the entry into, stay in anddeparture from its national territory of duly notified personnel and of equipment and property involved in the assistance.

8 With regard to actions resulting directly from the assistanceprovided, the requesting State should reimburse the assisting State for

the loss or any damage to equipment or other property belonging to theassisting State. The requesting State should also reimburse the assisting State for expenses involved in such assistance arising from the death of, or injury to, persons, or the loss or damage to property, incurred by personnelacting on behalf of the assisting State. This would not prevent therequesting State from seeking reimbursement as part of its claim under the appropriate compensation convention.

9 The States concerned should co-operate closely in order to facilitatethe settlement of legal proceedings and claims which could result fromassistance operations.

10 The affected or requesting State may at any time, after appropriateconsultations and by notification, request the termination of assistancereceived or provided under this Convention. Once such a request has beenmade, the States concerned should consult one another with a view tomaking arrangements for the proper termination of the assistance.

11 As the assistance should not be delayed for administrative or other reasons, the necessary legislation should be adopted during the prepared-ness phase, i.e. before the incident which would require assistance. This isparticularly relevant to paragraphs 4 to 8 above.

12 Similar facilitation should be implemented by States concerned when personnel or equipment are provided on behalf of a shipowner, a cargo owner or other relevant entities.

13 In some oil pollution incidents, a shipowner, cargo owner or other private entity may be best placed to call upon dedicated equipment,materials and trained operators to assist with the clean-up response. Inorder to benefit from the availability of such resources and to ensure their rapid deployment, the State requesting or being offered assistance shouldfacilitate the entry, clearance and subsequent return of persons, materials

and equipment provided. Public authorities should, in so far as it ispossible, waive customs and excise duties and other taxes on any equipment and materials provided on a temporary basis for the purposeof assisting in the response to an oil pollution incident.

81

Appendix 6





Section VI

MANUAL ON

OIL POLLUTION

IMO GUIDELINESFOR SAMPLINGAND IDENTIFICATIONOF OIL SPILLS









Printed in the United Kingdom by Signal Press Ltd

2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3

ISBN 92-801-1451-4

IMO PUBLICATION



All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted









Foreword

The IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identification of Oil Spills areintended to provide guidance to governments, including those of developing countries, on the techniques, equipment and strategies for sampling oil to identify unknown sources of spilled oil. Althoughreferences are given for the laboratory methods required for analysis,the emphasis in this text is on the details of the field work required tocollect the samples.

The integrity of the samples at every point from collection through

shipment and analysis is important. The foundation of any chemicalanalysis is sampling. Sampling correctly provides a representativeportion of oil that is not contaminated by other products. Storage andshipment ensure that the sample will not deteriorate before it can beanalysed. For oil spills in particular, the analytical process involvescomparing the chemical characteristics, or ‘‘fingerprints’’, of the spilledoil and various suspected sources. Therefore, success in matching spillsto sources depends on knowing locations where samples should betaken. The education of field samplers with the information in thispublication will facilitate the identification of the sources of spilled oil.

This publication has been written to provide a comprehensive anddetailed explanation of all aspects of the sampling process. TheseGuidelines, which deliberately include many different options that arecurrently in use, may be used in several ways. They can be provideddirectly to field personnel or used as a basis to prepare guidelinesspecifically for individual countries.

The draft of this document was developed by a working group formed of technical experts who attended the 1995 Oil Spill Research and

Development Forum, which was held at IMO headquarters in Londonin May 1995. LCDR Kristy Plourde of the US Coast Guard MarineSafety Laboratory chaired the working group and prepared the draft, with active participation by experts from Australia, Bulgaria, theUnited Kingdom, Germany and Denmark.

iii









Contents

Page

1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3 Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4 Supplies and equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

5 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6 Planning ahead for sample collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

7 Sampling procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

8 Sample identification and security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

9 Storing the samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

10 Requesting laboratory analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

11 Shipping samples to the laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

12 Choosing a laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

13 Laboratory analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Appendix A Oil sampling and shipping checklists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Appendix B Chain-of-custody record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Appendix C Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbersfor petroleum products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Appendix D Flashpoint ranges for typical petroleum products. . . . . 37

Appendix E ASTM and NORDTEST standards for analysisof waterborne oil spill samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

v









1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Why? Identification of the ‘‘responsible party’’ or source for anoil spill incident may require the laboratory analysis of oil samples. Thisis one part of the overall task of investigating the oil spills and suspectedsources. It is possible to identify differences between one oil and another and similarities between a spilled oil and its source. Many laboratorieshave the ability to do the laboratory analysis and interpretation.Comparison of the spilled oil with its potential source samples canprovide evidence of the source of the oil. This guide was written to help

people who have the task of collecting oil samples and sending them to a laboratory. This is a very important task, as important as the analysis inthe laboratory. If the tasks are not done correctly, either the laboratory will not be able to identify the source of the oil or the results will not stand up to legal examination. In either case, all the work of sampling,the laboratory analysis and the investigation may be wasted.

1.2 Who? This guide is written in the form of instructions for the‘‘sample collector’’. It is very unusual for someone to be specialized as anoil sample collector and to have no other task responsibilities.

Experience is helpful; however, one purpose of this guide is to trainsample collectors with no experience. Reading this guide, obtaining sampling supplies and practicing before a spill occurs will result in a better response in a real spill situation.

1.3 What? There are a number of different parts of the task of taking a sample from the water and sending it to a laboratory. Some involvethinking about where and how to sample; others involve the details of paperwork that are critical to establishing the legal chain of custody for the samples. It is also important to know how to store samples and how

to pack and ship samples so that they arrive unbroken. This guidediscusses each of these topics in detail in different chapters. This guidedoes not address legal requirements and only addresses generalsampling procedures. Consult the legal requirements for your country to determine what evidentiary procedures are required. This includes,but is not limited to: laws and regulations pertaining to oil pollution,procedures for evidence collection and storage, witnesses requiredduring evidence collection, number of samples required from eachsampling point, limitations as to when/where samples are collected,procedures for interviewing potential defendants, reports, photographs,

etc.

1.4 When? The best time is sooner rather than later. Petroleum oil isa complex mixture of many different chemical components. When oil isspilled, it begins to ‘‘weather’’, or change, due to differences in theproperties of these components. Evaporation of the lightest, most volatile, of these components is the primary process. Although the

1





chemist understands the weathering processes and how it affects thedata, analysis is always easier with fresh oil. Another consideration isthat the source of oil may change with time, especially if it is a mixture of oils within a bilge. A timely response is critical for the success of thesecases.

1.5 How? The directions are accompanied by illustrations andpictures. They describe the technical procedures to be used and havebeen found to work. This manual has been compiled from proceduresused by either NORDTEST (European analytical standard) or the USCoast Guard. There are a variety of approaches that may be useful for a given situation. Implementation of these techniques will depend onequipment and supplies that are locally available. Sampling techniquesneed not be restricted in concept to those described here, although legalrequirements for specific countries may do so. Innovations that preserve

the sample integrity, lower the cost of supplies, or increase the ease of sampling are encouraged. Suggestions for additions to this manual may be sent to the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

2 DEFINITIONS

Bilge water: a mixture including water and oil collected in the bilge of themachinery space in a ship as a result of leakage, drainage, etc.

Chain of custody: the series of actions taken in transferring a sample sothat the sample cannot be tampered with or altered accidentally. The oil

portion is typically a mixture of fuel oils and lubricating oils.

Enclosed space: a space which has any of the following characteristics:limited openings for entry and exit, unfavourable natural ventilation, not designed for continuous worker occupancy. It includes, but is not limitedto, cargo spaces, double bottoms, fuel tanks, pump-rooms, compressor rooms, cofferdams, void spaces, duct keels, inter-barrier spaces, enginecrankcases and sewage tanks.

Deck log-book: full nautical and cargo handling record of a ship’s voyage, written up at the end of each watch (or duty period) by the officer in

charge.

Emulsified oil: suspended mixture of two immiscible fluids (water andoil), one being dispersed in the other in the form of fine droplets.

Engine log-book: a book in which all particulars relating to the operationof the propelling and auxiliary machinery are entered by the engineers incharge.

Flashpoint: the temperature in degrees Celsius at which a product willgive off enough flammable vapour to be ignited. A detailed definition of

this property is contained in volume II of the International MaritimeDangerous Goods Code, class 3: Flammable Liquids.

Homogeneous: uniform throughout in composition.

Heterogeneous: any mixture or solution comprising two or moresubstances, whether or not they are uniformly dispersed.

Inhomogeneous: not uniform throughout in composition.

2





Limited quantity: as defined by International Air Transport Association(IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations, section 2.8.

Log-book: a ship’s journal or tabulated summary of the performance of the vessel, her engines and other daily events, entered by the master

according to the law.Oil record book: a book in which all operations concerning oil or oily mixtures are entered, compulsory on oil tankers of 150 grt and over,and on other ships of 400 grt and over.

Responsible party: a person or group identified as the source or cause of the oil spill.

Sample: a representative portion of an oil spill or source product whichcan be transported to a laboratory for identification and analysis.

Oil sheen: an extremely thin layer or film of petroleum product causing some visual evidence on the water surface.

Oil slick: a thin film of oil on water.

Slop: mixture of water and oil residues from cargo tanks in oil tankersthat may contain oil/water emulsions, paraffin wax, sediments and other tank residues.

Sludge: deposits, generally from the purification of fuel and lubricationoils, consisting of mixtures including oil, paraffin wax, sediments andother tank residues.

Tank washings: tank washing water containing cargo tank residuesincluding oil, paraffin wax, sediment and other foreign matter such astank cleaning chemicals.

Tarballs: oil that has evaporated and possibly mixed with debris and hasformed into a solid mass or solid form.

Weathering: all changes in oil composition which take place after thespillage, including evaporation, dissolution, oxidation, biologicaldecomposition, etc.

3 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

IMO International Maritime Organization

IATA International Air Transport Association

grt gross tons

UN United Nations

N.O.S. not otherwise specified

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

SOP standard operating procedures

MARPOL 73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as amended by theProtocol of 1978 relating thereto

ISO International Standards Organization

3





4 SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

4.1 Obtain in advance Sampling equipment should be obtained inadvance and ready for use. Consult with appropriate legal authorities todetermine numbers of samples required.

4.2 Pre-clean sampling equipment Sampling equipment should bepre-cleaned to remove any oil residues (including finger oils) that may mix with the oil collected and interfere with the laboratory analysis. Theuse of sampling containers contaminated with oil should be avoided.Sampling equipment, if not purchased pre-cleaned, should be cleaned with a detergent wash, rinsed with distilled water, and then rinsed withsolvent (like dichloromethane, hexanes, etc.). The larger the volume of oilcollected, the less likely the oil-contaminated jar (or collection device) will

contaminate the sample. Pre-cleaned supplies, if needed, can be wrappedin aluminium foil to prevent contamination while being stored or transported to the spill.

4.3 List of supplies and equipment Sampling equipment may include, but is not limited to, the following:

.1 Sample jars for collecting samples (figure 1), glass, approxi-mately 250 ml in size and pre-cleaned prior to use. The jar lids should be lined with Teflon1 (TFE fluorocarbon polymer)

or aluminium..2 Plastic containers should not be used. Part of the plastic may

mix with the oil and change the oil. However, if all you have isplastic containers or even bags, it is better to use these thannothing at all.

.3 Equipment for sheen collection: TFE fluorocarbon polymer nets (figure 2) or bags (figure 3), rings and extension poles. TFE fluorocarbon polymer sheets of mesh fabric may also beused.

.4 Disposable gloves, 100% nitrile medical examination gloves(figure 4). Gloves help in two ways; they keep oil from getting on your hands and keep oils from your hands from getting into the sample.

.5 Cardboard shipping tubes for packing sample jars for ship-ment.

.6 Tape for sealing sample jars and shipping tubes, approxi-mately 2 cm wide. Also, tape for closing fibreboard box, ap-proximately 10 cm wide.

.7 Fibreboard boxes for shipping samples, approximately 25 cm 6 25 cm 6 25 cm.

.8 Sorbent material for packing in boxes to absorb oil if jars leak.

.9 Greaseproof plastic bags for lining shipping boxes, approxi-mately 50 cm 6 65 cm.

4





Figure 1

Figure 2

5





Figure 3

Figure 4

6





.10 Sampling log-book to record all relevant information about the samples and spill situation.

.11 Chain of custody and sample identification labels, white ad-hesive, approximately 5 cm 6 10 cm, water- and oil-resistant (see figure 13).

.12 Shipping labels, pressure-sensitive, approximately 10 cm 6

10 cm: hazard class 3 ‘‘Flammable Liquid’’ label or hazardclass 9 ‘‘Miscellaneous’’ label (see figure 17).

.13 Envelope , heavy-duty, to keep paperwork clean and dry dur-ing shipment, water-vapour-proof and greaseproof.

.14 Towels, absorbent cloth or paper, to clean sample jars after sample is taken.

.15 Twine , string or cord for hard-to-reach sample areas, cotton,

six-ply (six threads twisted together).

.16 Tongue depressors or pre-cleaned metal scoop to aid in col-lecting samples of heavy oils or tar balls.

.17 Sampling kit case to hold all sampling equipment ready for transport to spill location.

5 SAFETY

5.1 Think of safety first. When collecting samples from the spill, try to

stay upwind of the spill.5.2 It is important to wear clean gloves to protect your hands whencollecting samples. This is true for both spill samples and suspect samples. This limits the exposure you will get to dangerous chemicalcompounds often found in petroleum oils (like benzene).

5.3 Collecting oil samples is often done at night or in cold weather.Staying alert is very important. If you are unsure if it is safe to collect a sample, it is probably best to wait until more information is known or until weather conditions improve.

5.4 When sampling any source, you should be accompanied by a member of the crew. It can be very dangerous taking samples from vessels and other sources, therefore persons sampling from suchsources should be experienced or acquainted with the generalconstruction of vessels and be aware of confined space entry regulations. Seek advice when in doubt. If taking samples from a ship,the sample collector should be accompanied by a member of the ship’screw at all times. The sample collector should be experienced with shipsand the dangers associated with them, especially the dangers of entering confined spaces.

6 PLANNING AHEAD FOR SAMPLE COLLECTION

Planning ahead involves thinking about sampling the spilled oil andtaking samples from those who are suspected of causing the spill. Take samples of the spilled oil first because the oil will change after exposure to the environment.

7





6.1 Spill samples Sample different parts of the spilled oil as soon aspossible. The oil may spread out on the water. If this happens, it can behard to collect a sample. The number of samples taken depends on thesize and location of the spill. For large spills, take at least three samplesof the oil from different places, or one sample from each locality if the

spill is widely dispersed. For small spills, do your best to take one or twosamples.

6.2 Suspect samples Samples should be collected from anyone whomay have spilled the oil. This means all facilities or vessels in the area of the spilled oil at the time of the spill. On a vessel, you may need to takesamples from different places like the fuel tank, day tank, cargo tank, waste oil or slop tanks and the bilge. Read and be familiar with theguidelines in section 7.6. Be prepared to take samples from each tank

and the bilge if you cannot see where the spill came from. Do not try todetermine the oil type by just looking at its colour. For example, just because a spilled oil is black does not mean that it came from a bilge. It may be a weathered fuel oil. This is a common error made by samplers. After deciding who the suspects are and which tanks, etc., to sample,investigators must document (1) which suspects were sampled and (2) why any possible suspects were not sampled. Note that factors such as wind and water flow direction might eliminate a vessel or facility frombeing a suspect. In general, however, all possible suspects should besampled.

6.3 Reference samples (blanks or clean water samples) Thissample is taken to show what the water was like before the oil spill. The sample should be taken upstream and away from the spill area.However, because spilled oil, especially a light oil, spreads rapidly, a very thin layer of oil on the surface of the water may not be visible to theunaided eye. A reference sample can also be collected from other background environments (beach, etc.) whenever relevant, in order todetermine whether the spilled oil has been contaminated by an earlier spill or other organic material. If there is a limited volume of oil in thespill, a reference sample should be taken. Close harbour areas tend tohave higher background levels and therefore reference samples shouldbe taken in these areas.

7 SAMPLING PROCEDURES

7.1 Main types of samples The following main types of oil or oily mixture may occur at spill sites and suspected sources:

. oil, oily water, heavily emulsified oil, tarballs or lumps on the water surface

. mixtures of oil and sorbents or other materials which aresoaked with oil

. mixtures of oil and foreign materials on beaches

8





. oiled animals on the water surface or on beaches

. neat oil in tanks on ships, offshore constructions or land fa-cilities

. oily water in bilges and slop tanks on ships, offshore con-

structions or land facilities. oily sludge in sludge tanks on ships, offshore oil installations/

drilling rigs or land facilities.

7.2 Sample contamination Do not contaminate samples withtraces of other oils. Preferably wear disposable nitrile gloves to reducethe risk of sample contamination. Use the gloves once and then discardthem. The sampling equipment should also, as far as possible, bedisposable and discarded afterwards. If the equipment is to be used

again, it must be carefully cleaned and stored in a clean condition. When thin oil films are sampled, only very small amounts of oil areobtained. It is very important to avoid contamination by other oils.Such oils may originate from cooling water and can adhere to the hullof the sampling vessel. Even traces of lubricating oil or fuel oil can ruinsamples. When sampling from a vessel, sample upwind and be carefulnot to contaminate the sample from the vessel sides and engine exhaust.Helicopter downdraft (exhaust) can also cause contamination of oilsamples.

Surface waters of harbours and river outlets may contain evident tracesof petroleum. When sampling these types of spills, it is important to takereference samples from the water as well.

7.3 Sample volume In general, take samples from the heaviest oilaccumulations. Each sample should contain 10 to 200 ml of oil, if possible. This volume is usually easy to collect, when sampling suspected sources. However, the laboratory analysis requires smaller volumes of oil. Even extremely small amounts of oil should be considered

for laboratory examination.

When collecting samples from very thin oil films on the water surface, it can be difficult to acquire even visible traces of oil in the sample. In suchcases, the sample seems to consist of pure water. It must be emphasizedthat even such ‘‘water samples’’ with a sheen or a smell of oil may beuseful for laboratory analysis.

The sample jars should be filled no more than three-quarters full. Whensamples are shipped, they often go through temperature changes. Thesetemperature changes cause the liquid in the jar to expand. To leave extra space for this increase, do not fill the jars more than three-quarters full.

7.4 Number of samples It is important to sample all possiblesources of a spill in order to determine responsibility. It is also important to collect the samples as soon as possible after the spill. If the correct source sample is not obtained shortly after the spill, it may be impossible

9





to obtain a relevant sample at a later date. If this happens, the analyses of the spill samples will become useless with respect to determining thesource of the spill.

Several samples should be taken when sampling bilges, slop tanks or

oily-water separators. These sources are often highly inhomogeneous,and several different locations or sampling points may be required toobtain a representative sample of the oil.

Take at least one sample from each sampling point on board ship or inthe offshore or land-based installation. If necessary for administrativereasons, more than one sample may be taken from each point.

Consult the legal requirements for your country to determine thenumber of samples required from each sampling point. Usually one to

three sets of samples are required from each sampling point.

7.5 Spill sampling techniques The following are several tech-niques for collecting samples. See the flow chart in figure 6 for help indetermining the most appropriate technique.

7.5.1 Skimming technique This technique will probably be themost common technique used (figure 5).

. Unscrew the lid from the sample jar. Hold the jar in one handand the lid in the other hand or another safe position. Gently lower the sample jar into the water and gently skim the oil layer from the water into the sample jar. Repeat this until the sample jar is about three-quarters full.

. If a layer of oil on water is not visible in the sample jar, proceedto section 7.5.2. If the necessary equipment is not available, try the following technique: lift the sample jar from the water.Place the lid on the jar and tighten the lid. Turn the jar over andlet it stand for two to three minutes. Gently unscrew the

sample jar lid and let the water layer drain out of the sample jar. Seal the lid and return the jar to its upright position. Re-peat if necessary.

. Another useful refinement of the skimming technique involvesthe use of a bucket. The bucket has small holes in the bottomor a stainless-steel sieve allowing much of the water to drainaway from the oil. After drainage of water, repeat the skimming technique as necessary to increase the amount of oil in thebucket. Then transfer the oil to the sample jar by using a

stainless-steel or TFE fluorocarbon polymer scraper to scrapethe sides of the bucket. Clean the bucket prior to using it again.

. Small pieces of wood floating on the water may help move oilinto the jar.

. If sampling from a vessel, sample upwind, away from vesselexhaust.

10





Figure 5 – Collection of oil samples on water using sampling jar

11





Figure 6 – Flow chart for sampling oil spills. This chart presentsrecommended ways to collect oil samples, using a minimum amount of supplies. There are other valid means of collecting samples which will

produce similar results.

7.5.2 Collecting from ‘‘sheens’’

Method A, using conical TFE fluorocarbon polymer bag

. Attach the bag to a metal ring, which may be fitted to a pole.

. Cut the bottom of the bag, giving a hole approximately 1 to 2 cmin diameter.

. Collect sufficient oil in bag by repeated skimming and drainageof water.

. After water is all drained off, allow oil to flow into a sample jar by holding jar under lower opening of the bag.

12





Figure 7 – Collection of thin sheen oil samples usingTFE fluorocarbon polymer net

Method B, using TFE fluorocarbon polymer net (figure 7)

. Attach the net to a metal ring, which may be fitted to a pole.

. Collect sample by skimming through the sheen and straining the oily water through the net. Slowly skim the water surface with the net, back and forth, several times.

. Unclip the net from the ring.

. Place the entire net into a sample jar.

. Discard the ring.

Method C, using sorbent sheets (figure 8)

The sorbent sheets are made of TFE fluorocarbon polymer or TFEfluorocarbon polymer-coated glass fibres. The sheet absorbs the oiland repels the water.

. Place the sorbent sheet on the water surface for a few minutes

to absorb the oil. Or, move the sorbent sheet along the water surface to absorb the oil. Moving the sorbent sheet may pro-duce better absorption.

. Place the oily sorbent sheet directly in the sample jar.

. In a separate sample jar, provide the laboratory with blank or clean sorbent sheets to be used as blind references.

13





Figure 8 – Collection of thin sheen oil samples usingTFE fluorocarbon polymer sorbent sheet

Chemically treated sorbent pads, though good for cleaning up oil spills,should not be used to collect oil samples from thin sheens as thechemicals in the pads can mix with the oil and interfere with thelaboratory analysis if there is only limited volume of oil sample. If used, a clean sample of the sorbent pad should also be sent to thelaboratory for comparison.

7.5.3 Oil on beaches and oil-coated debris (figure 9)

. Open the sample jar and hold it in one hand. Hold the sample jar lid in the other hand. Lower the sample jar into the oil andsand (or other oil mixture) and fill the jar about three-quartersfull.

. If necessary use a wooden tongue depressor, a cleaned scoop or the lid of the jar, to put the oil mixture/debris into the jar.

14





7.5.4 Oil on animals (figure 10)

Bird feathers and animal fur have natural oils that complicate theanalysis of petroleum oil. If the petroleum remains in contact with thefeathers or fur, the natural oil will dissolve in the petroleum oil. Thiscontaminates the oil and makes the analysis more difficult. If at allpossible, the oil should be physically removed with a scraper so that it is no longer in contact with the feathers or fur. If this is not possible, treat the samples in the following manner:

. Cut off feathers with oil on them and put them into a sample jar.

. Dead, oiled birds or other animals may be put in plastic bags.Label the bags and freeze before sending to a laboratory.

. Contact the laboratory before sending any animals. Many lab-oratories do not have facilities for storing dead animals.

Figure 9 – Oil and oil-coated debris on a beach

15





7.6 Obtaining samples from ships and other suspected sources

Consult the legal requirements or standards for your country todetermine the number of samples required from each sampling point as well as the statutory authority required to take samples. Usually one to three sets of samples are required from each sampling point.

When sampling any source, you should be accompanied by a member of the crew. It can be very dangerous taking samples from vessels and other

sources, therefore persons sampling from such sources should beexperienced or acquainted with the general construction of vessels andbe aware of confined space entry regulations. Seek advice when in doubt.

7.6.1 Sampling from ships (figure 11)

Generally, samples should be taken from all waste tanks, sludge tanks,and bilges. Try to figure out the path of the oil from the ship to the water and sample accordingly.

For sampling on board ships, the following documents may give valuableinformation:

. Drawings such as the ‘‘tank plan’’, ‘‘capacity plan’’ and ‘‘air,filling and sounding pipes’’ are kept on board. They show thepositions and capacities of the different tanks and normally also indicate what types of oil are carried therein.

Figure 10 – Bird feathers contain natural oils that complicate the analysis of petroleum oil

16





Figure 11 – Taking samples from ships can be very dangerous

Figure 12 – Potential sources of oil spills include damaged or disused drilling rigs

17





. The oil record book, log-book, deck log-book and engine log-book normally contain information about types (grades) of oilscarried in different tanks as well as information about opera-tions which could lead to an oil discharge. The log-book may bebased on a scrap or rough log-book which is also legal evi-

dence.

When it has been decided where samples should be taken, one of thefollowing methods may be used:

. Draining directly from tanks located above the double bottomor from the various piping systems

. Taking samples from bilge wells with a bucket

. Taking samples through manholes or sounding openings. Alltanks are fitted with manholes. It is often difficult to open these

holes, but this is sometimes the only way to obtain a samplefrom a tank.

A sampler for tanks may be a glass test-tube placed inside a heavy steeltube capable of sinking even in high-viscosity oils. The steel tube shouldbe constructed with an asymmetric end that ensures that it lieshorizontal when touching the tank bottom. This is particularly convenient when samples are taken in a nearly empty tank where it isdifficult to obtain a reasonable sample volume. When raising thesampler, the oil should be contained in the test-tube, which shouldafterwards be removed and sealed.

When samples of heavy oil residues taken in sludge tanks are from thebottom of bunker tanks, the viscosity of the oil may be so high that it willhardly enter the glass test-tube. In this case another sampler designed asa brush or equipped with lamellas may be used. The sampler and itsouter cover should be sent for analysis.

Owing to the risk of electrostatic charges, sampling in tanks containing flammable gases must only be carried out using a sampler hanging on a

string of natural, not synthetic, material. Samples should be taken at theupper, middle and bottom levels of the oil in the tank.

When the oil in sludge tanks and bilges is sampled, particular attentionshould be paid to the fact that the oil may not be homogeneously distributed.

Two checklists, for sampling cargo oil systems and machinery spaces,respectively, are shown in appendix A. As the designs of ships vary considerably, the checklists are only to be regarded as guidance. The

design of the actual ship must always be considered when determining appropriate positions for sampling.

Sampling from other suspected sources such as offshore and land-basedinstallations is sometimes needed. Descriptions of sampling in thesecases are not given here. However, much of what has been said aboveconcerning ships should also apply to these types of sources.

18





7.6.2 Sampling from other suspected sources such as offshoreand land-based installations (drilling rigs, oil production platforms,oil terminals, etc.) (figure 12)

Detailed descriptions of sampling in these cases are not given here.However, the following may act as a guide to the potential sources of oil spillage:

. Mobile drilling rigs

Stabilized crude oil from well tests

Abandoned well heads

. Fixed or moored production systems

Processed crude oil from storage or prior to tanker loading

. Pipelines

Inter-field/Within-field sub-sea pipelines

Main oil line carrying crude oil to shoreNote that pipelines often carry a blend of crude oils originating from different oil fields.

. Oil terminals

Spillage can arise during:

crude oil loading/unloading operations

loading of bunker fuels via the jetty or lighterage.

In these cases, samples should be requested from theappropriate storage tanks.

8 SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION AND SECURITY

8.1 Seal the jar Use tape to seal the jar lid to the jar. Tip: seal thesample jar before placing the labels on the jar.

8.2 Label the jar Place a label on the jar to identify the sample. Onthe other side of the jar, place another label for the chain of custody.Labels should be put on the sample jars immediately after the sample istaken. Use indelible ink to write on the labels.

Consult the legal requirements or standards for your country todetermine the requirements for evidence labels.

8.2.1 The sample identification label (figure 13) should have thefollowing information:

Case number

Sample number

Date and time sample was taken

Whether the sample is from the spill or a suspect

Sample descriptionName of the person taking the sample

Name of the witness

Other information that may be required: geographic location (latitude/longitude), signature on suspected source sample from master/crewman, dates sealed and who sealed sample, etc.

19





Figure 13 – Example of sample identification label

8.2.2 The following information will help you fill out the sampleidentification label:

.1 case number: unique number assigned by investigator to helpkeep track of spills over time;

.2 sample number: use number 1 for the first sample followed by number 2 for the second sample, etc.;

.3 sample description: identify the sample so that you separate it from the other samples. For example:

.3.1 for a water sample (spill), the description should haveinformation relating the sample to a fixed point (ANYPORT

RIVER, 10 YARDS SOUTHEAST OF PIER no. 12, ANYTOWN);

.3.2 for samples from vessels (suspects), the description shouldhave the name of the vessel and the specific location of thesample (VESSEL ANYSTAR, ENGINE-ROOM BILGE);

CASE NO. ______________________ SAMPLE NO. ______________________

TIME ___________________________ DATE ______________________________

SPILL & SUSPECTED SOURCE &

SAMPLE DESCRIPTION _______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

LOCATION ____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

SAMPLER ____________________________________________________________

WITNESS _____________________________________________________________

20





.3.3 samples taken from a shore facility should include thename of the facility, including a city location, and thel oc at ion of t he s am pl e on t he fac il it y (BIGT IME OIL

COMPANY, ANYTOWN, DRAIN VALVE, TANK no. 4A).

8.3 Chain of custody It is important that the samples be kept in a person’s custody or possession. The samples are in a person’spossession if he can see them or if the samples are locked up. It iscommon for the person who takes the samples to be the one who takespossession of them. The possession or custody of the samples willchange when the samples are given up to another person.

Prepare a chain-of-custody record to show the chain of custody for the oilsamples. An example of a custody record is shown in figure 14. The sam-ple description should be exactly the same as the one on the sample

label. All persons who have control of the samples (or take custody of them) need to sign in the signature (bottom) part of the custody record as well as the chain-of-custody label on the sample. The chain-of-custody document will be sent with the samples to the laboratory. A blank chain-of-custody record is included in appendix B, although other chain-of-custody documents may also be used.

9 STORING THE SAMPLES

9.1 Samples should be shipped immediately, but if this is impossiblethey can be stored for a short period of time before shipping.

9.2 Store samples in a cool, dark location, under lock and key. Do thisbefore you transport them away from the spill location. Do not allow thesamples to sit uncovered in a closed vehicle or in direct sunlight. Thesamples may change (or weather) if they are exposed to heat and sun-light. Remember, if the samples change, this will affect the laboratory results. Place the samples in an insulated pouch or styrofoam cooler.

This will protect them from the heat. A small cooler is best. If thecooler is hot, rinse it down several times with water. Wipe the sample jars clean of oil before placing them in the cooler.

9.3 A closed vehicle can get very hot. The temperature can easily reach508C in the summer sun. If you must keep the samples in a closed vehiclefor a short period, do as follows: wrap them in several layers of newspaper, a blanket or other insulating material. Move the samples toa proper storage location as soon as possible.

9.4 The optimum condition for storing oil samples is in a lockable,explosion-proof refrigerator at 2 to 78C. Do not freeze the samples. At temperatures below –48C some petroleum oils tend to de-wax, possibly altering the fingerprint. If you do not have a refrigerator, store thesamples in a cool, dark and secure place.

9.5 Send all samples to the laboratory as soon as possible.

21





Figure 14 – Example of chain-of-custody record

22





10 REQUESTING LABORATORY ANALYSIS

10.1 Requesting an oil sample analysis When sending oil samplesto the laboratory, prepare a request letter. This letter gives the laboratory information to plan the analysis. An investigation report would also be

beneficial to the laboratory.10.2 Request letter An example of a request letter is shown in fig-ure 15.

11 SHIPPING SAMPLES TO THE LABORATORY

11.1 Ship samples by a method that assigns a traceable number to thepackage of samples to help maintain the chain of custody.

11.2 Shipping guidelines The international shipping of oil samples

is regulated by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). Adherence to these guidelines will ensure the safe, intact arrival of thesamples at the laboratory and prevent damage to other mail from leaking shipping containers. For more information about the legal requirementsfor packaging and shipping petroleum oils and other hazardous materialrefer to IATA’s Dangerous Goods Regulations.

11.3 Packaging In most cases oil will be shipped as either a class 3‘‘Flammable Liquid’’ or a ‘‘Combustible Liquid’’ as defined by IATA. Under these regulations untested flammable liquids may be shipped in ‘‘limitedquantities’’ (defined in section 2.8 of IATA’s Dangerous Goods Regulations)providing they meet the requirements of either packaging group II or III.Combustible liquids have no mailing restrictions or requirements. Seefigure 16 for a flow chart of the information listed below.

11.3.1 Flammable Liquid, packaging group II Consists of oils withflashpoints of less than 238C (e.g. gasoline, naphtha, and most crudeoils). See appendix D for flashpoint ranges.

. Each inside container (sample jar) must not exceed a capacity of 0.5 l and the entire package must contain no more than a total of 1 l of flammable liquid.

. Each sample jar must be no more than three-quarters full toallow for expansion of the liquid.

. The exterior container must contain sufficient cushioning/ab-sorbent material to prevent movement/leakage.

. The gross weight of the complete package must not exceed 30 kg.

. The exterior container must be marked with the Proper Shipping Name and corresponding UN Number of the contents (e.g., Gas-oline UN No. 1203). Appendix C contains a list of Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbers for flammable petroleum products. Themost appropriate name for the sample contents should be used.If dealing with an unknown sample the shipping name ‘‘Petro-leum Products N.O.S. (Oil samples)’’ can be used along with UNNo. 1268. See figure 17 for an example mailing box.

. The package must be labelled with a class 3 ‘‘Flammable Liquid’’label. See figure 17.

23





Figure 15 – Example of request letter

7 November 1996

From: Frank Whodunnit

To: Anylab

1. Request analysis of the 88 samples listed on theattached Chain of Custody Record to assist in ourinvestigation of spill case no. 5432-105432-10.

2. For questions about this case, call: JOHN DOE,JOHN DOE,telephone no. 101-444-1111, fax no. 101-444-1112telephone no. 101-444-1111, fax no. 101-444-1112.

3. The spill samples were collected from ANYPORTANYPORTHARBOUR AND THE ANYTOWN SEWER OUTFALL no. 2HARBOUR AND THE ANYTOWN SEWER OUTFALL no. 2 (river,

outfall, shore, etc.)

4. Estimated number of litres spilled 300300;Estimated cost of clean-up $10,000$10,000.

5. Wind conditions: XX mild breeze; very windy;calm.

6. Air temperature: below 08C; 0 to 158C;XX 15 to 308C; 30 to 358C; over 358C.

7. Sky conditions: overcast; XX bright sun;rain; other (specify).

8. Spill involves seepage of oil through the soil:yes XX no. If yes, estimated distance to the nearest

possible suspected source.

9. List any possible non-oil contamination sourcesin the area SEWAGE AND SAWDUSTSEWAGE AND SAWDUST.

10. Are all samples in this case being sent to the

laboratory? XX Yes No. If no, explain.

11. Have all possible sources been sampled? XX YesNo. If no, explain why any possible sources were not

sampled.

12. Is there any additional information about thesamples or overall situation which may be helpful tolab personnel? Yes XX No. If yes, explain.

(signature)

24





Figure 16 – Flow chart for labelling oil samples after packagingReference: IATA’s Dangerous Goods Regulations 39th edition. Effective 1 January 1998.

11.3.2 Flammable Liquid, packaging group III Consists of oils withflashpoints of more than 238C but less than 60.58C (e.g. kerosene, jet fuels, turbine fuels, no. 1 fuel oils). See appendix D for flashpoint ranges.

. Each inside container (sample jar) must not exceed a capacity of 2.5 l and the entire package must contain no more than a total of 10 l of flammable liquid.

. Each sample jar must be no more than three-quarters full toallow for expansion of the liquid.

. The exterior container must contain sufficient cushioning/absorbent material to prevent movement/leakage.

. The gross weight of the complete package must not exceed30 kg.

25





FLAMMABLE LIQUID

3

Figure 17 – Example of mailing box

. The exterior container must be marked with the Proper Shipping Name and corresponding UN Number of the con-tents (e.g. Gasoline UN No. 1203). Appendix C contains a list of Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbers for flammable pet-roleum products. The most appropriate name for the samplecontents should be used. If dealing with an unknown samplethe shipping name ‘‘Petroleum Products N.O.S. (Oil samples)’’can be used along with UN No. 1268. See figure 17 for anexample mailing box.

. The package must be labelled with a class 3 ‘‘FlammableLiquid’’ label. See figure 17.

26





11.3.3 Proper shipping documentation for flammable liquids Twocopies of a Shipper’s Declaration for Dangerous Goods document,completed with the proper information, must be provided to the air carrier. Figure 18 provides an example of a properly completed FederalExpress Declaration for Dangerous Goods document for a gasoline

sample. Guidance on completing this document is provided below.

. SHIPPER NAME AND ADDRESS

. CONSIGNEE

. PAGE 1 OF 1 PAGES

. Mark out CARGO AIRCRAFT ONLY and RADIOACTIVE

. PROPER SHIPPING NAME (e.g. Gasoline)

. HAZARD CLASS NUMBER (e.g. 3)

. UN NUMBER (e.g. UN No. 1203)

. QUANTITY – use volumetric units (e.g. for five 125 ml sample jars, each containing approximately 100 ml, the proper quantity would be 500 ml or 0.5 l ) and indicate type of packing (e.g. 1 fibreboard box).

. PACKING INSTRUCTION (classification of packaging) – Most regulated petroleum oil samples will fall into packaging groupIII. Some samples, such as gasoline, naphtha, and some crude

oils are categorized as packaging group II:

The packaging group of the sample is determined as follows:

Packaging group Flashpoint(closed cup)

Boiling point

II <238C >358C

III >238C <60.58C >358C

. Assign PACKING INSTRUCTION to either

Y305 for packaging group II or Y309 for packaging group III

. AUTHORIZATION – Limited quantity

. ADDITIONAL HANDLING INFORMATION – A 24-hour tele-phone number

. NAME/TITLE OF SIGNATORY – Print or stamp the name andtitle of the person signing the declaration

. PLACE AND DATE – Enter the place and date of signing the

declaration

. SIGNATURE – Handwritten signature of shipper.

Note: Some carriers may require special dangerous goods transport document forms. Check with the selected carrier to determine if they require special forms.

27





Figure 18 – Example Shipper’s Declaration for Dangerous Goods

1 1 . 3 . 4 C o mb u st i bl e l i qu i ds a n d n o n- c om b us t ib l e l i q ui d sCombustible liquids having a flashpoint between 60.58C and 938C. These include petroleum products such as no. 2, no. 4, no. 5, and no. 6fuel oils, diesel fuels, and special fuel oils. The non-combustible liquidsare samples having flashpoints above 938C. Both of these liquids are

28





non-regulated and may be shipped by land or air without the requiredregulatory paperwork and by following the guidelines listed below:

. Each sample jar must be no more than three-quarters full toallow for expansion of the liquids.

. The exterior container must contain sufficient cushioning/absorbent material to prevent movement/leakage. The exterior container must be lined with a greaseproof plastic bag.

. Appendix D contains a list of flashpoint ranges for different types of petroleum products.

11.3.5 Additional precautions For all shipments apply pressure-sensitive tape to the sample-jar lid to prevent loosening and leakage inshipment. Care must be taken when applying tape to the sample jar to

avoid damaging the sample labels. Note: Do not use sample labels to secure the jar lid to the sample jar.Place all case documentation in a heavy-duty/greaseproof envelope toprotect it against sample breakage during shipment.

12 CHOOSING A LABORATORY

Ideally, a laboratory should be chosen before any samples are taken.

The requirements of regulations governing the enforcement of oilpollution laws vary from country to country. The laboratory selectedmust meet all the requirements of your country’s legal system.

The analytical methods used for analyses within each country may also vary. These methods are outlined in detail by standard operating procedures (SOPs) used in the laboratory. SOPs are often based ongovernment regulations or on published standards. To date, theInternational Standards Organization (ISO) has not developed a set of standards governing the analysis of waterborne oil spill samples. The

ASTM and NORDTEST have approved standards governing theanalysis of waterborne oil spill samples. A listing of these standards isprovided in appendix E.

For the purpose of providing expert-witness support for the prosecutionof oil spill samples cases, a laboratory located within the same country ispreferable; however, experience and training are required to acquire andinterpret the analytical results.

Many countries have laboratories that are designated to perform oil spill

sample analyses for the identification of oil spill sources. IMO canprovide a list of these laboratories upon request. Several laboratorieshave provided assistance to other countries in the process of developing their own laboratory facilities. A world-wide network of laboratories linked by computer is envisioned, and is already established within the framework of six European countries working on a joint project.

29





If, at the time a spill occurs, there is no laboratory designated, a request for assistance from a designated laboratory in another country may bemade.

13 LABORATORY ANALYSIS

13.1 About petroleum Petroleum is a complex mixture of thousandsof different organic compounds. It is formed from a variety of organicmaterials that are chemically converted under differing geologicalconditions over long periods of time. The infinitely variable nature of these factors results in distinct chemical differences between oils formedunder dissimilar conditions and/or environments. While oil from onecrude oil field is readily distinguishable from another, differences in themake-up of oils from the same crude oil field can sometimes be observedas well. Refined oils are fractions usually derived by distillation of crudeoil. Two refined oils of the same type differ because of dissimilarities inthe characteristics of their crude oil feed stocks as well as variations inrefinery processes and any subsequent contact with other oils mixed induring transfer operation from residues in tanks, ships, pipes, hoses, etc. Thus, all petroleum oils to some extent have chemical compositions that differ from each other.

13.2 Analytical methods and data interpretation The character-istic properties of an oil can be explored by a variety of analyticalmethods. The results of analysis by any of these methods can bepresented in graph form. In general, when the graphical data for two oilsproduced by a particular method are compared, the differences betweenthe graphs reflect differences between the oils. The laboratory analyst will try to determine the unique, intrinsic chemical properties of oils via analytical techniques and establish whether or not a common sourcerelationship exists between samples of spilled oil and samples of oil fromsuspected sources.

Data interpretation in oil spill source identification is not straight-forward. It is fundamentally different from typical chemical analysis

because the chemical properties of spilled oil are altered when oil isintroduced into the environment. From the moment oil enters theenvironment, evaporation, dissolution, photochemical oxidation, bio-degradation, and other forces begin to alter the oil’s characteristics or ‘‘fingerprint’’. These combined processes are termed weathering, and cansignificantly complicate data interpretation. Contamination of thespilled oil with other oils or substances is another complicating factor. The experienced oil spill analyst is familiar with the complexities of the weathering processes and is able to distinguish real differences betweentwo oils from those apparent differences resulting from weathering

alterations. Interference from contaminants can usually be recognizedas such and discounted when weighing the test results. However, at times, severe weathering and/or contamination can mask many of theinherent differences between oils of a similar type.

By using analytical methods in combination, a skilled laboratory analyst can distinguish oil samples to a very high degree of certainty.

30





13.3 Using the results of the laboratory The laboratory’s resultscan serve a useful function of eliminating erroneous suspected sourcesas well as pinpointing the actual source in complex oil pollutioninvestigations. The results and interpretation obtained from thelaboratory should be compared with the other evidence obtained in the

spill investigation.

31





Appendix A

Oil sampling and shipping checklistsReferences to chapter/section shown in parentheses

A. SAMPLING GENERAL

& 1. Proper sampling supplies/equipment (4.3)

& 2. Sample no more than three-quarters full (7.3)

& 3. Sample no less than 10 ml if possible (7.3)

& 4. Sample jar properly labelled (8.2)

& 5. Lid taped to jar (8.1)

& 6. Sample taken by authorized personnel

& 7. Samples handled as if they were legal evidence

B. SPILL SAMPLING

& 1. Different parts of spill sampled (6.1)

& 2. If needed, reference (blind) samples taken (6.3)

C. SOURCE SAMPLING (See also source checklist below)

& 1. All suspected sources sampled (7.4)

& 2. If possible source not sampled, document why (6.2)

D. CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD (8.3)

& 1. All samples are on chain-of-custody record and descriptionsmatch those on jar labels

& 2. Each sample identified as spill or suspect

& 3. Chain-of-custody record signed and dated

& 4. Samples handled by authorized personnel

& 5. If samples transferred, chain-of-custody record signed

transferring samples, then recorded and jars signed whenreceived

E. STORAGE/SHIPMENT (9)

& 1. Samples stored refrigerated at 48C under lock and key indarkness until shipped to authorized laboratory

& 2. Samples sent to laboratory without delay

F. PAPERWORK BEING FORWARDED TO LABORATORY

& 1. Original chain-of-custody record (8.3)& 2. Original request letter (10)

G. PAPERWORK BEING KEPT AT OFFICE

& 1. Copy of chain-of-custody record

& 2. Copy of request letter

32





H. PACKING SAMPLES FOR SHIPMENT AND SHIPPINGGUIDELINES (11)

& 1. Samples in cardboard tubes

& 2. Box filled with sorbent material

& 3. Box properly labelled

& 4. Box shipped to authorized laboratory in accordance with nationaland international regulations

Checklist for taking samplesin cargo systems of oil tankers

& 1. Identify the designation of the type of oil tanker in accordance

with MARPOL 73/78, Annex I, regulations 5, 13 and 13E, and theunified interpretation provided in section 2.1. Obtain a copy of theIOPP Certificate, including the Form B Supplement.

& 2. Identify the loading condition of the ship (loaded, part-loaded, or in ballast) and the quality of oil carried (last carried), and copy thebill of lading for the current (latest) voyage.

& 3. Study the oil record book and copy the pages dealing with theoperations under investigation.

& 4. Obtain, if possible, a copy of the diagram of the cargo oil andballast pumping and piping systems on the ship.

& 5. Study the printouts from the oil discharge monitoring and controlsystems and copy the parts covering the current (latest) ballast voyage.

& 6. Ascertain the current ballast or loading condition and identify tanks carrying ballast and tanks used for ballast during previousphases of the voyage.

& 7. Verify the status of the ship in the load–ballast handling cycle, i.e.

whether it carries departure or arrival ballast, whether tank cleaning has been carried out during the voyage and whether water from the slop tanks has been discharged at sea.

& 8. Take oil samples representing the various qualities of cargo oil which the ship has carried during the current (latest) voyage, andmixtures which may have been generated. Take sample of oilremaining on board at locations where these are likely to collect,including (as applicable):

& Reference samples carried on board

& All slop tanks (identify also the level of the oil/water interface,the quantity of slop oil and the quantity of water in each sloptank)

& Tanks which carry or have carried dirty ballast

& Pump-room bilges

& Stripping pumps

33





& Overboard cross-over line, both sides

& Deballasting lines to sea chests, both sides

& Cargo manifolds on deck

& 9. All samples taken must be clearly identified. See chapter 8 for

more information.& 10. Take special care to obtain representative samples from slop

tanks and bilges, where the composition of the oil may vary from place to place.

& 11. Note any additional observations which may be of any value indetermining the likelihood that a discharge has taken place.

Checklist for taking samples

in machinery spaces of ships& 1. Verify that the ship carries a valid IOPP Certificate. Note whether

the ship is certified as being equipped with 100 ppm or 15 ppmoily-water separator/filtering equipment. Ascertain whether it has been granted a waiver for any equipment. Copy theCertificate, including the Form A Supplement.

& 2. Study the oil record book (machinery part) and copy the pagescovering the period under investigation.

& 3. Check levels and contents. Take samples from the following tanksand spaces:

& All bilge wells

& Bilge water holding tank (note if no bilge water holding tank isinstalled)

& Waste oil tanks (the ship may have several)

& Overflow tank for bunker oil

& Fuel and lube oil purifier sludge tanks

& Empty bunker tanks which may have been used for water

ballast & 4. Also take samples from:

& Service tanks (day tanks) for the engines

& The bilge water separator outlet piping

& The sludge pump outlet piping

& 5. Inspect the bilge water separating/filtering equipment (note theliquid content at the test cocks, request opening of the filtering unit if saturation may be expected).

& 6. Inspect the tank top for accumulation of oil and sludge.& 7. Note the type of cleaning agent used in the engine room and the

claimed rate of consumption.

& 8. If the ship is of 10,000 grt or above and has a 100 ppm separator,inspect the oil content meter and its recorder. Copy the recorder printout for the period under investigation.

34





Appendix B

35





Appendix C

Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbersfor petroleum products

Proper Shipping Name UNNumber

Hazardclass

Packaging group

Fuel, aviation, turbine engine(jet fuel)

UN No. 1863 3 II or III

Gas oil (includes diesel fuel and fuel oil)


Gasoline UN No. 1203 3 II

Naphtha UN No. 1255 3 II

Natural gasoline(includes casing head gasoline)

UN No. 1257 3 II

Petroleum crude oil UN No. 1267 3 II or III

Petroleum oil UN No. 1270 3 II or III

Tars, liquid (includes road asphalt and oils, bitumen and cutbacks)


Kerosene UN No. 1223 3 III

Environmentally hazardoussubstances, liquid, N.O.S.


Environmentally hazardoussubstances, solid, N.O.S.


Note: Names in parentheses and italics are for information only and arenot part of the Proper Shipping Names.

36





Appendix D

Flashpoint ranges for typical petroleum products

Product Typical flashpointrange (closed cup)

Hazard class

Gasoline approx. –468C Flammable Liquid

Naphtha approx. –298C Flammable Liquid

Crude oils less than 48C Flammable Liquid

Kerosene 53 to 638C Flammable Liquid

No. 1 fuel oil 48 to 638C Flammable Liquid

Jet fuels 43 to 62.58

C Flammable Liquid Turbine fuels 51 to 578C Flammable Liquid

No. 2 fuel oils 62 to 768C Combustible Liquid

Diesel fuels 67 to 928C Combustible Liquid



Special fuel oils 64 to 888C Combustible Liquid

Lubricating oil greater than 2008

C Non-regulated


Documents

Manual on Oil Pollution