Management

“Manager” redirects here. For other uses, seeManagement (disambiguation) and Manager (dis-ambiguation).

Management in businesses and organizations is the func-tion that coordinates the efforts of people to accomplishgoals and objectives by using available resources effi-ciently and effectively.Management includes planning, organizing, staffing,leading or directing, and controlling an organization toaccomplish the goal or target. Resourcing encompassesthe deployment and manipulation of human resources,financial resources, technological resources, and naturalresources. Management is also an academic discipline, asocial science whose objective is to study social organi-zation.

1 Etymology

The English verb “manage” comes from the Italianmaneggiare (to handle, especially tools), which derivesfrom the two Latin wordsmanus (hand) and agere (to act).The French word for housekeeping, ménagerie, derivedfrom ménager (“to keep house"; compare ménage for“household”), also encompasses taking care of domes-tic animals. The French word mesnagement (or ménage-ment) influenced the semantic development of the En-glish word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[1]

Note that Ménagerie is the French translation ofXenophon's famous book Oeconomicus[2] (Greek: Οἰκο-νομικός) on household matters and husbandry.While the Italian word maneggiare refers to subaltern re-sponsibilities, the modern Italian language would charac-terize the work of an executive as gestire.

2 Definitions

Views on the definition and scope of management in-clude:

• According to Henri Fayol, “to manage is to forecastand to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinateand to control.”[3]

• FredmundMalik defines it as “the transformation ofresources into utility.”

• Management included as one of the factors of pro-duction - along with machines, materials and money

• Ghislain Deslandes defines it as “a vulnerable force,under pressure to achieve results and endowed withthe triple power of constraint, imitation and imagi-nation, operating on subjective, interpersonal, insti-tutional and environmental levels”.[4]

• Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of amanagement as twofold: marketing and innovation.Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing(product innovation is a central strategic marketingissue). Peter Drucker identifies marketing as a keyessence for business success, but management andmarketing are generally understood as two differentbranches of business administration knowledge.

• Andreas Kaplan specifically defines European Man-agement as a cross-cultural, societal managementapproach based on interdisciplinary principles.[5]

• Directors and managers should have the authorityand responsibility to make decisions to direct an en-terprise when given the authority

• As a discipline, management comprises the inter-locking functions of formulating corporate policyand organizing, planning, controlling, and directinga firm’s resources to achieve a policy’s objectives

• The size of management can range from one personin a small firm to hundreds or thousands ofmanagersin multinational companies.

• In large firms, the board of directors formulates thepolicy that the chief executive officer implements.[6]

2.1 Theoretical scope

Management involves identifying the mission, objective,procedures, rules and manipulation[7] of the human capi-tal of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the en-terprise. This implies effective communication: an enter-prise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechan-ical mechanism) implies human motivation and impliessome sort of successful progress or system outcome. Assuch, management is not the manipulation of a mecha-nism (machine or automated program), not the herdingof animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegalenterprise or environment. Management does not needto be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because

1

2 4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

management is an essential function to improve one’s lifeand relationships. Management is therefore everywhereand it has a wider range of application. Based on this,management must have humans, communication, and apositive enterprise endeavor. Plans, measurements, mo-tivational psychological tools, goals, and economic mea-sures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary compo-nents for there to be management. At first, one viewsmanagement functionally, such as measuring quantity,adjusting plans, meeting goals. This applies even in sit-uations where planning does not take place. From thisperspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[8] considers man-agement to consist of six functions:

1. forecasting

2. planning

3. organizing

4. commanding

5. coordinating

6. controlling

(Henri Fayol was one of the most influential contributorsto modern concepts of management.)In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as “the art of get-ting things done through people”.[9] She described man-agement as philosophy.[10]

Critics, however, find this definition useful but far toonarrow. The phrase “management is what managers do”occurs widely,[11] suggesting the difficulty of definingmanagement without circularity, the shifting nature ofdefinitions and the connection of managerial practiceswith the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class.One habit of thought regards management as equiva-lent to "business administration" and thus excludes man-agement in places outside commerce, as for example incharities and in the public sector. More broadly, everyorganization must “manage” its work, people, processes,technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonethe-less, many people refer to university departments thatteach management as "business schools". Some such in-stitutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use thatname, while others (such as the Yale School of Manage-ment) employ the broader term “management”.English-speakers may also use the term “management”or “the management” as a collective word describingthe managers of an organization, for example of acorporation.[12] Historically this use of the term oftencontrasted with the term “labor” - referring to those beingmanaged.[13]

But in the present era the concept of management is iden-tified in the wide areas and its frontiers have been pushedto a broader range. Apart from profitable organizations

even non-profitable organizations (NGOs) apply manage-ment concepts. The concept and its uses are not con-strained. Management on the whole is the process ofplanning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling.

3 Nature of managerial work

In profitable organizations, management’s primary func-tion is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. Thistypically involves making a profit (for the shareholders),creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for cus-tomers), and providing great employment opportunitiesfor employees. In nonprofit management, add the impor-tance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models ofmanagement and governance, shareholders vote for theboard of directors, and the board then hires senior man-agement. Some organizations have experimented withother methods (such as employee-voting models) of se-lecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.In the public sector of countries constituted asrepresentative democracies, voters elect politiciansto public office. Such politicians hire many managersand administrators, and in some countries like the UnitedStates political appointees lose their jobs on the electionof a new president/governor/mayor.

4 Historical development

Some see management (by definition) as late-modern(in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. Onthose terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, onlyharbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detectmanagement-like-thought back to Sumerian traders andto the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of ex-ploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthu-siastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrialenterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelledto face the issues of management systematically. How-ever, innovations such as the spread of Hindu numerals(5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for manage-ment assessment, planning and control.With the changing workplaces of industrial revolutions inthe 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practicecontributed approaches to managing the newly-popularfactories.[14]

Given the scale of most commercial operations and thelack of mechanized record-keeping and recording be-fore the industrial revolution, it made sense for mostowners of enterprises in those times to carry out manage-ment functions by and for themselves. But with grow-ing size and complexity of organizations, the split be-tween owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups

4.3 20th century 3

of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independentspecialists in planning and control) gradually becamemore common.

4.1 Early writing

While management (according to some definitions) hasexisted for millennia, several writers have created a back-ground of works that assisted in modern managementtheories.[15]

Some ancient military texts have been cited for lessonsthat civilian managers can gather. For example, Chi-nese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BCE, The Art ofWar, recommends being aware of and acting on strengthsand weaknesses of both a manager’s organization and afoe’s.[15]

Various ancient and medieval civilizations have produced"mirrors for princes" books, which aim to advise newmonarchs on how to govern. Examples include the IndianArthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300BCE),and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c.1515).[16]

Further information: Mirrors for princes

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moralphilosopher, TheWealth of Nations discussed efficient or-ganization of work through division of labour.[16] Smithdescribed how changes in processes could boost produc-tivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals couldproduce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps in-volved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabledproduction of 48,000 pins per day.[16]

4.2 19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790)and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoreti-cal background to resource-allocation, production, andpricing issues. About the same time, innovators likeEli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819),and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elementsof technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeabilityof parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects ofmanagement existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sectorof the US economy. That environment saw 4 millionpeople, as the contemporary usages had it, “managed” inprofitable quasi-mass production.Salaried managers as an identifiable group first becameprominent in the late 19th century.[17]

4.3 20th century

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place theirtheories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientificbasis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this be-lief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science ofmanagement in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor'sThe Principles of Scientific Management (1911), LillianGilbreth's Psychology of Management (1914),[18] Frankand Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), andHenry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the firstcollege management-textbook in 1911. In 1912 YoichiUeno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the firstmanagement consultant of the “Japanese-managementstyle”. His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese qualityassurance.The first comprehensive theories of management ap-peared around 1920. The Harvard Business School of-fered the first Master of Business Administration degree(MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925)and Alexander Church described the various branchesof management and their inter-relationships. In theearly 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the prin-ciples of psychology to management. Other writers,such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett(1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max We-ber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the “admin-istrator” as bureaucrat[19]), Rensis Likert (1903–1981),and Chris Argyris (* 1923) approached the phenomenonof management from a sociological perspective.Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliestbooks on applied management: Concept of the Corpora-tion (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan(chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioninga study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39books, many in the same vein.H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C.Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked inthe development of the applied-mathematics science ofoperations research, initially for military operations. Op-erations research, sometimes known as “management sci-ence” (but distinct from Taylor’s scientific management),attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision-problems, and can apply directly to multiple managementproblems, particularly in the areas of logistics and opera-tions.Some of the more recent developments include theTheory of Constraints, management by objectives,reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software devel-opment, as well as group-management theories such asCog’s Ladder.As the general recognition of managers as a class solid-ified during the 20th century and gave perceived prac-

4 5 TOPICS

titioners of the art/science of management a certainamount of prestige, so the way opened for popularisedsystems of management ideas to peddle their wares. Inthis context many management fads may have had moreto do with pop psychology than with scientific theories ofmanagement.Towards the end of the 20th century, business manage-ment came to consist of six separate branches, namely:

1. financial management

2. human resource management

3. information technology management (responsiblefor management information systems)

4. marketing management

5. operations management or production management

6. strategic management

4.4 21st century

In the 21st century observers find it increasingly diffi-cult to subdivide management into functional categoriesin this way. More and more processes simultaneously in-volve several categories. Instead, one tends to think interms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subjectto management.Branches of management theory also exist relating tononprofits and to government: such as public administra-tion, public management, and educational management.Further, management programs related to civil-societyorganizations have also spawned programs in nonprofitmanagement and social entrepreneurship.Note that many of the assumptions made by managementhave come under attack from business-ethics viewpoints,critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimesreferred to as Workers’ self-management) has becomeboth more common and advocated to a greater extent,in some places distributing all management functionsamong workers, each of whom takes on a portion of thework. However, these models predate any current po-litical issue, and may occur more naturally than does acommand hierarchy. All management embraces to somedegree a democratic principle—in that in the long term,the majority of workers must support management. Oth-erwise, they leave to find other work or go on strike. De-spite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplaceas de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenchednature of command-and-control is evident in the waythat recent layoffs have been conducted with managementranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels.In some cases, management has even rewarded itself withbonuses after laying off lower-level workers.[20]

According to leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets deVries, a contemporary senior management team will al-most inevitably have some personality disorders.[21]

5 Topics

5.1 Basic functions

Management operates through five basic functions:planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, andcontrolling.[22]

• Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the fu-ture and generating plans for action(deciding in ad-vance).

• Organizing: Making sure the human and nonhu-man resources are put into place

• Coordinating: Creating a structure through whichan organization’s goals can be accomplished.

• Commanding: Determining what must be done ina situation and getting people to do it.

• Controlling: Checking progress against plans.

5.2 Basic roles

• Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination andinteraction with employees

• Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing,and analyzing information

• Decision: roles that require decision-making

5.3 Managerial skills

Management skills include:[23]

• political: used to build a power base and to establishconnections

• conceptual: used to analyze complex situations

• interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, men-tor and delegate

• diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate responsesto a situation

• leadership: ability to lead and to provide guidanceto a specific group

• technical: expertise in one’s particular functionalarea.

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5.4 Formation of the business policy

• The mission of the business is the most obviouspurpose—which may be, for example, to makesoap.

• The vision of the business reflects its aspirations andspecifies its intended direction or future destination.

• The objectives of the business refers to the ends oractivity that is the goal of a certain task.

• The business’s policy is a guide that stipulates rules,regulations and objectives, and may be used in themanagers’ decision-making. It must be flexible andeasily interpreted and understood by all employees.

• The business’s strategy refers to the coordinated planof action it takes and resources it uses to realize itsvision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline tomanagers, stipulating how they ought to allocate anduse the factors of production to the business’s advan-tage. Initially, it could help the managers decide onwhat type of business they want to form.

5.4.1 Implementation of policies and strategies

• All policies and strategies must be discussed with allmanagerial personnel and staff.

• Managers must understand where and how they canimplement their policies and strategies.

• A plan of action must be devised for each depart-ment.

• Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.

• Contingency plans must be devised in case the envi-ronment changes.

• Top-level managers should carry out regularprogress assessments.

• The business requires team spirit and a good envi-ronment.

• The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknessesof each department must be analyzed to determinetheir roles in achieving the business’s mission.

• The forecasting method develops a reliable pictureof the business’s future environment.

• A planning unit must be created to ensure that allplans are consistent and that policies and strategiesare aimed at achieving the same mission and objec-tives.

All policies must be discussed with all managerial per-sonnel and staff that is required in the execution of anydepartmental policy.

• Organizational change is strategically achievedthrough the implementation of the eight-step planof action established by John P. Kotter: Increase ur-gency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in,empower action, create short-termwins, don't let up,and make change stick.[24]

5.4.2 Policies and strategies in the planning process

• They give mid and lower-level managers a good ideaof the future plans for each department in an orga-nization.

• A framework is created whereby plans and decisionsare made.

• Mid and lower-level management may add their ownplans to the business’s strategies.

6 Levels

Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. These man-agers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and per-form different tasks. In many organizations, the numberof managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Eachlevel is explained below in specifications of their differ-ent responsibilities and likely job titles.

6.1 Top-level management

The top consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors and executive directors), president,vice-president, CEOs and other members of the C-levelexecutives. They are responsible for controlling and over-seeing the entire organization. They set a tone at the topand develop strategic plans, company policies, and makedecisions on the direction of the business. In addition,top-level managers play a significant role in the mobi-lization of outside resources and are accountable to theshareholders and general public.The board of directors is typically primarily composed ofnon-executives which owe a fiduciary duty to sharehold-ers and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activ-ities of the organization, although this varies dependingon the type (e.g., public versus private), size and cultureof the organization. These directors are theoretically li-able for breaches of that duty and typically insured un-der directors and officers liability insurance. Fortune 500directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week onboard duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes majordecisions such as major acquisitions,[25] and hires, eval-uates, and fires the top-level manager (Chief ExecutiveOfficer or CEO) and the CEO typically hires other posi-tions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other

6 7 TRAINING

positions such as the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) hasincreased.[26] In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and di-rectors of public and private companies found that the topweaknesses of CEOs were “mentoring skills” and “boardengagement”, and 10% of companies never evaluated theCEO.[27] The board may also have certain employees(e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire in-dependent contractors; for example, the board (throughthe audit committee) typically selects the auditor.Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of or-ganization but typically include[28] a broad understandingcompetition, world economies, and politics. In addition,the CEO is responsible for implementing and determin-ing (within the board’s framework) the broad policies ofthe organization. Executive management accomplishesthe day-to-day details, including: instructions for prepa-ration of department budgets, procedures, schedules; ap-pointment of middle level executives such as departmentmanagers; coordination of departments; media and gov-ernmental relations; and shareholder communication.

6.2 Middle-level managers

Consist of general managers, branch managers and de-partmentmanagers. They are accountable to the topman-agement for their department’s function. They devotemore time to organizational and directional functions.Their roles can be emphasized as executing organiza-tional plans in conformance with the company’s policiesand the objectives of the top management, they defineand discuss information and policies from top manage-ment to lower management, and most importantly theyinspire and provide guidance to lower level managers to-wards better performance.Middle management is the midway management of acategorized organization, being secondary to the seniormanagement but above the deepest levels of operationalmembers. An operational manager may be well-thought-out the middle management, or may be categorized asnon-management operate, liable to the policy of the spe-cific organization. Efficiency of the middle level is vitalin any organization, since they bridge the gap between toplevel and bottom level staffs.Their functions include:

• Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.

• Define and monitor group-level performance indica-tors.

• Diagnose and resolve problems within and amongwork groups.

• Design and implement reward systems that supportcooperative behavior. They also make decision andshare ideas with top managers.

6.3 Lower-level managers

Consist of supervisors, section leaders, foremen, etc.They focus on controlling and directing. They usu-ally have the responsibility of assigning employees tasks,guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activ-ities, ensuring quality and quantity production, makingrecommendations, suggestions, and up channeling em-ployee problems, etc. First-level managers are role mod-els for employees that provide:

• Basic supervision

• Motivation

• Career planning

• Performance feedback

7 Training

Universities around the world offer bachelor’s and ad-vanced degrees, diplomas and certificates in manage-ment, generally within their colleges of business and busi-ness schools but also in other related departments. Thereis also an increase in online management education andtraining in the form of electronic educational technology( also called e-learning).

7.1 United States of America

At the graduate level students may choose to spe-cialize in major subareas of management such asentrepreneurship, human resources, international busi-ness, organizational behavior, organizational theory,strategic management.[29] accounting, corporate finance,entertainment, global management, healthcare manage-ment, investment management, Leaders in Sustainabil-ity and real estate Masters of Business Administration(MBAs) can be obtained from many universities in theUnited States. MBAs provide further education in man-agement and leadership for graduate students.

7.2 Current best practices

While management trends can change rapidly, the longterm trend in management has been defined by a marketembracing diversity and a rising service industry. Man-agers are currently being trained to encourage greaterequality for minorities and women in the workplace, byoffering increased flexibility in working hours, better re-training, and innovative (and usually industry-specific)performance markers. Managers destined for the servicesector are being trained to use unique measurement tech-niques, better worker support and more charismatic lead-ership styles.[30] Human resources finds itself increasingly

7

working with management in a training capacity to helpcollect management data on the success (or failure) ofmanagement actions with employees.[31]

8 See also

Main article: Outline of business management

• Academy of Management Journal

• Anthony triangle

• Human relations movement

• Industrial and organizational psychology

• Leadership (journal)

• Project management

• Technology management

• Total quality management

• Self-management

9 References[1] http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/113218?

redirectedFrom=management#eid

[2] https://books.google.de/books?id=ITdXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP21&lpg=PP21&dq=menagerie+xenophon&source=bl&ots=-xFcf4MOIt&sig=KGryxF60feNGaDW9AlgIZJIb0gU&hl=de&sa=X&ei=5V4_VfiLKZDfau-OgZgO&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=menagerie%20xenophon&f=false

[3] SS Gulshan. Management Principles and Practices by Lal-lan Prasad and SS Gulshan. Excel Books India. pp. 6–.ISBN 978-93-5062-099-1.

[4] Deslandes G., (2014), “Management in Xenophon’s Phi-losophy : a Retrospective Analysis”, 38th Annual Re-search Conference, Philosophy of Management, 2014,July 14–16, Chicago, USA

[5] “Andreas Kaplan: European Management and EuropeanBusiness Schools: Insights from the History of BusinessSchools, European Management Journal, 2014”.

[6] “Management”. Business Dictionary. Retrieved 29November 2012.

[7] Prabbal Frank attempts to make a subtle distinction be-tween management and manipulation: Frank, Prabbal(2006). People Manipulation: A Positive Approach (2ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd (published2009). pp. 3–7. ISBN 9788120743526. Retrieved 2015-09-05. There is a difference between management andmanipulation. The difference is thin [...] If management

is handling, thenmanipulation is skilful handling. In short,manipulation is skilful management. [...] Manipulation isin essence leveraged management. [...] It is an alive thingwhile management is a dead concept. It requires a proac-tive approach rather than a reactive approach. [...] Peoplecannot be managed.

[8] Administration industrielle et générale - prévoyance orga-nization - commandment, coordination – contrôle, Paris :Dunod, 1966

[9] Jones, Norman L. (2013). “Chapter Two: Of Poetry andPolitics: The Managerial Culture of Sixteenth-CenturyEngland”. In Kaufman, Peter Iver. Leadership and Eliz-abethan Culture. Jepson Studies in Leadership. PalgraveMacmillan. p. 18. ISBN 9781137340290. Retrieved2015-08-29. Mary Parker Follett, the 'prophet ofmanage-ment' reputedly defined management as the 'art of gettingthings done through people.' [...] Whether or not she saidit, Follett describes the attributes of dynamic managementas being coactive rather than coercive.

[10] Vocational Business: Training, Developing and MotivatingPeople by Richard Barrett - Business & Economics - 2003.- Page 51.

[11] Compare: Holmes, Leonard (2012). The Dominance ofManagement: A Participatory Critique. Voices in Devel-opment Management. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 20.ISBN 9781409488668. Retrieved 2015-08-29. Lupton’s(1983: 17) notion that management is 'what managersdo during their working hours’, if valid, could only applyto descriptive conceptualizations of management, where'management' is effectively synonymous with 'managing',and where 'managing' refers to an activity, or set of activ-ities carried out by managers.

[12] Harper, Douglas. “management”. Online Etymology Dic-tionary. Retrieved 2015-08-29. - “Meaning 'governingbody' (originally of a theater) is from 1739.”

[13] See for examples Melling, Joseph; McKinlay, Alan, eds.(1996). Management, Labour, and Industrial Politicsin Modern Europe: The Quest for Productivity GrowthDuring the Twentieth Century. Edward Elgar. ISBN9781858980164. Retrieved 2015-08-29.

[14] Giddens, Anthony (1981). A Contemporary Critique ofHistorical Materialism. Social and Politic Theory fromPolity Press 1. University of California Press. p. 125.ISBN 9780520044906. Retrieved 2013-12-29. In thearmy barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of men onthe battlefield (epitomised by the military innovations ofPrince Maurice of Orange and Nassau in the sixteenthcentury) are to be found the prototype of the regimen-tation of the factory - as both Marx and Weber noted.

[15] Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin; Robert L. Cardy(2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rdedition. NewYork, NewYork USA:McGraw-Hill. p. 19.ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.

[16] Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin; Robert L. Cardy(2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rdedition. NewYork, NewYork USA:McGraw-Hill. p. 20.ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.

8 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

[17] Khurana, Rakesh (2010) [2007]. From Higher Aims toHired Hands: The Social Transformation of AmericanBusiness Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Manage-ment as a Profession. Princeton University Press. p. 3.ISBN 9781400830862. Retrieved 2013-08-24. Whensalaried managers first appeared in the large corporationsof the late nineteenth century, it was not obvious who theywere, what they did, or why they should be entrusted withthe task of running corporations.

[18] https://archive.org/details/thepsychologyofm16256gut

[19] Legge, David; Stanton, Pauline; Smyth, Anne (2006).“Learning management (and managing your own learn-ing)". In Harris, Mary G.Managing Health Services: Con-cepts and Practice. Marrickville, NSW: Elsevier Aus-tralia. p. 13. ISBN 9780729537599. Retrieved 2014-07-11. The manager as bureaucrat is the guardian of roles,rules and relationships; his or her style of management re-lies heavily on working according to the book. In the We-berian tradition managers are necessary to coordinate thedifferent roles that contribute to the production processand to mediate communication from head office to theshop floor and back. This style of management assumes aworld view in which bureaucratic role is seen as separatefrom, and taking precedence over, other constructions ofself (including the obligations of citizenship), at least forthe duration if the working day.

[20] Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widensas Deal Struggles. Wall Street Journal.

[21] Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries The Dark Side of Leader-ship - Business Strategy Review 14(3), Autumn Page 26(2003).

[22] Stroh, L. K., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (2002).Organizational behavior: A management challenge. Mah-wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

[23] Compare: Kleiman, Lawrence S. “Management and Ex-ecutive Development”. Reference for Business: Encyclo-pedia of Business (2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar 2011

[24] Kotter, John P. & Dan S. Cohen. (2002). The Heart ofChange. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing..

[25] Board of Directors: Duties & Liabilities. Stanford Grad-uate School of Business.

[26] DeMars L. (2006). Heavy Vetting: Boards of directorsnow want to talk to would-be CFOs — and vice versa.CFO Magazine.

[27] 2013 CEO Performance Evaluation Survey. StanfordGraduate School of Business.

[28] Kleiman, Lawrence S. " MANAGEMENT AND EX-ECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT."Reference for Business:Encyclopedia of Business(2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar2011. .

[29] http://aom.org/Placement/AOM-Placement-Presentations.aspx

[30] “Four Ways to Be A Better Boss”. Randstad USA. Rand-stad USA. Retrieved 18 January 2015.

[31] “The Role of HR in Uncertain Times” (PDF). EconomistIntelligence Unit. Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved18 January 2015.

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11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Management Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management?oldid=684343720 Contributors: Magnus Manske, The Cunctator,Uriyan, The Anome, Ap, Enchanter, Rootbeer, SimonP, Kurt Jansson, Luisdelafuente, Jose Icaza, Frecklefoot, Edward, Nixdorf, Kku,SGBailey, Ixfd64, NuclearWinner, Ellywa, Mkoval, Nikai, Thseamon, Mydogategodshat, Anuchit, Pedant17, Traroth, Penfold, Chu-unen Baka, Robbot, Chealer, TomPhil, Pigsonthewing, Jakohn, Moriori, Fredrik, Jotomicron, RedWolf, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann, Nurg,Aniu~enwiki, Hadal, Modeha, JesseW, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Jimjoe, Geeoharee, Netoholic, Zigger, Rj, Curps, Nite-owlneils, Jurema Oliveira, Andycjp, Alexf, Mberteig, Beland, OverlordQ, Rdsmith4, Pgreenfinch, Terrean~enwiki, WpZurp, Arthuro,Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus, Guppyfinsoup, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Pak21, Cacycle, Ceo, Notinasnaid, Mjpieters, Mani1, Khalid,Kbh3rd, Neko-chan, RJHall, El C, Cherry blossom tree, Shanes, Che y Marijuana, Viriditas, Dtremenak, Maurreen, Nsaa, Mdd, Alan-sohn, Gary, Borisblue, Wikidea, Kurieeto, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, GJeffery, Kdau, BDD, Blaxthos, Ironwolf, Oleg Alexandrov,Marasmusine, Nakos2208~enwiki, Acerperi, Tabletop, Kmg90, Firien, Burkhard~enwiki, SCEhardt, Hughcharlesparker, Liface, Neostar-buck, Mandarax, Gettingtoit, Tradnor, MCMasterChef, Sjö, DeadlyAssassin, Amire80, DouglasGreen~enwiki, Czalex, Jbamb, YamamotoIchiro, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Pag~enwiki, Changchih228, RexNL, Danis~enwiki, AndriuZ, JohnMaynard Friedman, Chobot, Frank-Tobia, Roboto de Ajvol, 7195Prof, RobotE, Deeptrivia, Jeffhoy, Hede2000, Pigman, Noypi380, Stephenb, CambridgeBayWeather, Chaos,Alex Bakharev, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, RadioKirk, Sallym, Leutha, Grafen, Chick Bowen, Jaxl, Dhollm, Moe Epsilon, Tony1, Dbfirs,M3taphysical, Wknight94, PGPirate, AjaxSmack, Hemant 17, Mamawrites, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Denisutku, Arthur Rubin,E Wing, KGasso, GraemeL, Leeannedy, Spliffy, Ilmari Karonen, Katieh5584, RG2, Finell, Hide&Reason, LesleyW, Frankie, SmackBot,Impaciente, KnowledgeOfSelf, David.Mestel, Shoy, EncycloPetey, DrStrangeLove, CommodiCast, Paxse, Brossow, Gilliam, Ohnoits-jamie, Skizzik, Phasedice, JAn Dudík, Squiddy, Dragonjohann, Wookipedian, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Fluri, SchfiftyThree, Deli nk,Akanemoto, No-Bullet, Gary A. LaBranche, CAE, Antonrojo, J00tel, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, FelixKaiser, Battlecry, Shaunteale,Rayhoughton, Philwalker, Skidude9950, Sommers, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Wes!, Hippo43, Xyzzyplugh, Baiter, COMPFUNK2, Rada-gast83, Cybercobra, Nibuod, Decltype, RJN, Dreadstar, Xagent86, DMacks, Wiki4des, Amartyabag, Caravaca, Kuru, Khazar, John, J1982, Khono, Tlesher, Maj IIM, IronGargoyle, SpyMagician, Dougiel, Misteror, BenMoore, Ckatz, Kraybilr, Astuishin, Martinp23, Ehheh,Optakeover, PhilipSmith, Mgillett, Mb22hk, Jose77, P1cunnin, Quaeler, Levineps, Nehrams2020, Fvasconcellos, SkyWalker, JForget,CmdrObot, Dycedarg, The Font, Rawling, Page Up, Scholzj, Tim Long, MarsRover, Phil Maslow, Penbat, Mirka~enwiki, Lord of thePuns, Yaris678, Cydebot, Karimarie, Ryan Lanham, Gogo Dodo, Jayen466, Kalanithe, Codetiger, Chrislk02, Kozuch, Iss246, RotaryAce,PamD, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Bvsr prasad, Ucanlookitup, Anshuk, Andyjsmith, Al Lemos, NERIUM, Edhubbard, Blathnaid, Zeev Grin,Dawnseeker2000, Noclevername, Escarbot, DorisH, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Privyet, Mrken30, Auh-sojSivart, Erfa, Modernist, Istartfires, Sanjaymca, JAnDbot, Leuko, Barek, MER-C, Skomorokh, The Transhumanist, Fbooth, Andonic,Trey314159, DaCentaur, SiobhanHansa, Freecorbinj, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Transcendence, T@nn, Serw~enwiki, Pleckaitis,SineWave, Bubba hotep, KConWiki, Nposs, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Elinruby, Sweet2, Yotwen, DerHexer, JaGa, YeahIKnow, StopIt-TidyUp, Champaign, Closermac, Preetam purbia, FisherQueen, Management Culture, NAHID, Ravichandar84, R'n'B, Kateshortforbob,Sheep2000, LedgendGamer, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Pilgaard, Trusilver, Psycho Kirby, Rhinestone K, Nigholith, Yonidebot, Eskimo-spy, Icseaturtles, Gzkn, Acalamari, Katalaveno, Sanusi.husain, Clerks, Hkrug4281, Robertson-Glasgow, Shomroni, Pandaplodder, TheTranshumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, Alnokta, Pundit, Marilyn Haight, Cometstyles, ManManager, Treisijs, Gregory S. Waddell,Kvdveer, NewWikiMan, Bonadea, DASonnenfeld, Vinsfan368, Funandtrvl, Lights, Jackofwiki, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, CoachingProfessional, Daanj, Jeff G., Station1, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Coder Dan, Asarlaí, SueHay, CUBJONES83, Marketingman, Pix-ievamps, Anna Lincoln, Lradrama, Seraphim, Leafyplant, Dcarafel, Mardhil, LeaveSleaves, Mkubica, Finngall, Lamro, Lova Falk, Fal-con8765, Enviroboy, Alybongo, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga, Dmcq, Lillingen, Jean-Louis Swiners, Dan Polansky, Coffee, Pradyutroy,Timb001, Parhamr, Ghaag, Hdegier, Triwbe, Floridian06, Xelgen, Bentogoa, Flyer22, Oysterguitarist, Jojalozzo, Pmmaster, Oxymoron83,Neptune99, Bagatelle, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Vanished user kijsdion3i4jf, Abj1, Sunrise, Capitalismojo, Ganeshnarasimhaninfo, Myger-ardromance, Themanagementpractice, Karavan-LP, Yhkhoo, Nnarayanann, Sitush, Haagrachel, ChristophMichel, Leranedo, Martarius,ClueBot, Wasami007, Ideal gas equation, Lindsay.Ward, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tesakoff, Jan1nad, ImperfectlyInformed, GaiaOctavia Agrippa, Michaelrayw2, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, LizardJr8, Rlopez1605, Lbertolotti, Zler-man, Masterpiece2000, ShrekOC, Excirial, Withluvurs, Steamroller Assault, Tkjainbkn, Rhododendrites, Ykhwong, Henning Wiekhorst,Sugarmagnolia175, SSeanSSS, Maine12329, Nikoned, Aleksd, Mlaffs, DerBorg, SpartanPhalanx, SoxBot III, Life of Riley, FetteK, He-lixweb, D4nz, XLinkBot, Spitfire,Wertuose, Cheapskate08, Puneetminda, DarkMage, Rror,WikHead, NellieBly, PL290, Alexius08, Ryan4angelz, Jmkim dot com, Pendraco, Overviewer, Rice Cakez, Addbot, V-squared, Boringmondays, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Inter-net, Seipjere, Halosean, Paramountpublishing, Captain-tucker, Hrincon83, Ironholds, Gbradt, MrOllie, RTG, Glane23, Chzz, CUSENZAMario, Favonian, West.andrew.g, Tyw7, Rmpugliese~enwiki, Cagarland, Alex Rio Brazil, Lightbot, Wireless friend, LuK3, Yobot, Frag-gle81, TaBOT-zerem, Cflm001, MonideepGupta, Estudiarme, Brougham96, AnakngAraw, Rastrelli F, Dan writerwiki, Kookyunii, Bsca,Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Rajshekar.D.Rollakanti, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Jim1138, Truongvoky012345, Ulric1313, Hokelvin,Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Promd33, Maxis ftw, GB fan, Frankenpuppy, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrooveyHenrik, Grodan-bollen, 4twenty42o, TechBot, Jeffrey Mall, Nasnema, Iwillgoslow3126, Jsharpminor, Omoc, Aedelcid, Saalstin, Gui le Roi, Jeffowner3,ChangeManager, Alliance09, Doulos Christos, Uloggonitor, PM800, Student317, Thehelpfulbot, Mark Renier, Carlamariek, Jeffey1234,NighthawkY10K, Smaccatino, NCS2004, Drbobr19, Doanmanhtung.sc, Worldeconomist, Winterst, Simple Bob, MacMed, Pinethicket,I dream of horses, Lbongaer~enwiki, 10metreh, Bejinhan, Jamzter, Hoo man, Karthimuchlove, Jschnur, RedBot, Btilm, Phearson, Yas-meen.naseem, Jandalhandler, NYCCommunity, Barras, Redbeanpaste, Reconsider the static, Steve2011, Tim1357, Gamewizard71, Trap-pist the monk, Staxoplax, Jackspar15486, ItsZippy, Graveyardparty, Aj.metcalf, Vrenator, Just4ayaz, Shafitvohra, WikiTome, Suffusionof Yellow, TheMesquito, Minimac, Mesdaghi, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Popati ann, $nake420, Onel5969, Ulbrichdj, Mean as custard, Sonalmerchant, Holbe6, LT. Dunnigan, Nickypunk001, Skamecrazy123, B20180, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Dr Aaij, Ajraddatz, GardmanVS,Super48paul, Dewritech, Racerx11, Starcheerspeaksnewslostwars, Himanshuking, Winner 42, Bolan.Mike, K6ka, Spersily, Gr3cv, Ib Ravn,Mz7, Theraraavis, Josve05a, Haldirams, Workmanager, Dreispt, Philricci, Thetruthfinder01, L Kensington, Chafidess, Shearerbest, Don-ner60, BioPupil, LudovicaMottura, Gionniz, Wakebrdkid, Uptor, Yiptorp, Jurtquerp, Multijohnthomas, Daniel h2o house, FeatherPluma,28bot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Harukasora, BOMBINI, Dhamil07, P.lagiewka, Manubot, CocuBot, Chuck Stubbart, MelbourneStar, Thislousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Bped1985, උපුල්, Rounaq Singh, Mudash, Widr, M0h0e0, Danim, Lawsonstu, Mathewstuart, Titodutta, Egent404,BG19bot, Ksargis, Furkhaocean, Renfer7, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Cdolls, Ctpax4o, Mark Arsten, Buljon, Jemsnaz, Markjun, Con-stant38, Joydeep, Tanmay Patange, Kyleoc13, Adminedu, Jasonvaidya123, Noidsnickyp, Zujua, Glacialfox, Vanischenu, Deborah12345,Achowat, Gautamcat, Wannabemodel, Muhammad Shuaib Nadwi, BattyBot, Jeremy112233, Pratyya Ghosh, Tomrobb4567, Missnicoleyy,Zaidoonleo, Zenith042, BobJoe17, Tow, Доктор прагматик, Benachou2012, Logicsense9, Gacelp, Giara Knoichi, Matthew L Benson,

10 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Danny0001, 2012BizStudent, Sriharsh1234, Wywin, Ima Rape Ur Pages, Futurzbrite, GabeIglesia, Seemamgt, Phamnhatkhanh, Epicge-nius, CsDix, Dhanasuresh, Melonkelon, Kochachan, Express8, Pkafor uchenna, Backendgaming, Yanis ahmed, NyGuha, Mrm7171, YiFei-Bot, Ginsuloft, Psyc12, Camille3000, Soe Hein, Drchriswilliams, Alishayankhan0, AgentCachet, Nasro92, Thewikiguru1, Zia24hours,Pankajmanagementguru, Sushantvvsb, M.r.talebi, Lalalatroymanoyia, Writers Bond, Vieque, Faithavril, Creative factor, Piyush lalit na-gar, ARPIT25JAIN, Hikao27, Mahbub1259, Sorarara, Mnzlpoudar, Dr.hayan.hamzeh, 115ash, SEOatBisk, Samir ashmawy abd el atty,HBRoc14, TheMacDaniel, LuiosMallo, Thayumanavan S K, Lalith269, Johnnypasquo, Tushant93, 500nileshdhakal, A kashif ali, Zhetque-mado, Barniecadd, Badshah Mamun, Micallef.michelle31, Bipin94179, Arcela bosay, Neenadmba, Badmash narayan, Tagorre8, Han-nahGraysonLS, Bharathshankar and Anonymous: 1274

11.2 Images• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

11.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0