LSAT*

PrepTest 6Test ID: LL3006

A complete version of PrepTest VI has been reproduced withthe permission of Law School Admission Council, Inc.

Prep Test VI 1992 Law School Admission Council, Inc.

All actual LSAT questions printed within this work are usedwith the permission of Law School Admission Council, Inc.,Box 2000, Newton, PA 18940, the copyright owner. LSACdoes not review or endorse specific test preparation orservices, and inclusion of licensed LSAT questions within thiswork does not imply the review or endorsement of LSAC.

2002 Kaplan Educational Centers

All right reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, byphotostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any

information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the writtenpermission of Kaplan Educational Centers.

Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Analytical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

1 -2- 11

The Taft-Hartley Act, passed by the UnitedStates Congress in 1947, gave states the power toenact right-to-work legislation that prohibitsunion shop agreements. According to such anagreement, a labor union negotiates wages andworking conditions for all workers in a business,and all workers are required to belong to the union.Since 1947, 20 states have adopted right-to-worklaws. Much of the literature concerningright-to-work laws implies that such legislation hasnot actually had a significant impact. This point ofview, however, has not gone uncriticized. ThomasM. Carroll has proposed that the conclusionsdrawn by previous researchers are attributable totheir myopic focus on the premise that, unlessright-to-work laws significantly reduce unionmembership within a state, they have no effect.Carroll argues that the right-to-work laws domatter in that such laws generate differences inreal wages across states. Specifically, Carrollindicates that while right-to-work laws may notdestroy unions by reducing the absolute numberof unionized workers, they do impede the spreadof unions and thereby reduce wages withinright-to-work states. Because the countervailingpower of unions is weakened in right-to-workstates, manufacturers and their suppliers can actcollusively in competitive labor markets, thuslowering wages in the affected industries.

Such a finding has important implicationsregarding the demographics of employment andwages in right-to-work states. Specifically, ifright-to-work laws lower wages by weakeningunion power, minority workers can be expected tosuffer a relatively greater economic disadvantage inright-to-work states than in union shop states. Thisis so because, contrary to what was once thought,unions tend to have a significant positive impacton the economic position of minority workers,especially Black workers, relative to White workers.Most studies concerned with the impact of unionismon the Black workers economic position relative tothe White workers have concentrated on the changesin Black wages due to union membership. That is,they have concentrated on union versus nonunionwage differentials within certain occupationalgroups. In a pioneering study, however, Ashenfelterfinds that these studies overlook an importantfact: although craft unionism increases thedifferential between the wages of White workersand Black workers due to the traditional exclusion

of minority workers from unions in the craft sectorsof the labor market, strong positive wage gains aremade by Black workers within industrial unions.In fact, Ashenfelter estimates that industrialunionism decreases the differential between thewages of Black workers and White workers byabout 3 percent. If state right-to-work laws weakenthe economic power of unions to raise wages, Blackworkers will experience a disproportionate declinein their relative wage positions. Black workers inright-to-work states would therefore experience adecline in their relative economic positions unlessthere is strong economic growth in right-to-workstates, creating labor shortages and thereby drivingup wages.

1. The reasoning behind the literature (line 9), as thatreasoning is presented in the passage, is mostanalogous to the reasoning behind which one of thefollowing situations?

(A) A law is proposed that benefits many butdisadvantages a few; those advocating passageof the law argue that the disadvantages to afew are not so serious that the benefits shouldbe denied to many.

(B) A new tax on certain categories of consumeritems is proposed; those in favor of the taxargue that those affected by the tax are well ableto pay it, since the items taxed are luxury items.

(C) A college sets strict course requirements thatevery student must complete beforegraduating; students already enrolled arguethat it is unfair for the new requirements toapply to those enrolled before the change.

(D) The personnel office of a company designs apromotion policy requiring that allpromotions become effective on January 1;the managers protest that such a policy meansthat they cannot respond fast enough tochanges in staffing needs.

(E) A fare increase in a public transportation systemdoes not significantly reduce the number offares sold; the management of the publictransportation system asserts, therefore, thatthe fare hike has had no negative effects.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

SECTION I

Time35 minutes

27 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated orimplied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However,you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blackenthe corresponding space on your answer sheet.

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

(60)

(65)

1 1-3-12. According to the passage, which one of the following

is true of Carrolls study?

(A) It implies that right-to-work laws have had anegligible effect on workers in right-to-workstates.

(B) It demonstrates that right-to-work laws havesignificantly decreased union membershipfrom what it once was in right-to-work states.

(C) It argues that right-to-work laws have affectedwages in right-to-work states.

(D) It supports the findings of most earlierresearchers.

(E) It explains the mechanisms by which collusionbetween manufacturers and suppliers isaccomplished.

3. It can be inferred from the passage that the authorbelieves which one of the following about craft unions?

(A) Craft unions have been successful in ensuringthat the wages of their members remainhigher than the wages of nonunion workers inthe same occupational groups.

(B) The number of minority workers joining craftunions has increased sharply in states thathave not adopted right-to-work legislation.

(C) Wages for workers belonging to craft unionshave generally risen faster and more steadilythan wages for workers belonging toindustrial unions.

(D) The wages of workers belonging to craftunions have not been significantly affected byright-to-work legislation, although the wagesof workers belonging to industrial unionshave been negatively affected.

(E) The wages of workers belonging to craftunions are more likely to be driven up in theevent of labor shortages than are the wages ofworkers belonging to industrial unions.

4. Which one of the following best describes the effectindustrial unionism has had on the wages of Blackworkers relative to those of White workers, as thateffect is presented in the passage?

(A) Prior to 1947, industrial unionism had littleeffect on the wages of Black workers relativeto those of White workers; since 1947, it hashad a slight positive effect.

(B) Prior to 1947, industrial unionism had astrong positive effect on the wages of Blackworkers relative to those of White workers;since 1947, it has had little effect.

(C) Prior to 1947, industrial unionism had anegative effect on the wages of Black workersrelative to those of White workers; since 1947,it has had a significant positive effect.

(D) Industrial unionism has contributedmoderately to an increase in the wagedifferential between Black workers and Whiteworkers.

(E) Industrial unionism has contributed stronglyto a 3 percent decrease in the wage differentialbetween Black workers and White workers.

5. According to the passage, which one of the followingcould counteract the effects of a decrease in unionseconomic power to raise wages in right-to-work states?

(A) a decrease in the number of union shopagreements

(B) strong economic growth that creates laborshortages

(C) a decrease in membership in craft unions(D) the merging of large industrial unions(E) a decline in the craft sectors of the labor

market

6. Which one of the following best describes thepassage as a whole?

(A) an overview of a problem in researchmethodology and a recommended solution tothat problem

(B) a comparison of two competing theories and asuggestion for reconciling them

(C) a critique of certain legislation and a proposalfor modification of that legislation

(D) a review of research that challenges theconclusions of earlier researchers

(E) a presentation of a specific case that confirmsthe findings of an earlier study

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

1 -4- 11In the late nineteenth century, the need for

women physicians in missionary hospitals inCanton, China, led to expanded opportunities forboth Western and Chinese women. The presence ofWestern women as medical missionaries in Chinawas made possible by certain changes within theWestern missionary movement. Beginning in the1870s, increasingly large numbers of women wereforming womens foreign mission societiesdedicated to the support of womens foreignmission work. Beyond giving the women whoorganized the societies a formal activity outsidetheir home circles, these organizations enabled anincreasing number of single women missionaries(as opposed to women who were part of the moretypical husband-wife missionary teams) to workabroad. Before the formation of these womensorganizations, mission funds had been collected byministers and other church leaders, most of whomemphasized local parish work. What money wasspent on foreign missions was under the controlof exclusively male foreign mission boards whosemembers were uniformly uneasy about the new ideaof sending single women out into the mission field.But as womens groups began raising impressiveamounts of money donated specifically in supportof single women missionaries, the home churchesbowed both to womens changing roles at homeand to increasing numbers of single professionalmissionary women abroad.

Although the idea of employing a womanphysician was a daring one for most Westernmissionaries in China, the advantages of awell-trained Western woman physician could not beignored by Canton mission hospital administrators.A woman physician could attend women patientswithout offending any of the accepted conventionsof female modesty. Eventually, some of thesewomen were able to found and head separatewomens medical institutions, thereby gainingaccess to professional responsibilities far beyondthose available to them at home.

These developments also led to the attainmentof valuable training and status by a significantnumber of Chinese women. The presence of womenphysicians in Canton mission hospitals led manyChinese women to avail themselves of Westernmedicine who might otherwise have failed to doso because of their cultures emphasis on physicalmodesty. In order to provide enough womenphysicians for these patients, growing numbersof young Chinese women were given instructionin medicine. This enabled them to earn anindependent income, something that was thenlargely unavailable to women within traditionalChinese society. Many women graduates wereeventually able to go out on their own into privatepractice, freeing themselves of dependence upon themission community.

The most important result of these opportunities

was the establishment of clear evidence of womensabilities and strengths, clear reasons for affordingwomen expanded opportunities, and clear rolemodels for how these abilities and responsibilitiesmight be exercised.

7. Which one of the following statements aboutWestern women missionaries working abroad can beinferred from the passage?

(A) There were very few women involved inforeign missionary work before the 1870s.

(B) Most women working abroad as missionariesbefore the 1870s were financed by womensforeign mission societies.

(C) Most women employed in mission hospitalsabroad before the 1870s were trained asnurses rather than as physicians.

(D) The majority of professional womenmissionaries working abroad before the 1870swere located in Canton, China.

(E) Most women missionaries working abroadbefore the 1870s were married to men whowere also missionaries.

8. The author mentions that most foreign mission boardswere exclusively male most probably in order to

(A) contrast foreign mission boards with the boardsof secular organizations sending aid to China

(B) explain the policy of foreign mission boardstoward training Chinese women in medicine

(C) justify the preference of foreign missionboards for professionally qualifiedmissionaries

(D) help account for the attitude of foreignmission boards towards sending singlewomen missionaries abroad

(E) differentiate foreign mission boards fromboards directing parish work at home

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

(60)

(65)

1 1-5-19. Which one of the following best describes the

organization of the passage?

(A) A situation is described, conditions thatbrought about the situation are explained,and results of the situation are enumerated.

(B) An assertion is made, statements supportingand refuting the assertion are examined, anda conclusion is drawn.

(C) An obstacle is identified, a variety of possibleways to overcome the obstacle are presented,and an opinion is ventured.

(D) A predicament is outlined, factors leading upto the predicament are scrutinized, and atentative resolution of the predicament isrecommended.

(E) A development is analyzed, the drawbacks andadvantages accompanying the developmentare contrasted, and an eventual outcome ispredicted.

10. Which one of the following, if true, would mostundermine the authors analysis of the reason for theincreasing number of single women missionaries sentabroad beginning in the 1870s?

(A) TheWestern church boards that sent thegreatest number of single women missionariesabroad had not received any financial supportfrom womens auxiliary groups.

(B) The women who were sent abroad as missionaryphysicians had been raised in families with astrong history of missionary commitment.

(C) Most of the single missionary women sentabroad were trained as teachers and translatorsrather than as medical practitioners.

(D) The Western church boards tended to sendabroad single missionary women who hadpreviously been active in local parish work.

(E) None of the single missionary women whowere sent abroad were active members offoreign mission boards.

11. According to the passage, which one of the followingwas a factor in the acceptance of Western women asphysicians in mission hospitals in Canton, China?

(A) the number of male physicians practicing inthat region

(B) the specific womens foreign mission societythat supplied the funding

(C) the specific home parishes from which themissionary women came

(D) the cultural conventions of the host society(E) the relations between the foreign mission

boards and the hospital administrators

12. The passage suggests which one of the followingabout medical practices in late-nineteenth-centuryCanton, China?

(A) There was great suspicion of non-Chinesemedical practices.

(B) Medical care was more often administered inthe home than in hospitals.

(C) It was customary for women physicians todonate a portion of their income for themaintenance of their extended family.

(D) It was not customary for female patients to betreated by male physicians.

(E) Young women tended to be afforded as manyeducational opportunities in medicine asyoung men were.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

In recent years the early music movement, whichadvocates performing a work as it was performedat the time of its composition, has taken on thecharacter of a crusade, particularly as it has movedbeyond the sphere of medieval and baroque musicand into music from the late eighteenth and earlynineteenth centuries by composers such as Mozartand Beethoven. Granted, knowledge about theexperience of playing old music on now-obsoleteinstruments has been of inestimable value toscholars. Nevertheless, the early music approachto performance raises profound and troublingquestions.

Early music advocates assume that composerswrite only for the instruments available to them,but evidence suggests that composers of Beethovensstature imagined extraordinarily high and low notesas part of their compositions, even when theyrecognized that such notes could not be played oninstruments available at the time. In the score ofBeethovens first piano concerto, there is a wrongnote, a high F-natural where the melody obviouslycalls for a high F-sharp, but pianos did not havethis high an F-sharp when Beethoven composedthe concerto. Because Beethoven once expresseda desire to revise his early works to exploit theextended range of pianos that became available tohim some years later, it seems likely that he wouldhave played the F-sharp if given the opportunity.To use a piano exactly contemporary with theworks composition would require playing a notethat was probably frustrating for Beethoven himselfto have had to play.

In addition, early music advocates ofteninadvertently divorce music and its performancefrom the life of which they were, and are, a part.The discovery that Haydns and Mozartssymphonies were conducted during their lifetimesby a pianist who played the chords to keep theorchestra together has given rise to early musicrecordings in which a piano can be heardobtrusively in the foreground, despite evidenceindicating that the orchestral piano was virtuallyinaudible to audiences at eighteenth-centuryconcerts and was dropped as musically unnecessarywhen a better way to beat time was found. Andalthough in the early nineteenth century the firstthree movements (sections) of Mozarts andBeethovens symphonies were often played faster,and the last movement slower, than today, thisdifference can readily be explained by the fact thatat that time audiences applauded at the end of eachmovement, rather than withholding applause untilthe end of the entire work. As a result, musicianswere not forced into extra brilliance in the finale inorder to generate applause, as they are now. Torestore the original tempo of these symphoniesrepresents an irrational denial of the fact that ourconcepts of musical intensity and excitement have,quite simply, changed.

13. It can be inferred from the passage that by a pianoexactly contemporary (line 30) with thecomposition of Beethovens first piano concerto, theauthor means the kind of piano that was

(A) designed to be inaudible to the audience whenused by conductors of orchestras

(B) incapable of playing the high F-natural that isin the score of Beethovens original version ofthe concerto

(C) unavailable to Mozart and Haydn(D) incapable of playing the high F-sharp that the

melody of the concerto calls for(E) influential in Beethovens decision to revise his

early compositions

14. Which one of the following best expresses the mainidea of the passage?

(A) The early music movement has yet to resolve anumber of troubling questions regarding itsapproach to the performance of music.

(B) The early music movement, while largelysuccessful in its approach to the performance ofmedieval and baroquemusic, has yet to justify itsuse of obsolete instruments in the performanceof music by Beethoven andMozart.

(C) The early music approach to performanceoften assumes that composers write musicthat is perfectly tailored to the limitations ofthe instruments on which it will beperformed during their lifetimes.

(D) Although advocates of early music knowmuchabout the instruments used to performmusic atthe time it was composed, they lack informationregarding how the style of such performanceshas changed since such music was written.

(E) The early music movement has not yet fullyexploited the knowledge that it has gainedfrom playing music on instruments availableat the time such music was composed.

15. In the second paragraph, the author discussesBeethovens first piano concerto primarily in order to

(A) illustrate how piano music began to change inresponse to the extended range of pianos thatbecame available during Beethovens lifetime

(B) illustrate how Beethovens work failed toanticipate the changes in the design ofinstruments that were about to be madeduring his lifetime

(C) suggest that early music advocates commonlyperform music using scores that do not reflectrevisions made to the music years after it wasoriginally composed

(D) illustrate how composers like Beethovensometimes composed music that called fornotes that could not be played on instrumentsthat were currently available

(E) provide an example of a piano composition thatis especially amenable to being played on pianosavailable at the time the music was composed

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

1 -6- 11

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

(60)

1 1-7-116. The author suggests that the final movements of

symphonies by Mozart and Beethoven might beplayed more slowly by todays orchestras if whichone of the following were to occur?

(A) orchestras were to use instruments no moreadvanced in design than those used byorchestras at the time Mozart and Beethovencomposed their symphonies

(B) audiences were to return to the custom ofapplauding at the end of each movement of asymphony

(C) audiences were to reserve their most enthusiasticapplause for the most brilliantly played finales

(D) conductors were to return to the practice ofplaying the chords on an orchestral piano tokeep the orchestra together

(E) conductors were to conduct the symphonies inthe manner in which Beethoven and Mozarthad conducted them

17. Which one of the following best describes theorganization of the last paragraph?

(A) A generalization is made, evidence underminingit is presented, and a conclusion rejecting it isthen drawn.

(B) A criticism is stated and then elaborated withtwo supporting examples.

(C) An assumption is identified and then evidenceundermining its validity is presented.

(D) An assertion is made and evidence frequentlyprovided in support of it is then criticallyevaluated.

(E) Two specific cases are presented and then aconclusion regarding their significance is drawn.

18. It can be inferred from the passage that the authorsexplanation in lines 50-54 would be most weakened ifwhich one of the following were true?

(A) Musicians who perform in modern orchestrasgenerally receive more extensive training thandid their nineteenth-century counterparts.

(B) Breaks between the movements of symphoniesperformed during the early nineteenth centuryoften lasted longer than they do today becausenineteenth-century musicians needed to retunetheir instruments between each movement.

(C) Early nineteenth-century orchestral musicianswere generally as concerned with the audiencesresponse to their music as are the musicianswho perform today in modern orchestras.

(D) Early nineteenth-century audiences applaudedonly perfunctorily after the first threemovements of symphonies and conventionallywithheld their most enthusiastic applause untilthe final movement was completed.

(E) Early nineteenth-century audiences weregenerally more knowledgeable about musicthan are their modern counterparts.

19. It can be inferred from the passage that the authorwould be most likely to agree with which one of thefollowing assertions regarding the early musicrecordings mentioned in the third paragraph?

(A) These recordings fail to recognize that the lastmovements of Haydns and Mozartssymphonies were often played slower in theeighteenth century than they are played today.

(B) These recordings betray the influence ofbaroque musical styles on those early musicadvocates who have recently turned theirattention to the music of Haydn and Mozart.

(C) By making audible the sound of an orchestralpiano that was inaudible in eighteenth-centuryperformances, these recordings attempt toachieve aesthetic integrity at the expense ofhistorical authenticity.

(D) By making audible the sound of an orchestralpiano that was inaudible in eighteenth-centuryperformances, these recordings unwittinglycreate music that is unlike whateighteenth-century audiences heard.

(E) These recordings suggest that at least someadvocates of early music recognize thatconcepts of musical intensity and excitementhave changed since Haydn and Mozartcomposed their symphonies.

20. The author suggests that the modern audiencestendency to withhold applause until the end of asymphonys performance is primarily related towhich one of the following?

(A) the replacement of the orchestral piano as amethod of keeping the orchestra together

(B) a gradual increase since the time of Mozartand Beethoven in audiences expectationsregarding the ability of orchestral musicians

(C) a change since the early nineteenth century inaudiences concepts of musical excitement andintensity

(D) a more sophisticated appreciation of thestructural integrity of the symphony as apiece of music

(E) the tendency of orchestral musicians toemploy their most brilliant effects in the earlymovements of symphonies composed byMozart and Beethoven

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

1 -8- 11Although the United States steel industry faces

widely publicized economic problems that haveeroded its steel production capacity, not all branchesof the industry have been equally affected. The steelindustry is not monolithic: it includes integratedproducers, minimills, and specialty-steel mills. Theintegrated producers start with iron ore and coaland produce a wide assortment of shaped steels.The minimills reprocess scrap steel into a limitedrange of low-quality products, such as reinforcingrods for concrete. The specialty-steel mills aresimilar to minimills in that they tend to be smallerthan the integrated producers and are based onscrap, but they manufacture much more expensiveproducts than minimills do and commonly have anactive in-house research-and-development effort.

Both minimills and specialty-steel mills havesucceeded in avoiding the worst of the economicdifficulties that are afflicting integrated steelproducers, and some of the mills are quiteprofitable. Both take advantage of new technologyfor refining and casting steel, such as continuouscasting, as soon as it becomes available. Theminimills concentrate on producing a narrow rangeof products for sale in their immediate geographicarea, whereas specialty-steel mills preserveflexibility in their operations in order to fulfill acustomers particular specifications.

Among the factors that constrain thecompetitiveness of integrated producers areexcessive labor, energy, and capital costs, as well asmanufacturing inflexibility. Their equipment is oldand less automated, and does not incorporate manyof the latest refinements in steelmaking technology.(For example, only about half of the United Statesintegrated producers have continuous casters,which combine pouring and rolling into oneoperation and thus save the cost of separate rollingequipment.) One might conclude that the older,labor-intensive machinery still operating in UnitedStates integrated plants is at fault for the poorperformance of the United States industry, but thiscannot explain why Japanese integrated producers,who produce a higher-quality product using lessenergy and labor, are also experiencing economictrouble. The fact is that the common technologicaldenominator of integrated producers is an inherentlyinefficient process that is still rooted in thenineteenth century.

Integrated producers have been unable tocompete successfully with minimills because theminimills, like specialty-steel mills, have dispensedalmost entirely with the archaic energy- andcapital-intensive front end of integrated steelmaking:the iron-smelting process, including the mining andpreparation of the raw materials and theblast-furnace operation. In addition, minimills havefound a profitable way to market steel products:as indicated above, they sell their finished productslocally, thereby reducing transportation costs, and

concentrate on a limited range of shapes and sizeswithin a narrow group of products that can bemanufactured economically. For these reasons,minimills have been able to avoid the economicdecline affecting integrated steel producers.

21. Which one of the following best expresses the mainidea of the passage?

(A) United States steel producers face economicproblems that are shared by producers inother nations.

(B) Minimills are the most successful steelproducers because they best meet marketdemands for cheap steel.

(C) Minimills and specialty-steel mills are moreeconomically competitive than integratedproducers because they use new technologyand avoid the costs of the iron-smeltingprocess.

(D) United States steel producers are experiencingan economic decline that can be traced backto the nineteenth century.

(E) New steelmaking technologies such ascontinuous casting will replace blast-furnaceoperations to reverse the decline in UnitedStates steel production.

22. The author mentions all of the following as featuresof minimills EXCEPT

(A) flexibility in their operations(B) local sale of their products(C) avoidance of mining operations(D) use of new steel-refining technology(E) a limited range of low-quality products

23. The author of the passage refers to Japaneseintegrated producers (line 43) primarily in order tosupport the view that

(A) different economic difficulties face the steelindustries of different nations

(B) not all integrated producers share a commontechnological denominator

(C) labor-intensive machinery cannot be blamedfor the economic condition of United Statesintegrated steel producers

(D) modern steelmaking technology is generallylabor- and energy-efficient

(E) labor-intensive machinery is an economicburden on United States integrated steelproducers

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

(60)

(65)

1 1-9-124. Which one of the following best describes the

organization of the third paragraph?

(A) A hypothesis is proposed and supported; thenan opposing view is presented and criticized.

(B) A debate is described and illustrated; then acontrast is made and the debate is resolved.

(C) A dilemma is described and cited as evidencefor a broader criticism.

(D) A proposition is stated and argued, thenrejected in favor of a more general statement,which is supported with additional evidence.

(E) General statements are made and details given;then an explanation is proposed and rejected,and an alternative is offered.

25. It can be inferred from the passage that United Statesspecialty-steel mills generally differ from integratedsteel producers in that the specialty-steel mills

(A) sell products in a restricted geographical area(B) share the economic troubles of the minimills(C) resemble specialty-steel mills found in Japan(D) concentrate on producing a narrow range of

products(E) do not operate blast furnaces

26. Each of the following describes an industry facing aproblem also experienced by United States integratedsteel producers EXCEPT

(A) a paper-manufacturing company thatexperiences difficulty in obtaining enoughtimber and other raw materials to meet itsorders

(B) a food-canning plant whose canning machinesmust constantly be tended by human operators

(C) a textile firm that spends heavily on capitalequipment and energy to process raw cottonbefore it is turned into fabric

(D) a window-glass manufacturer that is unable toproduce quickly different varieties of glasswith special features required by certaincustomers

(E) a leather-goods company whose hand-operatedcutting and stitching machines weremanufactured in Italy in the 1920s

27. Which one of the following, if true, would best serve assupporting evidence for the authors explanation of theeconomic condition of integrated steel producers?

(A) Those nations that derive a larger percentageof their annual steel production fromminimills than the United States does alsohave a smaller per capita trade deficit.

(B) Many integrated steel producers are as adeptas the specialty-steel mills at producinghigh-quality products to meet customerspecifications.

(C) Integrated steel producers in the United Statesare rapidly adopting the production methodsof Japanese integrated producers.

(D) Integrated steel producers in the United Statesare now attempting to develop a worldwidemarket by advertising heavily.

(E) Those nations in which iron-smeltingoperations are carried out independently ofsteel production must heavily subsidize thoseoperations in order to make them profitable.

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOURWORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOTWORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

2 -10- 222

1. A law that is not consistently enforced does not serveits purpose. Law without enforcement is not law; it ismerely statutea promise of law. To institute real lawis not merely to declare that such and such behavior isforbidden; it is also to punish those who violate thatedict. Furthermore, those who enforce law mustpunish without favor for their friends or malice fortheir enemies. To punish only those one dislikes whileforgiving others is not to enforce law but to engage inthe arbitrary and unjust exercise of power.

The main point of the passage is that instituting reallaw consists in

(A) the exercise of power(B) authorizing the enforcement of punishments(C) the unbiased punishment of prohibited behavior(D) understanding the purpose of law(E) clearly defining unacceptable behavior

2. Physiological research has uncovered disturbingevidence linking a number of structural disorders tojogging. Among the ailments seemingly connectedwith this now-popular sport are spinal diskdisplacements, stress fractures of the feet and ankles,knee and hip joint deterioration, and tendonitis.Furthermore, these injuries do not occur exclusivelyamong beginning runnersveteran joggers suffer anequal percentage of injuries. What the accumulatingdata suggest is that the human anatomy is not able towithstand the stresses of jogging.

Which one of the following is an assumption of theargument?

(A) The link between jogging and certain structuraldisorders appears to be a causal one.

(B) Jogging causes more serious disorders thanother sports.

(C) The joggers level of experience is a factordetermining the likelihood of a jogging injury.

(D) Some sports are safer for the human body thanjogging.

(E) The human species is not very durable.

3. All students at Pitcombe College were asked to labelthemselves conservative, liberal, or middle-of-the-roadpolitically. Of the students, 25 percent labeledthemselves conservative, 24 percent labeled themselvesliberal, and 51 percent labeled themselvesmiddle-of-the-road.When asked about a particular setof issues, however, 77 percent of the students endorsedwhat is generally regarded as a liberal position.

If all of the statements above are true, which one ofthe following must also be true?

(A) All students who labeled themselves liberalendorsed what is generally regarded as aliberal position on that set of issues.

(B) More students who labeled themselvesmiddle-of-the-road than students who labeledthemselves liberal opposed what is generallyregarded as a liberal position on that set ofissues.

(C) The majority of students who labeledthemselves middle-of-the-road opposed whatis generally regarded as a liberal position onthat set of issues.

(D) Some students who labeled themselvesconservative endorsed what is generallyregarded as a liberal position on that set ofissues.

(E) Some students who labeled themselves liberalendorsed what is generally regarded as aconservative position on that set of issues.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

SECTION II

Time35 minutes

23 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that arecommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answerblacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

2-11-2 224. Lenore: It is naive to think that historical

explanations can be objective. In evaluatingevidence, historians are always influenced bytheir national, political, and class loyalties.

Victor: Still, the very fact that cases of biasedthinking have been detected and sources ofbias identified shows that there are people whocan maintain objectivity.

Victors response does not succeed as a rebuttal ofLenores argument because his response

(A) displays the same kind of biased thinking as thatagainst which Lenores argument is directed

(B) does not address the special case of historianswho purposely distort evidence in order topromote their own political objectives

(C) fails to provide examples of cases in whichbiased thinking has been detected and thesource of that bias identified

(D) does not consider sources of bias in historicalexplanation other than those that are due tonational, political, and class loyalties.

(E) overlooks the possibility that those who detectand identify bias are themselves biased insome way

5. The museums night security guard maintains thatthe thieves who stole the portrait did not enter themuseum at any point at or above ground level.Therefore, the thieves must have gained access to themuseum from below ground level.

The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argumentabove is most similar to that in which one of thefollowing?

(A) The rules stipulate the participants in thecontest be judged on both form and accuracy.The eventual winner was judged highest inneither category, so there must be a thirdcriterion that judges were free to invoke.

(B) The stores competitors claim that the store, inselling off the shirts at those prices, neithermade any profit nor broke even. Consequently,the stores customers must have been able tobuy shirts there at less than the stores cost.

(C) If the census is to be believed, the percentageof men who are married is higher than thepercentage of women who are married. Thus,the census must show a higher number ofmen than of women overall.

(D) The product label establishes that thisinsecticide is safe for both humans and pets.Therefore, the insecticide must also be safefor such wild mammals as deer and rabbits.

(E) As had generally been expected, not allquestionnaires were sent in by the officialdeadline. It follows that plans must have beenmade for the processing of questionnairesreceived late.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

2 -12- 222Questions 67

High-technology medicine is driving up the nationshealth care costs. Recent advances in cataract surgeryillustrate why this is occurring. Cataracts are amajor cause ofblindness, especially in elderly people. Ten years ago, cataractsurgery was painful and not always effective. Thanks to thenew technology used in cataract surgery, the operation nowrestores vision dramatically and is less expensive. These twofactors have caused the number of cataract operationsperformed to increase greatly, which has, in turn, driven upthe total amount spent on cataract surgery.

6. Which one of the following can be inferred from thepassage?

(A) Ten years ago, few people had successfulcataract surgery.

(B) In the long run, the advantages of advancedmedical technology are likely to beoutweighed by the disadvantages.

(C) The total amount spent on cataract surgery hasincreased because the increased number ofpeople electing to have the surgery more thanoffsets the decrease in cost per operation.

(D) Huge increases in the nations health care costsare due primarily to increased demand forsurgery for older people.

(E) Ten years ago, cataract surgery was affordablefor more people than it was last year.

7. Each of the following, if true, would support achallenge to the authors explanation of the increasein the number of cataract operations EXCEPT:

(A) The overall population of the nation hasincreased from what it was ten years ago.

(B) Any one individuals chance of developingcataracts is greater than it was ten years ago.

(C) The number of older people has increasedduring the last ten years.

(D) Today, health insurance covers cataract surgeryfor more people than it did ten years ago.

(E) People who have had unsuccessful cataractsurgery are left with more seriously impairedvision than they had before the surgery.

8. Some companies in fields where skilled employeesare hard to find make signing an agreement not tocompete a condition of employment. In such anagreement the employee promises not to go to workfor a competing firm for a set period after leaving hisor her current employer. Courts are increasinglyruling that these agreements are not binding. Yetparadoxically, for people who signed suchagreements when working for competing firms, manyfirms are unwilling to consider hiring them duringthe period covered by the agreement.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toresolve the paradox?

(A) Many companies will not risk having tobecome involved in lawsuits, even suits thatthey expect to have a favorable outcome,because of the associated costs and publicity.

(B) In some industries, for example the broadcastmedia, companies main source of newemployees tends to be people who are alreadyemployed by competing firms.

(C) Most companies that require their employeesto sign agreements not to compete are awarethat these documents are not legally binding.

(D) Many people who have signed agreements not tocompete are unwilling to renege on a promiseby going to work for a competing firm.

(E) Many companies consider their employeesestablished relationships with clients andother people outside the company to bevaluable company assets.

9. Mary Ann: Our country should, above all, bestrong. Strength gains the respect of othercountries and makes a country admirable.

Inez: There are many examples in history ofcountries that were strong but used theirstrength to commit atrocities. We should judgea country by the morality of its actions, not byits strength. If the actions are morally good,the country is admirable.

Which one of the following is a presupposition thatunderlies Inez argument?

(A) At least one country is admirable.(B) Countries cannot be both strong and moral.(C) It is possible to assign moral weight to the

actions of countries.(D) The citizens of any country believe that

whatever their country does is good.(E) Countries should impose their standards of

morality on other countries by whatevermeans necessary.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

2-13-2 2210. All of Johns friends say they know someone who has

smoked 40 cigarettes a day for the past 40 years andyet who is really fit and well. John does not knowanyone like that and it is quite certain that he is notunique among his friends in this respect.

If the statements in the passage are true, then whichone of the following must also be true?

(A) Smokers often lie about how much they smoke.(B) People often knowingly exaggerate without

intending to lie.(C) All Johns friends know the same lifelong heavy

smoker.(D) Most of Johns friends are not telling the truth.(E) Some of Johns friends are not telling the truth.

11. For democracy to survive, it is imperative that theaverage citizen be able to develop informed opinionsabout important policy issues. In todays society, thismeans that citizens must be able to develop informedopinions on many scientific subjects, from ecosystemsto defense systems. Yet, as scientific knowledgeadvances, the average citizen is increasingly unable toabsorb enough information to develop informedopinions on many important issues.

Of the following, which one follows logically fromthe passage?

(A) Scientists have a duty to educate the public.(B) The survival of democracy is threatened by the

advance of scientific knowledge.(C) Every citizen has a duty to and can become

scientifically literate.(D) The most effective democracy is one that is the

most scientifically unsophisticated.(E) Democracy will survive if there are at least

some citizens who are capable of developinginformed opinions on important scientificissues.

12. By dating fossils of pollen and beetles, whichreturned after an Ice Age glacier left an area, it ispossible to establish an approximate date when awarmer climate developed. In one glacial area, itappears from the insect record that a warm climatedeveloped immediately after the melting of theglacier. From the pollen record, however, it appearsthat the warm climate did not develop until longafter the glacier disappeared.

Each one of the following, if true, helps to explain theapparent discrepancy EXCEPT:

(A) Cold-weather beetle fossils can be mistaken forthose of beetles that live in warm climates.

(B) Warm-weather plants cannot establishthemselves as quickly as can beetles in a newenvironment.

(C) Beetles can survive in a relatively barrenpostglacial area by scavenging.

(D) Since plants spread unevenly in a new climate,researchers can mistake gaps in the pollenrecord as evidence of no new overall growth.

(E) Beetles are among the oldest insect species andare much older than many warm-weatherplants.

13. Using clean-coal technologies to repower existingfactories promises ultimately a substantial reductionof polluting emissions, and will affect the full rangeof pollutants implicated in acid rain. The strategy ofusing these technologies could cut sulfur dioxideemissions by more than 80 percent and nitrogenoxide emissions by more than 50 percent. Theemission of a smaller quantity of nitrogen pollutantswould in turn reduce the formation of noxious ozonein the troposphere.

Which one of the following statements is aninference that can be drawn from the informationgiven in the passage?

(A) Sulfur dioxide emissions are the mostdangerous pollutants implicated in acid rain.

(B) Noxious ozone is formed in factories bychemical reactions involving sulfur dioxide.

(C) Twenty percent of the present level of sulfurdioxide emissions in the atmosphere is notconsidered a harmful level.

(D) A substantial reduction of polluting emissionswill be achieved by the careful design of newfactories.

(E) The choice of technologies in factories couldreduce the formation of noxious ozone in thetroposphere.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

14. Joshua Smiths new novel was criticized by the bookeditor for The Daily Standard as implausible. Thatcriticism, like so many other criticisms from thesame source in the past, is completely unwarranted.As anyone who has actually read the novel wouldagree, each one of the incidents in which Smiths herogets involved is the kind of incident that could verywell have happened to someone or other.

Which one of the following is the most serious errorof reasoning in the argument?

(A) It relies on the assumption that a criticism canlegitimately be dismissed as unwarranted if itis offered by someone who had previouslydisplayed questionable judgment.

(B) It ignores the fact that people can agree aboutsomething even though what they agreeabout is not the case.

(C) It calls into question the intellectual integrity ofthe critic in order to avoid having to addressthe grounds on which the criticism is based.

(D) It takes for granted that a whole story will havea given characteristic if each of its parts hasthat characteristic.

(E) It attempts to justify its conclusion by citingreasons that most people would find plausibleonly if they were already convinced that theconclusion was true.

15. J. J. Thomson, the discoverer of the electron and arecipient of the Nobel Prize in physics, trained manyphysicists, among them seven Nobel Prize winners, 32fellows of the Royal Society of London, and 83professors of physics. This shows that the skills neededfor creative research can be taught and learned.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the argument depends?

(A) J. J. Thomson was an internationally knownphysicist, and scientists came from all overthe world to work with him.

(B) All the scientists trained by J. J. Thomson wererenowned for their creative scientific research.

(C) At least one of the eminent scientists trainedby J. J. Thomson was not a creative researcherbefore coming to study with him.

(D) Creative research in physics requires researchhabits not necessary for creative research inother fields.

(E) Scientists who go on to be the most successfulresearchers often receive their scientificeducation in classes taught by renownedresearch scientists.

16. The ancient Romans understood the principles ofwater power very well, and in some outlying parts oftheir empire they made extensive and excellent use ofwater as an energy source. This makes it all the morestriking that the Romans made do without waterpower in regions dominated by large cities.

Which one of the following, if true, contributes mostto an explanation of the difference described abovein the Romans use of water power?

(A) The ancient Romans were adept at constructingand maintaining aqueducts that could carryquantities of water sufficient to supply largecities over considerable distances.

(B) In the areas in which water power was not used,water flow in rivers and streams was substantialthroughout the year but nevertheless exhibitedsome seasonal variation.

(C) Water power was relatively vulnerable tosabotage, but any damage could be quicklyand inexpensively repaired.

(D) In most areas to which the use of water powerwas not extended, other, more traditionalsources of energy continued to be used.

(E) In heavily populated areas the introduction ofwater power would have been certain to causesocial unrest by depriving large numbers ofpeople of their livelihood.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

2 -14- 222

17. From a book review: The authors blithely claimthat there are three basic ways to store energy:as heat, as electricity, or as kinetic energy.However, I cannot call to mind any effectiveways to store energy as electricity, whereas anycapable student of physics could readilysuggest a few more ways to store energy:chemical, gravitational, nuclear.

The reviewer makes which one of the followingcriticisms of a claim that appears in the book underreview?

(A) There is no reason to consider any particularway to store energy any more basic than anyother.

(B) The list given of ways to store energy is possiblyinaccurate and certainly not exhaustive.

(C) It is overly limiting to treat basic ways to storeenergy as a question unrelated to the questionof effective ways to use energy.

(D) What needs to be considered is not whethervarious ways to store energy are basic butwhether they are effective.

(E) Except possibly for electricity, all ways to storeenergy are equally effective and thereforeequally basic.

18. There is no mystery as to why figurative paintingrevived in the late 1970s. People want to look atrecognizable images. Sorting out art theoriesreflected in abstract paintings is no substitute for thesense of empathy that comes from looking at arealistic painting of a figure in a landscape. Perhapsmembers of the art-viewing public resented abstractart because they felt that its lack of realistic subjectmatter was a rejection of the viewers and their world.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main point of the passage?

(A) Abstract paintings often include shapes orforms that are suggestive of real objects oremotions.

(B) The art-viewing public wished to seetraditional subjects treated in anontraditional manner.

(C) Paintings that depict a recognizable physicalworld rather than the emotional world of theartists life require more artistic talent to create.

(D) The general public is unable to understand thetheories on which abstract painting is based.

(E) The artistic preferences of the art-viewingpublic stimulated the revival.

19. Valitanias long-standing practice of paying highsalaries to its elected politicians has had a disastrouseffect on the level of integrity among politicians in thatcountry. This is because the prospect of earning a highsalary is always attractive to anyone whose primaryaim in life is to make money, so that inevitably thewrong people must have been attracted into Valitanianpolitics: people who are more interested in makingmoney than in serving the needs of the nation.

Which one of the following, if true, would weakenthe argument?

(A) Many Valitanian candidates for elected officespend some of their own money to financetheir campaigns.

(B) Most Valitanian elective offices have four-yearterms.

(C) No more people compete for elected officewhen officeholders are paid well than whenthey are paid poorly.

(D) Only politicians who rely on their offices forincome tend to support policies that advancetheir own selfish interests.

(E) Most of those who are currently Valitanianpoliticians could have obtained better-paidwork outside politics.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

2-15-2 22

Questions 2021

Policy Adviser: Freedom of speech is not only a basichuman right; it is also the only rational policy forthis government to adopt.When ideas are openlyaired, good ideas flourish, silly proposals are easilyrecognized as such, and dangerous ideas can beresponded to by rational argument. Nothing is evergained by forcing citizens to disseminate theirthoughts in secret.

20. The policy advisers method of persuasion, inrecommending a policy of free speech to thegovernment, is best described by which one of thefollowing?

(A) a circular justification of the idea of freespeech as an idea that flourishes when freespeech is allowed

(B) advocating respect for basic rights of citizensfor its own sake

(C) a coupling of moral ideals with self-interest(D) a warning about the difficulty of suppressing

the truth(E) a description of an ideal situation that cannot

realistically be achieved

21. Which one of the following, if true, would moststrengthen the argument?

(A) Most citizens would tolerate some limits onfreedom of speech.

(B) With or without a policy of freedom of speech,governments respond to dangerous ideasirrationally.

(C) Freedom of religion and freedom of assemblyare also basic human rights that governmentsmust recognize.

(D) Governments are less likely to be overthrown ifthey openly adopt a policy allowing freedomof speech.

(E) Great ideas have flourished in societies thatrepress free speech as often as in those thatpermit it.

22. The trustees of the Avonbridge summer dramaworkshop have decided to offer scholarships to the top10 percent of local applicants and the top 10 percent ofnonlocal applicants as judged on the basis of aqualifying audition. They are doing this to ensure thatonly the applicants with the most highly evaluatedauditions are offered scholarships to the program.

Which one of the following points out why thetrustees plan might not be effective in achieving itsgoal?

(A) The best actors can also apply for admission toanother program and then not enroll in theAvonbridge program.

(B) Audition materials that produce good resultsfor one actor may disadvantage another,resulting in inaccurate assessment.

(C) The top 10 percent of local and nonlocalapplicants might not need scholarships to theAvonbridge program.

(D) Some of the applicants who are offeredscholarships could have less highly evaluatedauditions than some of the applicants whoare not offered scholarships.

(E) Dividing applicants into local and nonlocalgroups is unfair because it favors nonlocalapplicants.

23. Book Review: When I read a novel set in a city Iknow well, I must see that the writer knows thecity at least as well as I do if I am to take thatwriter seriously. If the writer is faking, I knowimmediately and do not trust that writer.When a novelist demonstrates the requiredknowledge, I trust the storyteller, so I trust thetale. This trust increases my enjoyment of agood novel. Peter Lees second novel is set inSan Francisco. In this novel, as in his first, Leepasses my test with flying colors.

Which one of the following can be properly inferredfrom the passage?

(A) The book reviewer enjoys virtually any novelwritten by a novelist whom she trusts.

(B) If the book reviewer trusts the novelist as astoryteller, the novel in question must be setin a city the book reviewer knows well.

(C) Peter Lees first novel was set in San Francisco.(D) The book reviewer does not trust any novel set

in a city that she does not know well.(E) The book reviewer does not believe that she

knows San Francisco better than Peter Lee does.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

2 -16- 222

24. Someones benefiting from having done harm toanother person is morally justifiable only if the personwho was harmed knew that what was done could causethat harm but consented to its being done anyway.

Which one of the following judgments most closelyconforms to the principle above?

(A) Attempting to avoid being kept after school aspunishment for breaking a window, Soniafalsely claimed that her brother had broken it;Sonias action was morally unjustifiable sinceit resulted in both children being kept afterschool for something only Sonia had done.

(B) Since Ned would not have won the prize forbest model airplane if Pennys brother hadnot inadvertently damaged her entry whileplaying with it, Ned is morally unjustified inaccepting his prize.

(C) Wesley, a doctor, persuaded Max to take partin a medical experiment in which a new drugwas being tested; since Wesley failed to warnMax about the serious side effects of the drugand the drug proved to have no other effects,Wesley was morally unjustified in using theresults obtained from Max in his report.

(D) Because Rogers mother suffered severecomplications as a result of donating a kidneyto him for a lifesaving kidney transplant, itwas morally unjustifiable for Roger to receivethe transplant, even though his mother,herself a doctor, had been eager for thetransplant to be performed.

(E) For James, who was convicted of havingdefrauded a large number of people out oftheir savings and wrote a book about hisscheme while in prison, to be denied theprofits from his book would be morallyunjustifiable since he has already beenpunished for his crime.

25. Certain governments subsidize certain basicagricultural products in order to guarantee anadequate domestic production of them. But subsidiesencourage more intensive farming, which eventuallyleads to soil exhaustion and drastically reduced yields.

The situation above is most nearly similar to whichone of the following situations with respect to therelationship between the declared intent of agovernmental practice and a circumstance relevant toit?

(A) Certain governments subsidize theaters inorder to attract foreign tourists. But touristsrarely choose a destination for the theatricalperformances it has to offer.

(B) Certain governments restrict imports in orderto keep domestic producers in business. But,since domestic producers do not have to facethe full force of foreign competition, somedomestic producers are able to earninordinately high profits.

(C) Certain governments build strong armedforces in order to forestall armed conflict. Butin order to maintain the sort of discipline andmorale that keeps armed forces strong, thoseforces must be used in actual combatperiodically.

(D) Certain governments reduce taxes on businessesin order to stimulate private investment. Butany investment is to some extent a gamble, andnew business ventures are not always assuccessful as their owners hoped.

(E) Certain governments pass traffic laws in orderto make travel safer. But the population-drivengrowth in volumes of traffic often has theeffect of making travel less safe despite thepassage of new traffic laws.

2-17-2 22

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOURWORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOTWORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

33 -18- 33 3

1. Roses always provide a stunning display of color, butonly those flowers that smell sweet are worthgrowing in a garden. Some roses have no scent.

Which one the following conclusions can be properlydrawn from the passage?

(A) Some flowers which provide a stunning displayof color are not worth growing in a garden.

(B) All flowers with no scent provide a stunningdisplay of color.

(C) Some flowers which are worth growing in agarden have no scent.

(D) Some roses which smell sweet are not worthgrowing in a garden.

(E) No sweet-smelling flower is worth growing in agarden unless it provides a stunning displayof color.

2. The use of money causes a civilization to decline.That this is true is shown by the way the troubles ofWestern civilization began with the invention ofmoney.While real money (gold and silver) is badenough, imitation money (paper money) is a horror.The decline of Western civilization exactly parallelsthe increasing use of moneyboth real money andworthless paper moneyas a substitute for things ofintrinsic value.

Which one of the following, if true, could contributemost to a refutation of the argument?

(A) People prefer using money to having a systemin which goods are bartered for other goodsof equal intrinsic value.

(B) Eastern cultures have used money, and Easterncivilizations have not declined.

(C) The use of paper money encourages disregardfor the value of work because the money itselfhas no intrinsic value.

(D) The rate of exchange between gold and papermoney has fluctuated greatly in Westerncivilization.

(E) Some employers exchange goods for theiremployees services in order to avoid theexchange of money.

3. Fire ants from Brazil now infest the southern UnitedStates. Unlike queen fire ants in Brazil, two queens inthe United States share a nest. Ants from these nestsare more aggressive than those from single-queennests. By destroying virtually all insects in the nestarea, these aggressive ants gain sole access to foodsources, and the ant population skyrockets. Sincecertain predator insects in Brazil limit the fire-antpopulation there, importing such predator insectsinto the United States would be of overall benefit tothe environment by stopping the increase of thefire-ant population in the United States.

Each of the following is an assumption made in theargument EXCEPT:

(A) The imported insects would not prove moredamaging to the environment in the UnitedStates than are the fire ants themselves.

(B) The predator insects from Brazil could survivein the ecological environment found in theUnited States.

(C) The especially aggressive fire ants from thetwo-queen nests would not be able to destroythe Brazilian predator insects.

(D) The predator insects would stop the increase ofthe ant population before the ants spread tostates that are farther north.

(E) The rate of increase of the fire-ant populationwould not exceed the rate at which thepredator insects could kill the ants.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

SECTION III

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

3-19-3 33 34. In an attempt to counter complaints that a certain

pesticide is potentially hazardous to humans ifabsorbed into edible plants, the pesticidemanufacturer has advertised that ounce for ounce,the active ingredient in this pesticide is less toxicthan the active ingredient in mouthwash.

Which one of the following, if true, indicates aweakness in the manufacturers argument?

(A) The ounce-for-ounce toxicity of the activeingredient in mouthwash is less than that ofmost products meant for external use byhumans, such as nail polish or other cosmetics.

(B) The quantity of toxins humans ingest byconsuming plants treated with the pesticideis, on average, much higher than the quantityof toxins humans ingest by using mouthwash.

(C) The container in which the pesticide ispackaged clearly identifies the toxicingredients and carries warnings about theirpotential danger to humans.

(D) On average, the toxins present in the pesticidetake longer than the toxins present inmouthwash to reach harmful levels in thehuman body.

(E) Since the government began to regulate thepesticide industry over ten years ago, therehas been a growing awareness of the dangersof toxins used in pesticides.

Questions 56

Four randomly chosen market research companies eachproduced population estimates for three middle-sizedcities; the estimates of each company were then comparedwith those of the other companies. Two of the cities hadrelatively stable populations, and for them estimates ofcurrent population and of projected population in fiveyears varied little from company to company. However, forthe third city, which was growing rapidly, estimates variedgreatly from company to company.

5. The passage provides the most support for which oneof the following?

(A) It is more difficult to estimate the populationof middle-sized cities than of smaller cities.

(B) Population estimates for rapidly growing citiescan be accurate enough to be useful formarketing.

(C) The rate of change in population of rapidlygrowing cities does not fluctuate.

(D) The market research companies are likely to beequally reliable in estimating the populationof stable cities.

(E) Estimates of a citys future population arelikely to be more accurate than are estimatesof that citys current population.

6. Which one of the following, if true, would best helpexplain why estimates of the current population ofthe rapidly growing city varied more than didcurrent population estimates for the two other cities?

(A) Population changes over time are more uniformfrom one district to another in the rapidlygrowing city than in the two other cities.

(B) The population of the rapidly growing city isincreasing largely as a result of a high birthrate.

(C) The population of the rapidly growing city hasa lower average age than the populations ofeither of the two other cities.

(D) All population estimates of the rapidly growingcity were produced first by estimating thecurrent populations of the citys districts andthen by adding those estimates.

(E) Whereas the companies used different methodsfor estimating the current population of therapidly growing city, the companies used thesame method for the two other cities.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

33 -20- 33 37. Head injury is the most serious type of injury

sustained in motorcycle accidents. The average costto taxpayers for medical care for nonhelmetedmotorcycle-accident victims is twice that for theirhelmeted counterparts. Jurisdictions that haveenacted motorcycle-helmet laws have reduced theincidence and severity of accident-related headinjuries, thereby reducing the cost to taxpayers.Therefore, to achieve similar cost reductions, otherjurisdictions should enact motorcycle-helmet laws.For the same reason jurisdictions should also requirehelmets for horseback riders, since horseback-ridingaccidents are even more likely to cause serious headinjury than motorcycle accidents are.

Which one of the following is an assumption uponwhich the authors conclusion concerning helmets forhorseback riders depends?

(A) Medical care for victims of horseback-ridingaccidents is a financial drain on tax funds.

(B) The higher rate of serious head injury sufferedby victims of horseback-riding accidents isdue to the difference in size between horsesand motorcycles.

(C) The medical costs associated with treatinghead injuries are higher than those for othertypes of injury.

(D) Most fatalities resulting from horseback-ridingand motorcycle accidents could have beenprevented if the victims had been wearinghelmets.

(E) When deciding whether to enact helmet lawsfor motorcyclists and horseback riders, thejurisdictions primary concern is the safety ofits citizens.

8. The senator has long held to the general principle thatno true work of art is obscene, and thus that there isno conflict between the need to encourage free artisticexpression and the need to protect the sensibilities ofthe public from obscenity.When well-known worksgenerally viewed as obscene are cited as possiblecounterexamples, the senator justifies accepting theprinciple by saying that if these works really areobscene then they cannot be works of art.

The senators reasoning contains which one of thefollowing errors?

(A) It seeks to persuade by emotional rather thanintellectual means.

(B) It contains an implicit contradiction.(C) It relies on an assertion of the senators

authority.(D) It assumes what it seeks to establish.(E) It attempts to justify a position by appeal to an

irrelevant consideration.

9. Until he was dismissed amid great controversy,Hastings was considered one of the greatestintelligence agents of all time. It is clear that if hisdismissal was justified, then Hastings was eitherincompetent or else disloyal. Soon after the dismissal,however, it was shown that he had never beenincompetent. Thus, one is forced to conclude thatHastings must have been disloyal.

Which one of the following states an assumptionupon which the argument depends?

(A) Hastingss dismissal was justified.(B) Hastings was a high-ranking intelligence

officer.(C) The dismissal of anyone who was disloyal

would be justified.(D) Anyone whose dismissal was justified was

disloyal.(E) If someone was disloyal or incompetent, then

his dismissal was justified.

10. Anyone who fails to answer a patients questionscannot be a competent physician. That is why I feelconfident about my physicians competence: shecarefully answers every one of my questions, nomatter how trivial.

Which one of the following most closely parallels theflawed reasoning in the argument above?

(A) Anyone who grows up in a large family isaccustomed to making compromises. Meredithis accustomed to making compromises, so shemight have grown up in a large family.

(B) Anyone who is not in favor of this proposal isill informed on the issue. Jeanne opposes theproposal, so she is ill informed on the issue.

(C) No one who likes music misses a performance ofthe symphony. Paul likes music, yet last week hemissed a performance of the symphony.

(D) Anyone who works two or more jobs is unableto find a balance between professional andpersonal life. Maggie has only one job, so shecan find a balance between her professionaland personal life.

(E) No one who is hot-tempered and strong-willedwill succeed in this business. Jeremy isstrong-willed, so he will not succeed in thisbusiness.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

3-21-3 33 311. The annual Journal for Publication, which often

solicits articles, publishes only those articles that areboth submitted before March 6 and written bycertified psychoanalysts. Stevens, who publishesfrequently in psychoanalytic literature, submitted anarticle to the Journal before March 6. This article wasaccepted for publication in the Journal.

Which one of the following conclusions followslogically from the statements above?

(A) Stevens is a psychoanalyst.(B) The Journal frequently accepts Stevens articles.(C) Stevens is an authority on a large number of

topics in psychoanalysis.(D) The Journal asked Stevens to write an article.(E) Stevens recently accepted article will be

interesting to Journal readers.

Questions 1213

Arguing that there was no trade between Europe andEast Asia in the early Middle Ages because there are nowritten records of such trade is like arguing that the yeti,an apelike creature supposedly existing in the Himalayas,does not exist because there have been no scientificallyconfirmed sightings. A verifiable sighting of the yeti wouldprove that the creature does exist, but the absence ofsightings cannot prove that it does not.

12. Which one of the following best expresses the pointof the argument?

(A) Evidence for the existence of trade betweenEurope and East Asia in the early Middle Agesis, like evidence for the existence of the yeti,not scientifically confirmed.

(B) In order to prove that in the early Middle Agesthere was trade between Europe and East Asiait is necessary to find both Asian andEuropean evidence that such trade existed.

(C) That trade between Europe and East Asia didnot exist in the early Middle Ages cannot beestablished simply by the absence of a certainsort of evidence that this trade existed.

(D) The view that there was trade between Europeand East Asia in the early Middle Ages can onlybe disproved by showing that no references tothis trade exist in surviving records.

(E) There is no more evidence that trade betweenEurope and East Asia existed in the earlyMiddle Ages than there is that the yeti exists.

13. Which one of the following considerations, if true,best counters the argument?

(A) Most of the evidence for the existence of tradebetween Europe and East Asia in the earlyMiddle Ages is archaeological and thereforedoes not rely on written records.

(B) Although written records of trade in East Asiain the early Middle Ages survived, there arealmost no European documents from thatperiod that mention trade at all.

(C) Any trade between Europe and East Asia in theearly Middle Ages would necessarily havebeen of very low volume and would haveinvolved high-priced items, such as preciousmetals and silk.

(D) There have been no confirmed sightings of theyeti, but there is indirect evidence, such asfootprints, which if it is accepted as authenticwould establish the yetis existence.

(E) There are surviving European and East Asianwritten records from the early Middle Agesthat do not mention trade between the tworegions but would have been very likely to doso if this trade had existed.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

14. When the economy is in a recession, overall demandfor goods and services is low. If overall demand forgoods and services is low, bank interest rates are alsolow. Therefore, if bank interest rates are not low, theeconomy is not in a recession.

The reasoning in which one of the following mostclosely parallels the reasoning in the argument above?

(A) If the restaurant is full, the parking lot will befull, and if the parking lot is full, therestaurant is full, so if the parking lot is notfull, the restaurant is not full.

(B) If the fish is ready, it is cooked all the waythrough, and if it is cooked through it will bewhite, so if the fish is not white, it is not ready.

(C) If pterodactyls flew by flapping their wings,they must have been warm-blooded, so if theywere cold-blooded, they must have flown onlyby gliding, if they flew at all.

(D) If you want to put in pleats, you will have todouble the amount of material for the skirt,and that means you will have none left for thetop, so if you put in pleats you will not beable to make the top.

(E) If economic forecasters are right, there will beinflation, and if there is inflation, the governingparty will lose the election, so if it does lose theelection, the economic forecasters were right.

15. Twenty years ago the Republic of Rosinia producednearly 100 million tons of potatoes, but last year theharvest barely reached 60 million tons. Agriculturalresearchers, who have failed to develop newhigher-yielding strains of potatoes, are to blame forthis decrease, since they have been concerned only withtheir own research and not with the needs of Rosinia.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the argument depends?

(A) Any current attempts by agriculturalresearchers to develop higher-yielding potatostrains are futile.

(B) Strains of potatoes most commonly grown inRosinia could not have produced the yieldslast year that they once did.

(C) Agricultural researchers often find concretesolutions to practical problems wheninvestigating seemingly unrelated questions.

(D) Wide fluctuations in the size of the potato cropover a twenty-year period are not unusual.

(E) Agricultural research in Rosinia is funded bygovernment grants.

16. An ancient Pavonian text describes how an army ofone million enemies of Pavonia stopped to drink at acertain lake and drank the lake dry. Recently,archaeologists discovered that water-based life wassuddenly absent just after the event was alleged bythe text to have occurred. On the basis of reading thetext and an account of the archaeological evidence,some students concluded that the events describedreally took place.

Which one of the following is a questionable techniqueused by the students to reach their conclusion?

(A) making a generalization about historicalevents on the basis of a single instance of thattype of event

(B) ignoring available, potentially usefulcounterevidence

(C) rejecting a hypothesis because it is seeminglyself-contradictory

(D) considering people and locations whoseexistence cannot be substantiated by modernhistorians

(E) taking evidence that a text has correctlydescribed an effect to show that the text hascorrectly described the cause

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

33 -22- 33 3

17. Samples from the floor of a rock shelter inPennsylvania were dated by analyzing the carbonthey contained. The dates assigned to samplesassociated with human activities formed a consistentseries, beginning with the present and going back intime, a series that was correlated with the depth fromwhich the samples came. The oldest and deepestsample was dated at 19,650 years before the present,plus or minus 2,400 years. Skeptics, viewing that dateas to early and inconsistent with the accepted date ofhuman migration into North America, suggested thatthe samples could have been contaminated bydissolved old carbon carried by percolatinggroundwater from nearby coal deposits.

Which of the following considerations, if true, arguesmost strongly against the suggestion of the skeptics?

(A) No likely mechanism of contaminationinvolving percolating groundwater wouldhave affected the deeper samples from the sitewithout affecting the uppermost sample.

(B) Not every application of the carbon-datingprocedure has led to results that have beengenerally acceptable to scientists.

(C) There is no evidence that people were usingcoal for fuel at any time when the deepestlayer might have been laid down.

(D) No sample in the series, when retested by thecarbon-dating procedure, was assigned anearlier date than that assigned to a samplefrom a layer above it.

(E) No North American site besides the one inPennsylvania has ever yielded a sample towhich the carbon-dating procedure assigned adate that was comparably ancient.

18. Those influenced by modern Western science take itfor granted that a genuine belief in astrology is proofof a credulous and unscientific mind. Yet, in the past,people of indisputable intellectual and scientificbrilliance accepted astrology as a fact. Therefore,there is no scientific basis for rejecting astrology.

The argument is most vulnerable to criticism onwhich one of the following grounds?

(A) A belief can be consistent with the availableevidence and accepted scientific theories atone time but not with the accepted evidenceand theories of a later time.

(B) Since it is controversial whether astrology hasa scientific basis, any argument that attemptsto prove that it has will be specious.

(C) Although the conclusion is intended to hold inall cultures, the evidence advanced in itssupport is drawn only from those culturesstrongly influenced by modernWestern science.

(D) The implicit assumption that all practitioners ofWestern science believe in astrology is false.

(E) The fact that there might be legitimatenonscientific reasons for rejecting astrologyhas been overlooked.

19. AmyMcConnell is considering running for electionagainst the incumbent, Gregory Lutz. If Lutz has alarge campaign fund, then he is already far ahead, andMcConnell will not run against him. If Lutz does nothave a large campaign fund,McConnell will scrutinizeLutzs record for any hints of scandal that she could useagainst him. Anything of a scandalous nature wouldincrease McConnells chances of winning, and shewould campaign for election. If Lutz has a clean record,however,McConnell will not run against him.

Given the information in the passage, which one ofthe following must be false?

(A) Lutz does not have a large campaign fund, andMcConnell does not run against him.

(B) Lutzs record contains items that wouldincrease McConnells chances of winning, andshe runs against him.

(C) Lutzs record contains scandalous items, andMcConnell does not run against him.

(D) Lutzs record contains nothing that wouldincrease McConnells chances of winning, andshe runs against him.

(E) Lutz has a large campaign fund, andMcConnell does not run against him.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

3-23-3 33 3

20. Psychotherapy has been described as a form of moralcoercion. However, when people are coerced, theirability to make choices is restricted, and the goal ofpsychotherapy is to enhance peoples ability to makechoices. Hence, psychotherapy cannot possibly be aform of coercion.

Which one of the following describes a flaw in theargument?

(A) The position being argued against is redefinedunfairly in order to make it an easier target.

(B) Psychotherapy is unfairly criticized for havinga single goal, rather than having manycomplex goals.

(C) No allowance is made for the fact that thepractice or results of psychotherapy mightrun counter to its goals.

(D) The goals of psychotherapy are taken to justifyany means that are used to achieve those goals.

(E) It offers no argument to show that moralcoercion is always undesirable.

21. Joel: A myth is a narrative told to convey acommunitys traditional wisdom. Myths are notgenerally told in the modern world becausethere are no longer bodies of generally acceptedtruths that can be conveyed in this way.

Giselle: Of course there are myths in the modernworld. For example, there is the myth of themachine: we see the human body as a machine,to be fixed by mending defective parts. This maynot be a narrative, but what medically trainedspecialist can deny the existence of that myth?

Which one of the following most accuratelycharacterizes Giselles response to Joels statement?

(A) It offers a scientific explanation to a problemof literary theory.

(B) It points out a weakness in Joels position byadvancing an analogous position.

(C) It is based on an unsupported distinctionbetween traditional societies and the modernworld.

(D) It assumes that Joel is a medically trainedspecialist.

(E) It offers a counterexample that calls intoquestion part of Joels definition of myth.

22. The true scientific significance of a group of unusualfossils discovered by the paleontologist Charles Walcottis more likely to be reflected in a recent classificationthan it was in Walcotts own classification. Walcott was,after all, a prominent member of the scientificestablishment. His classifications are thus unlikely tohave done anything but confirm what establishedscience had already taken to be true.

Which one of the following most accurately describesa questionable technique used in the argument?

(A) It draws conclusions about the merit of aposition and about the content of that positionfrom evidence about the positions source.

(B) It cites two pieces of evidence, each of which isboth questionable and unverifiable, and usesthis evidence to support its conclusions.

(C) It bases a conclusion on two premises thatcontradict each other and minimizes thiscontradiction by the vagueness of the termsemployed.

(D) It attempts to establish the validity of a claim,which is otherwise unsupported, by denyingthe truth of the opposite of that claim.

(E) It analyzes the past on the basis of social andpolitical categories that properly apply onlyto the present and uses the results of thisanalysis to support its conclusion.

23. Anthony: It has been established that over 80percent of those who use heroin have a historyof having used marijuana. Such evidencewould seem to prove that smoking marijuanadefinitely leads to heroin use.

Judith: Maybe smoking marijuana does lead toheroin use, but it is absurd to think that citingthose statistics proves that it does. After all,100 percent of the people who take up heroinhad a previous history of drinking water.

Judiths reply to Anthonys argument relies on whichone of the following argumentative strategies?

(A) offering evidence suggesting that the statisticsAnthony cites in support of his conclusion areinaccurate

(B) undermining the credibility of his conclusionby showing that it is a statement from whichabsurd consequences can be derived

(C) providing an example to show that noteverything that promotes heroin use is unsafe

(D) demonstrating that Anthonys line ofreasoning is flawed by showing that suchreasoning can lead to clearly false conclusions

(E) calling into question the possibility of everestablishing causal connections solely on thebasis of statistical evidence

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

33 -24- 33 3

24. Rumored declines in automobile-industry revenuesare exaggerated. It is true that automobilemanufacturers share of the industrys revenues fellfrom 65 percent two years ago to 50 percent today,but over the same period suppliers of automobileparts had their share increase from 15 percent to 20percent and service companie