Mansfield University Introductory Psychology Language/Problem Solving Slide Slide 1 Slide 1: Cognitive Revolution X Talking about Language-- not behavior

Mansfield UniversityMansfield UniversityIntroductory PsychologyIntroductory PsychologyLanguage/Problem SolvingLanguage/Problem Solving

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Slide Slide 11: Cognitive Revolution: Cognitive Revolution Talking about Language-- not behavior (1950)

Birth of Cognitive PsychologyBirth of Cognitive Psychology 1. First computer program to simulate human thought

(simon/newell) 2. Short term memory capacity research (Miller 7+or-

2) 3. Model of Language Acquisition (Chomsky)


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Slide Slide 22: Talking About Language : Talking About Language LanguageLanguage::

symbols that convey meaning plus rules for combining those symbols that can generate an infinite variety of messages.

Characteristics SymbolicSymbolic- represent objects/experiences not always present SemanticSemantic- means something (sometimes multiple meanings/levels)

CORTS’ examples.

GenerativeGenerative- can generate endless combinations (Important!) StructuredStructured- have rules that govern usage


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Slide Slide 33: Structure of Language-Chomsky : Structure of Language-Chomsky Human able to make approximately 100 distinct sounds. Any one language between 20-80 sounds. Chomsky’s Structure- PHONEMESPHONEMES- the basic structure of language; basic

sounds; 40-45 phonemes in the English language. Examples:

MORPHEMEMORPHEME- smallest unit of meaning in language (prefix, suffix, root words; 50,000 in English). Examples:

SYNTAXSYNTAX- a system of rules that specifies how words can be arranged (article, subject, verb, predicate)


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Slide Slide 44: Acquisition of Language : Acquisition of Language The Old Argument Surfaces: Nature vs. Nurture.The Old Argument Surfaces: Nature vs. Nurture. How do

kids learn language so fast? A complicated process! Behaviorist TheoryBehaviorist Theory- Skinner-

language development simply a matter reinforcement and shaping parents/others instruct on proper use of words & syntax

Nativist TheoryNativist Theory- Chomsky Infinite number of sentences therefore imitation/shaping for all unlikely. Children learn rules, not specific verbal responses. Children make

grammatical errors on words adults don’t say, thus can’t imitate words never heard before (goed, hitted).

Parents respond to factual, not grammatical accuracy (“Him hitted

me”).


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We must be born with a language acquisition device LADLAD- innate human mechanism facilitating process of

learning language. Nativist Argument-- 1.1. How could such a complex skill be learned in such a

short time without it? 22. Language development occurs at roughly the same trate

for all children regardless of environmental background. 3.3. Early course of language development is same

regardless of culture. [Film clips: #26: Lang. Predisposition; #29: Lang. & Culture (The Mind)]

Slide 5: Nativist Theory ContinuedSlide 5: Nativist Theory Continued


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Slide Slide 66: Interactionist Theory : Interactionist Theory Nature & Nurture Important-- Criticisms of the Nativist approachCriticisms of the Nativist approach-

LAD a poor explanatory tool (not identifiable, testable) rapidity of childhood learning not as exceptional as nativists think.

Babies learning language (full time job); active adults (10-15 hrs/week max).

Failure to recognize language development as a single part of larger cognitive/thinking development.


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Slide Slide 77: Culture, Language, Thought : Culture, Language, Thought The Whorf HypothesisWhorf Hypothesis (linguistic relativity): “one’s

language shapes one’s perception of reality” if true, WORDS ARE VERY POWERFUL!

If words shape reality, then words used to convey messages are very important Legalese, Euphemisms, Labeling {miss, ms}

Pro-Choice vs. Anti-Choice / Pro-Life vs. Pro-Abortion

Classic Example: Perception of Snowy EnvironmentClassic Example: Perception of Snowy Environment Eskimo vs. English perception of snow quite different

Current state of WHORFCurrent state of WHORF. Language influential but not shape thinking/perception as much as originally thought. [class example].


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Slide Slide 88: Problem Solving : Problem Solving Problem SolvingProblem Solving: active efforts to discover what must be

done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable. PROBLEM- 15% of the people in Topeka have unlisted telephone

numbers. You select 200 names at random from the Topeka phone book. How many of these people can be expected to have unlisted phone numbers? [p.219]

a) 3.15 hours b) 3 hours and 15 minutes equal?equal? a>b? a>b? b<a? b<a?

Why do we miss problems like this?


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Slide Slide 99: Typical Problems : Typical Problems Inducing StructureInducing Structure: must recognize relationship among

structures [Whistle: Referee as Gavel: ___?___] Real Life: Parking in faculty places and tickets, relationship with time.

Problems of ArrangementProblems of Arrangement: multiple parts to solution of problem which must be arranged in proper order. Often solved by “burst of”” Insight Insight (“Eureka”)- the sudden often

unexpected discovery of the correct solution to a problem following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error.

Problems of TransformationProblems of Transformation: the goal is known, the way to the goal is not known. Often must work away on “sub goals” to get to solution. [class e.g., Water Jar, p.221 Fig. 8.5]


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Slide Slide 1010: Barriers to Problem Solving : Barriers to Problem Solving Irrelevant InformationIrrelevant Information- distracters, numbers & technical

(important) sounding information (Multiple choice tests) [FF]

Functional FixednessFunctional Fixedness- the tendency to perceive an item in terms of its most common use. [9dot]

Unnecessary ConstraintsUnnecessary Constraints- assume constraints not really there. [Group Task: 4 B to PS]

Mental SetMental Set - persist in problem solving strategies useful in the past, not necessary effective in present.


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Slide Slide 1111: How We Solve Problems : How We Solve Problems 1.1. Trial and Error

HEURISTIC APPROACHES- HeuristicsHeuristics- rules of thumb used in solving problems/making

decisions which simplify the process

2.2. Forming Sub-Goals 3.3. Working Backward 4.4. Searching for Analogies 5.5. Changing the representation of the problem


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Slide Slide 1212: Making Decisions : Making Decisions Decision MakingDecision Making: evaluating alternatives and making

choices among them. e.g., Choosing college, class schedule, major, roommate

Theory of Bounded RationalityTheory of Bounded Rationality (Simon) people try to make rational choices, often limited cognitive

abilities, frequent poor choices. Strategies of Emphasize Simplicity [e.g., class scenarios]

Additive StrategiesAdditive Strategies Weighted AdditiveWeighted Additive Elimination by AspectsElimination by Aspects

When decision involve a few options often use additive approaches, when complex use elimination by aspects


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Slide Slide 1313: Risky Decisions : Risky Decisions Risky DecisionsRisky Decisions- unsure as to the effects/outcome of our

choices, therefore we must try to estimate chances of success and failure.

Assessing the Expected ValueAssessing the Expected Value- what are the expectation of the event occuring (rolling a die, winning the lotto etc) [eg]

Violating Expected ValueViolating Expected Value Subjective Utility- a value with little to do with logic (dreaming) Subjective Probability- (logical errors in probability judgement)

availability heuristic- estimated probability of occurences based on the number of instances that come to mind.

representative heuristic- probability of occurrence based on simialr “mental prototypes” of how outcomes should look.


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Slide Slide 1414: Pitfalls in Daily Decisions : Pitfalls in Daily Decisions The Gambler’s FallacyThe Gambler’s Fallacy- the belief that a chance event will

occur just because it hasn’t happen recently. Ignoring Base Rates/Laws of ProbabilityIgnoring Base Rates/Laws of Probability

often Repr. Heuristic part of this. “It could never happen to me!”

Law of Small NumbersLaw of Small Numbers Overestimating the ImprobableOverestimating the Improbable-

often strongly influenced by the availability heuristic (media e.g.)

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias- [e.g., Med students, clinical psych students] will often find what you are looking for

The Overconfidence EffectThe Overconfidence Effect- too much faith in our own estimates of correctness

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Mansfield University Introductory Psychology Language/Problem Solving Slide Slide 1 Slide 1: Cognitive Revolution X Talking about Language-- not behavior