LOOKING TO SOCIOLOGY TO TRACE A MORE SUCCESSFUL PAT H TOWARDS THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF TRANSLATION

Marielle Godbout, MA, C. Tran.

School of Translation and Interpretation

University of Ottawa, Canada

EIGHTH SYMPOSIUM ON TRANSLATION, INTERPRETATION AND TERMINOLOGY

December 11, 12 and 13, 2012

Havana, Cuba

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The purpose of this paper is to explore how sociology and, particularly, that branch of

sociology concerned with the study of occupations and professions, could help translators to

trace a more successful path towards the professionalization of translation. While my remarks

will deal mostly with the situation of translators in Canada, the general principles that I will

describe are generally applicable to most jurisdictions.

I. WHAT SOCIOLOGY CAN TELL US ABOUT PROFESSIONALIZATIO N

The theoretical framework of professions

The professionalization process

Sociology has identified the process of professionalization as a series of steps, each of which

must be reached in order for an occupation to achieve professional status. Generally speaking,

the development of a profession proceeds as follows (Wilensky 1964, Ritzer and Walczak

1986):

• a new occupation emerges, often as a breakaway group from an existing occupation

• training requirements for the new occupation are established

• a professional association is formed

• a campaign for political recognition in the form of licensing or certification begins

• a formal code of ethics is adopted

• authority for self-regulation is awarded by the state

• the general public acknowledges the legitimacy of the new occupation as a profession

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How does a profession differ from an occupation?

Before we explore the topic of professions, we must start by situating professions within the

system of occupations. According to Greenwood (1957:45), all occupations can be distributed

along a continuum of increasing complexity, beginning with unskilled occupations at one end

of the scale and ending with professions at the other end of the scale. Professions are

occupations that exhibit the maximum degree of five attributes: systematic theory, authority,

community sanction, ethical codes and a culture (Greenwood 1980: 903).

A framework for evaluating the degree of professionalization of an occupation

Based on the sociological literature, I have developed a framework for evaluating the degree

of professionalization of an occupation. This framework is based on the following definition

of a profession (adapted from Godbout 2009: 521):

A profession is an occupation that exhibits the following attributes:

• Work, in the form of a skilled service or advice, performed by members of the

profession requires extensive university training in a discipline grounded in a body of

knowledge based on theory

• Control of access to the profession has been delegated by the state to an entity

controlled by the members of the profession

• Members of the profession control the criteria for admission to the profession

• Members are governed by a code of ethics that specifies standards of performance that

are enforced by the profession’s governing body

• Mandatory professional development ensures continuing competence of members of

the profession

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• The authority of the profession is generally acknowledged by society through

recognition and acceptance of the governing body’s certification system

Based on the definition above, I have developed a framework for evaluating the degree of

professionalization of an occupation as follows:

GRID FOR ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS AND PROFESSIONS

ATTRIBUTES/ RATING

NONE 0

PARTIAL 1-4

FULL 5

SCORE COMMENTS

University training/theory

Legal authority to control access to the profession

Licensing/ certification

Code of ethics Mandatory professional development

Societal acknowledgement

TOTAL Profession = 30 Semi-profession = 18-29 Occupation = ˂ 18

The methodology for applying the professional analysis grid is straightforward. For any given

occupation, each attribute is analyzed to determine to what extent it exhibits each attribute. A

score is determined as follows: if the attribute is fully met, a score of 5 points is awarded; if

the attribute is partially met, a score of 1 to 4 points is awarded; and if the attribute is not met,

a score of 0 is awarded. To rate as a profession, an occupation must fully satisfy each attribute

for a total score of 30. A total score between 18 and 29 will generally apply to a semi-

profession while a score of less than 18 will identify an occupation with no professional

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or semi-professional status. A score of 18 has been chosen as the cut-off for a semi-profession,

as such a score would represent an average of a medium score on all the attributes. A semi-

profession is defined according to the definition of Etzioni (1969: v), that is,

a group of new professions whose claim to the status of doctors and lawyers is neither fully established nor fully desired. Lacking a better term, we shall refer to those professions as semi-professions. Their training is shorter, their status is less legitimated, their right to privileged communication less established, there is less of a specialized body of knowledge, and they have less autonomy from supervision or societal control than ‘the’ professions.

The evaluation of translation as a profession

To evaluate the degree of professionalization of the occupation of translator, I will look in turn

at each attribute and apply the appropriate score.

University training based on theoretical knowledge

The first attribute on the grid is university training based on theoretical knowledge. An

evaluation of Translation Studies as an academic discipline demonstrates that it has reached

full maturity, given that in Canada as well as in many countries throughout the world, a

complete offering of degree programs from the bachelor to the doctorate level is available.

Seventeen universities in Canada currently offer translation courses, three of them at the Ph.D.

level. In addition, there are two peer-reviewed scholarly journals on translation, the oldest

being Meta: journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal, published since 1953, the

other being TTR - Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction: Études sur le texte et ses

transformations, launched in 1987. Translation Studies therefore constitutes a discipline

grounded in a body of theoretical knowledge. Consequently, the first attribute of the definition

of profession has been fully met and a score of 5 is awarded to this attribute.

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Legal authority to control access to the profession

The next attribute is legal authority to control access to the profession. In Canada, the

authority to exercise jurisdiction over professions is exclusive to each province or territory,

which means that there are thirteen legislatures involved in legislating on the status of

professions (Hogg 1977: 303). At present, only three provinces have authorized their

provincial translators’ association by statute to certify translators: Ontario through the

Association of Translators and Interpreters Act, 1989; New Brunswick, through the

Corporation of Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters of New Brunswick Act, 1989; and

Quebec in 1992 through the generic provisions of the Quebec Professional Code. In addition,

in 2002, the Society of Translators and Interpreters of British Columbia was allowed to

register, under Part 10 of the Societies Act, the reserved title “Certified Translator” (Kucerova

2004:19). To the extent that, in Canada, professional associations have the possibility of

obtaining legal control of access to the profession, we can conclude that, in theory, this

attribute has been satisfied. However, since only four of thirteen jurisdictions currently have

this authority, this attribute has yet to be fully satisfied. Consequently, a score of 3 is awarded

in recognition of the fact that these four jurisdictions include a majority of translators in

Canada.

Certification or licensing

The third criterion to be rated is whether members of the profession control the criteria for

admission to the profession through licensing (exclusive right to practice) or certification

(non-exclusive practice or reserved title). The most common method of controlling admission

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to a profession is through a written examination. However, In Canada, translators’ associations

use as many as three methods to assess candidates for certification: the annual certification

examination organized by the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council

(CTTIC); on dossier or portfolio examination; and mentorship.

The CTTIC National Certification Examination

The annual National Certification Exam conducted by CTTIC since 1975 is the most common

method of certification. The CTTIC examination consists of two texts of approximately 175

words each. The first text, which is of a general nature, must be translated by all candidates

while for the second, candidates have a choice between two texts, one being technical,

scientific or medical in nature and the other being administrative or economic in nature

(CTTIC 2011). The normal pass rate for the CTTIC exam is considered to fall somewhere in

the range of 30 per cent (Sabourin 2002: 339). It is not unusual for candidates for certification

to write the exam a number of times before achieving a passing grade.

Certification through On Dossier or Portfolio Examination

Since 1996, a second certification method, On Dossier or Portfolio Examination, has been

available (Sabourin 2002: 340). Under this method, a candidate, who must first be sponsored

by three certified translators who can provide both a quantitative and a qualitative evaluation

of the candidate’s translation work, provides a dossier or portfolio with certified copies of

diplomas and certificates, confirmation of employment from employers and/or clients, a varied

and substantial selection of translation work along with documentary evidence from

employers and clients attesting that the work was performed by the candidate. The dossier or

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portfolio is reviewed by a certification committee made up of certified members of the

candidate’s association who either recommends certification or rejects the application.

Certification through mentorship

Mentorship is the only certification method in the province of Quebec. It is also available as a

pilot project in the province of New Brunswick and is under consideration in a number of

other jurisdictions. Under this approach, a mentor, who must be a member of the provincial

association, have five years of experience and have successfully completed a training course

on ethics and professional practice, is assigned to each candidate for certification. Over the

six-month mentorship period, the candidate and the mentor meet once a month to discuss the

candidate’s work. At the end of the mentorship period, the mentor evaluates the candidate’s

work according to a competency chart that lists nine competencies along with a number of

indicators for each competency (OTTIAQ 2012a). The mentor’s recommendation is sent to the

association’s admission committee who makes the final decision on certification.

Given that, as demonstrated above, a formal process for admission to certification does exist,

this attribute can therefore be considered to have been substantially met. However, in light of

the fact that this process is legally recognized in only four of thirteen jurisdictions, a score of

only 3 points is awarded.

Presence of a code of ethics enforced by the profession

A code of ethics consists of “a summary statement of the standards and expectations of a

professional group” (Svara 2007: 84). The first objective of a code of ethics is to clarify the

kind of conduct that is expected from a member of the profession, the sanctions that will be

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attached to a breach of ethics, the process by which a potential breach of ethics will be

evaluated and the appeal mechanism that will be available. The second objective of a code of

ethics is tied to self-governance of the profession. The code of ethics provides evidence that

the profession is prepared to act in a responsible way to police itself and its members.

Consequently, the standards of behaviour that constitute acceptable conduct by members of

the profession are known by both the members of the profession and members of the public

(Svara 2007). Given that all active provincial and territorial associations in Canada have a

code of ethics, often complemented by rules of conduct, this attribute of a profession has been

fully met. A score of 5 points is therefore awarded.

Mandatory professional development

It is now widely accepted that professional development should be a condition for maintaining

professional certification. In Canada, only two translators’ associations have implemented

formal requirements in this regard. Since 2005, the Society of Translators and Interpreters of

British Columbia (STIBC) has made professional development a condition for maintaining

certification. While the Association of Translators and Interpreters of Alberta (ATIA) has also

imposed professional development on both its associate and certified members, it does so

through self-evaluation rather than as a compulsory requirement. Other translators’

associations regularly provide professional development opportunities for their members but

these are optional activities. For example, the Ordre des traducteurs, terminologues et

interprètes agréés du Québec” (OTTIAQ) offers a wide variety of professional development

opportunities both online and through in-person seminars and workshops. In addition, every

fall, OTTIAQ organizes a one-day conference on current topics of interest to translators.

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Canada’s national umbrella organization, the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and

Interpreters Council (CTTIC), recently started offering online courses. At present, twenty

courses, covering a wide assortment of topics, from linguistic issues, computer-aided

translation tools and business skills, are available.

Given that this attribute of a profession is increasingly being met by translators’ associations, a

score of 3 is awarded.

Societal acknowledgement of certification

As we saw above, a certification system for translators has been in place in Canada since

1975. The National Occupational Classification, Canada’s official job classification system,

which includes over 40,000 jobs organized into 500 occupational groups, mentions in its

description of the work done by translators a reference to the fact that “Certification on dossier

or by examination from the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council

may be required” and “Membership in a provincial or territorial association of translators,

interpreters and terminologists may be required”. Unfortunately, while employers in their

recruitment advertisements are increasingly asking for translators to be certified and/or to

belong to a translators association, they do not appear to either understand what certification

stands for or are not convinced of its merits, as evidenced by the fact that they still insist on

administering their own translation tests even to certified candidates.

In light of the above, I must conclude that this attribute of a profession has not been met to any

significant degree, leading to a score of 1 for this attribute.

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Evaluation results

My evaluation of the extent to which translation as an occupation meets the attributes of a

profession can therefore be shown as follows on the evaluation grid:

EVALUATION OF TRANSLATION AS A PROFESSION

ATTRIBUTES/ RATING

NONE 0

PARTIAL 1-4

FULL 5

SCORE COMMENTS

University training/theory

X

5

Fully recognized academic discipline

Legal authority to control access to the profession

X

3

Reserved titles but no exclusive jurisdiction

Licensing/ certification

X

3

Recognized in four provinces

Code of ethics X 5 In place everywhere in Canada

Mandatory professional development

X

2

Present in only one province, gaining acceptance in others

Societal acknowledgement of certification

X

1

Noted in National Occupational Classification but not widely known

TOTAL 19/30

Profession = 30 Semi-profession = 18-29 Occupation = ˂ 18

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II. WHAT REMAINS TO BE DONE TO BRING TRANSLATION T O THE LEVEL OF A PROFESSION?

The situation over the last decade The last decade in Canada has seen mixed results in progress towards professionalization.

Since 2002, when the Society of Translators and Interpreters of British Columbia was granted

the right to the reserved title of “Certified Translator”, no other translation association has

obtained the authority to use a reserved title. Worse still, in 2009, the Association of

Translators and Interpreters of Alberta (ATIA) decided to suspend its six-year efforts to obtain

certification authority after realizing that, since it had first started to explore the registration

process, securing title protection had become much more difficult than previously (Mazur

2009: 2). ATIA decided instead to develop an ATIA brand that would hopefully increase the

visibility of ATIA members among clients and the general public. The branding strategy was

built around two components: “adopting standardized presentation of certified translations …

and allowing ATIA members to use the ATIA logo in their advertising and on their stationery,

subject to guidelines and regulations.” (Landeck 2009: 1).

There are, however, some brighter spots on the horizon. In New Brunswick, all translation

stakeholders have rallied around Traduction New Brunswick Translation, a not-for-profit

organization whose mission is “to promote the translation industry by providing a forum

where the interests of clients, translation service providers, educational institutions and

government bodies would be represented and the need for succession planning would be taken

into account in order to ensure the orderly growth of the industry” (TNBT 2012a). In 2008-

2009, TNBT launched a four-year awareness campaign which included promotional clips built

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around the theme that “In New Brunswick, translators mean a lot” (TNBT 2012b). The 2012-

2013 campaign will be centered on “raising the profile of the profession and the importance of

using qualified translators for translation projects” (TNBT 2012c). However, in the absence of

a formal evaluation, it is not possible to establish with certainty how successful these efforts

may have been. TNBT also organized the First Symposium on Translation and Industry

Development in Atlantic Canada, which took place on September 28 and 29, 2012 in

Moncton, New Brunswick, and where participants from all areas of the translation sector were

able to explore topics of interest. A summary of presentations is available on the TNBT

website (TNBT 2012d).

Another organization that actively promotes the translation profession is the Ordre des

traducteurs, terminologues et interprètes agréés du Québec (OTTIAQ). Its 2012 advertising

campaign emphasizes the professionalism of its members with advertisements on the theme of

“Un pro, c’est un pro” in which it explains that “Un pro, c’est un langagier dont les

compétences sont reconnues et vérifiées par l’Ordre des traducteurs, terminologues et

interprètes agréés du Québec” (OTTIAQ, 2012b). OTTIAQ also organized its annual

conference in 2011 around the theme of “Valoriser son titre, ça commence par soi!”, during

which a number of speakers debated various aspects of professionalization (OTTIAQ 2011).

The current certification system - the non-conventional approach to certification

As was seen previously, since 1975, Canadian translators’ associations have had a formal

mechanism to control access to the reserved title of “certified translator”, mainly through the

annual certification examination organized by the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and

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Interpreters Council (CTTIC). While two other mechanisms may also be available, the fact

remains that the CTTIC exam is by far the most frequently used mechanism to gain access to

the “certified translator” title. In this respect, Canadian translators’ associations are simply

following the standard model used in most jurisdictions to test the competencies of candidates

who aspire to become licensed or certified practitioners of a regulated occupation.

The question arises as to how this certification mechanism compares in general terms with

other licensing and certification systems and to what extent it presents either an advantage or a

disadvantage to the advancement of professionalization of translation as an occupation.

The most recent study on regulation of the professions in Canada was conducted in 2007 by

the Competition Bureau. The study focused on accountants, lawyers, optometrists, pharmacists

and real estate agents, and appears to have been driven by external criticism from the

Organization for Economic Growth and Cooperation (OECD) to the effect that the higher

degree of professional regulation in Canada might be having a negative impact on innovation,

productivity and economic growth, a finding corroborated by a Conference Board of Canada

study (2007: 46) that concluded that professional services were in the bottom 20 per cent in

terms of labour productivity. Some of the findings and conclusions of the Competition Bureau

study are interesting when applied to the certification process for translators, particularly when

one compares the entry requirements for translators with those for accountants and lawyers.

As reported in the Competition Bureau study, to obtain a professional accounting designation,

candidates must have a university degree and at least one year of professional education. They

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must pass an exam for admission to the professional training course and upon completion of

the course. They must also acquire two to three years of related work experience. After

admission to the profession, they are required to maintain their qualifications through

mandatory professional development (2007: 47). As for the law profession, candidates must

first obtain a law degree, which is generally preceded by an undergraduate degree, following

which they must take the bar admission course (ranging from five weeks to six months), and

pass the bar examination. They must also complete an articling period, ranging from six

months to a year depending on the jurisdiction.

How do the certification entry requirements for translators compare? For a start, candidates for

translator certification are not required to have a university degree, either in translation or in

another discipline. While there is a clear preference for candidates to have a degree in

translation studies, the lack of such a degree can be compensated by four to five years of work

experience in translation. As for work experience, for translation studies graduates, it ranges

from a minimum of six months in Quebec to two years in other jurisdictions, while for

candidates without a university degree, the minimum is normally five years of experience.

Finally, candidates must pass the CTTIC examination, and this is where we observe a rather

wide divergence with the other two professions. While in accounting and law, the expectation

is that most candidates will be successful at the examination stage, on the contrary, in

translation the expectation is that most candidates will fail. Some years ago, when results on

the certification examination had been particularly poor for some time, it was decided to

impose an admission examination on all candidates, regardless of their academic qualifications

or of whether they were already certified in one or more language combinations. The above

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would seem to suggest that the certification exam is being used to weed out candidates at the

final qualifying stage rather than at the front end, when they first apply for admission. The

certification examination in fact has long been held as a mark of excellence that testifies to

professional mastery, rather than as confirmation that the candidate meets the minimum

requirements to perform at an acceptable level, as is the case in all other professions. This

situation is confirmed in the Candidate’s Guide and the Examination Marker’s Guide for the

CTTIC certification examination, which both make it clear that the “examination is for

experienced translators” (CTTIC 2011, 2005).

This situation is totally at odds with what normally occurs in other professions where, as noted

in the Competition Bureau study, “Most professions maintain substantial entry qualifications,

coupled with continuing education requirements” (2007: viii). This situation is also contrary to

the general principle that “required entry qualifications should be justified as being the

minimum that will reasonably ensure consumer protection”. The study goes on to state that

“jurisdictions that maintain higher standards than others should look to the outcomes of the

jurisdictions with fewer restrictions when defining the minimum necessary level of

qualification (2007: ix).

The confusion brought about by the translation services providers’ standard

In addition to the translators’ certification system sponsored by the Canadian Translators,

Terminologists and Interpreters Council (CTTIC) described above, Canada also has a

certification standard that applies to translation services providers rather than to individual

translators. This is the National Standard of Canada for Translation Services, CAN/CGBS-

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131.10-2008 Translation Services, officially published by the Standards Council of Canada in

July 2008. Modelled on the European Standard EN 15038, the National Standard of Canada

for Translation Services nevertheless stands apart from other existing translation services

standards in that it incorporates by reference the translators’ certification system sponsored by

the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council (CTTIC) by requiring that

translators either have a university degree in translation or a professional designation as a

certified translator. Since May 2009, certification under the CAN/CGBS-131.10-2008

Translation Services Standard can be obtained by Canadian translation services providers

through an audit conducted by Orion Assessment Services of Canada, an independent third

party who is also authorized to conduct similar audits under ISO, CEN and a number of other

standards. A translation services provider who receives a favourable audit is awarded a

certificate that confirms the provider’s certified status (AILIA 2012). While approximately

200 translation firms in Canada could potentially meet the criteria for certification (Hébert

2009), so far only 20 translation services providers have been certified (AILIA 2012). The

substantial costs associated with the audit process, between $2,000 and $5,000 depending on

the size of the firm, are believed to present a strong disincentive for some smaller firms

(Hébert 2010).

Translators’ associations did not respond positively to the approval of the National Standard

of Canada for Translation Services, despite the fact that the standard was developed with the

participation of the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council (CTTIC),

as well as two translators’ associations, the Ordre des traducteurs, terminologues et interprètes

agréés du Québec (OTTIAQ) and the Society of Translators and Interpreters of British

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Columbia (STIBC), and that the standard incorporates by reference the translators’

certification system sponsored by the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters

Council (CTTIC). The position taken by the Association of Translators and Interpreters of

Ontario (ATIO) is instructive. ATIO objected to the standard on three grounds. Firstly, ATIO

was opposed to the use of the word ‘certification’, arguing that the use of a word that is

associated with certification of professional translators could lead to confusion among the

general public. Secondly, ATIO was concerned that certification might become a pre-

qualifying condition for translation services providers who wish to work for the Canadian

Government’s Translation Bureau, a process that would be too costly and possibly irrelevant

for individual translators and smaller translation services providers. Thirdly, ATIO objected to

the fact that the standard did not clearly specify the number or percentage of certified

translators required by a translation services provider (ATIO 2012).

The fact that both the National Standard of Canada for Translation Services, CAN/CGBS-

131.10-2008, as well as the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council

(CTTIC) and its member translators’ associations use the same term, “certification”, is

unfortunate. It would have been more appropriate for the National Standard of Canada for

Translation Services to use the term “accreditation”, which is what is generally used when

“the criteria governing accreditation and the procedures regarding enforcement are entirely the

responsibility of the accrediting body rather than the state” (UK Commission for Employment

and Skills (2011: x). “Certification”, however, is consistent with the terminology adopted by

the International Standards Organization (ISO), where certification is the term that is applied

to an entity that has been determined to meet the criteria of a given standard.

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III. IMPACT OF VARIOUS OTHER FACTORS ON PROFESSION ALIZATION

OF TRANSLATION

Introduction of the paralinguist (paralangagier) as technical support to translators

An initiative is currently underway in Canada to create a new occupation intended to partially

address the translator shortage. This involves a re-engineering of the translator’s job whereby

those pre-production and post-production functions associated with translation, such as

formatting of documents, terminology research, and other tasks relying on the use of

computer-based tools, will be transferred to a specialized worker, a paralinguist (referred to in

French as a paralangagier), who will work under the supervision of a translator. This is

similar to what happened in the medical and legal fields with the introduction of paramedics

and paralegals. This will enable translators to concentrate on those specific linguistic transfer

operations that currently cannot be performed by machine translation and therefore require the

specialized knowledge and judgment of a human translator. The addition of paralinguists to

the translation production operation will result in a more efficient use of translators’ particular

training and expertise and should result in a higher volume of translation being produced at a

lower cost.

The paralangagier training program

The paralangagier training program was developed jointly by four postsecondary training

institutions: the Collège communautaire du Nouveau Brunswick (CCNB), the lead partner,

working in collaboration with the Université de Saint-Boniface (USB), Ottawa’s Cité

collégiale (CC) and the Collège Lionel-Groulx (CLG) in Sainte-Thérèse, Quebec. Officially

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launched March 21, 2012, the program did not become fully operational until September 2012

(Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick 2012).

Candidates, who must have a good knowledge of both French and English and basic computer

skills, are admitted to the paralangagier program on the basis of either a college diploma or a

university degree. The paralangagier training program is a one-year, community college level

online program that students can complete either on a full-time or a part-time basis. The

program consists of seven courses followed by a 6-week internship.

The courses included in the program are (CCNB 2011):

• Applications informatiques pour paralangagiers

• Langue, techniques de rédaction et correction d'épreuves

• Language, Writing Techniques and Proofreading

• Environnement de l'industrie langagière

• Introduction à la recherche documentaire et terminologique

• Outils d'aide à la traduction

• Traduction pour paralangagiers

Students who successfully complete the program will be awarded a Diplôme d’études

avancées en services paralangiers (USB 2012).

The transfer of administrative and technical tasks to paralinguists will result in enrichment of

the translator’s work, given that this work will be increasingly directed towards those duties

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that require a higher degree of intellectual training and effort. Consequently, the work of the

translator will be increasingly professionalized, which is a positive development towards the

professionalization of translation.

In light of this new situation, I believe that translators and their professional associations

should be proactive in both defining the role of paralinguists and in establishing a formal

certification process to recognize their qualifications. The situation of paralegals provides a

useful precedent for such an approach. Since 2008, the Law Society of Upper Canada (LSUC),

the licensing body of the law profession in Ontario, is also in charge of licensing individuals

who wish to work as a paralegal in the province (LSUC 2012).

Informal translation solutions such as crowdsourcing Crowdsourcing translation has raised a number of concerns among professional translators

who see in this new approach a potential threat to their livelihood and their profession. There

is little doubt that an appropriate place exist for crowdsourcing translation, mainly with

documentation where quality is not the most important criterion. A recent study by the

European Commission (2012: 46) points to a number of challenges and opportunities arising

from crowdsourcing with respect to translation:

• Possibility that working conditions and the status of the translator might be improved

• Increasing specialization on the part of translators

• Concentration in areas that demand confidentiality and accountability

• Focusing on post-edition of machine and crowdsourced translation

• Vacating areas of translation that do not require total quality

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A rather less positive view of crowdsourcing exists in other quarters, especially with respect to

the use of crowdsourcing by translation services providers who seek to use it on a commercial

basis to offer rock bottom prices. This is how Malcolm Duff has described these operations,

“Where translation is concerned, crowdsourcing is clownsourcing, and the term applies both to

the ‘translators’ who try to get work through similar sites, and to the customers that use them”

(Duff 2012). In other words, where quality is essential, there will always be a place for

professional translators.

Deregulation Deregulation of professions has been an issue since the economic crisis of the 1980s gave rise

to a re-examination of how most work was performed, the main objectives being to streamline

work to reduce unit costs. Economic conditions led regulators to question the validity of

restricted labour pools and the impact these restrictions were having on potential entrants to

regulated professions and on the price consumers had to pay for professional services. As a

consequence, it is much more difficult today to convince regulators that an occupation should

be restricted only to professionals, unless there is some extremely compelling reason to do so,

as there is for examples in occupations providing health services. Consequently, attempting to

convince regulators to increase the professionalization of translation presents some serious

challenges.

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IV. IS PROFESSIONALIZATION OF TRANSLATION STILL POS SIBLE?

The question then arises as to whether advances in the professionalization of translation are

still possible, given current circumstances. I believe that an argument can be made in favour

of, not only maintaining, but also of enhancing the gains that have been made to date and that

this argument can be found in the increasing interest of the business world in the concepts of

accountability and risk management. Twenty-first century managers are increasingly required

to account for their actions by regulators, shareholders, customers and society at large. As a

consequence, managers must now factor risk management within their overall operating

strategy. Where their operations require the use of translation, and in today’s global economy,

translation is an essential business tool, the one option managers have to avoid potential

liabilities arising from translation is to retain the services of professionals, in other words,

certified translators. Protection from potential liabilities and their associated costs and

penalties are one argument that any manager will readily understand. It is an argument that,

where business is concerned, likely resonates more clearly than the more traditional argument

of quality, although the quality argument is not one that should be discounted. Translators, in

their role of professional linguists, understand better than most that you have to talk to people

in a language they understand. This is why talking a business argument might well be the

optimum solution to convincing buyers of translation services that, to quote OTTIAQ, “a pro

is a pro” and that hiring a professional translator provides evidence that the due diligence that

is demanded in today’s business environment has been duly exercised.

23

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