Main Events during the Classical Period (1750-1825)

The Enlightenment (Age of Reason) –

centred in France (though spreading across Europe),

this was a cultural movement which promoted intellectual

interchange and opposed intolerance and abuse from the

Church and state.

Mannheim School –

orchestral techniques pioneered by the court orchestra of

Mannheim which influenced composers such as Haydn,

Hofmann and Mozart.

1760 – The Industrial Revolution (major changes in agriculture,

manufacturing, mining, transportation and technology had a

profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions

of the time).

1769 – Watt’s Steam Engine is patented

The American Revolution

(1775-1783)

1775 – Electric battery invented by Volts

1776 – American Declaration of Independence

1787 – French Revolution -

the absolute monarchy that had

ruled France for centuries

collapsed in three years as society

underwent an epic transformation. 1796 – First vaccination

Feudal, aristocratic and

religious privileges evaporated

as ideas about hierarchy and tradition succumbed to new Enlightenment principals.

1804 – Napoleon crowned Emperor

1819 – First steamship crosses the Atlantic Ocean

1821 – Faraday invents the electric motor and generator

Robert Burns (1759-1796)

Jane Austin (1775-1817)

Music’s Place in Society - Composers

The late 18th

century was a period of great social upheaval. The breakdown of the old

social order reached its culmination in the French Revolution (1789-99) and music ceased to

be the exclusive preserve of pampered aristocrats or prelates (high ranking member of the

Christian clergy). This radical social shift is reflected in the careers of the four great Classical

composers.

The Classical period boasts some of the best known classical composers in the history

of Western music – namely Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert. These composers

formed what is now known as the First Viennese School of Composition and their works are

still part of the core repertoire of classical music as a whole.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) - Austrian

Joseph Haydn was the eldest and longest lived of the ‘First Viennese

School.’ Born when Bach and Handel were at the height of their fame,

he outlived his friend Mozart by 18 years and saw his former

pupil Beethoven well established in his own career. It was Haydn who

practically invented the Classical musical forms of symphony,

concerto, string quartet and sonata. Haydn’s life spanned a period

of great social change. He was one of the last major musicians to work for a single

aristocratic patron – in his case, the Hungarian Esterhazy family at the castle of Eisenstadt,

80km from Vienna. Haydn was isolated at Eszterhaza where there was no one to bother him,

and he was, as he said, ‘forced to become original.’ By the 1780s his international reputation

was spreading rapidly and he managed to negotiate a new contract with his employer which

allowed him to compose for other patrons and have his work published. After the death of

Prince Nikolaus Esterhazy in 1790, he was free to travel for the first time, spreading

European reputation. During his long career, Haydn wrote 104 symphonies, string quartets,

concerts, 15 surviving operas and 12 Masses.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) - Austrian

By the age of four, Wolfgang began to study keyboard and

composition with his father. His elder sister Maira Anna

was also a talented pianist. His father, Leopold, a talented

violinist in the court orchestra of the Archbishop of Slazburg,

saw it as his duty to exhibit his exceptional children to the

world. Mozart wrote his first symphony at the age of eight and by

nineteen was touring in his own right. He moved to Vienna in

1781 were he wrote some of his most celebrated work including his operas The Marriage of

Figaro, Don Giovanni, Cosi fan Tutte and The Magic Flute (full of Masonic symbolism – it

has been suggested that he paid for this with his life) where he displayed his talent for

bringing characters to life and allowing them to express real human emotions through music.

However, the Viennese audiences of the time did not always appreciate this. Mozart wrote 21

piano concertos, 41 symphonies, 24 string quartets and 17 Masses among other chamber

work and concertos. For several years Mozart’s career of teaching, composing and giving

concerts of his own works proved successful. However, Mozart had a reputation for his

arrogance which made him many enemies, including the powerful court composer, Antonio

Salieri. Saleri and his friends were intensely jealous of Mozart’s abundant talent as depicted

in the Oscar-winning film Amadeus which asserts, somewhat unfairly, that he poisoned the

composer. The final years of his brief life were a dismal catalogue of financial worry,

constant moves to cheaper apartments and failing health. His last work was an anonymous

commission for a Requiem Mass. As he worked on this, he became obsessed by the idea that

it would be his own and that he was being poisoned (in fact he had advanced kidney disease).

He died in his wife’s arms in 1791 but because he left little money he was given the cheapest

possible funeral in an unmarked grave. Few mourners accompanied the cortege. The

unfinished Requiem was completed after his death by one of his pupils.

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) - German

Mozart died in Vienna in 1791, a year before the 20 year old

Beethoven arrived in Vienna, keen to make his name as a musician.

By this time, the face of European society was changing fast. The

French Revolution was in full swing and Austria – horrified at the

treatment meted out the French monarchs, particularly Queen

Marie Antoinette, a former Austrian archduchess – had declared

war on France. For more than two decades, Europe would be

ripped apart by war. While Mozart’s life had remained largely

unaffected by international politics, Beethoven’s revolutionary artistic vision was shaped by

the ideology and volcanic social change of the turbulent times in which he lived.

In 1787, Beethoven had hoped to take lessons with Mozart who was much impressed

by the young man’s talent. But his trip was curtailed by news of his mother’s serious illness.

He found an influential patron who later persuaded the elector to allow Beethoven leave to

study with Haydn in Vienna. Beethoven found that his lessons were not a great success but

quickly began to make his name as a pianist with a formidable reputation for improvisation.

Beethoven’s early works show his desire to push the boundaries of conventional

compositional technique, to expand sonata form and to infuse his work with unheard-of

drama and passion. During his life he developed the ‘symphonic ideal’ which Beethoven

perfected at a stroke with his Third Symphony (dedicated to Napoleon) and further celebrated

with his Fifth, Sixth, Seventh and Ninth. This was a revolutionary method of unifying the

symphony through the development of short melodic fragments or motifs over the course of

the work. Beethoven felt that the minuet and trio which traditionally constituted the third

movement of a symphony had outlived its purpose and from the Second Symphony onwards,

replaced with a faster, more dynamic and rhythmically propelled scherzo which still retains

the ternary form structure with a slower, more lyrical middle section.

By the age of 30, at the height of his career, Beethoven was forced to acknowledge

that he was going deaf. For several years he tried to hide his hearing problems for social and

professional reasons. During this time he composed some of his most famous and enduring

work including his only opera Fidelio and Symphonies no.3-6. Symphony no.5 includes the

famous ‘de de de derrr, de de de derrr’ motif and Symphony no.6, The Pastoral is one of

the earliest symphonic examples of ‘tone painting,’ illustrating scenes of Austrian country

life which was revolutionary for its time. In 1824, Beethoven unveiled his 9th

symphony,

bursting the bonds of convention by introducing into the finale a setting for solo voices and

chorus of Schiller’s ‘Ode to Joy.’ Beethoven died of liver disease in 1827 with 10,000 people

said to have watched the funeral procession. The poet Franz Grillparzer spoke these words at

his funeral, ‘[he is] the man who inherited and enriched the immortal fame of Handel and

Bach, of Haydn and Mozart…Until his death he preserved a father’s heart for mankind. Thus

he was, thus he died, thus he will live to the end of time.’

Sonata and Sonata Form

Sonata Sonata Form Exposition First Subject Second Subject

Development Recapitulation Bridge Transition Coda Variation

Alberti Bass Modulation Dominant Tonic Scherzo Minuet and Trio Sequence

Sonata: A work for solo piano, or a solo instrument accompanied by piano, in three or four

movements. The typical structure is:

i. Moderate tempo in sonata form.

ii. Slow tempo.

iii. Scherzo or Minuet and Trio.

iv. Fast tempo.

Sonata Form: Important form for Classical instrumental music. The structure is:

i. Exposition. Introduces the two main themes which are known are the first

subject and the second subject. These themes are written in different keys

and are separated by a transition or bridge passage – a short piece of music

which connects the two themes. The first theme is presented in the tonic while

the second theme is often written in the dominant key (5th

higher or 4th

lower

than the tonic). The Exposition may end with a brief coda – a short piece of

music which rounds off the section. The Exposition will end in the dominant

key.

ii. Development. The composer develops the first and second subjects. Ideas

from both subjects will be taken and developed. For example, he may take the

opening notes of the first subject and create a sequence from these. The

composer will modulate several times in this section before returning to the

tonic at the end of this section.

iii. Recapitulation. The first subject is repeated in a related key. The second

subject, which was originally heard in the dominant, will now be heard in the

tonic. The music will end with a coda – a short passage which rounds off the

music.

Exposition Development Recapitulation

First

Subject

in Tonic

(C)

Bridge

(Transition)

linking the

first and

second

subjects

Second

Subject in

Dominant

(G)

Coda I

(G)

Developmen

t Several

modulations

ending in the

tonic (C)

First

Subject

in a

related

key

Bridge

(Transition)

linking the

first and

second

subjects

Second

Subject

in Tonic

(C)

Coda

II

The composer presents the

two themes (the first and

second subjects) in the tonic

and dominant keys.

The first and second subjects are

developed. For example, he may take

ideas from both subjects and write a

sequence, use imitation of the ideas

between parts, combine ideas. There

will be several modulations before

returning to the tonic.

The first and second subjects

are presented in the tonic

before ending with a coda.

Study Score – Movement I of Mozart’s Piano Sonata No.15 in C

First subject

Written in the tonic key of C major. Note the use of an alberti bass as an accompaniment in

the first phrase. The second phrase begins with a sequence of scales.

Transition I

This passage continues the scalic movement, modulating to the dominant of G major (note

the use of the F# accidental in bar 10) in bar 12.

Second Subject

Written in the dominant key of G. This theme uses a descending triadic figure whereas the

opening theme uses an ascending triadic figure its first phrase.

Transition II

Reinforces the dominant key of G major which the second subject is written in.

Codetta

Short series of perfect cadences in the dominant key of G major.

Development

Having concluded the exposition in the dominant (G major), Mozart now starts the

development in G minor (the dominant minor). He combines an idea from the codetta

(derived from the broken chords found in the first phrase of both subjects, their

accompaniments and the second phrase of the second subject) with the scalic passages found

in the second phrase of the first subject and the first transition.

The music modulates through the following keys – G minor, D minor, A minor – with

imitation between two distinct voices. Modulations are achieving through tonic-dominant

relationships (see score) before moving to the key of F major for the start of the

recapitulation.

Recapitulation

The first subject is now heard in the key of F major.

Transition I’

Starting in F major, this mirrors transition I. However, this time Mozart switches the voices,

giving the scalic passage to the bass voice and chords to the treble voice. As in transition I,

the music then modulates to the dominant before the one bar introduction to the second

subject takes us to the tonic key (C).

Second Subject

As expected, the second subject can now be heard in the tonic of C major.

Transition II’

This is the same as transition I except for the shift in key.

Coda II

Mirroring coda I, firmly establishing the tonic of C major.

Chamber Music

Chamber music: Music written for a small group of musicians with one player per part.

Examples of this are a string quartet, a piano trio (typically a piano, violin and cello), a

woodwind quintet, a solo instrument (flute, cello, violin, clarinet, etc) accompanied by the

piano.

Symphony

Symphony Modulation Sonata Form Exposition Development

Recapitulation Minuet and Trio Scherzo Question and Answer

Motif Unison Relative major Theme and Variations Scherzo

Trio Minuet and Trio Triple time Fugue Coda Compound Time

Symphony: A large work for an orchestra usually in four movements. In the Classical period

the movements were usually:

i. Fast. Often written in sonata form.

ii. Slow

iii. Minuet and Trio (3 beats in a bar). This minuet was later replaced by a scherzo which

is in triple time (3 beats in a bar or in compound time).

iv. Fast

Theme and Variations

Theme and Variations Development Sequence Repetition

Triplets Imitation Canon Coda

Theme and Variations: The theme is a melody, a tune which is the main idea for a

composition. In theme and variations, the theme may form a whole section of the

composition. The variations occurs when the main theme or tune is altered, perhaps by

adding extra notes, changing from major to minor or vice versa, changing harmony, rhythm,,

time signature, or when the them is played in the bass, etc.

Opera – Coloratura

Opera Overture Aria Da Capo Aria Recitative Chorus

Coloratura

Opera: Drama set to music with soloists, chorus, acting and orchestral accompaniment. It

normally performed in a theatre.

Coloratura: Term for high, florid vocal singing which involves scales, runs and ornaments.

Sometimes these passages were written down but often they were extemporised by the

performer.

Excerpts from Mozart’s

‘Queen of the Night’ aria

from The Magic Flute

NEW INVENTIONS!!!

The Piano

The pianoforte was invented around 1709 by Bartolomeo

Cristofori, a harpsichord builder and keeper of the royal

musical instruments in Florence. Early Cristorfi pianos

looked and sounded like contemporary harpsichords and

were half the size of modern pianos.

The main difference between the piano and the

harpsichord was that the strings of the former were

struck by hammers rather than being plucked by quills as

in the harpsichord. The earliest music for the piano was a sonata composed by Lodovico

Giustini in 1732, the year after Cristofori’s death.

The square piano was made in 1742 by Johann Sacher.

Although cheaper to produce, the bass strings had to be

short and were therefore weak in volume. In Britain, square

pianos were made by Johannes Zumpe from 1760 and it was

on one of these instruments that J.C.Bach (a son of J.S.Bach)

gave his London recital. French builder Sebastien Erand

improved the mechanics and sound of the instrument in the

early 19th

century.

By the end of the 18th century the piano had become more than just a fashionable toy and was

a living force in culture and entertainment in the homes of the wealthy.

In 1739, Domenico del Mela experimented with the upright piano. About 1800 it was

discovered that the soundboard could be dropped towards the floor, placing most of the string

length behind the keyboard in front of the player’s knees, thereby decreasing the overall

height of the instrument. In the 1830s the problem of short bass strings was solved with the

invention of the overstrung piano in which shorter strings ran vertically and the bass strings

crossed obliquely over them allowing for greater length. This method is still used today.

Many experiments in the 18th

century helped to develop

the mechanics, function and sound created by the pedals.

In addition, several changes took place with the types of

materials used for the strings. Beethoven and Mozart would

not recognise their music now as the ‘modern’ piano did not

begin to appear until about 1850. The string of the early 19th

century were still quite light and thin and at much lower tension

than today’s models in which they are so rigid that they act

like bars. To increase the volume of the instrument, makers

increased the thickness of the strings.

The Clarinet

The clarinet was invented in the first few years of

the 18th

century by the renowned woodwind maker

Johann Christoph Denner or his Jakob in Nuremburg.

In 1809, Iwan Muller, one of the finest clarinettists of

his day, brought out the prototype of his 13-keyed

model pitched in B flat which was to become the

standard instrument for the next hundred years. The

final major modification occurred between 1839 and

1843 when clarinettist Hyacinthe Klose collaborated

with the maker Louis-August Buffet to simplify the

fingering system.

Mozart was a massive fan of the clarinet, writing

three important works for the clarinettist Anton

Stadler – the Kegelstaff Trio, the Clarinet Quintet and

the Clarinet Concerto.