Magic in the Greco.docx

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11 Notes 12 See also 13 References 14 External links

[edit] Terminology

The principal defining factor of magic in the classical world is that it was held in lowesteem and condemned by the speakers and writers.

[3]According to Robert Parker, "magic

differs from religion as weeds differ from flowers"; magic was often seen as consisting of

practices that range from silly superstition to the wicked and dangerous.[4][5]

However

magic seems to have borrowed from religion, adopting religious ceremonies and divinenames, and the two are sometimes difficult to clearly distinguish.

[6]Magic is often

differentiated from religion in that it is manipulative rather than supplicatory of the deities;

this is not a hard and fast rule, though, and with many ritual acts it is difficult to tellwhether they are coercive or supplicatory. Also, some mainstream religious rites openly set

out to constrain the gods.[7]

Other rough criteria sometimes used to distinguish magic from

religion include: that it is aimed at selfish or immoral ends; and that it is conducted insecrecy, often for a paying client. Religious rites, on the other hand, are more often aimed

at lofty goals such as salvation or rebirth, and are conducted in the open for the benefit of

the community or a group of followers.[8]

Alongside the more common manifestations of state religion, ancient peoples sought

individual contact and assistance, along with influence, with the heavenly realms through

other channels. Religious ritual had the intended purpose of giving a god their just duehonor, or asking for divine intervention and favor, while magic is seen as practiced by those

who seek only power, and often undertaken based on a false scientific basis.[9][10]Ultimately, the practice of magic includes rites that do not play a part in worship, and areultimatelyirreligious.

[11]Associations with this term tend to be an evolving process in

ancient literature, but generally speaking ancient magic reflects aspects of broader religious

traditions in the Mediterranean world, that is, a belief in magic reflects a belief indeities,divination,and words of power. The concept of magic however came to represent a more

coherent and self-reflective tradition exemplified bymagiciansseeking to fuse varying non-

traditional elements of Greco-Roman religious practice into something specifically calledmagic.

[citation needed]This fusing of practices reached its peak in the world of theRoman

Empire,in the 3rd to 5th centuriesCE.This article therefore covers the development of this

tradition and an evolving definition associated with the term "magic" in the texts left to us

by practitioners and authors of the ancient Greco-Roman world.[original research?]

Via Latin magicus, the word "magic" derives from Greek magikos, with "magic" being the

art and craft of the magos, the Greek word for followers of "Zoroaster" (i.e. eitherZoroasterorPseudo-Zoroaster). The relationship with "magic" derives from the Hellenistic

identification of (Pseudo-)Zoroaster as the "inventor" of both astrology and magic. This

was in turn influenced by (among other factors) the Greek penchant for seeking hidden

meanings in words; the name "Zoroaster" was presumed to have something to do with the
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stars (-astr), while magoswas perceived to have to do withgos, the old Greek word for

"magic" (in the modern sense). However, in the main, (Pseudo-)Zoroaster seems to have

been almost exclusively identified with astrology, and magic then remained the domain of

other (real or putative) "magians" such as the synthetic "Ostanes".

Because magos/magikoswere influenced by the association with the old Greek word for"magic", Greek magos/magikosaccordingly held the same meaning that "magic" and

"magician" do today. Although a few Greek writerse.g.Herodotus,Xenophon,Plutarch

did use magosin connection with their descriptions of (Zoroastrian) religious beliefs or

practices, the majority seem to have understood it in the sense of "magician". Accordingly,the more skeptical writers then also identified the "magicians"i.e. the magiansas

charlatans or frauds. InPlato'sSymposium(202e), the Athenian identified them as

maleficent, allowing however a measure of efficacy as a function of the godEros.[12]

Pliny

paints them in a particularly bad light.[13]

TheHistory of Animals,[14]

a work attributed toAristotle,seeks to establish that the planetsand the fixed stars anddaemons(nature spirits) influence life on earth, and advocates a

concept of sympathies and antipathies applied to the forces of the animal world, under the

influence of the stars. The attribution of much of this material may be spurious, since

Books 7-10 of theHistory, in which these ideas mostly appear, are not considered genuineby most scholars (Book 10, for instance, is missing in the oldest extant manuscript).

[15]

However, according to Lynn Thorndike, the material still probably reflects teachings of the

Aristotelianschool,[15]

which subscribed to a quasistellar theology and entertained naturalsympathies and antipathies,

[16]that were, at least in principle,animistic beliefs.

[17]

Thorndike comments: "Greek science at its best was not untainted by magic".[16]

[edit] Magic in Homeric times

This section may containoriginal research.Pleaseimprove itbyverifyingtheclaims made and addingreferences.Statements consisting only of original research

may be removed. (September 2008)

In Greek literature, the earliest magical operation that supports a definition of magic as a

practice aimed at trying to locate and control the secret forces (the sympathies andantipathies that make up these forces) of the world (physis) is found in Book X ofThe

Odyssey(a text stretching back to the early 8th century BCE).[18]

Book X describes the

encounter of the central heroOdysseuswith theTitanCirce,"She who is sister to the

wizard Aeetes, both being children of the Sunby the same mother,Persethe daughter ofthe Ocean,"[19]

on the island ofAeaea.In the story Circe's magic consists in the use of a

wand[20]

againstOdysseusand his men while Odysseus's magic consists of the use of a

secret herb called moly[21]

(revealed to him by the godHermes,"god of the goldenwand")

[22]to defend himself from her attack.

[23]In the story three requisites crucial to the

idiom of "magic" in later literature are found:

1. The use of a mysterious tool endowed with special powers (thewand).
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2. The use of a rare magical herb.[24]3. A divine figure that reveals the secret of the magical act (Hermes).

These are the three most common elements that characterize magic as a system in the later

Hellenisticand greco-Roman periods of history.

Another important definitional element to magic is also found in the story. Circe is

presented as being in the form of a beautiful woman (a temptress) when Odysseus

encounters her on an island. In this encounter Circe uses her wand to change Odysseuscompanions into swine. This may suggest that magic was associated (in this time) with

practices that went against the natural order, or against wise and good forces (Circe is

called a witch by a companion of Odysseus).[25]

In this mode it is worth noting that Circe isrepresentative of a power (theTitans)that had been conquered by the youngerOlympian

godssuch asZeus,PoseidonandHades.[26]

Furthermore she had been banished to the

island of Aeaea after having murdered her husband.[27][original research?]

Interpretively she is

dangerous: secretive, opposed to the gods, a semi-divine power left over from the older godculture of the Titans. However Odysseus has first to visit her before she becomes a threat

and this suggests that she has a relative power in terms of distance, but a very dangerous

one once within reach of her magic. This would fit with the idea of magic being a second

class power: i.e. it does not compare to the powers of tradition and of the gods. Indeed, itappears that it has to work in secret to achieve its ends. Thus, although Circe changes

Odysseus's companions into swine, she has no power over Odysseus himself because of his

own imbued item - the herb - moly. This could be seen as magic being defeatable by othermagic, but we can note that Odysseus's magic is more acceptable because a legitimate god

(Hermes) confers the wisdom of its use to Odysseus.
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"The Sorceress" byJohn William Waterhouse

However Hermes fails to protect Odysseus from Circe's physical charms; and because of

this the hero does eventually succumb to the power of the magic user. Here we see an idea

represented: that users of magic are not to be trusted because of the powers they areprepared to pursue and use, in this case the sexual powers associated with women (i.e.

witches).[28]

This is further shown in that Circe can transform men into beasts; and is also

able to predict the future. This ability is linked with another magical motif of the Odyssey

epic: the necromantic scene in Book XI. Following Circe's instructions on how to journeyto theunderworld,Odysseus digs a trench, pours out as an offering to the dead a drink that

consists of honey, milk, wine and water, and slaughters two black sheep in such a way thattheir blood runs into the ditch.

[29]This attracts the shades of the dead in flocks and by

drinking the blood they regain, for a short time, the ability to communicate with the living(Odysseus) and pass on their knowledge of the future. Dread and danger is associated with

Odysseus performing the act,

Panic drained the blood from my cheekswhile they [Odysseus companions]

prayed to the gods But I sat myself on guard, bare sword in hand, and prevented
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any of the feckless ghosts from approaching the blood before I had speech with

Teiresias [the ghost of a prophet].[29]

The magical act appears to be an act of desperation (Odysseus needs to journey to the

underworld), there is danger associated with the act, which the text suggests only the

fortitude (the morality?) of the character and perhaps also the prayers to the gods byOdysseus men can overcome its peril. Circe lies at the heart of the risky endeavour beingundertaken.

[edit] Magic in Classical Greece

The 6th century BCE gives rise to scattered references of magoi at work in Greece. Many

of these references representing a more positive conceptualisation of magic. Among the

most famous of these Greek magoi, between Homer and the Hellenistic period, are thefigures ofOrpheus,Pythagoras,andEmpedocles.Orpheus is a mythical figure, said to have

lived in Thrace"a generation before Homer" (though he is in fact depicted on 5th-century

ceramics in Greek costume).[27][need quotation to verify]Orphism, or the Orphic Mysteries, seemsalso to have been central to the personages of Pythagoras and Empedocles who lived in the

6th and 5th centuries BCE. Pythagoras for example is said to have described Orpheus, as,

"thefather of melodious songs."[30]

SinceAeschylus(the Greek Playwright) laterdescribes him as he who "haled all things by the rapture of his voice,"

[31]this suggests

belief in the efficacy of song and voice in magic. Orpheus is certainly associated with a

great many deeds: the most famous perhaps being his descent to the underworld to bringback his wife, Eurydice.

[32]Orpheus deeds are not usually condemned or spoken of

negatively. This suggests that some forms of magic were more acceptable. Indeed the term

applied to Orpheus to separate him, presumably, from magicians of ill repute is theios aner

or divine man.[33]

Since magic in the negative sense is often defined by culture, or by

authorities against a sub-culture, this suggests that there was a fine line between acceptanceand condemnation.

[34]This fine line is demonstrated by negative connotations given to

Orpheus life that do exist (in contrast to the generally positive mythology). Plato claimsthat Orpheus attempt to rescue his wife from the underworld lacked,

The courage to die asAlcestisdid for love, choosing rather to scheme his way, living,

intoHades.And it was for this that the gods doomed him, and doomed him justly, to meethis death at the hands of women.

[35]

There was then a price to pay for meddling with magic, powers that should only be the

business of the godseven for one such as Orpheuswithout the proper motivations.[36]

Magical powers were also attributed to the famous mathematician and philosopher

Pythagoras, as recorded in the days of Aristotle.[37]

The traditions concerning Pythagoras

are somewhat complicated because the number of Vitae that do survive are oftencontradictory in their interpretation of the figure of Pythagoras.

[38]Some of the magical acts

attributed to him include: 1. Being seen at the same hour in two cities. 2. A white eagle

permitting him to stroke it. 3. A river greeting him with the words "Hail, Pythagoras!" 4.

Predicting that a dead man would be found on a ship entering a harbor. 5. Predicting the
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appearance of a white bear and declaring it was dead before the messenger reached him

bearing the news. 6. Biting a poisonous snake to death (or in some versions driving a snake

out from a village).[39]

These stories also hint at Pythagoras being one of these "divine man"

figures, (theios aner), his ability to control animals and to transcend space and timeshowing he has been touched by the gods.

Empedocles too has ascribed to him marvelous powers associated with later magicians: that

is, he is able to heal the sick, rejuvenate the old, influence the weather and summon the

dead.[40]

E.R. Dodds in his 1951 book, The Greeks and the Irrational, argued that

Empedocles was a combination of poet, magus, teacher, and scientist.[41]

Dodds argued thatsince much of the acquired knowledge of individuals like Pythagoras or Empedocles was

somewhat mysterious even to those with a rudimentary education, it might be associated

with magic or at least with the learning of a Magus.[42][not in citation given]

It is important to note

that after Empedocles, the scale of magical gifts in exceptional individuals shrinks in theliterature, becoming specialized. Individuals might have the gift of healing, or the gift of

prophecy, but are not usually credited with a wide range of supernatural powers as are

magoi like Orpheus, Pythagoras and Empedocles. Plato reflects such an attitude in his Laws(933a-e) where he takes healers, prophets andsorcerersfor granted. He acknowledges that

these practitioners existed in Athens (and thus presumably in other Greek cities), and they

had to be reckoned with and controlled by laws; but one should not be afraid of them, theirpowers are real, but they themselves represent a rather low order of humanity. An early

Christian analogy is found in the 1st century CE writings of the Apostle Paul. Paul's First

Letter to the Corinthians conceptualizes the idea of a limitation of spiritual gifts.[43][original

research?]

Pythagoras of Samos.
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[edit] Magic in the Hellenistic period

The Hellenistic period (roughly the last three centuriesBCE)is characterized by an avid

interest in magicthough this may simply be because from this period a greater abundanceof texts, both literary and some from actual practitioners, in Greek and in Latin remains. In

fact many of themagical papyrithat are extant were written in the 1st centuries of theCurrent Era,but their concepts, formulas and rituals reflect the earlier Hellenistic period,that is, a time when the systematization of magic in the Greco-Roman world seems to have

taken placeparticularly in the melting pot of varying cultures that was Egypt under the

Ptolemiesand under Rome.[original research?]

The ascendancy oforthodox Christianityby the 5th century CE had much to do with this.

This is reflected by thebook of Actswhere theApostle Paulconvinces manyEphesiansto

bring out their magical books and burn them.[44]

The language of the magical papyri reflectsvarious levels of literary skill, but generally they are standard Greek, and in fact they may

well be closer to the spoken language of the time than to poetry or artistic prose left to us in

literary texts.[45]Many terms are borrowed, in the papyri, it would seem, from the mysterycults; thus magical formulas are sometimes called teletai (literally, "celebration ofmysteries"), or the magician himself is called mystagogos(the priest who leads the

candidates for initiation).[46]

Much Jewish lore and some of the names forGodalso appear

in the magical papyri.JaoforYahweh,Sabaoth,andAdonaiappear quite frequently forexample.

[47]As magicians are concerned with secrets it must have seemed to many

outsiders ofJudaismthat Yahweh was a secret deity, for after all no images were produced

of the Jewish God and God's real name was not pronounced, as the basis of speculation on

magic.[48][not in citation given]

The texts of theGreek magical papyriare often written as we might write a recipe: "Take

the eyes of a bat" for example. So in other words the magic requires certain ingredients,much as Odysseus required the herb Moly to defeat the magic of Circe. But of course it is

not just as simple as knowing how to put a recipe together. Appropriate gestures, at certainpoints in the magical ritual, are required to accompany the ingredients, different gestures it

would seem produce various effects. A magical ritual done in the right way can guarantee

the revealing of dreams and of course the rather useful talent of interpreting them correctly.

In other cases certain spells allow one to send out a daemon or daemons to harm one'senemies or even to break up someone's marriage. There seems to be a self-defining

negativity to some of the magical rituals being expressed in the papyri. So, for example,

love magic can turn into hate magic if the victim does not respond to the love magic.[original

research?]

This self-defined negative aspect to magic (as opposed to other groups defining your

practices as negative even if you dont) is found in various curse tablets, (tabellaedefixionum) left to us from the Greco-Roman world.

[49]The term defixio is derived from

the Latin verb defigere, which means literally "to pin down," but which was also associated

with the idea of delivering someone to the powers of the underworld.[49]

Of course, it wasalso possible to curse an enemy through a spoken word, either in his presence or behind his

back. But due to numbers of curse tablets that have been found it would seem that this type
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of magic was considered more effective. The process involved writing the victim's name on

a thin sheet of lead along with varying magical formulas or symbols, then burying the tablet

in or near a tomb, a place of execution, or a battlefield, to give spirits of the dead power

over the victim. Sometimes the curse tablets were even transfixed with various itemssuchas nails, which were believed to add magical potency.

[49]

Of course for most magic acts or rituals there existed magics to counter the effects.Amulets

were one of the most common protections (or counter-magics) used in the Greco-Roman

world as protection against such fearful things as curses and theevil eye;which were seen

as very real by most of its inhabitants.[50]

While amulets were often made of cheapmaterials, precious stones were believed to have special efficacy. Many thousands of

carved gems were found that clearly had a magical rather than an ornamental function.[51]

Amulets were a very widespread type of magic, because of the fear of other types of magic

such as curses being used against oneself. Thus amulets were actually often a mixture ofvarious formulas fromBabylonian,Egyptian,andGreekelements that were probably worn

by those of most affiliations so as to protect against other forms of magic.[52]

It is

interesting to note that amulets are actually often abbreviated forms of the formulas foundin the extant magical papyri.[52]

Magical tools were thus very common in magical rituals. Tools were probably just asimportant as the spells and incantations that were repeated for each magical ritual. A

magician's kit, probably dating from the 3rd century CE, was discovered in the remains of

the ancient city ofPergamoninAsia Minorand gives direct evidence of this.[53]

The findconsisted of a bronze table and base covered with symbols, a dish (also decorated with

symbols), a large bronze nail with letters inscribed on its flat sides, two bronze rings, and

three black polished stones inscribed with the names of supernatural powers.[54]

What

emerges then, from this evidence, is the conclusion that a type of permanence anduniversality of magic had developed in the Greco-Roman world by the Hellenistic period ifnot earlier. The scholarly consensus strongly suggests that although many testimonies about

magic are relatively late, the practices they reveal are almost certainly much older.However the level of credence or efficacy given to magical practices in the early Greek and

Roman worlds by comparison to the late Hellenistic period is not well known.

[edit] High and low magic

Magical operations largely fall into two categories:theurgicalandgoetic.The word

theurgiain some contexts appears simply to try and glorify the kind of magic that is beingpracticedusually a respectable priest-like figure is associated with the ritual.

[55]Of this,

scholar E.R. Dodds claims:

Proclus grandiloquently defines theurgy as, 'a power higher than all human

wisdom, embracing the blessings of divination, the purifying powers of

initiation, and in a word all operations of divine possession' (Theol.Plat.p. 63).It may be described more simply as magic applied to a religious purpose and

resting on a supposed revelation of a religious character. Whereas vulgar magic
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used names and formula of religious origin to profane ends, theurgy used the

procedures of vulgar magic primarily to a religious end ...[56]

In a typical theurgical rite, contact with divinity occurs either through the soul of the

theurgist or medium leaving the body and ascending to heaven, where the divinity isperceived, or through the descent of the divinity to earth to appear to the theurgist in a

vision or a dream. In the latter case, the divinity is drawn down by appropriate "symbols" or

magical formulae.[57]

According to the Greek philosopherPlotinus(205-270 CE) theurgyattempts to bring all things in the universe into sympathy, and man into connection with all

things via the forces that flow through them.[58]

Theurgiaconnoted an exalted form of

magic, and philosophers interested in magic adopted this term to distinguish themselves

from the magoiorgoeteslower-class practitioners. Goetiawas a derogatory termconnoting low, specious or fraudulent mageia.

[59][60][61]Interestingly,goetiais similar in its

ambiguity to charm: it means both magicandpower to (sexually) attract.

[edit] Magic in the Roman era

Much of the extantRomanliterature dealing with magic are retellings of Greek myths.

Virgils's (70-19 BCE)[62]

Book IV of theAeneidfor example describes a magicalceremony that the hero of the epic, Aeneas, who has landed on the coast of North Africa

after fleeing from Troy, partakes in.[63]

HereAeneasmeets QueenDido,who has just begun

to build the city ofCarthage.Dido falls in love with Aeneas, and wishes him to stay as herprince consort. One is reminded of the Circe episode in the Odyssey and ofJasonand

Medeain Apollonius'Argonautica.In these epics also, a traveling hero meets a beautiful

female who is potentially dangerous, although kind and hospitable as long as her love for

the hero lasts. Thus the clash is set when Fate decrees that Aeneas leave Dido to found a

city of his own (in Italy). Perhaps inevitably Dido's love turns to hate. In her hate she seeksto use a complex magical ritual to bring her former lover back to her. She builds a gigantic

pyre in the main courtyard of her palace and prepares an elaborate sacrifice to the powers ofthe underworld. However Dido soon comes to realize that the love magic is not powerful

enough to bring Aeneas back to her, so she kills herself in her despair, which in fact adds to

the power and thus backlash to her curse.[64]

Dido thus had sealed and extended her cursethrough her suicide. Aeneas was protected by his gods, but because of Dido's use of magic

her curse lingered on leading, according to Virgil, to Rome's near crushing defeat by

Carthage many centuries later.[65]

This seems to demonstrate quite clearly that the Romans

shared the Greek's view of magic as being dangerous and untrustworthy.

The Romans in fact went further than the Greeks in the condemnation and the fearfulnessthat they generate around their concept of magic. Some vivid examples of this are found inthe writings ofSeneca,the philosopher and playwright (c. 5 BCE - 65CE), and his nephew,

Lucan(39-65 CE). Seneca selects some of the most gruesome Greek myths for dramatic

treatment and he greatly adds to the negative connotations already applied to the theme ofmagic,necromancyand the like - where it is given by the mythical tradition (such as

Medea)and sometimes even where there is little negativity indicated towards magic

(Herculeson Mount Oeta for example).[66]

From the dialogue in this incident, that is,
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c_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-55


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betweenDeineira(the wife of Hercules) and her nurse we learn that it may well have been

quite common for jealous wives to consult a witch; as it turns out, the nurse, very

conveniently, is a witch herself.[67]

There is a suggestion in this passage that a great hero

such as Hercules should not be able to be influenced by magical means, but in the end he isovercome by the deadly concoction that the evil magic user (the nurse) passes on to

Hercules, through deceiving Deianira into the belief that she is giving Hercules a lovecharm.

So tooSeneca's Medea, in his version her invocations and incantations are not left to the

imagination, as they were whenApollonius of Rhodeswrote his epic three centuriespreviously.

[68]Here Medea's power of hating (crucial to her magic), which she can switch

on and intensify at will is still the dominant theme, but Medea is now given a full cupboard

of horrors from which to select the most efficient means of magical destruction. Her magic

can even, apparently affect the cosmos, as she claims that she can force down theconstellation of the Snake.

[69]Lucanin Book 6 of his work, thePharsalia,seems to make an

effort to surpass his uncle in portraying the horrors and powers of witchcraft. In his epic

poem, just before the decisive battle ofPharsalusof 48 BCE, in whichJulius Caesardefeatsthe forces ofPompey,the two armies are moving throughThessaly,the country of

witchcraft in Lucan's work. Here one of Pompey's sons consults a famous witch called

Erictho about the outcome of the upcoming confrontation. In Lucan's epic,Ericthois themost powerful ofwitches,and because she is so powerful she is presented as being quite

loathsome and disgusting. Such are her powers that she can even compel some of the lesser

godsto serve her and even cause them to shudder at her spells.[70]

As exaggerated as these

plays are they demonstrate knowledge of magical practices found in the Greek magicalpapyri mentioned earlier and they demonstrate that the audience these works are aimed at

must have easily understood the concept of magic in a negative sense but also in the sense

of being a practice aimed at influencing or controlling the forces of the cosmos, even thegods themselves.

[edit] Personages of the Roman Empire

There are several notable historical personages of the 1st century CE who have many of the

literary characteristics earlier associated with the Greek "divine men" (Orpheus, Pythagoras

and Empedocles). Of particular note areJesusthe Christ,Simon MagusandApollonius ofTyana.

[71]From an outsider's point of view Jesus was a typical miracle-worker. He

exorcised daemons, healed the sick, made prophecies and raised the dead. As Christianity

grew and became seen as a threat to established traditions of religion in the Greco-Roman

world (particularly to the Roman Empire with its policy of emperor worship) Jesus (and by

inference his followers) were accused of being magic users.[72]

Certainly Christian textssuch as theGospelstold a life story full of features common to divinely touched figures:

Jesus divine origin,[73]

his miraculous birth,[74]

and his facing of a powerfuldaemon(Satan)

[75]being but a few examples.

[76]Thegospel of Matthewclaims that Jesus was taken

toEgyptas an infant, this was actually used by hostile sources to explain his knowledge of

magic; according to one rabbinical story, he came back tattooed with spells.[77]

It is alsoargued in rabbinical tradition that Jesus was mad, which was often associated with people

of great power (dynamis).[77]

Scholars such asMorton Smithhave even tried to argue that
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a.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-JesusMagician-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-JesusMagician-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-JesusMagician-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-JesusMagician-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Smithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Smithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Smithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Smithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-JesusMagician-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-JesusMagician-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Magushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witcheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erictho&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessalyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharsalushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharsaliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Annaeus_Lucanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Rhodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_the_Youngerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deineira&action=edit&redlink=1


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Jesus was a magician. Morton Smith, in his book,Jesus the Magician,points out that the

Gospels speak of the "descent of the spirit," the pagans of "possession by a daemon,".

According to Morton Smith both are explanations for very similar phenomena.[77]

If so this

shows the convenience that using the term "magic" had in the Roman Empire - indelineating between what "they do and what you do".

Simon is the name of a magus mentioned in the canonical book ofActs8:9ff, in apocryphal

texts and elsewhere.[78]

In the Book of Acts Simon the Magus is presented as being deeply

impressed by the apostlePeter's cures andexorcismsand by the gift of the Spirit that came

from the apostles laying on of hands; therefore, he "believed and was baptized". ButSimon asks the apostles to sell him their special gift so that he can practice it too. This

seems to represent the attitude of a professional magician. In other words, for Simon, the

power of this new movement is a kind of magic that can be purchased - perhaps a common

practice for magicians in parts of the Greco-Roman world. The Apostles response to Simonwas emphatic in its rejection. The early church drew a strong line of demarcation between

what it practiced and the practices of magic users.[79]

As the church continued to develop

this demarcation Simon comes under even greater scrutiny in later Christian texts. Theprominent Christian authorJustin Martyrfor example, claims that Simon was a magus of

Samaria,and that his followers committed theblasphemyof worshiping Simon as God.[80]

The veracity of this is not certain, but proves the desire of the early Christians to escape anassociation with magic.

The third magus of interest in the period of the Roman Empire isApollonius of Tyana(c.40 AD-c. 120 AD).

[81]Between 217 and 238 FlaviusPhilostratuswrote hisLife of

Apollonius of Tyana,a lengthy, but unreliable novelistic source.[82]

Philostratus was a

protg of the empressJulia Domna,mother of the emperorCaracalla.According to him,

she owned the memoirs of oneDamis,an alleged disciple of Apollonius, and gave these toPhilostratus as the raw material for a literary treatment. Some scholars believe the memoirsof Damis are an invention of Philostratus, others think it was a real book forged by

someone else and used by Philostratus. The latter possibility is more likely. In any case it isa literary fake.

[83]From Philostratus biography Apollonius emerges as an ascetic traveling

teacher. He is usually labeled a new Pythagoras, and at the very least he does represent the

same combination of philosopher and magus that Pythagoras was. According to

Philostratus Apollonius traveled far and wide, as far as India, teaching ideas reasonablyconsistent with traditional Pythagorean doctrine; but in fact, it is most likely that he never

left theGreek Eastof the Roman Empire.[84]

In Late Antiquitytalismansallegedly made by

Apollonius appeared in several Greek cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, as if they were

sent from heaven. They were magical figures and columns erected in public places, meantto protect the cities from plagues and other afflictions.

[85]

[edit] Jewish tradition

Jewish tradition too, has attempted to define certain practices as "magic". Some Talmudic

teachers (and many Greeks and Romans) considered Jesus a magician, and magical bookssuch as the Testament of Solomonand theEighth Book of Moseswere ascribed to Solomon

and Moses in antiquity.[86]

TheWisdom of Solomon,a book consideredapocryphalby
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from Rome in 139 BCE - ostensibly on the grounds that they were magicians.[110]

In 33

BCE astrologers and magicians are explicitly mentioned as having been driven from

Rome.[111]

Twenty years later,Augustusordered all books on the magical arts to be burned.

In 16 CE magicians and astrologers were expelled from Italy, and this was reinstated byedicts ofVespasianin 69 CE and Domitian in 89 CE. The emperorConstantine Iin the 4th

century CE issued a ruling to cover all charges of magic. In it he distinguished betweenhelpful charms, not punishable, and antagonistic spells.[112]

In these cases Romanauthorities specifically decided what forms of magic were acceptable and which were not.

Those that were not acceptable were termed "magic"; those that were acceptable were

usually defined as traditions of the state or practices of the state's religions.

[edit] Summary

John Middletonargues in his article "Theories of Magic"" in theEncyclopaedia of Religionthat:

Magic is usually defined subjectively rather than by any agreed upon content. But there is awide consensus as to what this content is. Most peoples in the world perform acts by which

they intend to bring about certain events or conditions, whether in nature or among people,

that they hold to be the consequences of those acts.[113]

Under this view the various aspects of magic that described, despite how the term "magic"

may be defined by various groupings within the Greco-Roman world, is in fact part of abroader cosmology shared by most people in the ancient world. But it is important to seek

an understanding of the way that groups separate power from power, thus "magic" o

Documents

Magic in the Greco.docx