This WWII poster encouragedcivilians to boost their militaryloved ones' spirits by writingletters.

Lesson: Letters

Lesson Topic: Mail on the Front Lines

Mail on the Front LinesWritten by Krista Garver

Many war movies have a scene in which soldiers gather for mail call.

They wait anxiously to hear their names, and those who receive letters

read theirs aloud. Letters boost the morale, or spirits, of soldiers fighting

in harsh conditions far from their homes. The military has long recognized

the importance of mail, and special systems work to deliver letters to

soldiers. Even prisoners of war regularly receive mail, thanks to

humanitarian organizations, like the International Red Cross, that are

dedicated to helping those in need.

Civil War mail delivery between blueUnion states and red Confederate statescould be difficult because the areas offighting were constantly moving. Lightblue areas represent border states.

Trench warfare was used in WWI andWWII. Soldiers in the front line trenchesoften had to wait a long time for theirmail.

Military mail is delivered in much the same way as civilian mail. The only difference is the type of

address. The military uses the APO/FPO system, which stands for Army Post Office/Fleet Post Office.

This system can send mail to military personnel anywhere in the world.

The huge amount of received mail has tobe sorted by department and divisionbefore it gets to the intended militarypersonnel.

It wasn’t always so easy. During the Revolutionary War,

sending mail was very expensive. Postal couriers on horseback

rode for miles looking for armies. You can probably imagine

that a lot of mail got lost. As mail became more affordable and

more letters were sent, the post office had to develop new

methods. During the Civil War, mail was shipped to the front

lines on wagons and trains, along with food and supplies.

World War I saw a huge increase in mail, so in 1918 the

War Department created the first military mail service in U.S.

history. Mail was routinely carried to the front, along with

rations, ammunition, and other supplies. The supply corps also

transported letters from soldiers away from the front lines.

During heavy battle, the mail could not be delivered, so it was

kept in rest areas and base camps.

Thick jungle combat zones in theVietnam War made battle and mail calldifficult.

By World War II, the demand for mail was very high, and the military postal system operated

worldwide. Letters were written on regular paper and then copied onto microfilm. The microfilm was sent

overseas and then the letters were copied onto much smaller paper. This saved a lot of money on

shipping.

During the Vietnam War, mail was transported overseas on

commercial and military airplanes and ships. The letters were

then put into bags and dropped into the jungle from

helicopters. But the bags were camouflage and often got lost in

the bushes. Helicopters were also used to deliver letters to

aircraft carriers and submarines.

Today, the Internet makes it much easier for soldiers on the front lines to communicate with their

families and friends. There are special times for Internet access built into soldiers' scheduled personal

time, and camps or bases have Internet stations. Even though the Internet provides more instantaneous

access to loved ones, the importance of the human connection that has motivated all forms of military

mail and communication has not diminished with the advance of time and technology.

Lesson: Plan for Saratoga

Lesson Topic: The Revolutionary War: Combat Up Close

The Revolutionary War: Combat Up Close

Written by Krista Garver

As the soldier on the right fires hismusket, the soldier on the left reloads hisweapon.

Combat during the Revolutionary War was much different from that of modern military conflicts. In

contrast to today, with armies using mostly missiles, grenades, and long-range rifles to fight, the

Revolutionary War was fought up close. American and British soldiers used three main weapons:

muskets, bayonets, and cannons.

Soldiers mostly fought in up close and hand-to-hand combat in the Revolutionarywar, as seen in the painting on the left. Today, soldiers are more likely to use longrange weapons.

Muskets: Slow, Heavy, and Inaccurate

A musket is a long-barrelled gun that is fired from the

shoulder. A trained soldier could reload a musket in fifteen

seconds, but after several shots the barrel would be full of ash

that had to be cleaned out. Muskets did not have sights for

aiming. They also were not very accurate, especially at

distances greater than 75 yards. Only about twenty percent of

the shots fired on one side would reach the other side.

American soldiers stand in a line and fireoff volleys at the enemy, using theirmuskets. Notice the soldiers standing bywaiting to fire next while their comradesreload.

Once the troops were close enough toengage in hand-to-hand combat,soldiers used bayonets to attack theirenemy.

It took many people to fire a cannon.This engraving shows Revolutionary Warheroine Molly Pitcher packing thecannon barrel with gun powder.

To make up for these inefficiencies, the men would stand in

a line, shoulder to shoulder, and fire volleys. This meant that

they all fired at the same time. The line behind them would

then step forward and fire while the first set reloaded. And then

they would switch again. The goal was to break up the other

side’s line and disrupt their reloading patterns so that they

could eventually charge the enemy on foot. Since the soldiers

stood in straight lines, the strategy was called “linear tactics.”

Bayonets: Up Close and Dangerous

A bayonet is a knife that can be attached to the barrel of a

musket. After firing on the enemy with muskets and breaking up

their line of soldiers, a unit would attack with bayonets. Most of

the fighting was actually done with bayonets because of the

unreliability and inefficiency of the muskets. Bayonets were also

effective against soldiers on horseback, known as cavalry.

Cannons: Powerful and Destructive

A cannon is a very large gun mounted on wheels. Cannons

were the most powerful weapons of the Revolutionary War

because they could fire a large cannonball or several pounds of

shot all at once. Cannons also had a much longer range than

the smaller firearms. They were highly accurate between about

500 and 1000 yards. At close range they could destroy an entire

unit with one blast.

This painting shows General GeorgeWashington on horseback with a swordin hand as he commands the Americantroops.

Other Weapons

Rifles and pistols were used less frequently. Rifles were more

accurate than muskets, but they took almost one minute to load

and could not be fitted with bayonets. Pistols were even less

accurate than muskets, except at very close ranges, and usually

only officers carried them. Other hand-to-hand weapons

included swords, knives, and tomahawks.

Many men who fought for American independence did so with poor weapons and little combat

training. All they had was the desire to establish their own nation and the willingness to sacrifice

everything for that. Many died and many more were injured. They were also able to use unique tactics,

such as ambushes, to make the most of their knowledge of the land and do their best to disrupt the

better equipped British army. It just goes to show that superior technology doesn’t always lead to victory.

The British raise a white flag in surrender after the Battle of Yorktownin 1781.

Lesson: Fairy Circles

Lesson Topic: The History of Toll Bridges

The money collected from tolls is usedto finance new projects or maintenanceon highways and bridges.

A ferry existed here at the Old ShorehamBridge in England during medieval timesto the nineteenth century. It took thosefrom Old Shoreham across the river andmarshes to the Pad Inn.

The History of Toll BridgesWritten by Alison Zeller

There are approximately 250 million cars in the United States today, and not one of these

automobiles can cross deep water on its own. For hundreds of years, public and private entities have

been building bridges to promote efficient transportation. There are currently more than 600,000 bridges

in the United States. Many of these are toll bridges and require a fee for passage.

The first principle of a toll bridge is that it provides a quick

and easy route for travelers. Cars are able to pass over the

water at any time of day and get to their destinations (which

would not be the case with a car ferry, for example). For bridge

owners, the obvious benefit is collecting money. That revenue

pays for the costs associated with operating and maintaining

the bridge.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, many private landowners

built bridges. These original toll bridges were usually short and

skinny spans. They were meant for the passage of animals,

buggies, and a few cars.

A single toll collector stands at TheDingman's Ferry Bridge to collect a tollfrom every automobile.

The bridge, over the Detroit River, hadone of the longest suspended centralspans in the world — 1,850 feet. Thebridge's total length is 7,500 feet.Construction began in 1927 and wascompleted in 1929.

As America expanded and the popularity of the automobile surged, the toll bridge changed. State

and local governments began acquiring private bridge structures. Multi-lane toll bridges were built

across large spans of water. Today, toll fees bring in billions of dollars of revenue each year.

The Dingmans Ferry Bridge is one of the last privately

owned toll bridges in the United States. It crosses the Delaware

River to connect Dingmans Ferry, Pennsylvania, and Sandyston

Township, New Jersey. The present bridge is over 100 years

old. Nearly 4,000 cars use the bridge daily. Cars cross for $.75

and trucks pay a toll of $1.25.

Another toll bridge in Detroit, Michigan, connects the United

States with Canada. The Ambassador Bridge represents the

busiest international trade crossing between the United States

and Canada. Nearly 25 percent of all merchandise traded

between the two nations travels across the bridge. More than

10,000 cars pay $4.75 to pass over on the bridge every day.

The span is privately owned by American business executive

Manuel Moroun.

One very famous government-owned toll bridge is California’s Golden Gate Bridge. It crosses the

San Francisco Bay to connect the city of San Francisco with Marin County. Cars pay $6 to cross the 1.7-

mile structure. Well over 110,000 cars cross the toll bridge each day. The tolls generated by this bridge

alone was over $100 million in 2010. This money supports the maintenance of the bridge, plus the bus

and ferry system in San Francisco. If only generating revenue was always as simple as providing a way

to get from Point A to Point B!

Lesson: The Swamp

Lesson Topic: Swamps and Marshes: Essential Ecosystems

A wetland is an area saturated withwater. Both swamps and marshes aretypes of wetlands.

Swamps and Marshes: Essential EcosystemsWritten by Krista Garver

Swamps and marshes are types of wetlands. The

differences between them are where they are found and their

type of vegetation. Swamps are usually found near rivers, and

they are characterized by the presence of trees and shrubs

with woody stems. Marshes form near lakes and ponds. Their

vegetation includes reeds, grasses, and other plants with soft

stems. Both types of wetlands are found all over the world.

The Florida Everglades ishome to the largest marsh inthe United States. It coversmore than 4,000 square miles.

Trees need clever adaptations to survivein swamps. Their root systems extendalong the surface rather than into theground.

Swamps and marshes form in areas with poor surface drainage, so the soil stays wet. Swamps are

like lakes, but shallower. They are mainly found along river floodplains, where they either flood

seasonally (every spring and fall), or stay flooded all of the time. In the United States, most swamps are

found around the Great Lakes and in the South. Swamps are named for the main type of tree that grows

in them; for example, there are Red Maple swamps, cypress swamps, and hardwood swamps.

Marshes form in shallow areas surrounding ponds and lakes and

along coastlines. They are kept wet by streams or groundwater. Marshes

can also be located around rivers, and some are affected by ocean tides.

In some cases, a marsh represents an intermediate step between a pond

and a swamp. Eventually, the area becomes a forest.

Both swamps and marshes can be freshwater or saltwater. These

areas are vibrant ecosystems, providing habitats for many plants and

animals. To survive in swamps and marshes, the vegetation has to adapt

to the wet conditions. Trees growing in swamps spread their roots along

the soil surface rather than down into the ground. This allows them to

access as much oxygen as possible.

When it rains, swamps and marshes absorb water, which reduces flooding in surrounding areas.

They also help keep the soil in place. Swamps are natural water treatment areas. Chemicals such as

nitrogen are absorbed by the plants and trees or sink to the bottom and become buried. This purifies the

water. Marshes are also productive ecosystems: they produce more plants than drier areas, and these

plants play a large role in cleaning the air.

For a long time, humans didn’t recognize the importance of swamps and marshes, so they drained

the areas for farmland and homes. More than 70% of the floodplain swampland in the United States has

been destroyed. But these ecosystems provide us with clean air and clean water, so it is vital that we

protect them, just as we must with the other habitats of the natural world.

This U.S. map shows remainingwetlands in green, marking criticalwildlife sites in red. About half ofwetlands worldwide have beendestroyed in the last 100 years.

Lesson: The Glass Dog

Lesson Topic: The Stunning Art of Glassblowing

The Stunning Art of GlassblowingWritten by Krista Garver

The glass used to make a fish bowl wasmade out of grains of sand heated tovery high temperatures.

This piece of blown glass wasdiscovered in ancient city ruinsin modern day Lebanon.

Look around the room. What are some things that you see

are made of glass? The windows? Lighting fixtures? Drinking

vessels? All of the glass used to make these things was once

just tiny grains of sand on a beach.

Natural glass was first used by humans more than 4,000 years ago. People in the Stone Age

discovered that natural volcanic glass called obsidian was a useful tool for hunting when it was carved

into a sharp arrowhead. Later, the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians used fulgurite (natural glass

made when lightning strikes sand) to make things like beads and jewelry. At that time, the glass was

simply carved or shaped around a mold.

When lightning strikes sand, it instantly melts theminerals in the sand to form a fulgurite, as shown onthe left. A close up of the fulgurite on the right showsthe small crystals of glass that were fused together.

Around 50 B.C.E., glassblowing was discovered. This technique was

done by heating the glass to very high temperatures and then blowing it

into a bubble shape. With this new method, people started to make many

more items out of glass, including drinking vessels and perfume bottles.

Of course, more complex or intricate shapes increased the difficulty of

the glassblowing process.

For many years, glassblowing was a top-secret craft done by only a

few artisans, but in the 1600s a book was published that changed

everything: It told readers how to make and blow glass. Although new

technologies have been introduced since then, the basic process of

glassblowing is still the same.

As one artist blows into the blowpipe toinflate the glass, another rotates the pipeto shape it.

Glass needs to cool slowly or it mightcrack.

The first step in glassblowing is to heat the sand to more

than 2000°F (about as hot as the flame of a blowtorch). At this

temperature, the sand becomes molten and can be easily

shaped. Glassblowers use a tool called a blowpipe, a 4-foot

long metal pipe. The glassblower dips one end of the blowpipe

into the molten glass and then blows on the other end to create

a bubble. As the pipe is turned, more glass is added and blown

until the bubble is the right size. The pipe has to be rotated

constantly so that the bubble doesn’t become lopsided.

Special tools like pliers are used to moreprecisely shape the glass or add detailsto the piece of art.

Once the bubble is big enough, it is shaped using a variety of tools, including a marver, a flat surface

on which to roll and shape the glass; a wooden tool called a block; a bladed tool called a jack; and

tweezers or pliers. More glass can be added to make shapes, and metals can also be added to make

different colors.

When the piece is finished, it is cooled down very slowly in a

process called annealing. This takes about 24 hours, and it

makes the glass stronger. Once the glass is completely cool, it

is smoothed and polished, and then it can be etched and

detailed.

Each glass sculpture usually requires ateam to help put it together; otherwise, itcan take months for Chihuly to do italone.

The glasses we use for drinking weremost likely made in a large factory. Eachfactory-made piece looks almostidentical to the others.

Today most standard glass objects are made in factories, which use artificial vitrification to turn

substances into glass. The materials and techniques are similar to glassblowing: The sand must be

heated to high temperatures to create glass crystals, the crystals are melted down and shaped, and

then the piece cools slowly. However, it is all done in large quantities by programmed machines rather

than by hand.

Despite the intrusion of modern technology, the art of

glassblowing is still alive and well. Dale Chihuly, a famous

American glass artist, has shown the world the many amazing

things that can be done with blown glass. Many galleries

across the world and an entire museum in Seattle is devoted to

his complex and unique work. There, one can see hundreds of

elaborately shaped and assembled sculptures that seem to

burst with color. For those not already familiar with the intricate

process of glassblowing, he has proven that it is indeed an art,

and a very fine one at that.

Lesson: Dr. Dolittle

Lesson Topic: Understanding Your Parrot

Lesson: The TV Buff

Lesson Topic: Who Turned Out the Light?

Extreme weather events cause the mostserious power outages. Following the2011 Japanese tsunami, more than600,000 people were out of power.

Who Turned Out the Light: Causes of an Electrical Blackout

Written by Krista Garver

The U.S. power distribution system isdivided into several regions. If thedistribution center for one region getsdamaged, a blackout can occur overseveral states.

Electricity is the basic power that fuels our everyday life. Almost everything in our homes, from lights

and heaters to refrigerators and computers, runs on electricity. Our schools, hospitals, businesses, and

subways all need electricity. Imagine what would happen to those services if the power went out. Even a

temporary loss of electricity can be catastrophic.

A complete loss of power to an area is called a blackout.

This is the most serious form of power outage. In some cases,

the power is out for only an hour or two. In others, it can be out

for days or even weeks. The causes of these blackouts can be

divided into two main categories: weather, and everything else.

Storms can also make trees fall onpower lines.

According to the Edison Electric Institute, 70% of blackouts

are caused by weather, including some of the most severe

power outages in the world. Hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, and

earthquakes can all damage electrical equipment. Lightning,

wind, ice, snow, and rain can also cause blackouts. It is very

important to protect electrical equipment from all moisture,

including humidity. Moisture can damage the equipment and

creates the danger of electric shock. Even dust and sand can

cause a power outage if they get into electrical circuitry.

The “everything else” category includes a wide variety of causes, such as vehicles crashing into utility

poles and trees falling on power lines. More than ten percent of blackouts are caused by animals such

as birds and squirrels coming into contact with electrical equipment. This causes it to short circuit.

Sometimes power company workers or building contractors accidentally damage the lines and

equipment.

A short circuit happens when the currenttakes a different path than intended in acircuit. This is dangerous because shortcircuits can cause electrical fires.

Too many people using too much power can put a strain on the equipment and cause it to overload.

This is common in the summer in very hot areas, where people often run their air conditioning day and

night. Sometimes a utility company will purposefully schedule power outages when they expect

increased demand. This is called a rolling blackout, and it helps prevent the equipment from becoming

overloaded.

Electrical generators are greatinvestments for businesses as well asprivate residents.

Finally, there can always be problems with the electrical

system, including faults at the power station and damage to the

distribution system. Many institutions like hospitals and

schools, as well as essential services like communications

systems need to protect against the damage that can be

caused by blackouts. They usually have generators to provide

electricity until the system is working again. Even if your home

doesn’t have a generator, it’s still important to carefully prepare

for a blackout. As with any emergency, the best defense is the

simple act of preparation.

Lesson Topic: Television Addiction

Television AddictionWritten by Kerry Hogan

Have you ever sat down to watch television for what feels like a short time, only to find that hours

have passed? Some people report feeling hypnotized by television, which makes it hard to stop

watching. This can happen from time to time, but if you experience this frequently, you may have an

addiction to television.

This advertisement jokesabout the hypnotic effects oftelevision. However, it canturn into a serious addiction.

Television addiction is a type of behavioral addiction characterized by a compulsion to watch

television. This goes beyond simply watching TV frequently. People who are addicted to television watch

more than four hours of TV every day and may skip other activities in favor of watching TV. They rarely

exercise and may have poor eating habits as well. Time that should be spent on taking care of

themselves is instead spent on the couch in front of the television.

Early televisions only featured a fewstations. Now viewers can subscribe tohundreds of stations, making it harder tostop watching.

In the 1970s TV sitcom"Sanford and Son," Fred triesto get rid of his televisionaddiction by being hypnotized.This would likely not work inreal life.

Soccer is enjoyed by kids around theworld, especially in countries whereaccess to technology is limited.

Although television addiction is not officially recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders (DSM), many people are outspoken about the addiction. Many places sponsor a

Screen-Free Week, which encourages people to give up watching TV and using computers and

smartphones for one week. The Campaign for a Commercial Free Childhood, which sponsors Screen-

Free Week nationally, hopes that this will encourage people to spend time communicating with family

and friends instead of watching TV.

Screen-Free Week may help for a while, but others think that more

drastic measures must be taken to fight television addiction. Some

people get rid of their televisions because they cannot resist the

temptation to watch TV constantly. Others designate certain TV-free

days. People who find it extremely difficult to deal with television

addiction may seek the help of a therapist. Therapists recommend not

only turning off the TV, but also replacing it with other activities. New

hobbies can help people avoid the habit of watching television out of

boredom.

Watching a little television from time to time is no big deal.

However, if you find yourself unable to control your television

viewing, you may have a problem. Try to limit the time you

spend in front of the TV. Instead, set time aside to spend with

your friends and family or doing something else outside. It is

important to remain active so you don’t watch too much TV!

Lesson: The Box of Robbers

Lesson Topic: The Writing Career of L. Frank Baum

In 1939, Baum's most famouswork was turned into a movie.

The Writing Career of L. Frank Baum

Written by Krista Garver

L. Frank Baum (1856–1919) is best known for writing The Wonderful

Wizard of Oz, the story of Dorothy’s journey to the Emerald City. What

many do not know is that his writing career began early and included

many works. In his 63 years, Baum wrote nearly 60 novels, 83 short

stories, more than 200 poems, scripts, and newspaper columns. He

wrote many of these works under pen names.

This is the cover ofBaum's CompleteStamp DealersDirectory from 1873.

The Oz books were verypopular. After Baum’s death,several authors continued theseries.

As a boy, Baum became interested in printing, so his father bought him a

printing press. By the age of seventeen, Baum had published two magazines,

The Rose Lawn Home Journal and The Stamp Collector, as well as a stamp

dealers’ directory. At the age of 24, he founded a third magazine, The Poultry

Record. When he was 30 he wrote his first book, which was about chickens.

Baum loved the theater and he also wrote plays. For The Maid of Arran, a melodrama based on a

popular novel, Baum not only wrote the script and the songs, but he played the lead role as well.

Baum continued to write for magazines and newspapers, becoming the editor and columnist for The

Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer in Aberdeen, South Dakota. He also wrote books of fairy tales and nursery

rhymes. Mother Goose in Prose was published in 1897. It was so popular that two years later he wrote

Father Goose: His Book. At 175,000 copies, this book of poems was the best-selling book of 1899.

In 1900, at the age of 44, Baum published The Wonderful Wizard of

Oz, for which he also wrote a stage play, though it is not like the film

we know today. He wrote other fantasy books, but none were as

popular as the Oz books. The series eventually reached 14 novels (two

of which were published after his death), a comic strip, and a book of

short stories.

Many authors choose to write under pseudonyms, or pen names, but Baum had at least seven, both

male and female. He wrote under the names Floyd Akers, Laura Bancroft, John Estes Cook, Capt. Hugh

Fitzgerald, Suzanne Metcalfe, Schuyler Staunton, and Edith Van Dyne. He also wrote at least one novel

anonymously. Almost all of Baum’s fiction was for children, except the books he wrote as Schuyler

Staunton and the anonymous novel.

L. Frank Baum was a very busy man. In addition to writing, he managed stores, bred chickens, and

acted in plays. He was married and raised four children with his wife. As any fan of his can tell, he was

devoted to many interests and people in his life, but writing was one of his greatest talents and passions.

Lesson: The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County

Lesson Topic: Dialect in Mark Twain's Works

Dialect in Mark Twain's WorksWritten by Krista Garver and Laura Kachelmeyer

Anyone that has ever read one of Mark Twain's novels or short stories has most likely noticed

something a little unusual about his writing style. Fo' example, you's might notice thet some o' de wo'ds

look peekoolyar. Or thet th' chareeckers talk 'n a diffrunt way.

Mark Twain didn't forget how to spell or how to use proper grammar; he was using dialect to make

his characters seem more authentic and have personalities of their own.

In Italy, there are different dialectsin each region. Although they allare variations of the StandardItalian, a person from southernItaly might not be able tounderstand a person from thenorth, and vice versa.

A dialect is a particular way of talking that is associated with a

specific region or group of people. Dialects are combinations of how

words are pronounced (an accent) and special vocabulary and

grammar. In the United States, although we all speak English, there

are several regional dialects. The differences in dialects are most

obvious when we compare different words or phrases used to

describe the same thing. For example, in the Pennsylvania Dutch

dialect, "make rain?" means "is it going to rain?" But in Texas, you

might hear someone ask "it fixin to rain?" instead.

The characters Huck Finn and Jim havevery different ways of speaking inTwain's novel about the South.

American writers started using dialect in literature mainly after the Civil War. Mark Twain is

considered one of the best writers of American dialect. In fact, in an explanatory note to Adventures of

Huckleberry Finn, Twain had to explain that he uses a variety of dialects on purpose so that the

characters do not all sound the same: "IN this story a number of dialects are used. The shadings have

not been done in a haphazard fashion, or by guesswork; but painstakingly, and with the trustworthy

guidance and support of personal familiarity with these forms of speech. THE AUTHOR." Since it was a

new practice in literature, people were initially confused by the writing style.

So, why do writers use dialect? The way people speak can give us additional information about them.

We can often tell where people are from based on their accents, but speech gives us other insights as

well. If someone uses very formal, proper English, we assume that person has been well-educated. On

the other hand, when people seem to make a lot of grammatical mistakes while speaking, we might

assume they have not been well-educated. Writers use dialect to create authentic, believable characters

and to give us some background information about them.

During his time as a steamboatcaptain, Mark Twain heard manydifferent dialects as he traveled upand down the Mississippi River.

In Huckleberry Finn, Twain uses dialects to distinguish different

groups of people who live along the Mississippi River. In “The

Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County,” he uses dialect to

distinguish between the social classes of the two main characters.

The narrator in the story (perhaps Twain himself?) speaks

grammatically correct English. His speech is also very formal, and

he uses sophisticated words like conjectured, reminisce, obligations,

and hereunto.

In contrast, Simon Wheeler speaks in the local dialect. He says

“feller” instead of “fellow” and “thish-yer” instead of “this here.”

Wheeler also breaks most of the rules of grammar. As readers, we immediately see these characters as

having different educational backgrounds and possibly belonging to different social classes.

Twain’s use of dialect in this short story sets up certain expectations for the reader, but can also

make us call our assumptions and stereotypes about characters into question. We expect the narrator to

be too clever to be tricked into listening to the "fat and simple" Simon Wheeler. Of course, as the story

progresses, we see that we are wrong. The narrator gets trapped in Simon Wheeler's story telling web,

just as he guessed that his friend wanted! The narrator may be well-educated, but his education means

little to someone that has years of learning from real-life lessons and experiences like Simon Wheeler.

Dialect works best when it operates on two different levels: building characterization and challenging

readers' assumptions. Twain's characters are never as simple as they may sound, and his message is

never as straightforward as we assume. His works are always pushing us to think more deeply and

reflect on our own biases.

Lesson Topic: Golden California: Rushing After the American Dream

James Marshall was working as acarpenter building Sutter's Mill whenhe found a few nuggets of gold in thestream bed.

Golden California:Rushing After the American Dream

Written by Krista Garver

For many people in the 1800s, America was the "Land of Opportunity." It was seen as a place where

someone could find success through hard work and a little ingenuity. The California Gold Rush

exemplifies this optimistic attitude; thousands of people spent their life savings, borrowed money, and

left their families to seek a quick fortune in California.

This painting of the Gold Rush is on display in theCalifornia state capitol building in Sacramento.

When James Marshall discovered gold in northern California

in January 1848, he couldn’t have imagined what a storm he

would unleash. As news of his find spread across the country

and through the world, people boldly dreamed of finding their

own fortune and flocked to California. Between the beginning of

1848 and the end of 1849, the non-native population of

California grew from about 800 to more than 100,000.

Miners built makeshift camps wherevernews of gold led them.

The miners had one thing on theirminds: finding gold. Everything else, likesturdy housing, cleanliness, and safety,came second.

Chinese miners usually lived andworked in mining camps together.Whenever they found gold, they had topay a large Foreign Miners Tax.

The miners lived in camps that sprung up wherever gold was

suspected. Life in the camps was hard, and the cost of living

was high. Since most miners didn’t actually strike it rich, they

lived in extreme poverty. They slept in small tents or simple

wooden buildings, which offered little protection from rain and

snow. Their diet was mostly beans and meat cooked over an

open fire, with very few fruits and vegetables.

The miners were all men—most had left their families

behind—and there were very few women in the camps. For

fun, they mostly played cards and gambled with what little

money they had. As time passed, the camps grew bigger,

sometimes transforming into small towns. Since they sprang up

so quickly, basic services were not organized. Fresh water was

not always available, and the general conditions were pretty

dirty. The miners didn’t bathe or wash their clothes regularly,

so diseases like pneumonia and cholera spread quickly.

Deadly accidents were also common. Since the camps and

towns were built entirely of canvas and wood, fires started

easily. Sometimes a whole town would be destroyed by a fire. About 30% of the miners died from

disease, accidents, or fires.

There were no laws in California at the time, and violence

and theft were also common. Bandits, criminals, and other

thugs ran freely through the camps. Even the names of the

camps were rough: Gouge Eye, Hangtown, Rough and Ready,

and the like.

There was also a large amount of racism, as people came

from all over the world to prospect for gold. Chinese, Mexican,

and Native American people were treated particularly poorly.

They were forced to pay higher taxes and often had their land

claims stolen from them.

Remnants of once bustling mining townsnow sit empty and abandoned in manyareas of California.

Many miners died, and many went back to their homes

without striking it rich. The few who succeeded were able to

send for their families. When the gold ran out in a particular

area, the camps and towns shut down as people packed up

and moved elsewhere. Some of these are still ghost towns

today. They stand in testament to a time when the frontier was

as much a mental state as a geographic one. The people who

once filled the now-empty buildings were among the first

Americans to recognize the potential of westward expansion in

the pursuit of the American Dream.