MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT

The integration and coordination of

organizational resources to attain goals

in an effective and efficient manner

through planning, organizing, leading,

and controlling

MANAGEMENT

EFFECTIVENESSLong term measure of how well an organization achieves its objectives

EFFICIENCYShort term measure of how well an organization uses it resourcesGOALA desired future states that contributes to the fulfillment of the organization's mission

MISSION = Reason for existenceMISSION = Reason for existence

EFFECTIVENESSLong term measure of how well an organization achieves its objectives

EFFICIENCYShort term measure of how well an organization uses it resourcesGOALA desired future states that contributes to the fulfillment of the organization's mission

FOUR FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

PLANNING: Specifying the goals to be achieved and deciding in advance the appropriate action taken to achieve those goals.

ORGANIZING: Assembling and coordinating human, financial, physical, informational and other resources needed to achieve goals.

LEADING/ DIRECTING: Guiding, motivating and communicating with individuals and groups to achieve organizational goals.

CONTROLLING: Ensuring the organization is run according to plan and that organizational goals are met.

The Origins of Management

• Industrialization in the U.S.– A new industrial era begin in the U.S. around

the time of the Civil War (early 1860s).– Managers attempted to better plan, organize,

and control the work of their organizations.

RailroadsRailroads


• Classical/Scientific Management– Frederick Taylor applied scientific methods to

jobs in an attempt to maximize the output of workers. Time & Motion studiesTime & Motion studies

Split Management & LaborSplit Management & Labor

One best way

One best way

• Human Relations– The Hawthorne Studies 1920s1920s

• Illumination Study at Western Electric Plant– Someone cared

– Discovered that the behavior of an individual worker is modified by the influence of his or her work group.

– Uncovered the “Hawthorne Effect”

» Workers felt important because someone was observing and studying them at work. Thus, they produced more because they were observed and studied.



• Behavioral Science– X&Y– Application of behavioral sciences to Management

• Management Sciences/Operations Research– WWII – Math and Science

Douglas McGregorDouglas McGregor


• Contingency Theory– “It all Depends”

• Systems Theory– View organization as a system that interacts with

it’s environment.– Open– Interdependent

The Basic Elements of a System

InputsInputs TransformationProcess

TransformationProcess

FeedbackFeedback

OutputsOutputs

Environment

BASIC COMPONENTS OF ANY SYSTEM

• System has an objective which can be accomplished by interaction of the system sub-units

• An energy source to “drive” system

• An energy conversion process to “produce” the objective Transformation

Process• A communication network between system

units

SIMPLE SYSTEM

Battery

wires (communication

network)

ClosedSystem

OpenSystem

ADDITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

•Cycle of Events

•Negative Entropy

PatternsPatterns TimeTimeRepeatRepeat

Loss of Loss of energyenergy

Movement toward Movement toward disorganizationdisorganizationdeathdeath

ADDITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

•The Steady State & Dynamic HomeostasisConsistent energy exchangeConsistent energy exchange

System will attempt to maintain/restore System will attempt to maintain/restore ““steady state”steady state”But constantly changing in reaction to But constantly changing in reaction to environment - Adaptingenvironment - Adapting

•EquifinalityMultiple pathsMultiple pathsfrom initial conditions to final objectivefrom initial conditions to final objective

Organizational Structure and Design

• Structure of the Organization– The structure of the organization refers to the

components of the organization and how these components fit together.

• Job Design– Refers to the processes by which managers

specify the contents, methods, and relationships of jobs and specific task assignments to satisfy both organizational and individual needs.

MG 540MG 540

Organizational Structure and Design

• Organizational Processes– A number of behavioral processes contribute to

effective organizational performance including leadership, communication, decision making, and organizational change and development.

Chapter 2

Organizational Culture

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Organizational Culture

• Some of the Definitions of Culture:– Symbols, language, ideologies, rituals, and

myths.– Organizational scripts derived from the

personal scripts of the organization’s founder(s) or dominant leader(s).

– Is a product; is historical; is based upon symbols; and is an abstraction from behavior and the products of behavior.

Exhibit 2.1: Schein’s Three-Layer Organizational Model

Examples of Cultural Attributes

- Documents

- Physical layouts

- Furnishings

- Language

- Jargon

- Work ethic and practice

- Loyalty

- Commitment

- Helping others

I

Artifacts and

Creations

II

Values

III

Basic

Assumptions

Visible but often not decipherable

Greater level of awareness

Taken for granted invisible preconscious

Organizational Culture and its Effects

Since organizational culture involves shared expectations, values, and attitudes, it exerts

influence on individuals, groups, and organizational processes.

Socialization and Culture

• Socialization– Socialization is the process by which

organizations bring new employees into the culture.

Chapter 3

Individual Differences and Work Behavior

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

THE PERSONAL PROFILE SYSTEM WAS DESIGNED TO INCREASE SELF AWARENESS OF ONE'S OWN STYLE AND THE STYLE OF OTHERS TO ENHANCE EFFECTIVENESS IN WORK RELATIONSHIPS THE PROFILE REFLECTS "TENDENCIES"

WE ALL DEVELOP PATTERNS OF WORK BEHAVIOR BASED ON INDIVIDUAL VALUES, WANTS, INTERESTS, NEEDS...

* THIS IS NOT A TEST.YOU CAN NOT PASS OR FAIL.

* THERE ARE NO "RIGHT" OR "BEST ANSWERS".* PROFILE DESCRIBES ONLY NORMAL BEHAVIOR.* IT IS A FORCED CHOICE INSTRUMENT.

PERSONAL PROFILE

PERSONAL PROFILE WORKSHEET

TaskPeo

ple

ActiveAggressive

Less ActiveAdaptive

“D”Directive

Dominance

“I”Influencing

Interest in People

“C”ComplianceCompetence

“S”SteadinessStability

Calculated Direct

Deliberate

ImpulsiveOutgoing

Gregarious

By the book - Right way - My way

Relationships - Predictable World

Security

High “D”High Ego Strength

Impatience (wants action, makes decisions)

Appear Aloof

Fears: Being Taken Advantage Of

Needs: To be confronted

PERSONAL PROFILE WORKSHEETWork Behavioral Tendencies

High “I”Optimistic (maybe overly)

Unorganized

Natural Social Grace (attracts people)

Fears: Social Disapproval

Needs: Held Accountable (time limits)

High “S”Slow To Change

Possessive (two families, natural to serve)

Takes Criticism Personally

Fears: Loss Of Security

Needs: Encouragement To Risk

PERSONAL PROFILE WORKSHEETWork Behavioral Tendencies

High “C”Perfectionist

Tactful

Seeks Detail (natural planner)

Fears: Criticism Of Work

Needs: To See Big Picture

That’s it for todayThat’s it for todayThat’s it for todayThat’s it for today

On to groupsOn to groupsOn to groupsOn to groups

Exhibit 3.1: Variables that Influence Work Behavior

Individual Behavior Work Behavior Organizational Behavior

- Demographic factors

- Abilities and skills

- Perception

- Attitudes

- Personality

- Productive

- Nonproductive

- Counterproductive

- Resources

- Leadership

- Rewards

- Structure

- Job Design

Demographic Factors

Demographic factors include a number of individual differences that influence behavioral choices

Socioeconomic Background

Educational Attainment

Nationality

AgeRace

Sex

Abilities and Skills

Innate Learned

- Spatial Orientation

- Hand-Eye Coordination

- Numerical facility

- Using a keyboard

- Operating equipment

- Driving an automobile

Perception

• Perception– Is the cognitive process by which an individual

gives meaning to the environment.• Perception refers to the acquisition of specific

knowledge about objects or events at any particular moment, it occurs whenever stimuli activate the senses. Receiving, Organizing, and Integrating.

– Stereotyping• Is the process employed to assist individuals in dealing

with massive information-processing demands.

Perception

Selection -see what we want to see

Expectations - supports previous view

Self Image - good self image, see other favorably

Figure-ground -

Closure - fill in missing pieces

Situational factors

Needs/Emotions

Stereotyping - Is the process employed to assist in dealing with massive information-processing demands.

The Attribution Processneed to determine caused

EventEvent Analysis of whatcaused the eventAnalysis of whatcaused the event

Reinforcementor modification of

previous assumptions of causality

Reinforcementor modification of

previous assumptions of causality

Choices regardingfuture behavior

Choices regardingfuture behavior

I received a raiseI received a raiseI received a raisebecause I am a

hard worker

I received a raisebecause I am a

hard worker

Hard work leadsto rewards in

this organization

Hard work leadsto rewards in

this organization

Since I value these rewards, Iwill continue towork hard in

the future

Since I value these rewards, Iwill continue towork hard in

the future

Example:

Exhibit 3.4: Internal and External Attributions

Distinctiveness

Does the person behave in the same manner in different situations?

Consistency

Does this person behave in this same manner at other times?

Consensus

Do other people behave in this same manner?

Yes Yes NoLow Distinctiveness High Consistency Low Consensus

-------------------------- -------------------------- --------------------------No No Yes

High Distinctiveness Low Consistency High Consensus

Internal Attribution

External Attribution

Attribution Errors

• Fundamental Attribution Error– Tendency to underestimate the importance of

external factors and overestimate the important of internal factors when making attribution about the behavior of others.

• Self-Serving Bias– The tendency that people have to take credit for

successful work and deny responsibility for poor work.

Attribution Errors

• Actor/Observer Bias– The tendency to view others successful work to

external causes and poor work to internal causes.

Attitudes Defined

An attitude is a mental stage of readiness, learned and organized through experience, exerting a specific influence on a person’s

response to people, objects, and situations with which it is related.

Personality Defined

A relatively stable set of feelings and behaviors that have been significantly formed by genetic

and environmental factors.

Locus of ControlInternalizersexternalizers

Exhibit 3.7: Some Major Forces Influencing Personality

IndividualPersonalityIndividualPersonality

Social class and other group

membership forces

Family relationship

forces

Hereditary forces

Cultural forces

Chapter 13

Communication

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Communication Defined

The transmission of information and understanding through the use of

common symbols.

Communication Defined

The transmission of information and understanding through the use of

common symbols.

How Communication Works

Communications experts tell us that effective communication is the result of a

common understanding between the communicator and the receiver. In fact the word communication is derived from the

Latin communis, meaning “common.”

Exhibit 13.1: The Communication Process

SenderSender EncodeEncode MediumMedium ReceiverReceiver

FeedbackFeedback

Noise

PurposePurpose

DecodeDecode

Noise

InformPrompt action

Important Concepts in Communications

• Noise– Interference in the flow of a message from a

sender to a receiver.

• Nonverbal Communication– Messages sent with body posture, facial

expressions, and head and eye movements.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Frame of Reference

Selective Listening

Time Pressures

Filtering

Value Judgments

Source Creditability

Status Differences

Overload

Exhibit 13.3: The Johari Window: Interpersonal Styles and Communication

Arena

Facade Unknown

Blindspot

Known by Self Unknown by Self

Unknown by Others

Known by Others

FeedbackMoreLess

Less

More

Exp

osur

e

The Johari Window:Interpersonal Styles and Communication

A

MoreLess

More

Exp

osur

e

Feedback

F

BS

Unk

Type AManagers who use neither exposure nor feedback. The

managers exhibit anxiety and hostility and give the appearance of aloofness and coldness towards others.

Managerial Styles & Interpersonal Styles of Communication

Slide 1 of 2

• Type A– Managers who use neither exposure nor

feedback. The managers exhibit anxiety and hostility and give the appearance of aloofness and coldness towards others.

• Type B– Managers that do not use exposure but rather

rely on feedback. These managers are unable to open up and express their feelings.

Managerial Styles & Interpersonal Styles of Communication

Slide 2 of 2

• Type C– Managers who use exposure at the expense of

feedback. The consequence of this style is the perpetuation and enlargement of the blindspot.

• Type D– Managers who use a balance of exposure and

feedback. These managers have the most effective interpersonal communication style.

Keys to Effective Multicultural Communication

Slide 1 of 2

• Mangers who are effective in multicultural communication have three distinct attributes:– They have made a point to familiarize

themselves with significant cultural differences that might affect the communication process.

Keys to Effective Multicultural Communication

Slide 2 of 2

• Mangers who are effective in multicultural communication have three distinct attributes: (continued)– They make a conscious, concerted effort to lay

aside ethnocentric tendencies.– They maintain a posture of “knowing they do

not know.”

Chapter 4

Motivation

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Job Factors

YourRankings

Management Employees

Feeling of being in on thingsJob securityInteresting workManagement loyalty to employeesTactful discipline

Good working conditionsPromotions and growth in the companyGood wagesSympathetic help on personal problemsFull appreciation of work done

1

2

3

How you think employees in

How you think employees in

general would rate these items

general would rate these items

4

567

89

10

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

910

Motivation* Refers to the forces either internal or external to

a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action.

Get us movingGet us moving

The Motivational Process

I. Need deficiencies

II. Search for ways

to satisfy needs

III. Goal-directed

behavior

IV. Performance

Results

V. Rewards or

punishments

VI. Need deficiencies

reassessed by the

employee

Frustration

Prompts ActionDetermines Direction

RandomIntensified seeking

Only unsatisfied

need motivates

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needsmost basic human physical needs

Safety Needssafe and secure physical and emotional environment

Belongingness Needsdesire to be accepted by one’s peers

Esteem Needsdesire for a positive self-image

and to receive attention

Self-ActualizationNeeds

represent the need forself-fulfillment

Food, Air Water

Current

Future

Social

Ego

Becoming all

one can be

Only unsatisfied need motivate

Basically satisfied at one level-------Become aware of needs at next level

Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction

Motivators influence level of satisfaction.

Hygiene factors influence levelof dissatisfaction.

AchievementRecognitionResponsibilityWork itselfPersonal growth

Working conditionsPay and securityCompany policiesSupervisorsInterpersonal relationships

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Expectancy Theory

Effort-Performance Expectancy

Effort-Performance Expectancy

Performance-RewardInstrumentality

Performance-RewardInstrumentality

Valence ofRewards

Valence ofRewards

If I tryIf I tryCan I do It?Can I do It?

If I tryIf I tryCan I do It?Can I do It?

AbilityAbilityTrainingTrainingToolsTools

AbilityAbilityTrainingTrainingToolsTools

Effort inTask behavior

Effort inTask behavior

Level of Achieved TaskPerformance

Level of Achieved TaskPerformance

Outcomes orRewards for

AchievedPerformance

Outcomes orRewards for

AchievedPerformance

If I Do ItIf I Do ItWill I getWill I get

a Reward?a Reward?

If I Do ItIf I Do ItWill I getWill I get

a Reward?a Reward?

Is The RewardIs The RewardOne I want?One I want?

Is The RewardIs The RewardOne I want?One I want?

Victor Varoom

Premise - People base behavior on perceived outcomesPremise - People base behavior on perceived outcomesPremise - People base behavior on perceived outcomesPremise - People base behavior on perceived outcomes

ConsistencyConsistencyConsistencyConsistency

Reinforcement Theory

What gets Reinforced What gets Reinforced (rewarded)(rewarded)

Gets repeatedGets repeated


• Rationale behind Reinforcement Theory– Learning experts believe that reinforcement is

the most important principle of learning.

• Operants– Behaviors that can be controlled by altering the

consequences that follow them.

What get reinforced gets repeatedWhat get reinforced gets repeated

Reinforcement Perspective on Motivation

Reinforcement Tools

Positive Reinforcement is the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence.

Avoidance learning is the removal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired behavior.

Punishment is the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee.

Extinction is the withdrawal of a positive reward; behavior is no longer reinforced is less likely to.


• Forms of Reinforcement– Positive Reinforcement

• A stimulus that, when applied to the situation, strengthens the probability of a behavioral response.

– Punishment• Is defined as presenting an uncomfortable or unwanted

consequence for a particular behavioral response.

– Extinction• Reduces unwanted behavior by withholding positive

reinforcers.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Equity Theory Defined

The essence of equity theory is that employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of

others in similar situations.

InternalInternal

ExternalExternal

Goal Setting Defined

Goal setting as a theory of motivation suggests that an individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants

of behavior.

Motivation and the Psychological Contract

Exchange theory suggests that members of an organization engage in reasonable predictable give-and-take

relationships with each other.

Psychological Contract

Chapter 5

Evaluation, Feedback, and Reward of Individual Behavior

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

RewardsIntrinsic rewards--satisfactions a person receives in

the process of performing a particular action.Extrinsic rewards--given by another person.

DoingDoing InternalInternal

ExternalExternal

Focus of Evaluation

Effective performance evaluation asks the following two questions:

Is the work being done effectively?

Are employee skills and abilities being fully

utilized?

Purposes of Evaluation

Judgmental Orientation Developmental Orientation

- Provide basis for reward

allocation

- Identify high-potential

employees

- Validate effectiveness of

employee selection procedures

- Evaluate previous training

programs

- Facilitate future performance

improvements

- Develop ways of overcoming

obstacles & performance barriers

- Identify training and development

opportunities

- Establish supervisor-employee

agreement on performance

expectations

KILL MOTIVATIONGeorge Ordiorne

Don’t tell them what is expected

Don’t tell them how they are doing

Evaluate activities not performance

That’s it for todayThat’s it for todayThat’s it for todayThat’s it for today

On to groupsOn to groupsOn to groupsOn to groups

Decision Making

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Types of Decisions

Programmed Decisions

Nonprogrammed Decisions

Situation in which specific procedures have

been developed for repetitive and routine

problems.

Decisions required for unique and complex

management problems.

Exhibit 14.2: The Decision-Making Process

Establishing specific goals and objectives and measuring results

Establishing specific goals and objectives and measuring results

Problem identification and definition

Problem identification and definition

Establishing prioritiesEstablishing prioritiesRevise

Revise

Revise

Consideration of causesConsideration of causes

Development of alternative solutions

Development of alternative solutions

Evaluation of alternative solutions

Evaluation of alternative solutions

Solution selectionSolution selection

ImplementationImplementation

Follow-upFollow-up

P. 515

Revise

Revise

Revise

Revise

Revise

Recognize

Ignore

ConsistencySpecific, Measurable, Attainable

Diagnosis and fact gatheringSymptoms Change WHO

SUG

Quantity Don’t evaluate

Establish criteria

Goals

Action Plan

WhoWhat WhereWhenVerify

Did It Work? DecisionProcess

Behavioral Influence on Decision Making

• Perception: A person's view of the world

– Stereotyping - projecting characteristics of a small number of

people as characteristics of the entire group

– Halo Effect - one characteristic overshadows all other characteristics or aspects of the decision

• Subjective Rationality - Thinking logically but within one's own framework

• Bounded Rationality - personal, environmental, time, and organizational constraints which place limits on decisions

Behavioral Influence on Decision Making

• Recency - tendency to ascribe more importance to things that happened most recently

• Satisficing - tendency to accept "adequate" decision instead of the best

• Values

• Personality

• Propensity For Risk

Group Decision Making

Probable Relationship Between Quality of Decision and Method Utilized

Quality of

Decision

More

Less

Individual Average individual

Minority control

Majority control

Consensus

The Delphi TechniqueSlide 1 of 2

• Delphi Technique Defined– A technique used to improve group decision

making that involves the solicitation and comparison of anonymous judgments on the topic of interest though a set of sequential questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and feedback of opinions from earlier responses.

The Nominal Group Technique

• Nominal Group Techniques Defined– A technique to improve group decision making

that brings people together in a very structured meeting that does not allow of much verbal communication. The group decision is a mathematically pooled outcome of individual votes

Chapter 10

Organizational Power and Politics

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Power Defined

Power is the ability to get things done in the way one wants them to be done.

Influence

InterpersonalStructural

Sources

Interpersonal

Legitimateposition

W orker W orker W orker

B oss

Rewardreward

Coercivepunishment

Expertexpertise or knowledge

Referentidentification with

Sources of Power

Sources of PowerStructural

Resources

Decision Making

Information

channels to resources - money, human resources, technology,

materials, customers, and so on.

can affect decision making

access to relevant and important information

Chapter 11

Leadership: An Overview

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. MattesonSlides Prepared by Bruce R. Barringer

University of Central Florida

Leadership Defined

Using influence in an organizational setting or situation, producing effects that are

meaningful and have a direct impact on accomplishing challenging goals.

Leadership measured by followers

Evolution of Leadership Theories

GreatPersonTheory

Born

TraitTheory

Intelligence DependabilityInitiative

Behavioral Theories

Task OrientedPeople Oriented

SituationalContingency

LeaderFollowerSituation

InspirationalTransformationalChangeLeader?

GRID

CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION

CONCERN

FOR

PEOPLE

Low High

HighRobert Blake & Jane Mouton

9/1Task

Autocrat

1/9Country ClubRelationships

1/1

ImpoverishedBureaucrat

5/5Middle of the Road

Politician

9/9Team

Consensus

Desire: dominance

Desire: approval

Desire: get by

Desire: popularity

Desire: self fullfillment

Fear: failure

Fear: rejection

Fear: hopelessness

Fear: defeat

Win frien

ds and in

fluen

ce people

People support what they help create

Don’t rock the boat

Firm but fair

My way or the h

ighway

Fear: criticism

Thoughtful attention to theneeds of people for satisfyingrelationships leads to a com-fortable, friendly organizationatmosphere and work tempo.

Exertion of minimum effortto get required work doneis appropriate to sustainorganization membership.

Work accomplishment is fromcommitted people; interdependencethrough a “common stake” inorganization purpose leads torelationships of trust and respect.

Adequate organization performance ispossible through balancing the necessityto get out work with maintaining morale ofpeople at a satisfactory level.

Efficiency in operations resultsfrom arranging conditions ofwork in such a way that humanelements interfere to a minimumdegree.

68 78 52 61 43

658

19

68 78 52 61 43

6878526143

6878526143

6878526143

37

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model

Slide 1 of 2

– A situational leadership theory that emphasizes followers and their level of maturity. The leader must properly judge or intuitively know followers’ maturity level and then use a leadership style that fits the level.

TASK BEHAVIOR

RELATIONSHIP

BEHAVIOR

Low High

HighSituational Leadership Hersey-Blanchard

Telling

S1

Specific Instructions

Closely Supervise

Coaching

S2

Explain Decision

Clarification Opportunity

Supporting

S3

Share Ideas

Facilitated Decision Making

Delegating

S4

Get Outof

The Way

Development level of followers

R1 Not competent

Not committed

R2 Not competent

Committed

R3 Competent

Not committed

R4 Competent

Committed

R1

R2R3

R4

People With High Task Maturity Tend to Have--

• Ability

• Skills

• Confidence

• Willingness to work.

The Contingency Leadership Model

• Description of the Model– The contingency model of leadership

effectiveness was developed by Fiedler and postulates that the performance of groups is dependent on the interaction between leadership style and situational favorableness.• Leadership style is measured by the

Least-Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC).

The Contingency Leadership Model

• Description of the Model– The contingency model of leadership

effectiveness was developed by Fiedler and postulates that the performance of groups is dependent on the interaction between leadership style and situational favorableness.• Leadership style is measured by the

Least-Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC).

Fiedler’s Situational Variables and Their Preferred Leadership Styles

Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor

High High Low Low High High Low Low

Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Task-Oriented Relationship-Oriented Task-Oriented

Very Unfavorable

Situational CharacteristicsI II III IV V VI VII VIII

Situation

Leader-member relations

Task structure

Position power

Preferred leadership style

Very Favorable

Fiedler’s ContingencyTheory

Leader-member relations: refers to group atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and acceptance of the leader.

Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks performed by the group are defined, involve specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals.

Position power: is the extent to which the leader has formal authority over subordinates.

Leader-member relations: refers to group atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and acceptance of the leader.

Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks performed by the group are defined, involve specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals.

Position power: is the extent to which the leader has formal authority over subordinates.

Leadership Continuum

Path-Goal Leadership Model

• Description of the Model– A theory that suggests it is necessary for a

leader to influence the followers’ perception of work goals, self-development goals, and paths to goal attainment. The foundation for the model is the expectancy motivation theory

Path-Goal Theory

• Increase subordinates' motivation to attain personal and organizational goals by--

1. Clarifying the subordinates' path to the available rewards

2. Increasing the rewards that they value

• Path clarification means the leader helps subordinates learn the behaviors that lead to task accomplishment and rewards.

Leader defines whatfollower must to do

attain work outcomes

Leader clarifiesfollower’s work role

Follower has increasedknowledge and confidence

to accomplish outcome

Follower displays increasedeffort and motivation

Organizational workoutcomes are accomplished

Leader learnsfollower’s needs

Leader matches follower’sneeds to rewards if work

outcomes are accomplished

Leader increases value ofwork outcomes for follower

Path ClarificationPath Clarification Increase RewardsIncrease Rewards

Three Contingencies of Path-Goal

• Leader behavior and style

• Situational contingencies

• Use of rewards to meet subordinate needs.

Leader Behavior

• Supportive leadership

• Directive leadership

• Participative leadership

• Achievement-oriented leadership.

Vroom-Jago Leadership Model

A leadership model that specifies which leadership decision-making procedures will be most effective in each of several different situations.

Refer to p.443


• Features of the Model– Selection of the appropriate decision making

process involves considering two criteria of decision effectiveness:

• Decision quality - referring to the extent to which the decision impacts job performance.

• Subordinate commitment - refers to how important it is that the subordinate be committed to or accept the decision in order that it may be successfully implemented.


• Features of the Model– Five Different Decision Styles

• Autocratic (A) - the leader makes the decision without input from subordinates.

• Consultative (C) - subordinates have some input, but you make the decision.

• Group (G) - The group makes the decision; you (as leader) are just another group member.

• Delegated (D) - You give exclusive responsibility to subordinates.


• Features of the Model– Situational Diagnosis

• Performed to determine the most appropriate decision making style for a particular situation. Examples of criteria to consider:

– How important is the technical quality of the decision?

– How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?

– Do you have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

Charismatic Leadership

• Defining Charismatic Leadership– Charismatic leaders have a combination of

charm and personal magnetism that contribute to a remarkable ability to get other people to endorse their vision and promote it passionately.

A leader who has the ability to motivate subordinates to transcend their expected

performance.

Charismatic Leadership

• Two Types of Charismatic Leaders– Visionary Charismatic Leaders

• Through communication ability, the visionary charismatic leader links followers’ needs and goals to job or organizational goals.

– Crisis-Based Charismatic Leaders• The crisis-produced charismatic leader

communicates clearly what actions need to be taken and what their consequences will be.

Transactional Leadership

The leader helps the follower identify what must be done to accomplish the desired

results: better quality output, more sales or services,

reduced cost of productionSimilar to

Path Goal

Transformational Leadership

By expressing a vision, the transformational leader

persuades followers to work hard to achieve the goals envisioned. The leader’s

vision provides the follower with motivation for hard

work that is self-rewarding (internal)

A leader distinguished by a special ability to bring

about innovation and change.

Substitutes for Leadership• Organizational Variables Group cohesiveness Formalization Inflexibility Low position power Physical separation

• Task characteristics Highly structured task Automatic feedback Intrinsic satisfaction

Servant Leader

A leader who works to fulfill subordinates’ needs and goals as well as to achieve the organization’s larger mission.

Factors that Describe Transformational Leaders

Charisma

Individual Attention

Intellectual Stimulation

Contingent Reward

Management by Exception

Chapter 8

Group Behavior and Work Teams

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Groups Defined

Two or more individuals interacting with each other in order to accomplish a common goal.

Groups Defined


Frequently

Groups Defined


Frequent

Established mean of Communication

Types of Groups

• Formal GroupsCommand Group

A group of subordinates who report to one particular manager constitutes the command group. The command group is specified by the formal organizational chart.

Task GroupA group of individuals who are working as a unit to complete a project or job task.

TeamA formal group interracting very closely, shared commitment and agree upon goals.•Informal Groups

Interest GroupsA group that forms because of some special topic of interest.Friendship Groups

An informal group that is established in the workplace because of some common characteristic of its members and that may extend the interaction of its members to include activities outside the workplace.

Intentionally created by Org.

Created by choice of members

Why People form Groups

Need Satisfaction Social Needs

Security Needs

Esteem NeedsProximity & Attraction

Proximity is the physical distance between employees.

Attraction is typically engendered by similarities in attitudes, performance or

motivations.

Achievement of Group GoalsGroup goals, if clearly understood,

can be a reasons why people are drawn to a group.

Economic BenefitsIn many cases, groups form

because people believe they can derive greater economic benefits from their jobs if they organize.

Stages of Group Development

Forming:•Orientation•Break the iceLeader:•Facilitate social interchanges


Forming Storming:•Conflict•DisagreementLeader:•Encourage participation•Surface differences


Forming Storming Norming:•Establish order•Build cohesionLeader:•Help clarify team roles•Clarify norms•Clarify values


Forming Storming Norming

Performing:•Cooperation•Problem solvingLeader:•Facilitate task accomplishment



Performing

Adjourning:•Task CompletionLeader:•Bring Closure•Signify Completion



Performing Adjourning

Characteristics of Groups

Composition

Status Hierarchy

Roles Norms

Leadership

Cohesiveness

Task Help Team Accomplish Task

• Initiation

• Give opinions

• Seek information

• Summarize

• Energize.

MaintenanceSupport Emotional Needs

and Social Unity

• Encourage

• Harmonize

• Reduce tension

• Follow

• Compromise.

Nonparticipator RoleContributes little to either the task or members’

socioemotional needs.

Roles

Groups Most Productive

•Task and/or authority are clearly spelled out.•Group members jobs/responsibilities are inter-dependent (there is a need to cooperate).•Outcome desired (goal) is identified and agreed upon.•Members are interested in problem.•Members have developed good group skills.•Disagreement is encouraged.

Team NormsStandards of conduct shared by team

members that guides their behavior.

• Critical Events

• Primacy

• Carryover behaviors

• Explicit statements.

Development of Team Norms

Team CohesivenessThe extent to which team members are attracted

to the team and motivated to remain in it.

• Team interaction• Shared goals• Personal attraction to team• Competition• Team success• Favorable evaluation by outsiders.

Determinants of Team Cohesiveness

Consequences of Team Cohesiveness

• Morale and satisfaction are raised

• PerformanceProductivity tends to more uniformProductivity depends on relationship with

management.

What are the teams Goals?

Groupthink

• Groupthink Defined– Refers to the deterioration of the mental

efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of the individuals members of a group in the interest of group solidarity.

Groupthink

• Groupthink Defined– Refers to the deterioration of the mental

efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of the individuals members of a group in the interest of group solidarity.

• Characteristics of Groupthink– Illusion of invulnerability, tendency to

moralize, feeling of unanimity, press to conform, opposing ideas dismissed.

Team Defined

A formal group comprised of people interacting very closely together with a shared commitment to accomplish

agreed upon objectives.

Team Mission

Group Versus Team

Rotates leadership Accountable to each

other Specific team vision Collective work products Participative meetings Shares work.

Designated strong leader Individual accountability Same purpose as

organization Individual work products Runs efficient meetings Delegates work to

individuals.

Group Team

Types of Teams

• Self-Managed Teams– Are small groups of individuals who are

empowered to perform certain activities based on procedures established and decisions mode within the team, with minimum or no outside direction.

Team Effectiveness

Training

Communications Empowerment

Rewards

Benefits of Synergy

Synergism is the cooperative action of discrete entities such that the total effect is greater than the sum of the effects taken independently.

Synergistic groups can create something that is more than the sum total of that produced by individuals

Potential Group Performance = Individual Performance + Synergy

Synergistic Group

Chapter 9

Intergroup Conflicts and Negotiations

John M. Ivancevich

Michael T. Matteson

Intergroup Conflict

Dysfunctional Conflict

Any confrontation or interaction between

groups that harms the organization or hinders

the achievement of organizational goals.

Functional Conflict

A confrontation between groups that

enhances and benefits the organization’s

performance.

New Learning

Innovation

Creativity

What Causes Intergroup Conflict?

• Work Interdependence– Pooled Interdependence– Sequential Interdependence– Reciprocal Interdependence

• Goal Differences– Mutually Exclusive Goals– Different Time Horizon

• Limited Resources

Banks

Assembly Lines

R&D

Planning

Design

What Causes Intergroup Conflict?

• Perceptual Differences

• Status Incongruency

• Specialists

The Consequences of Dysfunctional Intergroup Conflict

Changes within Groups Changes between Groups

- Increased Group Cohesiveness

- Emphasis on Loyalty

- Rise in Autocratic Leadership

- Focus on Activity

- Distorted Perceptions

- Negative Stereotyping

- Decreased Communication

Managing Group Conflict

Antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to thwart the intentions

or goals of another.

Styles to Handle Conflict

Cooperativeness

Assertiveness

Low High

High

CompetingAvoiding

Compromising

Accommodating Collaborating

Solving Intergroup Conflict

• Problem Solving

Rearrange deck chairs

Enemy

Rational

Exchange process

• Superordinate Goal

• Alter Structure

• Negotiations

Stimulating Conflict

Techniques managers can use to increase conflict in order to achieve functional consequences.

Bringing Outside Individuals into

the Group

Altering the Organization’s

Structure

Stimulating Competition

Making Use of Programmed

Conflict

Devil’s advocacy

Incentives

Negotiations Defined

Negotiations may be viewed as a process in which two or more parties attempt to reach

acceptable agreement in a situation characterized by some level of disagreement.

Using Third-Party Negotiations

• Mediation– Allowing a neutral third party to act as a facilitator through

the application of reasoning, suggestion, and persuasion.

• Arbitration– Is where the third party has the power

(authority) to impose an agreement.

• Conciliation– Occurs where the third party is someone who is

trusted by both sides and services primarily as a communication link between the disagreeing parties.

What a Difference a Century Can MakeContrasting views of the corporation:

CHARACTERISTIC 20TH CENTURY 21ST CENTURY

ORGANIZATION The Pyramid The Web or Network

FOCUS Internal External

STYLE Structured Flexible

SOURCE OF STRENGHT Stability Change

STRUCTURE Self-sufficiency Interdependencies

RESOUCES Atoms-physical assetsBits-information

OPERATIONS Vertical integration Virtual integration

PRODUCTS Mass production Mass customization

REACH Domestic GlobalDATA: BUSINESS WEEK 2000

What a Difference a Century Can MakeContrasting views of the corporation:

CHARACTERISTIC 20TH CENTURY 21ST CENTURY

FININCIALS Quarterly Real time

INVENTORIES Months Hours

STRATEGY Top-down Bottom-up

LEADERSHIP Dogmatic Inspirational

WORKERS Employees Employees/free agents

JOB EXPECTIONS Security Personal growth

MOTIVATION To compete To build

IMPROVEMENTS Incremental Revolutionary

QYALITY Affordable best No compromiseDATA: BUSINESS WEEK 2000

GIVE THEM SOMETHING USEFUL TO DO

VALUE THEM

GIVE THEM A SCORECARD AND A SAY

REWARD CONTRIBUTION