Lokayata Vol III,No 02 (Sept. 2013)

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http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

ISSN: 2249-8389

Lokāyata Journal of Positive Philosophy

Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS)

Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Ward No.06, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128

Volume III, No. 02 (Sept., 2013)

Chief-Editor:

Desh Raj Sirswal

http://lokayatajournal.webs.com/

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389)

Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy is an online bi-annual interdisciplinary journal of the

Center for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS). The name Lokāyata can be

traced to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which refers to three ānvīkṣikīs (logical philosophies), Yoga,

Samkhya and Lokāyata. Lokāyata here still refers to logical debate (disputatio, "criticism") in

general and not to a materialist doctrine in particular. The objectives of the journal are to

encourage new thinking on concepts and theoretical frameworks in the disciplines of

humanities and social sciences to disseminate such new ideas and research papers (with strong

emphasis on modern implications of philosophy) which have broad relevance in society in

general and man’s life in particular. The Centre publishes two issues of the journal every year.

Each regular issue of the journal contains full-length papers, discussions and comments, book

reviews, information on new books and other relevant academic information. Each issue

contains about 100 Pages.

© Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)

Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal (P.G. Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh)

Associate Editors:

Dr. Merina Islam, Dr. Sandhya Gupta

Editorial Advisory Board Prof. K.K. Sharma (Former-Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Shillong) Prof.Sohan Raj Tater (Former Vice-Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan) Dr. Anamika Girdhar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Dr.Ranjan Kumar Behera (Patkai Christian College (Autonomous), Nagaland) Fr. V. John Peter (St. Joseph’s Philosophical College, Nilgiris, T.N.) Dr. Aayam Gupta (Kurukshetra, Haryana) Dr. Geetesh Nirban (Kamala Nehru College, University of Delhi) Dr. Vaishali Dev (Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand) Dr. Narinder Singh (GHSC-10, Chandigarh) Dr. Vijay Pal Bhatnagar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Mr. Praveen Kumar Anshuman ( Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi, Delhi) Declaration: The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the

individual authors, and not necessary of those of CPPIS or the Chief-Editor.


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In this issue……………..

Author & Title of the Paper Page No.

Sandhya Gupta: ARGUMENT FORMATION : INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AN

ARGUMENT

04-11

Jitendra R. Ranka:NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 12-24

Mane Pradeepkumar Pandurang : SWAMI VIVEKANANDA’S CONCEPTION

OF PHILOSOPHYY

25-30

Devartha Morang & Prabhu Venkataraman: PRINCIPLES OF

ENVIORNMENTAL PRAGMATISM AND SUSTAINABILITY ISSUE

31-37

Kaizar Rahaman: CAPITAL PUNISHMENT : RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE 38-46

Siddhartha Shankar Joarder:PRIVATE EXPERIENCE AND ITS EXPOSITORY

MEANING

47-57

Viswaja S.Nair:EVOLUTION OF SANSKRIT DHATUPATHA –A STUDY 58-64

Preet Kumari, Gargi Sharma, Swami Pyari, Umang Verma: CONSCIOUSNESS

AS A PREDICTOR OF SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE

65-70

Jyoti George: YEATS’ THE SORROW OF LOVE 1825: A STYLISTIC ANALYSIS 71-84

Sanjay Chhabra: EMPOWERING WOMAN: A STUDY ON NAGALAND 85-95

NEW PUBLICATIONS 96

PHILOSOPHY NEWS IN INDIA 97-98

CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE 99


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Argument Formation: Internal Structure of an Argument

Sandhya Gupta

Introduction

Argument formation is a topic related to western logic. Every argument in logic has a

structure & to know any argument it is mandatory to understand the structure of that

argument. A student of philosophy or western logic should have an ability to differentiate an

argument from other sentences which are not arguments & which is possible only by

knowing the structure of an argument.

Argument

In common parlance, the term argument refers to discussion, dialogue or debate between two

persons of different points of view.

Technically, arguments are the basic logical units. The term ‘argument’ refers to any group

of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the other/s and which are regarded as

providing support for the truth of that one. Any argument should have at least two or more

propositions and these propositions should have logical relationship between each other in

such a way that one proposition provides support for accepting the truth of another

proposition. (Copi & Cohen, 2003)

Example: The following argument has two premises and one conclusion and both premises

together provide support for accepting the truth of the conclusion.

All islands are surrounded by water.

Tonga is an island.

Therefore, Tonga is surrounded by water.

To qualify as an argument it must have at least one premise and one conclusion. Every

argument has this basic structure, a proposition and an inference. While every argument is a

structured cluster of propositions, not every structured cluster of propositions is an argument.

To qualify as an argument they must have a structure. (Copi & Cohen, 2003)

Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389)

Volume III, No. 02 (September, 2013), pp.04-11


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The figure given below illustrates the structure of an argument.

Note:

A simple Argument has one premise and one conclusion.

A complex argument may have many premises and one or many conclusions.

Premise and conclusion may come together in one sentence or in different sentences.

The most general number and sequence of premise and conclusion in an argument is as follows:

Premise, Premise, Premise, Conclusion i.e. Premises are followed by a conclusion.

Conclusion, Premise, Premise, Premise i.e. Conclusion is followed by premises.

(Martz & Robinson, 2007)

Sometimes conclusion comes first and sometimes it comes in the last in an argument. Even

sometimes the conclusion of an argument becomes the premise of other argument or premise and

conclusion may come in one statement. So, the number and sequence of premise and conclusion

varies in all the arguments.

Arguments are different from questions, commands, emotional discourses, requests,

exclamations, explanations etc. Sometimes in a given text we find so many sentences but they

form no argument (Copi & Cohen, 2003). To know an argument and to differentiate it from other

sentences (which are not arguments), we must have a good understanding of its internal

structure.

Proposition: A proposition is a building block of an argument. A proposition is always a

declarative sentence i.e. acceptance or denial is one of the essential feature of a sentence to

qualify as a proposition. A proposition should either be true or false but never both. If a sentence

is neither true nor false then it is not a proposition and is not able to make any argument. (Copi &

Cohen, 2003)


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Both premise and conclusion are propositions. Sometimes premise and conclusion are clearly

indicated by their indicators but at times they are hidden in the paragraph as these indicators are

not always present so it becomes hard to identify them.

Premise: The proposition which gives support for accepting the truth of conclusion or which

provides reason for accepting the other proposition as conclusion is called as a premise. Some of

the premise indicators, which help to find the premise in the passage, are as follows: (Martz &

Robinson, 2007)

After all

As a result of

As follows from

As shown by

Because

Derived from

Due to

Firstly

For

Given that

In light of the fact

In view of

May be inferred

Secondly

Since

Conclusion: The proposition which is concluded from that (premise) is called conclusion. A

conclusion is a very important structure of an argument. It would be easy to find out the premise,

after knowing the conclusion. A conclusion is the proposition which is affirmed, concluded or

accepted on the basis of the premise. Some conclusions indicators are as follows: (Copi &

Cohen, 2003)

Accordingly

As a result of

Because of this reason

Clearly

Consequently

Demonstrates that Hence

Implies that

Indicates that

It proves that

So

Suggests that

Therefore

Thus


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Inference: Inference is the process of reasoning or psychological process by which we reach the

conclusion from given premise. This process helps us to know the logical relation between its

premise and conclusion.

Recognising Arguments: All statements are not arguments. As discussed earlier a proposition is a declarative sentence.

Statements that do not qualify as propositions may be in the form of:

Commands or orders which are given or ordered and are not declarative in nature.

Requests made or humbly asked for doing something.

Questions which are asked and are not declarative in nature.

Greetings and wishes which do not have truth value.

Explanations as they do not declare anything but explains why something

Happened or occurred i.e. which provide causal relation rather than logical

relation.

Conditional Statements (If, Then etc.)

Two main types of Arguments are deductive and inductive.

Deductive argument is an argument whose premise supports its conclusion with absolute

necessity i.e. no additional information has power to change the conclusion drawn from given

premises. (Copi & Cohen, 2003)

Example:

All men are mortal.

Akshay is a man.

Therefore, Akshay is mortal.

Note: Here no additional information can change the conclusion.

Inductive argument is an argument in which conclusion is not supported by its premises with

absolute necessity or certainty but with a probability i.e. any degree of additional information has

the power to change the conclusion. (Copi & Cohen, 2003)

Example:

All teachers go to the college to teach every day.

Raman is a teacher.

Therefore Raman goes to the college every day.

Note: Now the additional information that Raman retired last month from the college will change

the conclusion drawn that now Raman is not going to the college.


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Validity and Invalidity of Arguments:

As the terms true and false are related with propositions, the terms validity and invalidity are

related with deductive arguments only. They are not related with inductive arguments because

there is always a possibility of changing the conclusion drawn with some additional information.

Therefore any information may strengthen or weaken the argument. In an argument a claim is

made by its premises for the truth of its conclusion drawn. If this claim is correct then argument

is valid otherwise it is invalid.

An argument with true premise, correct reasoning and true conclusion is called a sound

argument.

Figure: Eight possible combinations of deductive argument with regard to validity or

invalidity: ( Kemerling, 2011)

Premise Inference/Reasoning Conclusion Argument

True Correct True Valid (Sound)

True Correct - No deductive

argument with true

premise and correct

inference has false

conclusion.

False Correct True Valid (Unsound)

False Correct False Valid (Unsound)

True Incorrect True Invalid

True Incorrect False Invalid

False Incorrect True Invalid

False Incorrect False Invalid

Analysis of an Argument

It is easy to know premise and conclusion in a simple argument but in a complex argument they

are hard to find. An easy way to analyse a complex argument in order to find a premise and a

conclusion is by using the popular techniques of diagramming and paraphrasing.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing

It simply means to rewrite a statement in a simple or lucid language for the sake of clarity. The

steps to be followed in this process are as follows:

Step-1. List all the components of a statement in an easy and clear way.

Step-2. Find the conclusion first.

Step-3. List the premise which is supporting the conclusion.

Step-4. Check if there is more than one argument in a passage. If yes, list their premise and

conclusion separately and find their relation with each other.


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Step-5. Verify if the reasoning is correct or incorrect.

Step-6. On this basis, check if argument is valid or invalid.

Diagramming

This technique was first developed by a distinguished logician Monore C. Beardsley in 1950 in

Practical Logic (Prentice Hall, 1950). Later it was perfected by many other logicians (Stephen N.

Thomas, 1973; Michael Scriven 1976 etc). (Copi & Cohen, 2003)

With the understanding of diagramming or mapping, one can easily identify the components of

an argument and make diagrams accordingly. In order to map an argument, first of all, we give

numbers to premise and conclusion in a particular order and later encircle them. Then draw an

arrow pointing from premise to conclusion as shown in the examples below:

Example-1: When there is a straight forward simple argument with one premise leading to

conclusion.

1. Yesterday was the last day of the month of August (Premise).

2. Therefore, Today is the first day of September (Conclusion).

Example-2: When two or more premises are required together to reach the conclusion.

1. All the judges of Supreme Court work very hard (Premise).

2. Justice Ali is the Judge of Supreme Court (Premise).

3. Therefore, Justice Ali works very hard (Conclusion).

+

or

1

2

1

3

2 1

3

2


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Example-3: When two or more premises are supporting the conclusion independently.

1. Apple is a fruit, which is sweet (Premise).

2. Water-melon is a fruit, which is sweet (Premise).

3. Pineapple is a fruit, which is sweet (Premise).

4. There is at least one fruit, which is sweet (Conclusion).

Example-4: When two or more premises together support two different conclusions.

Raman is a scholar (Premise).

All the scholars are intelligent and hard-working (Premise).

Raman is intelligent (Conclusion).

Raman is hard-working (Conclusion).

+

Example-5: When a conclusion of an argument becomes the premise of another argument.

1. Bulo has some urgent work at home (Premise).

2. Therefore, Bulo is not going to her work (Conclusion of 1 and Premise of 3)

3. So, Bulo will not be paid because anybody not going to work will not be paid for that day

(Conclusion).

1

4

2 3

1

4

2

3

1

2

3


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Example-6: When there are many propositions with one conclusion and other premises, every

premise gives support for the conclusion in different ways i.e.

1. Desert mountaintops make good sites for astronomy (Conclusion).

2. Being high, they sit above a portion of the atmosphere, enabling a star’s light to reach a

telescope without having to swim through the entire depth of the atmosphere (Premise

supporting the conclusion independently).

3. Being dry, the desert is also relatively cloud-free (Premise).

4. The merest veil of haze or cloud can render a sky useless for many astronomical

measures (Premise) .(Copi & Cohen, 2003)

Note: Here premise 3 and 4 support the conclusion together

Summary

The term ‘argument’ refers to any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from

the other/s and which are regarded as providing support for the truth of that one.

Argument formation is a topic related to western logic. Arguments are the basic logical units.

Any argument should have at least two or more propositions. Without knowing arguments, we

cannot study Logic. Every argument comprises of a proposition and inference. The proposition

further comprises of a premise and conclusion. Arguments are of many types. The two main

types which are important for the study of Logic are deductive and inductive arguments. The

techniques for analysing arguments are diagramming/mapping and paraphrasing.

References:

Adam, R.,& Martz, G. (2007). The Princeton review-Cracking the GMAT. New York:

Random House Inc.

Cohen, C., & Copi, M. I. (2003). Introduction to logic . United Kingdom: Pearson

Education Limited.

Jacquette, D. (2011). Enhancing the diagramming method in informal logic .Argument,

12, 327–360. Retrieved on October 5, 2013 from http://argumentwp.vipserv.org/wp-

content/uploads/2012/pdf/11_argument-2-09-jacquette.pdf

Kemerling, G. (2011). Arguments and inference. Philosophy Pages, Britannica.

Retrieved on Oct 5 2013 from http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e01.htm

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http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e01.htm

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NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY

Jitendra R. Ranka

Hkkjrh; n’kZu ,oa /keZ bfrgkl esa ihM+k vkrZ&uk’ku ewy eUrO; gSA f=fo/k nq%[kksa ls vkR;fUrd fuo`fr izkIr dj vH;qn;

dk y{; vftZr djuk bgyksd@ e`R;qyksd dk mís’; jgk gSA bgyksd ds vuUrj fu%Js;l dh izkfIr dks pje iq:"kkFkZ

dgk x;k gSA blh iq:"kkFkZ dh izkfIr bl thou dk eq[; /;s; ekuk x;k gSA /keZ] vFkZ o dke dh bl f=os.kh :ih

f=oxZ dks ikj dj eks{k :ih lkxj dh xgjkbZ;ksa esa mrjuk gh lEiw.kZ thou dh flf) gSA Hkkjrh; n’kZu esa lk/kd /keZ

;k czã dh ftKklk ls ysdj vfLrÙo esa ck/kd leL;kvksa ij ¼fot; gkfly djuk½ fotsrk dk n’kZu Hkkjr dh fof’k"V

ijEijk jgh gS vFkkZr~~ Hkkjrh; n’kZu esa [k.Mu o e.Mu ij leku :i ls cy fn;k x;k gSA blh izdkj O;fDr o

lef"V ij i;kZIr cy fn;k tkuk n`"VO; gSA lEiw.kZ fo’o ds n’kZu esa ;g /;krÙo gS fd n’kZu dk izkjEHk ftKklk ;k

leL;k ds :i esa gqvk gSA euq"; ,d cqf+)’khy izk.kh gSA cqf) dh fo’ks"krk ds dkj.k euq"; iq’k if{k;ksa ls fHkUu] mPp

LFkku esa vofLFkr gSA tc og vius vkUrfjd rFkk ckg~; txr dh vksj ns[krk gS rks vusd ftKklkRed iz’u mlds

eu esa mBrs gSaA ;s fofo/k izdkj ds fo’ks"k] lkekU; o xw<+ iz’u gh euq"; dks n’kZu dh vksj ys tkrs gSaA n’kZu] thou

vkSj txr~ dk ?kfu"B lEcU/k gSA n’kZu vkneh dh cqf) ,oa foosd dks iz[kj cukrk gSA

dgk tkrk gS fd gj n’kZu ij ml ijEijk dh Nki gksrh gS] ftlesa og tUe ysrk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd fczfV’k n’kZu

lkekU;r% vkuqHkkfod gS] vesfjdk dk n’kZu okLrooknh rFkk mi;ksfxrkoknh gS] Ýkal dk n’kZu lkekU;r% cqf)oknh gS rFkk

teZuh dk ifjdYiukRed gS ml n`f"Vdks.k ls Hkkjrh; n’kZu dks /;ku fpUru&dsfUnzr dgk tk ldrk gSA ;g vkRek rFkk

izd`fr esa fufgr 'kfDr;ksa ij /;ku dsfUnzr dj fpUru djrk gSA lk/kkj.kr% Hkkjrh; n’kZu dks vk/;kfRed n’kZu dgk

tkrk gS vFkkZr~~ blesa ijkReewyd rFkk ikjySfdd ewY;ksa ij cy fn;k x;k gSA

euq"; LoHkko ls gh fpUru’khy gS rFkk thou vkSj fpUru nksuksa lkFk&lkFk pyrs gSaA fpUru rFkk Hkkouk ds vuqlkj gh

euq"; ds O;fDrÙo dk xBu gksrk gSA ekuo lekt ij n’kZu ds izHkko dk ;gh eq[; dkj.k gSA izkphu dky esa Hkkjrh;

thou ds ewy&lw= osnksa rFkk mifu"knksa dh n’kZfud fopkj/kkjk esa izL;qr FksA vkt Hkh cgqr va’kksa esa fgUnwvksa dk thou

ewyr% mUghaa rÙoksa }kjk fu;af=r gSA dgus dk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd n’kZu gh lekt] lH;rk vkSj laLd`fr dh vewY; fuf/k

gSA fdlh Hkh ns’k dh lH;rk vkSj laLd`fr ls ifjfpr gksus ds fy, mldh nk’kZfud fopkj/kkjk dks tkuuk vko’;d gSA

Hkkjr esa n’kZu dks n`f"V dgk x;k gSA ;g ekuk tkrk gS fd n’kZu lr~ n`f"V nsrk gSA lr~ n`f"V esa okLrfod o

vokLrfod dh le> gSA blh vk/kkj ij izkphu Hkkjrh; fopkjd ekurs gSa fd nq%[k dk ewy dkj.k gekjk vKku gS]

okLrfod o vokLrfod ds vUrj dks ughaa le> ikuk gSA bl vKku ds dkj.k ge vokLrfod ds fy, eksg mRiUu dj

ysrs gSaA ,sls rÙoksa ls fpid tkrs gSa vkSj Qyr% nq%[k >syrs gSaA

Û n’kZu D;k gS %& lkekU;r% n’kZu dk vFkZ ^ns[kuk* gSA ^n`’k~* /kkrq dk izs{k.k vFkZ gS vFkkZr~~ îzd`"V :i esa ns[kuk*A vr%

Kku&n`f"V ls ns[kuk gh n’kZu 'kCn dk ewykFkZ gSA osnksa esa cryk, gq, Kku dh ehekalk] n’kZu 'kkL=ksa esas eqfu;ksa }kjk lw=

:i esa gh xbZ gSA bl izdkj n’kZu dk vFkZ gS& ^n`’;rs vusu bfr n’kZue~* vFkkZr~~ ftlds }kjk ns[kk tk, ;k oLrq dk




13 | P a g e


rkfRod Lo:i tkuk tk lds vFkok lk{kkr~ Kku izkIr fd;k tk,A euq"; cqf) dh lgk;rk ls tho ,oa txr~ ds fo"k;

esa ;qfDr iwoZd Kku izkIr dj ldrk gSA bl n`f"V ls Hkh dgk x;k gS fd n’kZu ;qfDr iwoZd Kku izkIr djus dk iz;Ru

gSA n’kZu ,d ,slh fnO; n`f"V iznku djrk gS tks vkRe n’kZu ;k rÙo n’kZu dks lEHko cukrh gSA bl izdkj n’kZu lEiw.kZ

txr~ ds ckjs esa ,d O;kid n`f"Vdks.k gS tks mlesa lfEefyr lHkh fo"k;ksa dh u dsoy O;k[;k djrk gS vfirq ekuo dks

leqfpr ekxZ ij pyus ds fy, uo fuekZ.k ,oa iqu#Fkku dh vksj izsfjr djrk gSA îzkf.kek= dh nq%[kfuo`fÙk dh vksj

izo`fÙk* ;gh vFkZ philosophy 'kCn ls vorfjr gqvk gSA vaxzsth 'kCn philosophy nks ;wukuh 'kCnksa ls mRiUu

crk;k tkrk gS] vFkkZr~~ (philos + sophia)A philos dk vFkZ gS izse vFkok vuqjkx (Love) vkSj sophia dk

vFkZ gS fo|k vFkok Kku (knowledege or widdom)A bl izdkj n’kZu'kkL= dk 'kfCnd vFkZ gS fo|kxqjkxA

ik’pkr; nk’kZfud {ks= esa philosophy dk ;gh vFkZ izpfyr gSA

lk{kkr~ Kku dks gh rÙo Kku vFkok rÙo n’kZu dgk tkrk gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd rÙo Kkfu;ksa ;k _f"k;ksa dks Hkkjr esa

n`"Vk dgk x;k gSA vc iz’u ;g gksrk gS fd dkSu lk inkFkZ ns[kk tk,\ mÙkj LokHkkfod gS& oLrq dk lR;Hkwr rÙoA

vr% vuqHkwfr;ksa dh ;qfDr laxr O;k[;k ij okLrfodrk dk ;FkkFkZ Kku izkIr djuk nk’kZfud fpUru dk mn~ns’; gSA

vuqHkwfr;ka nks izdkj dh gksrh gS& ,sfUnz; ,oa vusfUnz; ¼vk/;kfRed½ nksuksa gh n’kZu ds {ks= esa vkrh gSA pkokZd ds

vfrfjDr leLr Hkkjrh; nk’kZfudksa ds vuqlkj vusfUnz; vuqHkwfr gh vf/kd egRo iw.kZ gSA ;FkkFkZ lÙkk dk lk{kkr~dkj

vk/;kfRed ¼vusfUnz;½ vuqHkwfr ls gksrk gSA ;g vuqHkwfr dsoy ckSf)d Kku dh Hkkafr ughaa gksrhA dsoy ckSf)d Kku esa

rks Kkrk vkSj Ks; dk }Sr cuk jgrk gS] ysfdu bl vuqHkwfr esa nksuksa ,d gks tkrs gSaA ;g vuqHkwfr vuk;kl izkIr ughaa

gksrh gS izR;qr bls izkIr djus ds fy, lk/ku dh vko’;drk iM+rh gSA

n’kZu okLro esa ,d ltx ftKklk gSA os rks dksbZ Hkh Kku dk {ks= rRlEcU/kh ftKklk dh viss{kk j[krk gSA fcuk

ftKklk ds KkuksiyfC/k ughaa gksrhA ,d LFkku ij _Xosn dk dfo iwNrk gS fd& ^fda fLonwua d m l o`{k vkl ,rks |kok

i`Foh fu"Vr{kq%* vFkkZr~~ og dkSulk ou Fkk] og dkSulk o`{k Fkk ftlls ¼lz"Vk us½ i`Foh vkSj vkdk’k dk fuekZ.k fd;k\

,d vU; LFkku ij n`’; l`f"V dks ;K ls miek nsdj oSfnd _f"k iz’u djrk gS fd bl ;K ds fy, vko’;d ?k`r o

lfe/kk bR;kfn lkezxh dgk ls vk;hA izFke iz’u txr~ ds miknku dkj.k ls lEcfU/kr gksrs gq, Hkh fufer dkj.k dh

dYiuk ls vksrizksr gSA f}rh; iz’u i= esa miknku fo"k;d dkj.k vf/kd izcy gSA _Xosn ds iq#"k lqDr vkSj uklnh;

lqDr eas miknku vkSj fufer dkj.kksa dh vfHkUurk dh dYiuk fo’kq) :i ls dh xbZ gSA blds vfrfjDr _Xosn esa bZ’oj

ehekalk dk foospu Hkh dkQh fodflr :i ls gqvk gSA oSfnd _f"k;ksa ds vuqlkj& ^,da lf}izk cgq/kk onfUr vfXu ;ea

ekrfj’okuekgq%*A ¼ _Xosn 1A 144A 46½ vFkkZr~~ ,d gh dks fo}ku yksx vusd ukeksa ls iqdkjrs gSaA dksbZ mls vfXu

dgrk gS rks dksbZ mls ;e o ok;qA

Hkkjrh; n’kZu dk okLrfod foLrkj mifu"kn dky ls ekuuk pkfg,A oSfnd dky ds cht mifu"kn dky esa vadqfjr gks

x,A ,slk vuqeku fd;k tkrk gS fd ftKklq yksx viuh&viuh 'kadkvksa dks ysdj _f"k;ksa ds ikl tkrs Fks vkSj _f"k

yksx ,d&,d djds mudh 'kadkvksa dks rdZ&forZd rFkk viuh vuqHkwfr;ksa ls nwj djrs Fks] rHkh ije rÙo ds okLrfod

Lo:i dk ifjp; mu yksxksa dks feyrk FkkA ;s fopkj/kkjk,a mifu"knksa ds fo"k; gSA ;s gh mudh fo’ks"krk,a gSA ;s 'kadk,a

rFkk buds lek/kku fdlh ,d Øe ls ughaa gksrs FksA blfy, mifu"knksa esa ijoÙkhZ 'kkL=ksa dh rjg dksbZ fopkj/kkjk gesa

fdlh ,d Øe esa ughaa feyrh rÙo ds Lo:i dk fofHkUu :i ls] fHkUu&fHkUu n`f"Vdks.k ls] izfriknu rks lHkh mifu"knksa

ls gesa feyrk gSA mifu"knksa dh ftKklk dk izeq[k fo"k; fo’o dk ewyrÙo gSA og rÙo ftlds tkuus ls lc dqN tkuus

ls lc dqN tkuk tkrk gSA


14 | P a g e


NkUnksX; esa vk#f.k vius fo|kfHkekuh iq= 'osrdsrq ls iwNrs gSa& ^D;k rqe mls ¼ml rÙo dks½ tkurs gks] ftlls fcuk

lquk gqvk Kkr gks tkrk gS] fcuk le>k gqvk le>k gks tkrk gS vkSj fcuk tkuk gqvk Kkr gks tkrk gSA* ¼NkUnksifu"kn

6A 1A 3½ eq.Md esa 'kkSud egk’kky vafxjl ds ikl tkdj iz’u djrs gSa dh& ^Hkxoku ! fdlds tku ysus ls ;g lc

dqN Kkr gks tkrk gS*\ ¼eq.Mksifu"kn 1A 1A 3½ ^rSfÙkjh; esa o#.k ds iq= Hk`xq vius firk ls czã fo|k fl[kkus dh

izkFkZuk djrs gSa*A ¼Hk`xqoYyh] 1 ½ dsuksifu"kn~ dk vkjEHk eu] ok.kh ds izsjd czã dh ftKklk ls gksrk gS vkSj ogha mldk

izfrik| gSA o`gnkj.;d esa ckykfd ds ;g dgus ij fd eSa] rqEgsa czã fo|k fl[kkÅ¡xk* vtkr’k=q mRlkfgr gksdj cksy

mBrs gS fd& lglzesrL;ka okfl oã%A vkids ;g dgus ek= ds fy, vkidks eSa ,d gtkj xkS,a nwaxkA fo’olkfgR; esa

Kku&fiikl dk bruk rhoz mnkgj.k feyuk dfBu gSA fo’o ds ijerÙo dks mifu"knksa esa izk;% czã vFkok lr~ uke fn;k

x;k gS vkSj czã ;k lr~ dh ftKklk mifu"knksa dh izeq[k leL;k gSA mudh ftKklk dk nwljk eq[; fo"kd vkRek gSA

mifu"knksa dk eq[; izfrik| fo"k; vkRek gSA lafgrk ls ysdj vkj.;d i;ZUr tks czã vkRek ls fHkUu :i ls izfrikfnr

gS] og mifu"knksa esa mlls vfHkUu ekuk x;k gSA ¼o`gnkj.;d] 2A 5A 19½ okLro esa bu nksuksa ds vfHkUu gksus ls vFkkZr~~

nSoh rFkk vk/;kfRed] bu nksuksa 'kfDr;ksa ds ,d gksus ls vkRek ds vfrfjDr fo’o esa vc vkSj dksbZ inkFkZ ughaa jgkA

vkReu~ gh loZO;kih gS vkSj fo’o ds lHkh inkFkZ blh ds xHkZ esa foyhu gks tkrs gSaA ;gha dkj.k gS fd o`gnkj.;d

mifu"kn esa dgk x;k gS fd&

l ok v;ekRek czã foKkue;ks eukse;% izk.ke;’p{kqeZ;% Jks=e;% i`fFkohe; vkikse;ks ok;qe;

vkdk’ke;Lrstkse;ks∙rstkse;% dkee;ks∙dkee;% Øks/ke;ks∙dks/ke;ks /keZe;ks∙/keZe;% loZe;% bR;kfn*A

NkUnksX; esa ukjn lurdqekj ls tkdj dgrs gSa fd&^Hkxou~! eq>s f’k{kk nhft,A* lurdqekj ds iwNus ij fd mUgksaus dgk

rd v/;;u fd;k gS] ukjn dgrs gSa fd êSaus _Xosn i<+k gS] ;tqZosn] lkeosn] bfrgkl] iqjk.k] osn&fo|k o Hkwr fo|k

vkfn i<+h gS] fdUrq eSa vHkh ea=for~ gh gw¡] vkRefon~ ughaa] vki dìk djds eq>s 'kksd ds ikj igq¡pk,aA*¼NUnksX; mifu"kn]

7A 1A 2½ ;gk¡ ukjn dh vkRe&fo"k;d ftKklk furkar rhoz gSA mifu"kn n’kZu dh lcls egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk ;gh gS fd

czã vkSj vkRek dh ,drk ?kksf"kr djds vkRek dks n’kZu 'kkL= vFkok ijkfo|k dk ,dek= fo"kd crkrk gSA blh ls ;g

Li"V gS fd lalkj ds ftrus LFkwy rFkk lw{e inkFkZ gS lHkh vkRek ds gh :i gSA ftruh oLrq,a lalkj esa gS lHkh dk

lkj vkRek gh gSA pkokZd lw= esa vkRek ds ckjs esa dgk x;k gS fd& ^pSrU; fof’k"V% dk;% iq#"k%* vFkkZr~~ pSrU; ;qDr

LFkwy 'kjhj gh vkRek gSA Jqfr dgrh gS fd& vkRekuLrq dkek; loZ fiz;a HkofrA o`gnkj.;d esa vk;k gS fd ;kKoyD;

dh iRuh eS=s;h ;kKoyD; ls iwNrh gS fd ^vkRek ok vjs n`"VO;%A vFkkZr~~ vkRek dk n’kZu dSls gksrk gS] rc ;kKoyD;

dgrs gSa fd&^vkRek ok vjs JksrO;ks n`"VO;ksa eUrO;ksa fufn/;kflrO;%*A vFkkZr~~ vkRek gh n`"VO; gS] JksrO;] eUrO; vkSj

fufn/;klu gh vkRek ds fo"k; gSA gs eS=s;h! vkRek ds n’kZu] Jo.k o Kku ls gh ;g lc Kkr gks tkrk gSA

¼o`gnkj.;d] 2A 4A 51½ duksifu"kn esa vk;k gS fd ^bl thou esa ;fn vkRek dks tku fy;k rks Bhd] ;fn u tkuk

rks loZuk’k gSA* dBksifu"kn esa rks ufpdsrk dk eq[; ftKkL; gh vkRek gS NkUnksX; ds bUnz vkSj fojkspu rFkk iztkifr ds

lEokn dk fo"k; Hkh vkRek gSA bl izdkj mifu"knkas ds fopkjdksa dh ijerÙo lEcU/kh ftKklk dk i;Zolku vkRek

ftKklk esa gqvk gSA vk| xq: 'kadjkpk;Z us dgk fd vkRek vkSj czã dk ,d gh Lo:i gSA ^thoks czãSo ukij%* vFkkZr~~

tho czã gh gS nwljk ughaaA NkUnksX;ksifu"kn esa fy[kk gS fd ^rjfr 'kksdekRefor* vFkkZr~~ vkRek dks tkuus okyk 'kksd ls

ikj gks tkrk gSA ¼NkUnksX;ksifu"kn 7A 1A 3½ ^v;e~ vkRek czã* mifu"knksa esa ckj&ckj bldk mins’k fn;k x;k gS fd

^vkReku fof)* vFkkZr~~ vkRek dks tkuksA 'kadj ds vuqlkj ^_rs KkukUUeqfDr%* thou dk ,d ek= y{; czã izkfIr gS tks

Kku fcuk lEHko ughaa ¼Kku ds fcuk eqfDr ughaa gks ldrh½A lka[; us ewy dkj.k izd`fr vkSj HkksDrk iq#"k ds foosd dks

gh rÙoKku Bgjk;k gSA oS’ksf"kd us nksuksa ds fo’ks"k ¼vUrj½ ij cy fn;k gSA ;ksx us nksuksa dks lgHkko iq#"kksÙke esa ns[kk


15 | P a g e


vkSj blfy, iq#"kksÙke Kku dks gh Kku foKku ekukA U;k; us izek.k foKku dks gh og Kku Bgjk;k rks ehekalk us deZ

foKku dksA osnkUr us mifu"knksa dh ijEijk dks tkjh j[kkA ckS)ksa esa Hkh ;gh rÙo Kku gSA lqxr us izrhR;leqRikn dks gh

og oLrq cryk;k] ftlds tkuus ls lc oLrq,a Kkr gks tkrh gS] ftlus bldks u le>k mlus dqN ughaa le>kA vkxs

pydj ukxktqZu us izrhR;leqRikn dks 'kwU;rk dk gh i;kZ; dgkA1

muds er esa tks 'kwU;rk dks tkurk gS og lc phtksa

dks ughaa tkurkA tSfu;ksa us vkjEHk esa leUo; dk n`f"Vdks.k viuk;kA mUgksaus Hkh ,dRo Kku dks ekuk] ftlls loZRo

Kku gks ldrk gSA ij os brus ls lUrq"V u gq,A mUgksaus mDr okD; dk iwjd nwljk okD; Hkh tksM+k loZRo foKku gksus

ij gh ,dRo foKku lEHko gSA ,d inkFkZ dk Kku mlh dks gks ldrk gS] ftldks lkjs inkFkZ dk Kku gS vkSj lkjs inkFkZ

dk Kku mlh dks gks ldrk gS] ftldks ,d inkFkZ dk Kku gSA dkj.k ,d inkFkZ ds Lo:i esa lc inkFkkZsa dk Lo:i fNIkk

gS vkSj lc inkFkksZa dk Lo:i ,d inkFkZ ds Lo:i ds vuq:i gh gSA bl izdkj tSfu;ksa us rÙo Kku ds fofo/k Lo:iksa

dks vius vusdkUrokn ;k leqPp;okn esa lekfo"V fd;kA

lkjka’kr% ;qfDriwoZd rÙoKku izkIr djus ds izRFkku dks gh n’kZu dgrs gSa] ftlds }kjk leLr oLrqvksa dk lkjHkwr Kku

izkIr gks ldrk gS ogha rÙoKku gSA

n’kZu dk Lo:i

n’kZu ds Lo:i esa nks er izpfyr : igyk ik’pkR; er vkSj nwljk Hkkjrh; erA

ik’pkR; er %&

lH;rk ds izkjfEHkd ;qxksa esa equ";ksa ds fy, cgq:ih okrkoj.k vkSj izkd`frd lk/kuksa ds lkFk vius lEcU/k dk lUrqyu

cuk, j[kus esa ds fy, ;g t:jh Fkk fd og muds ifjorZu’khy jgL;kRed i{k dks le>us dk izR;u djrkA vkjEHk esa

blh izdkj ds jgL;ksV~?kkVu ds iz;Ru dks n’kZu dgk tkrk FkkA vkjEHk esa n’kZu iw.kZr;k HkkSfrd inkFkZ ls gh lEcfU/kr Fkk

vFkkZr~~ og HkkSfrd lalkj ds inkFkksZa ds ewy rÙo dh [kkst esa gh O;Lr jgrk FkkA n’kZu dh nwljh /kkjk dk fodkl

lksfQLVksa ds lkFk gqvkA bu yksxksa dh n`f"V czká txr~ ij mruh ughaa Fkh ftruh fd vius gh fopkj vkSj LoHkko ijA

lksfQLVht us Hkh czká txr~ dh leL;kvksa ij fo’ks"k cy ughaa fn;kA euq"; D;k gS vkSj D;k cu ldrk gS bR;kfn izdkj

ds iz’uksa dks gh mUgksaus n’kZfud /kjkry ij j[kk] fdUrq IysVksa us n’kZu ds bl uSfrd Lo:i dks ,d rkfRod vkoj.k fn;k

vkSj vfjLVkfVy us ,d oSKkfud rFkk rkfdZd /kjkryA IysVksa ds vuqlkj n’kZu dk iz;kstu 'kk’or dk vFkok oLrqvksa ds

;FkkFkZ Lo:i dk Kku gSA n’kZu ds bfrgkl esa loZizFke IysVksa us gh vkHkkl (appearance) vkSj lÙkk ¼reality½ esa vUrj LFkkfir fd;kA IysVksa ds f’k"; vfjLVkfVy ds vuqlkj n’kZu og foKku gS tks ije rÙo ds ;FkkFkZ Lo:i dh

tkap djrk gSA blds vykok mUgksaus dgk fd v/;kRe 'kkL= gh eq[; 'kkL= gksus ds ukrs okLro esa n’kZu first

philosophy gSA 2

ykWd dk eUrO; gS fd rÙoKku fdlh oLrq dk Kku ughaa] oju~ Kku dk gh Kku gSA ;g og Kku gS] ftlesa lHkh izR;;ksa

dh mRifr] fodkl vkSj izkek.; ij fopkj fd;k tkrk gSA cdZys vkSj g~;we us Hkh bZ’oj dh lÙkk dks Lohdkj fd;k gSA

MsdkVZ] czsdu] ykWd] ykbcuht vkfn ds vuqlkj HkkSfrd (physics) n’kZu dk gh egRoiw.kZ vax gSA ;s fopkjd n’kZu

dks foKku dk pje fodkl ekurs FksA3

dk.V ds vuqlkj n’kZu laKku (congnition) dk ,oa foKku mldh leh{kk

gSA (Philosophy is the sciences and criticism of cognition) blds vfrfjDr ,d vk/kqfud er ds

vuqlkj ftls rdhZ; izR;{kokn dgrs gSaA n’kZu 'kkL= dk dke dsoy oSKkfud fo/kkuksa dk fo’ys"k.k ,oa Li"Vhdj.k gSA


16 | P a g e


bl eUrO; dks Lohdkj ughaa fd;k tk ldrk fd n’kZu dk dk;Z dsoy eD[kh dks cksry ls ckgj fudkyus dk jkLrk

fn[kykuk gS] tSlk fd foVxsaLVkbu us ekuk gS fd bldk dk;Z u rks fopkjksa dks Li"V djrk gS vkSj u gh ^Hkk"kk dk lgh

O;ogkj crkuk gS* n’kZu vusd oLrqvksa ls lEcfU/kr gSA fQj Hkh ;fn ,d gh 'kCn esa n’kZu dh eq[; fo’ks"krkvksa dks

vfHkO;Dr djuk gS rks ok;lu dh Hkkafr bls n`f"V (vision) dguk mfpr gksxkA fdlh Hkh n’kZu ds dsUnz esa ,d n`f"V dk gksuk vko’;d gSA vkSj fdlh n`f"V ij n’kZu dk viuk fof’k"V Lo:i vk/kkfjr gqvk djrk gSA n’kZu dh fo’ks"krk

gS] ijEijk vkSj :f<+ ds vUrjre dks ns[k lduk] rkfd oLrqvksa dks fuj[k ldus dk u;k vkSj foLr`r n`f"Vdks.k feysA

bl ckr dks lnSo gh Lohdkj fd;k tkrk jgk gSA n’kZu dk dk;Z gS xqIr rÙoksa dk fujkoj.k djukA IysVksa ls ewj vkSj

foVxsaLVkbu rd lHkh cM+s nk’kZfud vius&vius n`f"Vdks.k ls gh izsfjr gksrs jgs gSaA blds fcuk dksbZ Hkh ekuoh;

fopkj/kkjk dks ubZ fn’kk ughaa ns ikrkA ,d dq’ky dkjhxj fopkjksa ds bfrgkl ij viuh Nki ughaa NksM+ tkrkA eq[; ckr

gS ns[kus dk u;k <+ax vkSj blds lkFk gh lkFk iwjs KkukRed ifjos’k dks cnyus dk mRd`"V ladYiA4

ok;lu us fy[kk gS

fd ^;g lp gS fd n’kZu rdZ’kkL= dh Hkkafr fdlh ,d gh ckr dks fuf’pr :i ls ughaa j[k ikrk ij gekjs iwjs ekufld

n`f"Vdks.k esa ifjorZu yk ldus esa l{ke gSA*5

;gka ;g fn[kykus dk iz;Ru fd;k x;k gS fd jktuhfrd] lkekftd ,oa

oS;fDrd izxfr;ksa ds Åij fdlh izdkj n’kZu dk Lo:i fuHkZj djrk jgk gSA vr% bl vk/kkj ij Li"V :i ls dgk tk

ldrk gSa fd n’kZu dh dksbZ ,d loZekU; ifjHkk"kk ughaa nh tk ldrhA blfy, ge dg ldrs gSa fd n’kZu thou ds

vuqHkoksa dks le>us ,oa muds vkyksdu esa thou dh fn’kk fu/kkZfjr djus dk iz;Ru gSaA

Hkkjrh; er %&

Hkkjro"kZ dh HkkSxksfyd ifjfLFkfr] bldk ukfr’khrks".k tyok;q] ?kus Nk;knkj taxyksa dk vkf/kD;] vusd izdkj dk izkd`frd

lkSan;Z] ;gka fd mitkÅ Hkwfe] dan&ewy ,oa Qy&Qwyksa rFkk lqLokn [kk| inkFkksZa dk LoYi gh ifjJe ls i;kZIr ek=k esa

fey tkuk vkfnA Hkkjro"kZ dh fo’ks"k ifjfLFkfr us ;gka ds jgus okyksa dk s vukfn dky ls 'kkUr vkSj xEHkhj cuk j[kk

gSA bUghaa dkj.kksa ls ;s yksx viuh leLr ekufld 'kfDr;ksa dks thou rFkk fo’o dh xgu vkSj my>h gqbZ leL;kvksa dks]

e`R;q ds jgL; dks] ejus ds ckn thokRek dh ckrksa dks] nsoh 'kfDr dks rFkk vk/;kfRed rÙoksa dks le>us vkSj vKkfu;ksa

dks le>us esa yxk ldsaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd Hkkjrh;ksa dk izR;sd dk;Z vykSfdd rFkk vk/;kfRed Hkkoksa ls ifjiw.kZ gSA6

Hkkjrh; n’kZu ds yxHkx lHkh nk’kZfud lEiznk;ksa us pkgs os vkfLrd gks ;k ukfLrd] viokn Lo:i tM+oknh vFkok

HkkSfrdoknh vFkok lq[koknh pkokZd dks NksM+dj eks{k izkfIr dks vius nk’kZfud fpUru esa ewj/kUo; eaa= dgk tkrk gSA

fHkUu nk’kZfud lEiznk;ksa us thou ds pje y{; eks{k ds fy, fHkUu&fHkUu 'kCnksa dk iz;ksx fd;k gSA tSls tSu n’kZu esa

dSoY; ls izkfIr] ckS) n’kZu esa fuok.kZ dh miyfC/k] lka[; n’kZu esa vioxZ] ;ksx n’kZu esa lekf/k] U;k; oS’ksf"kd esa

fu"ks’kflf)] ehekalk esa dSoY; rFkk osnkUr esa c/;Kku ls lEcksf/kr fd;k tkrk gSA "k³~nk’kZfud lEiznk; esa eks{k izkfIr gsrq

ftu&ftu lk/kuksa dk dFku fd;k tkrk gS os izeq[k :i ls nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr fd, x, gSa ;Fkk cfgjax 'kqf) ds lk/ku

vkSj varjax 'kqf) ds lk/kuA xhrksifu"kn lk/ku f=fo/k ;ksx gS tks Øe’k% deZ] HkfDr vkSj Kku ;ksx ekxZ dgykrk gSA

ftUgsa eq[; :i ls osnkUr nk’kZfudksa us viuk;k gSA

egf"kZ ikartfy }kjk of.kZr v"Vkax ;ksx ekxZ lHkh nk’kZfudksa ds fy, vuqdj.kh; rFkk 'kSD; jgk gSA U;k; n’kZu v"Vkax

ekxZ ds vfrfjDr Jo.k] euu%] fuf)/;klu rFkk vkRe lk{kkRdkj bl lk/ku prq"B; dks Lohdkj djrk gSA v}Sr

osnkUrh vkfn vkpk;Z 'kadj mifu"knksa esa of.kZr cfgjax rFkk vUrjax 'kqf) ds ekxZ dks viukrs gSaA v}Sr osnkfUr;ksa us

Kku ;ksx ekxZ dks eks{k izkfIr ds lk/ku ds :i esa Lohdkj fd;k gSA tcdh jkekuqt us HkfDr ekxZ dks viuk;k gSA tSu

n’kZu f=fo/k lk/ku rFkk lE;d Kku] lE;d pfj=] lE;d n’kZu rFkk iap’khy ds fl)kUr dks viukrs gSaA ckS)


17 | P a g e


nk’kZfud] izKk’khy] lekf/k] prqFkZ vk;Z lR;] v"Vkafxd ekxZ] iap’khy o n’k’khy vkfn dks eks{k izkfIr ds lk/ku ds :i

esa Lohdkj djrs gSaA

ik’pkR; fopkjdksa us tgka n’kZu dk mís’; KkukRed Lrj ij lR; dks vf/kf"Br djuk crk;k gS ogha Hkkjrh;ksa us bls

rÙoKku uke fn;k gSA lk/kuk ls izkIr rÙoKku ds vk/kkj ij Hkkjrh;ksa us eks{k dh dkeuk dh eSDlewyj ds 'kCnksa esa

Hkkjr esa n’kZu dk v/;;u ek= Kku izkIr djus ds fy, ughaa oju~ thou ds pje mís’; dh izkfIr ds fy, fd;k tkrk

FkkA7

Hkkjrh; n’kZu dh izeq[k 'kk[kk,a %&

Hkkjrh; n’kZuksa dk mn~Hko ,oa fodkl vusd :iksa esa gqvk gS] ftlds vk/kkj ij mudk oxhZdj.k fd;k tkrk gSA izkphu

ekU;rkuqlkj Hkkjrh; n’kZu dks nks Hkkxksa esa ckaVk x;k gSA vkfLrd ,oa ukfLrdA bl foHkktu ds nks vk/kkj gSA ,d osn

vkSj nwljk bZ’ojA tks osnksa dks izek.k cqf) ls ns[krs gSa os vkfLrd n’kZu ekus tkrs gSa vFkkrZ~ osnksa dh izkekf.kdrk esa

fo’okl djus okyk vkfLrd rFkk osnksa dh izkekf.kdrk esa fo’okl u dj mldh fuUnk djus okyk ukfLrd n’kZu dgykrk

gSA blfy, dgk x;k gS fd ûkfLrdks osnfuUnd%*A ;g Li"V gS fd osn Hkkjr dk vkfn lkfgR; gS vkSj mldh

fopkj/kkjk us tuthou dks izHkkfor fd;k gSA bl izdkj osn dh izkekf.kdrk dks ekuus okys U;k;] oS’kSf"kd] lka[;] ;ksx]

ehekalk rFkk osnkUr dks vkfLrd n’kZu dgk x;k gSA bUgsa "k³n’kZfud lEiznk; Hkh dgrs gSaA osnksa dh izekf.kdrk ughaa

ekuus ds dkj.k pkokZd] tSu o ckS) n’kZu ukfLrd n’kZu dgyk,aA orZeku lUnHkZ eas vkfLrd dk vFkZ bZ’ojoknh vkSj

ukfLrd dk vFkZ vuh’ojoknh gS] fdUrq izkphu erkuqlkj vkfLrd dk vFkZ osnkuq;k;h rFkk ukfLrd dk vFkZ osn fojks/kh

gSA

n’kZu 'kkL= dh izeq[k 'kk[kk,a %&

Kku vkSj foKku dh n`f"V ls n’kZu'kkL= dks lkoZHkkSe ;k lkekU; foKku dg ldrs gSaA vr% vU; foKkuksa dh Hkkafr

bldh vyx&vyx 'kk[kk,a ughaa gSaA dsoy foospu dh lqfo/kk ds fy, fofHkUu leL;kvksa ds vk/kkj ij n’kZu lkfgR; dk

foHkktu fHkUu&fHkUu oxksZa esa fd;k x;kA fdlh fo’ks"k izdkj dh leL;kvksa ds lek/kku esa yxs fpUru ds ,d fo’ks"k uke

fn;k x;k gSA ;s ,d&nwljs ls fHkUu ughaa izR;qr ijLij lEc) gSaA vr% bUgsa n’kZu ds vo;o vFkok 'kk[kk,a dguk gh

laxr gSA n’kZu dh eq[; 'kk[kk,a fuEufyf[kr gS%&

1- rÙo&ehekalk

2- Kku&ehekalk

3- ewY;&ehekalk

1- rÙo&ehekalk %& n’kZu dh ftl 'kk[kk esa lÙkk ds vfLrÙo vkSj /keZ ds lEcU/k esa ewyxr iz’uksa dh ehekalk vFkok

ikjekfFkZd lR; dk foospu fd;k tkrk gS] mls rÙo ehekalk ;k vaxzsth esa Meta physics dgk tkrk gSA ehekalk dk vFkZ gksrk gS O;ofLFkr&fo’ys"k.k ls gksrk gSA rÙo ehekalk esa fo’o ds ewy rÙo dk vuqlU/kku fd;k tkrk gSA ewy rÙo

dks ije lÙkk ;k ikjekfFkZd lÙkk dgk x;k gSA ml ije ;k ikjekfFkZd lÙkk dk Lo:i D;k gS] mldh la[;k D;k gS

vkfn rÙo ehekalk ds izeq[k iz’u gSA czãk.k] czã] bZ’oj rFkk vej vkRek vkfn rÙo ehekalkRed lÙkk,a gS] ftuds

vk/kkj ij rÙo ehekalk dks vkReiw.kZrk dh izkfIr gksrh gS] vkSj vkRe iw.kZrk izkfIr ekuo dh egÙkh euksoSKkfud izsj.kk


18 | P a g e


gSA bldh lUrq"Vh esa fopkjdksa dks ijekuUn gksrk gSA ;gh rÙo ehekalk dk euksoSKkfud vk/kkj gS vkSj rÙo ehekalk dk

Kku ,slk Kku gS ftlds vk/kkj ij og Lo;a ije rÙo cu tkrk gS vFkkZr~~ ^czãfon~ czãeSo HkofrA*8

rÙo&ehekalk ds

vUrxrZ rhu mi’kk[kk,a vkrh gS D;ksafd bu rhuksa mi’kk[kkvksa esa gh lexz lÙkk lekfgr gS] lkFk gh ;s rhuksa gh lHkh dk

ewy Hkh gSA

1-1 bZ’oj&ehekalk %&

bZ’oj ehekalk dks vaxzsth esa Theology dgrs gSaA Theology 'kCn dh mRifr nks 'kCnksa ls gqbZ gSA Theos

=god bZ’oj rFkk logia = study or sciences ehekalk ls gqbZ gSA bZ’oj ehekalk dk iz;ksx izk;% nks vFkkZsa

esa gksrk gS%&

1-bZ’oj dk ckSf)d ;k nk’kZfud foospu

2-fdlh /kkfeZd ijEijk ds vUrxrZ bZ’oj ds Lo:i rFkk txr~ ds lEcU/k esa v/;;u

bZ’oj dk ckSf)d foospu dj mlls lEcfU/kr iz’uksa ds lek/kku dh ps"Vk ge bZ’oj ehekalk esa djrs gSaA lkFk gh bZ’oj

dk vfLro gS ;k ugha a] mlds vfLrÙo ds D;k izek.k gS] izek.k rFkkdfFkr ;qfDr laxr gS ;k ughaa bZ’oj dk Lo:i D;k

gS] ;fn bZ’oj gS rks mldk O;fDr vkSj fo’o ls D;k lEcU/k gS] bZ’oj lEcU/kh psruk D;k gS blds dkSu&dkSu ls y{k.k

gS bR;kfn iz’uksa dk mÙkj Hkh nsus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gSA

1-2 txr~&ehekalk %&

n’kZu dh og 'kk[kk ftlesa fo’o dh mRifr vkSj jpuk ls lEcfU/kr leL;kvksa dh fo’ks"k :i ls foospuk dh tkrh gS

mls fo’o&foKku] txr~&ehekalk ;k Cosmology dgk tkrk gSA cosmos dk vFkZ gS fo’oA vr% fo’o dh mRifr]

fo’o&izfØ;k dk Lo:i] fnd~ vkSj dky rFkk mudk lEcU/k vkfn txr~&ehekalk ds v/;;u dh leL;k,a gSA rÙo

ehekalk ls bldh fHkUurk ;g gS fd rÙo ehekalk esa ge lh/ks txr~ ds ewy rÙo ds fo"k; esa iz’u djrs gaS] fdUrq

txr~&ehekalk esa fo’o dh fofHkUu ?kVukvksa dh lef"Vxr O;k[;k }kjk txr~ ds lkekU; Lo:i] mRifr o fodkl vkfn

dks le>kus dh ps"Vk djrs gSaA ;fn rÙo ehekalk ls gesa ije rÙo ds Kku dh izkfIr gksrh gS rks txr~&ehekalk esa ;g

fn[kykus dk iz;kl fd;k tkrk gS fd bl ije rÙo ls bl n`’; txr~ dh l`f"V ;k fodkl fdl izdkj lEHko gSA

rkfRod n`f"V ls lk a[; n’kZu esa ije rÙokssa dh dYiuk dh xbZ gS iq#"k vkSj izd`frA tgka lka[; bu nks ije rÙoksa ds

fo"k; esa foospu djrk gS ogha ;g Hkh Li"V djrk gS fd bu ije rÙoksa ds vk/kkj ij bl txr~ dk fodkl dSls gqvkA

n`’; txr~ dh O;k[;k djus ds fy, 'kadjkpk;Z dks ek;k dh dYiuk djuh iM+hA bl HkkSfrd txr~ dks pkgs lR; ekuk

tk, vFkok ughaa] ysfdu bldh O;k[;k vko’;d gks tkrh gSA fLiukstk dsoy ,d fuxZq.k nzO; dks ije rÙo ekurs gq,

bl n`’; txr~ dh O;k[;k dhA

1-3 vkRek&ehekalk %&

vkRe n’kZu ;kuh fdlh dkYifud vkRek dk n’kZu ughaaA vkRe n’kZu ;k vkRe&ehekalk dk vFkZ gS Lo n’kZu] lR; n’kZu

;k lR; dk Lo:iA vius ckjs esa tks lPpkbZ gS mudk vUos"k.k&vuqla/kkuA ;g ,d ,slh fo/kk gS] ftlds lgkjs lk/kd

vius Hkhrj dk;k vkSj fpÙk ds {ks= esa vfuR; LokHkko okyh ,sfUnz; vuqHkwfr;ksa dk n’kZu djrs gq, bfUnz;krhr fuR;]


19 | P a g e


'kkLor] /kzqo ije lR; dk lk{kkRdkj dj ysrk gS vkSj bl miØe esa vius eu ij iM+s fodkjksa ls lgt gh NqVdkjk ik

ysrk gSA ekuo dk ftKklq eu vkRe rÙo dks tkuus ds fy, fujUrj iz;kl djrk gSA D;ksafd vkRek Kku dks gh

loZJs"B Kku dh laKk nh xbZ gSA vkRek dks czã dk Lo:i ekuk x;k gSA txr~xq# 'kadjkpk;Z us dgk gS fd& ^czã lR;a

txfUeF;k thoksa czãSo ukij% vFkkZr~~ czã gh ,d ek= lR; gS vkSj vkRek czã dk gh :i gSA* vkRek vkSj czã esa }Sr

ughaa gSaA blfy, vkRe Kku gh czã Kku gSA vius vki dks tkuksa bl okD; ls vkRe rÙo dks tkuus dh izsj.kk feyrh

gSA tks vkRe lk{kkRdkj dj ysrk gS og czã ds lkFk rknkRE;hdj.k dj eqfDr ikrk gSA vkRek ds lEcU/k esa o`gnkj.;d

mifu"kn esa dgk x;k gS fd&

îw.kZ en% iw.kZ fena iw.kkZRiw.kZeqnP;rs

iw.kZL; iw.kZeknk; iw.k Z esokof’k";rsAA* 11A 3A 19

2- Kku&ehekalk %&

Kku&ehekalk dk 'kkfCnd vFkZ gS Epistemology Kku ds Lo:i] mlds izek.;] mRifr] lhek] Kkrk rFkk Ks; ds lEcU/k] Kku izkIr dgka ls gksrk gS] bldk mn~xe ;k mn~Hko D;k gS\ D;k bfUnz;ka ds }kjk Kku izkIr gksrk gS vFkok rdZ

cqf) ds }kjk ;k bfUnz;ksa vkSj rdZ cqf) nksuksa ds }kjk ;k vr% izKk ds }kjk\ D;k ekuo tSls vYi cqf) tho ds fy,

txr~] czã vkSj vkRek tSls fo"k;ksa dk fuf’pr rFkk okLrfod Kku lEHko gSA ;fn gk¡ rks ekuoh; Kku dh lhek D;k gS\

Kku dh os n’kk,a dkSulh gS] ftuesa gesa Kku dh izkfIr gksrh gS bR;kfn iz’ukssa dks mBkuk rFkk mudk lek/kku nsuk vkfn

fo"k; dk n’kZu dh ftl 'kk[kk esa v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS mls Kku&ehekalk dgrs gSaA

la{ksi esa Kku&ehekalk Kku dh leh{kk gS vFkkZr~~ Kku ls lEcfU/kr leLr ftKklkvksa dk ckSf)d rkfdZd fo’ys"k.k

Kku&ehekalk dgykrk gSA lk/kkj.kr;k Kku dks czkfá oLrqvksa dk Kku eku fy;k tkrk gS fo’o esa jgus okys O;fDr fo’o

esa gksus okys lkoZHkkSfed fu;eksa dks Kku le> ysrs gSaA ijUrq] n’kZu ds {ks= esa Kku ,d fof’k"V fLFkfr ls ;qDr gksrk gSA

ik’pkR; nk’kZfud Kku dks cqf) dk fo"k; ekurs gSa rks dqN nk’kZfud Kku dks vuqHko ij vk/kkfjr ekurs gSaA Hkkjrh;

n’kZu esa Kku vf/kdka’kr% ije rÙo ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS] ftls vkRek }kjk xzg.k fd;k tkrk gSA bl ehekalk ds

vUrxrZ ,d mi&’kk[kk vkrh gS ftls rdZ&’kkL= dgrs gSaA

2-1 rdZ&'kkL= %&

rdZ ’kkL= og 'kkL= gS] ftlesa U;k; laxr fopkjksa vkSj fu;eksa dk ;Fkk jhfr v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS vFkkZr~~ rdZiw.kZ

fopkj Law of Reasonig ds fu;eksa ds v/;;u dks Logic ;k rdZ&’kkL= dgrs gSaA rdZ 'kkL= fo"k; fu.kZ; gSA fu.kZ; dh vfHkO;fDr okD;ksa ls gksrh gSA bl izdkj rdZ 'kkL= gekjs fu.kZ; okD;kas dk fo’ys"k.k djds mudh lR;rk vkSj

vlR;rk dks LFkkfir djrk gSA fdlh fu.kZ; dh lR;rk ds fy, okLrfod vk/kkj dh vis{kk gqvk djrh gS rFkk okLrfod

vk/kkj ls lR; fu.kZ; rHkh izkIr gks ldrk gS tc fu.kZ; izkIr djus dh fof/k vFkok iz.kkyh lR; gksA ekuo vkf[kj gS

rks euq iq=A eu ls mitk gqvk gSA euu vkSj fpUru djds gh fdlh lR; dks Lohdkjuk gh mldk tUetkr LoHkko gSA

blfy, fdlh fu;e] jhfr ;k fu.kZ; dks tkapus ij[kus] cqf) ds rjktw esa rkSyus rFkk cqf) dh Hkêh esa rik, tkus] rdZ

dh dlkSVh ij dlus vkSj ;qfDr;ksa ds gFkkSM+ksa dh pksV yxkus ds ckn gh vkxss c<+rk gSA vr% rdZ 'kkL= esa rdZ dh

fofHkUu iz.kkfy;ksa] bldh laxfr&vlaxfr] bldh lR;rk o vlR;rk vkfn ds lEcU/k esa foospu fd;k tkrk gSA


20 | P a g e


3- ewY;&ehekalk %&

ekuo ds leLr iz;kl pkgs os oS;fDr gks vFkok lkekftd ;k jk"Vªh; vFkok vUrjjk"Vªh; ;k vkfFkZd vFkok jktuhfrd

gks fdlh u fdlh bfPNr oLrq dh izkfIr ds fy, gqvk djrs gSaA og bfPNr oLrq dh izkfIr dsoy blfy, pkgrk gS fd

og mlds fy, ewY;oku gSA ewY;oku blfy, dh mldh izkfIr ls gesa lUrks"k gksrk gSA ewY; ehekalk esa ewY; lEcU/kh

rkfRod rFkk lkekU; iz’uksa ij fopkj fd;k tkrk gSA ,sfrgkfld n`f"V ls ewY; ehekalk ds izkjfEHkd lw= IysVksa ds

izR;;okn esa fo’ks"kr% fu%Js;l ;k ije iq#"kkFkZ ds izR;; esa vkSj vfjLVkfVy ds bZ’oj lEcU/kh fopkjksa ls feyrs gSaA

vk/kqfud ;qx esa dk.V us Kku&ehekalk vkSj ewY;&ehekalk dks la;qDr djus dk iz;kl fd;kA ewY;ksa dh dYiuk dk dqN

vk/kqfud fopkjdksa us fojks/k fd;k gS] D;ksafd muds vuqlkj ewY;&ehekalk n’kZu dks /kqU/kysiu dh vksj ys tkrh gSA ,;j

us rks ;gka rd dgk fd êwY; fujFkZd gS*A8

bl ehekalk dh rhu eq[; mi'kk[kk,a gS%&

1-uhfr 'kkL=

2-lkSUn;Z 'kkL=

3-ije&ewY; 'kkL= ;k eks{k&’kkL=

uhfr'kkL= esa uSfrd psruk] 'kqHk&v’kqHk] lR;&vlR;] uhfr&vuhfr] vPNs&cqjs dk;ksZa dh O;k[;k dh tkrh gSA ogha lkSUn;Z

ehekalk esa lkSUn;ZuqHkwfr ;k lqUnj vkSj vlqUnj ds Hksn dks cqf)xr cukuk] lkSUn;Z dk Lo:i D;k gS] blds D;k&D;k

y{k.k gS] lkSUn;Z dh vuqHkwfr fdl izdkj gksrh gS rFkk bl vuqHkwfr dk vU; izdkj dh vuqHkwfr;ksa ls fdl izdkj dk

lEcU/k gqvk djrk gS bR;kfn iz’uksa dh O;k[;k dh tkrh gSA lkFk gh ije ewY; 'kkL= esa ekuo ds ije ewY; o eks{k dk

fo’ys"k.k fd;k tkrk gSA euq"; ,d psru izk.kh gS blfy, og vius thou esa fofHkUu y{;ksa ,oa mís’;ksa dh izkfIr ds

fy, dk;Z djrk gSA ijUrq] gekjs thou dk ije y{; D;k gS\ vkfn bu leL;kvksa dk v/;;u ;k fo’ys"k.k ije ewY;

'kkL= esa fd;k tkrk gSA

nk’kZfud lEiznk; %&

fopkj/kkjk vkSj nk’kZfud lEiznk; ,d gh ughaa gSaaA D;ksafd nk’kZfud lEiznk; rHkh curk gS tc mlds vUrxZr ijelÙkk

ls lEcfU/kr rÙo&ehekalh;] Kku&ehekalh; o ewY;&ehekalh; leL;kvksa dk leqfpr rkfdZd fo’ys"k.k fd;k x;k gksA vr%

izR;sd nk’kZfud lEiznk; dh viuh&viuh rÙo&ehekalk] Kku&ehekalk o ewY;&ehekalk gksrh gSA lkFk gh buesa ijLij ;Fkk

lEHko laxfr gksuh vfuok;Z gS ughaa rks bls nk’kZfud lEiznk; ughaa dgk tk ldrkA

blh ds vuq:i vusdkusd Hkkjrh; o ik’pkR; nk’kZfud lEiznk; fodflr gq,A Hkkjrh; nk’kZfud lEiznk;ksa esa lka[;

n’kZu] ;ksx n’kZu] U;k; n’kZu] oS’ksf"kd n’kZu] ehekalk n’kZu] osnkUr n’kZu] tSu n’kZu] ckS) n’kZu o pkokZd n’kZu vkfn

izeq[k gSA buesa ls izFke Ng dks lfEefyr :i ls "k³~nk’kZfud lEiznk; ;k vkfLrd n’kZu Hkh dgk tkrk gSA ogha vfUre

rhu dks ukfLrd n’kZu dgk tkrk gSA vkfLrd n’kZu osnksa dh izekf.kdrk esa fo’okl djrs gSaA tcfd ukfLrd n’kZu osn

fojks/kh gS o os osnksa dh izekf.kdrk esa fo’okl ughaa djrs vFkkZr~~ ûkfLrdks osnfuUnd%*A ukfLrd vkSj vkfLrd 'kCnksa dk

iz;ksx ,d&nwljs vFkZ esa gksrk gSA vkfLrd mls dgk tkrk gS tks bZ’oj esa vkLFkk j[krk gS rFkk ukfLrd mls dgk tkrk

gS tks bZ’oj dk fu"ks/k djrk gSA bl rjg vkfLrd o ukfLrd dk vFkZ bZ’ojokjh vkSj vuh’ojoknh gSA O;kogkfjd :i


21 | P a g e


esa vkfLrd o ukfLrd 'kCn dk iz;ksx blh vFkZ esa gksrk gSA ysfdu] nk’kZfud fopkj/kkjkvksa esa vkfLrd o ukfLrd 'kCn

dk iz;ksx bl vFkZ esa ughaa gqvk gSA ;fn Hkkjrh; n’kZu esa vkfLrd o ukfLrd 'kCn dk iz;ksx bl vFkZ ¼O;kogkfjd :i½

esa gksrk rks lka[; o ehekalk n’kZu dks ukfLrd n’kZu dh Js.kh esa j[kk tkrkA gkykafd lka[; o ehekalk n’kZu

vuh’ojoknh n’kZu gSA ysfdu] fQj Hkh ;s osnksa dh izekf.kdrk esa fo’okl djrs gSaA

;fn ge vkfLrd n’kZuksa ds vkilh lEcU/k ij fopkj djrs gSa rks ge ikrs gSa fd U;k; vkSj oS’ksf"kd] lka[; vkSj ;ksx]

ehekalk vkSj osnkUr la;qDr lEiznk; gSA U;k; vkSj oS’ksf"kd n’kZu feydj ,d lEiw.kZ n’kZu dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA oSls

buesa flQZ lS)kfUrd Hksn gSA fQj Hkh nksuksa vkRek o ijekRek ds lEcU/k esa leku er j[krs gSaA blfy, nksuksa dks

la;qDr :i ls U;k;&oS’ksf"kd lEiznk; dgk tkrk gSA lka[; vkSj ;ksx n’kZu Hkh iq#"k vkSj izd`fr ds leku fl)kUr dks

Lohdkj djrs gSaA bl dkj.k nksuksa dk ladyu lka[;&;ksx ds :i esa gksrk gSA U;k;&oS’ksf"kd o lka[;&;ksx dk fodkl

Lora= :i ls gqvk gSA blfy, bu n’kZuksa ij ijks{k :i osnksa dk izHkko iM+k gSA

blds foifjr ehekalk vkSj osnkUr n’kZu dks oSfnd laLd`fr dh nsu ekuk x;k gSA ;s iw.kZr% osnksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA osn ds

izFke vax] deZdk.M ij ehekalk vk/kkfjr gSA osn ds f}rh; vax] Kkudk.M ij osnkUr vk/kkfjr gSA nksuksa gh n’kZuksa esa

osnksa dh vfHkO;fDr gksrh gSA blh dkj.k nksuksa dks dHkh&dHkh ,d gh uke êhekalk* ls lEcksf/kr fd;k tkrk jgk gSA

osnkUr ehekalk ls fHkUurk n’kkZus ds fy, ehekalk n’kZu dks iwoZ ehekaklk vFkok deZ ehekalk dk uke fn;k x;kA ogha

ehekalk n’kZu ls fHkUurk n’kkZus ds fy, osnkUr n’kZu dks mÙkj ehekalk o Kku ehekalk dgk x;kA Kku ehekalk Kku dk

fopkj djrh gSa tcfd deZ ehekalk deZ dk fopkj djrh gSA

ik’pkR; n’kZu ds lUnHkZ esa izR;;okn] ;FkkFkZokn] oLrqokn] iziapokn] cqf)okn o vuqHkookn vkfn vusd nk’kZfud

lEiznk; gSA ik’pkR; n’kZu dk fodkl ,d nwljs ds i’pkr~ gksrk jgkA ogka ,d n’kZu ds u"V gksus ds ckn nwljs dk

fodkl gqvkA lqdjkr ds ckn IysVks dk vkxeu gqvkA MsdkVZ ds n’kZu ds ckn fLiukstk dk n’kZu fodflr gqvkA fLiukstk

dk n’kZu MsdkVZ dh dfe;ksa dks nwj djus dk iz;kl gSA cdZys dk n’kZu ykWd dh dfe;ksa dks nwj djus dk iz;kl dgk

tkrk gSA ogha Hkkjr esa lHkh n’kZuksa dk fodkl ,d lkFk ughaa gqvkA Hkkjrh; n’kZu ds vkfLrd lEiznk;ksa dk fodkl lw=

lkfgR; ds }kjk gqvkA izkphu dky esa fy[kus dh ifjikVh ughaa FkhA nk’kZfud fopkjksa dks vf/kdka’kr% ekSf[kd :i ls gh

tkuk tkrk FkkA tSls&tSls le; cnyrk x;k oSls&oSls n’kZfud leL;kvksa dk laf{kIr :i lw=ksa esa vkc) fd;k x;kA bl

izdkj n’kZu ds iz.ksrk us lw= lkfgR; dh jpuk dhA U;k; n’kZu dk Kku xkSre ds U;k; lw= ls] oS’ksf"kd dk Kku d.kkn

ds oS’ksf"kd lw= ls] lka[; dk Kku dfiy ds lka[; lw= ls] ;ksx dk Kku iratfy ds ;ksx lw= ls] ehekalk dk Kku

tSfefu ds ehekalk lw= ls rFkk osnkUr dk Kku oknjk;.k ds czã lw= ls izkIr gksrk gSA lw= ds vR;Ur gh laf{kIr] vxE;

o lkjxfHkZr gksus ds dkj.k lk/kkj.k O;fDr;ksa dh le> ls ijs FksA vr% budh O;k[;k ds fy, Vhdkvksa dh vko’;drk

gqbZA bl izdkj cgqr ls Vhdkdkjksa dk izknqHkkZo gqvkA U;k; lw= ij okRL;k;u dk] oS’ksf"kd lw= ij iz’kLrikn dk] lka[;

lw= ij foKku fHk{kq dk] ;ksx lw= ij 'kcj dk rFkk osnkUr lw= ij txr~xq: 'kadkpk;Z ds Hkk"; izkphu o izfl) gSA

Hkkjrh; n’kZu dh izeq[k fo’ks"krk, a %&

1- Hkkjrh; n’kZuksa esa izR;{k ;k ijks{k :i ls vkRek o ijekRek dh lÙkk dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA

2- vKku ;k vfo|k dks cU/ku ekuk x;k rFkk rÙo Kku dks eks{k ekuk x;k A

3- eks{k dks thou dk loksZPp y{;] ije iq#"kkFkZ Lohdkj fd;k x;kA


22 | P a g e


4- deZ ds fl)kUr esa fo’okl rFkk iqutZUe ,oa tUe&tUekUrjokn dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA

5- bl yksd ds lkFk&lkFk vrhfUnz;] ijyksd dh lÙkk dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA ;|fi pkokZd n’kZu viokn gSA

6- n’kZu dk rkfdZd ;k ckSf)d fo’ys"k.k ek= u ekudj] thou dh i)fr ds :i esa Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA

7- vk/;kfRed mUufr rFkk uSfrd mUufr dh egÙkk dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA

8- Hkkjrh; n’kZu esa] n’kZu vkSj /keZ] n’kZu ,oa uhfr dk lkeatL; feyrk gSA

9- lHkh Hkkjrh; n’kZuksa ¼"k³~nk’kZfud lEiznk;½ dk dsUnz osn gSA ukfLrd n’kZu Hkh osnksa ds fojks/k ;k [k.Mu ds :i esa

fodflr gq, gSA vr% osn fdlh u fdlh :i esa lHkh Hkkjrh; n’kZuksa ds dsUnz jgs gSaA

10- Hkkjrh; n’kZu txr dh ;FkkFkZrk ,oa lR;rk dks Lohdkj djrk gSA ;gka rd fd v}Sr osnkUr esa Hkh tc rd czã

vuqHkwfr u gks tk, txr~ dks feF;k o vlr~ ughaa dgk x;k gSA

11- Hkkjrh; n’kZu esa vkRela;e ,oa bfUnz;fuxzg dh egÙkk dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA ysfdu] ;gka bfUnz; fuxzg] bfUnz;ksa

ds neu ds :i esa ughaa] oju~ bfUnz; fu;a=.k o lUrqyu ds :i esa iz;qDr gqvk gSA

12- Hkkjrh; nk’kZfud n`f"V] leUo;kRed ,oa lexzksUeq[k jgh gS] ftlesa fd 'kkjhfjd ,oa ekufld] HkkSfrd ,oa

vk/;kfRed] ykSfdd ,oa ikjykSfdd] O;f"V ,oa lef"V] O;fDr ,oa lekt] fl)kUr ,oa O;ogkj] cqf) ,oa Hkkouk] Kku]

deZ ,oa HkfDr vkfn lHkh esa ,d leUo;kRed n`f"V viukus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA

dqN yksxksa dh vkifÙk gS fd n’kZu O;kogkfjd ughaa gSaA okLro es bl HkzkfUr dk eq[; dkj.k n’kZu rFkk O;kogkfjd thou

dks Bhd ls u le>us ds dkj.k gSA fo’o ds izk;% leLr nk’kZfudksa dk ;gh fopkj gS fd n’kZu dh lQyrk bl ckr esa

gS fd og thou ds fy, lgk;d gks vkSj ogha nk’kZfud lQy gS tks vius n’kZu dks thou esa mrkj ldsaA dqN yksxksa dk

vkis{k gS fd n’kZu dsoy ekufld O;k;ke gS] mldk thou esa dksbZ ykHk ughaa gSaA bl fo"k; esa izks- tksM us viuk er

fn;k gS fd ^;fn n’kZu dsoy ekufld O;k;ke gS rks blls ;g ykHk vo’; gksrk gS fd eu dk O;k;ke gks tkrk gS tks

eu ds LokLF; ds fy, vko’;d gS( eu dks LoLFk j[kuk vko’;d Hkh gS vkSj bl dk;Z esa n’kZu ykHknk;d gSA*10

oLrqr% n’kZfud fpUru ls cqf) dk f’k{k.k gksrk gS vkSj fu"i{k Hkko ls ;qfDriwoZd lkspus dk vH;kl gks tkrk gSA gekjs

vf/kdka’k erHksn LokFkZiw.kZ] ladqfpr rFkk vlaxr <ax ls lkspus ds dkj.k gksrk gSA vr% /kkfeZd] jktuhfrd] lkekftd

vFkok vkfFkZd iz’uksa ds lek/kku esa ;fn nk’k Zfud n`f"Vdks.k dks viuk;k tk, rks orZeku ;qx dh cgqr dqN dVqrk,a

vklkuh ls lekIr gks ldrh gSA n’kZu dsoy thou vkSj txr~ ds iz’uksa dk lek/kku djus okyk gh ughaa vfirq ;g

gekjs thou vkSj O;ogkj] gekjs uSfrd] lkekftd] jktuSfrd] /kkfeZd ,oa gekjh izo`fr;ksa ,oa fo’oklksa dh ijh{kk djrk

gS vksj gesa ekxZ crykrk gS ftl ij pydj O;fDr viuk rFkk vius lekt dk dY;k.k dj ldrk gSA


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Hkkjrh; n’kZu

vkfLrd n’kZu ukfLrd n’kZu

"kM~nk’kZfud lEiznk; osn fuUnd lEiznk;

U;k; oS’ksf"kd lka[; ;ksx ehekalk osnkUr pkokZd tSu ckS)

ykSfdd fopkjksa ls mRiUu oSfnd fopkjksa ls mRiUu

deZdk.M ij vk/kkfjr Kkudk.M ij vk/kkfjr

ehekalk n’kZu osnkUr n’kZu


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References:

1. ek/;fed dkfjdk ;k izrhR;leqRikn 'kwU;rkarka izp{ke gS 24A 18 2. n’kZu dh ewy/kkjk,a& MkW- vtqZu flag feJ e/;izns’k fgUnh xzUFk vdkneh] Hkksiky& 1997 i`"B la[;k 1&3

3. Paulsen: Introduction to Metaphysics (1930 Edn.) Page No. 23. 4. nsf[k,] nk’kZfud =Sekfld] tuojh 1963 i`"B la[;k 11&21

5. ok;lu dk ys[k% How I See Philosophy ? ,-ts-,;j }kjk lEikfnr ykftdy iksftfVfoTe esa lax`fgr

i`"B la[;k 374&377 6. nk’kZfud] tqykbZ 1961 esa MkW- ;kdwc elhg dk ys[k 7. mes’k feJ% Hkkjrh; n’kZu mÙkj izns’k fgUnh laLFkku ¼1990½ i"̀B la[;k 3&4

8. Six Systems of India. Page No. 370 9. ekufodh ikfjHkkf"kd dks’k n’kZu [k.M ¼jktdey izdk’ku½ i`"B la[;k 30 rFkk 186

10. C.E.M. Joad: Return to philosophy page No. 141.


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SWAMI VIVEKANANDA’S CONCEPTION OF PHILOSOPHY

Mane Pradeepkumar Pandurang

Introduction:

Like other philosophers Swami Vivekananda talks about the nature, function and aims of

philosophy. Throughout The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda his ideas regarding

conception of philosophy are found.1 Here in this paper I am systematizing these ideas in order

to present it. Vivekananda considers himself as a follower of path of religion than of theoretical

philosophy.2 With exception of some, many philosophers from western tradition were

academicians (means they taught philosophy in school or universities) but Vivekananda did not

teach philosophy in this way. Through his lectures and discussions we found his thoughts on

philosophy. When we talk of Indian philosophy in general and Vivekananda in particular it

becomes important to make distinction between the western and Indian conceptions of

philosophy. Indian philosophy is known as Darsana which literally means ‘vision’ or

‘realization’. It is a way of life rather than theorization of life.3 Theorization has its role but what

it aims is realization of this theory or to live this theory. So the concept of Darsana is not

intellectual analysis only but going beyond this it is a realization of truth, knowledge and reality.

While in western philosophy the meaning of philosophy is very diverse. In the paper I am going

to consider Indian and western conceptions of philosophy and in that light I am going to evaluate

Vivekananda’s conception of philosophy. So for this purpose paper is divided into three sections

i.e. general conception of philosophy, Vivekananda’s conception of philosophy and evaluation of

his conception of philosophy.

General Conception of Philosophy:

About the conception of philosophy there are various definitions given.4 No any certain,

particular, universal definition can be given. Every philosopher in order to define it gives new

definition. Some philosophers give importance to reason while some to emotions, some to

objective analysis while some to subjective analysis; some to individuals while some to society

etc. Philosophy in this way is subjective venture.Philosophers have their own perceptions and

conceptions and they look things through these conceptions and perceptions. The same World is

matter for materialists while it is illusion for idealists. For some ultimate reality is dynamic in

nature while for others it is static in nature. So it is a subjective way of thinking. Even though

metaphysics, epistemology, ethics are chief braches of philosophy analytic philosophy reject

metaphysics. For some philosophers ethics is only philosophy.So philosophy becomes way of

thinking.




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The word ‘philosophy’ is originated from the Greek word philossophia. Its etymological

meaning is “love of wisdom” (Philo means “love” and Sophia means “wisdom”). Pythagoras

calls it as the knowledge based on contemplation. Plato says that it is search for ultimate reality.

Aristotle studied physical sciences and tried to know nature empirically still he went beyond

these fields and proposed that natural science cannot give us knowledge of ultimate reality which

only philosophy can give. For David Hume philosophy is the first science which studies human

nature. Every other branch of knowledge is based on human mind and philosophy studies human

mind so it becomes first science. Bertrand Russell calls philosophy as a study of unsolved

controversial problems.Isaiah Berlin claims that philosophy is important exercise because it

studies the basic assumptions on which beliefs are based. Philosophers make analysis of these

beliefs so these beliefs are can be accepted, rejected or modified. In this way philosophy expands

our intellectual capacities. Considering all these definitions we can say that philosophy is a

conceptual and critical analysis of ideas, values and life.

Indian conception of philosophy is different from western conception of philosophy. There is no

any particular synonymous word for philosophy in Indian philosophical literature.Anviskhiki,

Tarkvidya, Tattavajnana are the words which can be related with it. But while talking about

Indian philosophy the word Darsana should be considered. The reason is that the meaning of

Indian philosophy is different from western conception which can only be expressed in the word

Darsana. This word is used many times in Indian context. The meaning of Darsana is

realization. Indian philosophy aims at realization of life. Life should be realized in its spiritual

form and content is the motto of Indian philosophy. It is not only intellectual analysis of things

but it’s a way of life. It’s not a criticism of thought only but to live that thought. In a way it is a

process where thought is converted into practice, ideas become reality and in this aim of the life

achieved.i.e Moksha. It may be logically developed Nyaya or metaphysically sophisticated

Vedanta the aim of these schools is not to get logical or metaphysical analysis but to go beyond it

and realize life’s spiritual potential. Though Indian philosophy talks about ethics, logic and

epistemology but it goes beyond it and desires spiritual realization. Max Muller has very aptly

explained it.

“Our (means western) idea of a system of philosophy is different from the Indian

conception of a Darsana. In its original meaning philosophy, as a love of wisdom,

comes nearest to the Sanskrit (Gignasa), a desire to know, if not a desire to be wise.

If we take philosophy in the sense of an examination of our means of knowledge

(Epistemology), or with Kant an inquiry into the limits of human knowledge, there

would be nothing corresponding to it in India. Even the Vedanta, so far as it is based,

not on independent reasoning but on the authority of the Sruti, would lose with us its

claim to be the title of philosophy.”

So we can realize the difference between Indian and western conceptions of philosophy. While

studying Vivekandas conception of philosophy we should be aware of this distinction.


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Vivekanda throughout his literature used the word philosophy than Darsana. When he talks

about philosophy he is using western or general conception of philosophy. For Indian philosophy

he generally uses the word Darsana. But we should be note that he is aware of the difference

between Darsana and philosophy.

Vivekananda’s Conception of Philosophy:

Swami Vivekananda was a man of religious world. If we see his life and thought we realize that

all of his life he struggled for propagation of thought that the aim of human being is to realize the

spiritual potential. Everything that helps for realizing this potential should be accepted as proper

way of life. He is not orthodox minded person who rejects things without looking its worth.5 His

view is that one should be liberal minded and tolerant enough to respect others. This is the

uniqueness of Vivekananda’s thought. And this is reflected in his conception of philosophy. For

him philosophy is intellectual analysis of things. He calls it as ‘intellectual gymnastics’. He

thinks that intellectual analysis can refine our thought or ideas not spiritual potential. Philosophy

uses the way of reasoning to do the things. Reasoning he thinks should be used but through it we

cannot arrive at the truth which is spiritual in nature. Reason according to him works in the area

of intellect. And the capacity of intellect is limited because it bound by categories of time, space

and causation. Like Kant he proposes that the spiritual world cannot be grasped by faculties of

empirical world. So what is required to transcend these faculties so one can realize ultimate truth.

When Vivekananda talks about western philosophy he argues that philosophical reasoning is

bound by ways of induction and deduction which are logical operators.Logical analysis cannot

get even little glimpse of reality.Vivekananda while talking about ways of knowledge consider

instinct, reason and inspiration as three categories/modes of knowledge.Instinct through innate

capacities while reason through thinking gives us knowledge but these two kinds of knowledge

cannot be called as real/true knowledge. The real knowledge can only be experienced (not

understood) by inspiration/experience. Only inspiration/experience can grasp the ultimate. So the

way of realization is way of inspiration or experience. When he talks about western philosophy

he is critical about it but this is not there in case of Indian philosophy which has a very different

conception than western philosophy. For him Indian philosophy means concept of Darsana only.

So he explains that in Indian culture there is not isolation between religion and philosophy. Both

are intertwined in a way that there separation is not possible.

In Indian context he calls philosophy as essence of religion. While discussing about religion he

says that every religion is combination of three parts i.e. philosophy, mythology and rituals.

Philosophy is core/essence of religion. And this essence is expressed in mythology through

stories and examples. And at last ritual is kind of behavior which is essential for realization of

aim of religion. He calls ritual as concretization of philosophy. He is the follower of Darsana

tradition so he criticizes western conception of philosophy. He calls this kind of philosophical


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exercise as guesswork of mind. All this is work of argument, logical analysis, and conceptual

analysis. This may be essential for refinement of thought but refinement of thought is totally

different from refinement of spiritual condition. This refinement can only occur through

Sadhana. So he argues that philosophy is different from religion like the plan of building is

different form building. Plan only can signify building but if we see plan we cannot perceive

building. For doing that we should walk to see building. Here he signifies that theory helps us to

understand but it has no value in action except guiding compass to it. He while explaining this

argues that mere intellectual/philosophical assent or dissent cannot make us religious. One

should experience the reality which is spiritual in nature. One more interesting thing is that he

says that every philosophy has three stages- concrete, generalized and abstract.As philosophy

passes though these stages it becomes more systematic, rigorous and refined.So in this way while

talking about philosophy he discusses about limitations of philosophical methods but still

propose it. But beyond this he proposes that one should go beyond this intellectual exercise and

try to realize and experience realization. He gives emphasis on realization of life not knowing its

meaning. He is seeker of true knowledge which is spirituality not the knowledge of empirical

world. If we take philosophy as an exercise to satisfy our intellectual thirst Vivekananda is not

against it since he proposes that human should always try to achieve knowledge but philosophy

for him is not highest exercise. For him realization of ultimate truth is the aim of life. And this is

possible not by intellectual exercise but is only possible through Sadhana.

While philosophy in general sense, is theoretical analysis of concepts which discusses truth,

reality and knowledge. Since he studied history of philosophy he is aware of western

conceptions. It is very interesting to know about his conception because it can be compared with

many of the western philosophers. Like Aristotle Vivekananda was interested in ultimate which

in Indian context can be called as Atman/Brahman.But Vivekananda’s way is more religious and

spiritual than Aristotle. With Kant he has similarities because there are some common threads

which bind both schools of Kant and Vedanta. Like Wittgenstein he proposes that language has

limitations.

Evaluation of Vivekananda’s Conception of Philosophy:

If we study Vivekananda’s conception of philosophy we can say that his conception of

philosophy is not unique contribution but definitely it gave new and modern kind of

interpretation to it. Like Indian schools of philosophy he follows the model of Darsana. For him

intellectual analysis is important because many times he mentioned it worth. Human is thinking

being and to be alive means he should think, contemplate because thinking makes man active

intellectually and guides our life. But thinking has limitations. It can go up to certain stage

beyond it cannot go. So this leap into area of light is required and this is possible through

Sadhana. One thing is that for Vivekananda life enrichment is the primary task. Though material

enrichment is also essential component of human enrichment still he proposes that material


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enrichment cannot make human being satisfy. Since spiritual satisfaction is the only thing which

explore his true nature so rather than propagating thoughts of Vedanta he focused on practical

aspect of Vedanta because life realization is primary aim of human beings not life theorization.

That’s why we can say he carries Indian tradition of Darsana which can be called as practical

philosophy. I think his thoughts regarding philosophy are relevant today for world of intellectual

and life also. Though intellectually speaking his thoughts on conception of philosophy are not

new but they are refined than earlier thoughts.

The tradition of Darsana is more systematically presented through his conception of philosophy

so we can say that he was protecting and proposing side of Indian philosophy i.e. Darsana.

Considering his thoughts on philosophy related to life we can say that the way of Darsana can be

also one of the ways to realize meaning of life. The meaning of life can be realized not by

thinking on it but acting on it. Reasoning is great tool of thinking but verification is also that

much important as reasoning. Only speculation, analysis and critical study are not going to help

us always. It may be possible that some things are beyond our human capacities but then what is

left for human endeavor? Human is not only thinking animal but he is also feeling animal. In

order to universalize knowledge we have ignored emotional/experiential aspect of human life

because it is conceived that it is subjective part of human world. But we should not forget that

emotion/experience is also that much important as reason. Here my claim is that when we will be

focusing on this emotional aspect of life we may know many things which are hidden for us. We

always want to be rational so we use thinking methods. But we should also feel/ experience in

respect to understand. Religion talks about spiritual aspect but at the same time it also talks about

psychological aspect of life. We are not aware about religions power to change human’s spiritual

potential but today it is proven that Sadhana like meditation brings some inner and basic changes

in human mind and nature. In this way we can realize that religious transformation bring

psychological transformation which makes human being happy. So through scientific study and

experience we should test psychological theories so we can check religion’s claim that it tries to

make human life happy.6

So, theory and practice, ideas and realities, reason and experience all are required for human.

Here one can change or modify other i.e. like if particular theory is accepted as invalid because it

doesn’t gives result but may be after restudying it with the help of new data or new devices or

new way it gives right results then it changes our perception about that theory. So here, if we

consider philosophy as a way of critical analysis of concepts it can help us to check claims of

various sciences as well as religions. Here philosophy can work as guide to any branch of

knowledge by criticizing its ways of study, its methods and of course its results also. So

proposing that one is more important than other or only one is important doesn’t seems to be

proper. Here Vivekananda can guide us through the conception of philosophy.


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Notes:

1. But unlike other philosophers who have explained the conception of philosophy

systematically his ideas are found to be scattered throughout the collected works.

2. Vivekananda thinks that thinking is essential part of human life. Even many times he

feels proud that man is thinking being and this thinking capacity should be used to

improve his intellectual and practical life. But he is firm about the limitations of thinking.

Thought can grasp empirical world only. Beyond it, it cannot go. It is very interesting

that today also some group of scientists and philosophers propose that human brain has

limited capacities. Godel’s incompleteness theorem, Heisenberg uncertainty principle,

neurobiological limitation of brain evolution, limitation of human senses- these entire

issues support claim that human thinking capacity is limited. Vivekananda says that

beyond the sphere of reason lies the sphere of religion.

3. “Intellect ends where religion begins.” “The Collected Works of Swami Vivekananda .vol

7 page 91 (Digital version).

4. For details see Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Paul Edwards, ed 1967 .

5. Throughout “The Collected Works of Swami Vivekananda” we see that Vivekandas’s

thought are liberal in nature. Though he is strict proponent of Advaita Vedanta still he is

ready to accept others views. Even he proposes that variety is the sign of life. Variety of

thoughts is not damaging because he propose that due to variation through debate and

discussion thought refinement takes place. He can be called as ‘intellectual democrat’. He

proposes that difference in thought is not a problem but every thought should be studied

critically.

6. See Science probes spirituality. Scientific American Mind (www.sciammind.com), Feb-

March 2006, pp 40-43. Here in this article psychological effects of meditations are given.

It shows that meditation has positive effects on human mind, brain and behavior. So we

can claim that religion has psychological potentional to change human behavior. Some

years ago the claims of religion were considered as fake claims but today they are proven.

So definitely we can say that only reason cannot give us true picture of the world. Our

experiential/inner world can also guide us to rethink on our rational claims. Here

Vivekananda’s position on philosophy can help us because he considers that philosophy

as a theory that guides our practice.

Reference Readings:

Burke, Marie (2000). Swami Vivekanda in the West- New Discoveries, vols 6.Calcutta:

Advaita Ashrama.

Dasgupta, Surndanath (2010). A History of Indian Philosophy, vol 1.Delhi: Motilal

Banarasidas Publishers.

Hiriyana, M. (2009).Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas

Publishers.

Magee, Bryan (1986).Men of Ideas, New York: Oxford University Press

Max Muller (1919). Six systems of Indian Philosophy, London: Longmans Green and

CO.

Swami, Vivekananda (1989). The Collected Works of Swami Vivekananda. 9 vols.

Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.


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PRINCIPLES OF ENVIORNMENTAL PRAGMATISM AND SUSTAIBABILITY

ISSUE

Devartha Morang & Prabhu Venkataraman

Abstract

Environmental pragmatism is an emerging school of thought in environmental ethics. Andrew Light and

Eric Katz mentioned three central tenets of environmental pragmatism as moral pluralism, decreasing

theoretical debate between theories and engaging in public policy making in social and political sector for

resolving environmental crisis. (Light & Katz, 1996). In the central tenets mentioned by Light and Katz,

there is no explicit mention of ‘sustainability’ as one of the tenet of environmental pragmatism. Andrew

Light and Eric Katz did not mention it as a central aspect in the introduction of their edited book entitled

‘Environmental Pragmatism’. (Light & Katz, 1996). Environmental pragmatism usually tends to the

anthropocentric (not necessarily) position and inevitably indicates to the sustainability issue. We claim

that this sustainability issue can be considered as another important principle of the environmental

pragmatism along with the other three. We argue for our claim by citing works of key pragmatist thinkers

like Bryan G. Norton.

Key Words: Moral pluralism, intrinsic value, anthropocentric, sustainability, environmental pragmatism.

Environmental pragmatism is an emerging school of thought in environmental ethics. Within the

environmental ethics anthropocentric and the non-anthropocentric approaches are two main

perspectives of human relationship to the nature. Anthropocentric approach usually insists on the

instrumental benefit of the natural objects to the human beings. On the other hand, non-

anthropocentric approach insists on the intrinsic value of the natural objects, including the

nonhuman beings and does not support for mere instrumental benefit to the human beings. In

some specific environmental cases, such as preservation of forest or mountain or natural species

ideological clash among different groups of people arise time and again in the form of natural

resource management. Environmental pragmatism tries to reconcile between anthropocentric and

the non-anthropocentric approaches to address the environmental problems and want to work

beyond the ideological conflicts. Thus it emerged in 1990s as a new kind of thought to work

among various ideologies for the smooth conduct of the environmental issues. (Hull 2009).

It is quite difficult to consider pragmatist school of thought as a homogeneous one. Nevertheless,

attempts were made by writers to see the similarities among the different philosophers who

subscribe to environmental pragmatism. Andrew Light and Eric Katz in their edited book

Environmental Pragmatism mentioned three central tenets of environmental pragmatist school of




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thought as moral pluralism, decreasing theoretical debate between theories and engaging in

public policy making in social and political sector for resolving environmental crisis. (Light &

Katz, 1996). They indicate these three main aspects as central to the environmental pragmatist

school of thought.

…the call for moral pluralism, the decreasing implication of theoretical debates and the

placing of practical issues of policy consensus in the foreground of concern, are central

aspects of our conception of environmental pragmatism (Light and Katz, 1996, p.5).

Moral pluralism implies that there are many values in nature and each value has its own worth.

Light and Katz claim that environmental pragmatism strongly supports moral pluralism. There

are various values and these values can be valued under different moral theories such as

utilitarian, deontology, virtue ethics etc. Value actually leads to different philosophical moral

theories. For example, ‘happiness’ is the ultimate value for utilitarian and ‘reason’ or ‘end’ is the

ultimate value for the deontology. Again happiness or pleasure may be defined in various ways

such as ‘man’s pleasure’ and ‘animal pleasure’ etc. But these are the degrees of values and these

values give us the moral theories. As there are different kinds of values, so there are different

grounds or principles under which those values can be measured. As J. B. Callicott says that

values are embedded in different philosophical moral theories and they can play as a ground or

basis of values under its purview. (Callicott, 1984). Where there is value, there is a moral

principle. Rosenthal et al observes, “Different moral theories are possible depending upon which

values or principles are included” (Buchholz & Rosenthal, 1996, p. 265).

Pragmatists believe that human experiences are very complex and are in ongoing process with

nature. Out of these various experiences different values emerge. So values emerge as a result of

contact between subject and object which are ontologically real in experiences. From this

perspective values can neither be wholly subjective nor objective. Thus, for pragmatists,

acknowledging the possibility of different values is the starting point for deliberation on

environmental issues.

The pluralism proposed here is motivated by methodological considerations and need not

be understood as a doctrine about ultimate values. It is part of broader experimental

strategy that seeks first to express diverse values in multiple and perhaps

incommensurable ways, and then seeks ways to organize and present those diverse goals

as a starting point for a more holistic analysis. (Norton, 2003, p. 517).

Acknowledgement of different values may lead to conflicting viewpoints and ideological

differences. While the pragmatists accept moral pluralism, they try to reduce the conflicts that

may arise because of moral pluralism. Thus, another important aspect of the environmental

pragmatism emerging out of pluralism is the possibility of consensus among various groups

through a democratic process to resolve the environmental crisis. For example Andrew Light

(Light, 1996) talks about the compatibility between social and political ecology to address the


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environmental problems, while Bryan G. Norton talks about the convergence hypothesis among

different stripes of environmental groups. In this way environmental pragmatism proposes for a

Collaborative Adaptive Management (CAM) to address the environmental crisis in a mutual

way. (Norton, 1991) .

Light and Katz maintain that pragmatists attempt at reducing the theoretical debates in spite of

pluralism in values. On the other hand, by not engaging in theoretical debates, environmental

pragmatists focus on policy formation on environmental issues. Thus, policy formulation for

amicable settlement of a particular disputed environmental situation is another important feature

of the environmental pragmatism. Based on the pluralistic liberal attitude, pragmatism at least

tries to give a good form of policy decision for the environmental problems. As Robert James

Scott says, “The intent of environmental pragmatism is to make environmental philosophy

relevant to environmental policy.” (Robert, 2000, p. 196). Environmental philosophers want to

contribute in environmental policy making process. They usually want to influence in three

heads- agenda settings, evaluation of the setting policies and making alternative ways for the

policy to save and conserve the wild species. (Kingdon, 2003). Environmental policy can be

formulated from various perspectives, such as anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric to take

care of threatened and endangered species and other flora and fauna. Usually when policies on

these issues are formulated debates tend to arise from anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric

positions. Environmental pragmatism insists on the reconciliation of both of these two

approaches while making policy for the environment. In critical situation regarding the

environmental decision, environmental pragmatists prefer for a convergence of various

ideologies for the smooth solution of the problem. But, how do this convergence happen and on

what basis? We claim that the pragmatists attempt at reconciliation and convergence is based on

the principle of sustainability. Hence, we argue that sustainability should be considered as

another core principle of environmental pragmatism. Thus, apart from the three central aspects of

environmental pragmatism, we want to bring the sustainability issue as another core principle of

pragmatist school of thought.

Apart from Light’s understanding of the core principles of environmental pragmatism, Parker

includes two other principles as essential to environmental pragmatists. (Parker, 1996)

Environmental pragmatism usually (not necessarily) tends to the anthropocentric position. As

mentioned earlier, anthropocentrism is the view which measures the value of natural objects

from the human perspective. In other words, all the natural entities and beings are treated as

resources for the human kind. Human being is the only locus of valuation and natural things can

be used for the welfare and benefit of the people in various ways. So, anthropocentric view

insists that human being can only values things and also use those things as resources. The issue

here resource utilizations is for the present generation or for future generations as well?

Environmental pragmatists from the anthropocentric position subscribes to the view that resource

utilization should also include future generations. So, there is a need to preserve the current

resources so that future generations can use them as well.


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Though environmental pragmatism insists on the anthropocentric and tries to measure all values

from the human point of view, still environmental pragmatists are more inclined to the

sustainability of the nature. It is to be noted that all the pragmatists are not wholly

anthropocentric, because, some pragmatists insist on the intrinsic value for the environmental

pragmatism. For example, Ben A. Minteer calls for such intrinsic value for the pragmatism.

(Minteer, 2001). From an ecocentric position, sustainability is taken care of as ecocentric

position talks of intrinsic value of entire ecosystem. Through this perspective, it takes care of

preserving the ecosystem for the present and future as well.

From an anthropocentric position, the environmental pragmatists accept the instrumental value of

nature and its objects, but the issue is whether use of nature and its objects are to be governed by

the concerns of the present generations alone or along with future generations? This line of

discussion takes us to view anthropocentric position from different viewpoints. Michel Stenmark

finds two type of anthropocentric attitude. These are - traditional and intergenerational

anthropocentrism. Traditional view is that all the natural things are for the use and benefit of

now-living people. And the view that all natural things are for the use and benefit of the present

and future generation of the people is called as intergenerational anthropocentrism. (Stenmark,

2009, p. 83). In the similar way B. G. Norton also talks of two kinds of anthropocentric -weak

and strong. B. G. Norton argues for the weak anthropocentric position that suggests use of

natural resources for the present and future generations by adopting different approaches in our

usage.

Kelly Parker finds that pragmatic cut the ‘Gordian Knot’ between the intrinsic and instrumental

values. (Parker, 1996, p. 34). His point is that these two concepts are not exclusive in the sense

that any natural object has both these qualities. When it is used in human purpose then it

becomes instrumental value and still it possesses intrinsic value. Thus it is seen that nature can

be seen from anthropocentric or non-anthropocentric, instrumental or intrinsic, or individualistic

or holistic etc. It is also seen that whatever may be the perspectives of valuation of nature, its

main intention is to preserve some amount of natural resources for the future generation for the

fulfillment of their needs. Thus environmental pragmatism also tries to preserve the natural

resources as much as possible by reconciling debate between anthropocentric and non-

anthropocentric environmental dispute. This way it leads to the sustainability approach in

relation to the natural resource management.

As a matter of fact, Light acknowledges that Antony Weston and Bryan G. Norton were the

writers whose works carry such pragmatic ideology in the field of environmental ethics (Light,

2010). Between these two philosophers, B. G. Norton’s works talks about the intergenerational

ethics for resource distribution and resource management for the future generation. In spite of

such evidence, why don’t Light and Katz include sustainability as an important issue of

environmental pragmatism? Andrew Light and Katz did not mention sustainability as a central

tenet in their book Environmental Pragmatism. Though they did not mention about the

sustainability issue directly, yet there are reasons to consider sustainability as another important


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essential aspect of environmental pragmatism. Sustainability implies fulfilling the needs of the

present generations’ demand without hampering the future generations’ wants and need.

“Sustainability development is a development that meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (Brundtland, 1987, p.

43) Sustainability, that is, the concern for future generations is a common principle between

anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric viewpoints. So, sustainability forms the basis of

reconciliation attempt for the pragmatists. Thus it is seen that though sustainability is not directly

discussed in the pragmatic school of thought, still it was implicit from the very beginning of

environmental pragmatism. For example, as mentioned, one of the founders of the environmental

pragmatism school of thought, B. G. Norton takes the weak or long-sighted anthropocentric

attitude which implicitly indicates the sustainability approach of the natural resource usages

(Norton, 1984). Interpreting the definition of the Brundtland’s report, Norton sees sustainability

from the two inter-temporal perspectives ‘human needs’ and ‘human productive capacity’.

(Norton, 2003, p. 169). These two concepts are inter-temporal in the sense that human needs

resources to live and at the same time human tries to fill up through its creative skills the

shortfall from other sources. In this sense, sustainability is a concept of both the needs and

creative skills of human action in time of resource shortages.

It is important to note that long-sighted anthropocentrism which talks about the future generation

was explicitly presented by Bryan G. Norton in 1984 before the sustainability report came out

through an article. In this article Norton in fact discusses strong and weak anthropocentric

attitude to the natural resources along with two preferences-felt preference and considered

preference. (Norton, 1984). Strong anthropocentric is the view which insists on the use of natural

resources as a felt preference of human and resources can be used as much as possible as

demanded by the felt preference. In this sense natural resources are basically used for the present

generation and felt preference is related to the present people and that is why it is strong

anthropocentric in nature. However, Norton prefers the other kind of weak anthropocentric

approach to the natural resources. Though human feels number of wants and desire, still all can’t

be fulfilled. Norton says that resources use should be aligned with the considered preference and

not on the felt preference. This attitude to the nature implies that resources are not meant for the

present people only, rather future generations should also be kept in mind while using natural

resource. This way it is sustainable in nature. (Hickman, 2009). As B. G. Norton’s weak

anthropocentric approach insists on the considered preference while using the object, and not on

the felt preference, it indicates the sustainability approach to the natural objects.

Norton indicates of such intergenerational ethics and appeal for the conservation of natural

resources on the basis of considered preference. (Norton, 1984). Norton takes the sustainability

as the bridge among disciplines to come up with a comprehensive ecosystem management

framework. Different disciplines see the environment from different viewpoints; still Norton

thinks that despite such differences, all the perspectives tend to work for the prosperity of the

future generation as well as for sustainability. This sustainability is the ground for the policy


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implication of various disciplines in a consensus way for the practical environmental policy goal.

“…Looking at the situation from the viewpoint of policy and practice and recognizing the need

for a unifying concept to anchor normative theories of environmental protection, it seemed to me

that the most promising candidate was the idea of sustainability” (Norton, 2003, p. 3).

It is seen from the above discussion that sustainability can be considered as one of the key

principles of the pragmatist school of thought. The pragmatists attempt at reconciliation,

engaging in democratic process and reducing the debates – all rest on the principle of

sustainability. Though environmental pragmatists cannot be made into one homogeneous whole,

nevertheless, attempts are made to see the similarities that exist among all the pragmatic thinkers.

Light and Katz contributed by identifying some key principles of environmental pragmatist

school of thought. In line with that aim, we include sustainability as another core tenet of

environmental pragmatism.

References:

Brundtland, G. H. (1987). World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common

Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Buchholz, R. A., & Rosenthal, S. B. (1996). Toward a New Understanding of Moral Pluralism.

Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol.6, No.3 , 263-275.

Callicott, J. B. (1984). Non-anthropocentric Value Theory and Environmental Ethics. American

Philosophica Quarterly, Vol.21,No.4 , 299-309.

Callicott, J. B. (1994). Non-anthropocentric value theory and Environmental Ethics. American

Philosophical Quarterly,Vol.21, No.4 , 299-309.

Hickman, L. A. (2009). Pragmatism. In J. B. Callicott, & R. Frodeman, Encyclopedia of

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy, Vol.2 (pp. 171-177). New York: Gale Cengage Learning.

Hull, R. B. (2009). Convergence Hypothesis. In B. J. Callicott, & R. Frodeman, The

Encyclopaedia of Environmental Ethics and Philosophy (pp. 185-187). Macmillan Publishers.

Kingdon, J. W. (2003). Agenda, Alternatives and Public Policies. New York: Longman.

Light, A. (1996). Compatibilism in Political Ecology. In E. katz, & A. Light, Environmental

Pragmatism (pp. 161-184). New York: Routledge.

Light, A. (2010). Methodological Pragmatism, Pluralism and Environmental Ethics. In D. R.

Keller, Environmental Ethics: The Big Question (pp. 318-326). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell

Publishing.


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Light, A., & Katz, E. (1996). Introduction: Environmental Pragmatism and Environmental Ethics

as Contested Terrain. In A. Light, & E. Katz, Environmental Pragmatism (pp. 1-18). New York:

Routledge.

Minteer, B. A. (2001). Intrinsic Value for Pragmatists? Environmental Ethics , 57-75.

Norton, B. G. (1984). Environmental Ethics and Weak Anthropocentrism. Environmental Ethics,

Vol.6, No. , 131-148.

Norton, B. G. (2003). Searching for Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Norton, B. G. (1991). Toward Unity Among Environmentalists. New York: Oxford University

Press.

Parker, K. A. (1996). Pragmatism and Environmental Thought. In A. Light, & E. Katz,

Environmental Pragmatism (pp. 21-37). New York: Routledge.

Robert, J. S. (2000). Wild Ontology: Elaborating Environmental Pragmatism. Ethics and the

Environment, Vol.5, No.2 , 191-209.

Stenmark, M. (2009). The Relevance of Environmental Ethical theories for Policy Making. In B.

A. Minteer, Nature in Common? (pp. 81-93). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.


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CAPITAL PUNISHMENT : RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE

Kaizar Rahaman

Abstract

This paper examines issues of capital punishment from a religious perspective. Capital punishment is the

severe form of punishment. It is the punishment which is to be the awarded for the most heinous, grievous

and detestable crimes against humanity. Capital punishment is literally a life death issue. Sometimes

called the death penalty, it is the execution people he who have been found guilty of offences considered

to be capital crimes. The implication of capital punishment has always been the death sentence. By

common usage in jurisprudence, criminology and penology, capital sentence means a sentence of death.

The paper highlights the punishment of offender as a peculiarity unsettling and dismaying aspect of social

life. The paper also discusses the philosophical context of religious view about capital punishment - These

issues have discussed at length in the major religious context in Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Jainism

and Buddhism. Whatever the law may be, however, the issues are more complex if one takes an ethical,

rather than a legal, view. The state clearly has no right to put its subjects to death although, of course,

almost all countries do so in some form or other but necessarily in the conventional form of capital

punishment. Though we know Capital punishment is the most controversial issue in the every aspect of

social life because some is in for and other is against.

Keywords: Capital Punishment, Prevailing Theories, Justification of punishment, Islam, Hinduism,

Christianity Jainism and Buddhism.

INTRODUCTION

This paper shows the various religious positions on the basis of crime and punishment. Most

major world religions take an ambiguous position on the morality of capital punishment.

Religions are often based on a body of teachings and scripture that can be interpreted as either

favouring or repudiating the death penalty. Some, such as Judaism and the Roman Catholic

Church, teach that while the death penalty is hypothetically permissible in certain circumstances,

it should be abolished in the modern world. In the past, some religions sentenced men to death

either for failing to convert to their religion or for converting to another. According to Islamic

religious law, a Muslim can be sentenced to death for conversion to Christianity. The

relationship between religion and the death penalty is further complicated by the fact that it is

common for the followers of a religion to disagree with its official teachings on the subject.

Capital punishment is the lawful infliction of death as a punishment and since ancient times, it




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has been used for a wide variety of offences. The Bible prescribes death for murder and many

other crimes including kidnapping and witchcraft. And also the followers of Judaism and

Christianity, for example, have claimed to find justification for capital punishment in the Old

Testament passage “Whosoever sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed”. Yet

capital punishment has been prescribed for many crimes not involving loss of life, including

adultery and blasphemy. The ancient legal principle Lex talionis (talion)—“an eye-for-an-eye, a

tooth-for-a-tooth, a life-for-a-life”—which appears in the Babylonian code of Hammurabi, was

invoked in some societies to ensure that capital punishment was not disproportionately applied.

Every religious and moral reformer tells us that the world is full of evil, misery and suffering.

Evil is to be recognized and every one should follow a path of righteousness and rectitude to

over come the evil. That was why Buddha said that the truth of the world was suffering and that

nirvana was release from suffering. Evil is to be recognized and every one should follow a path

of righteousness and rectitude to overcome the evil. There are so many types of evil—(A)

Natural evil (b) intellectual evil (c) Moral evil and so on. It also has been sanctioned at one time

or another by most of the world's major religions. From the religious point of view, the death

penalty is in large measure controversial. Followers of Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism,

Hinduism and Muslim countries also own way to give punishment in their community members

who are offender for their crimes. The history of Capital Punishment is as old as that of mankind.

In the Western world the first instance seems to be "The Law of Moses", inflicting death for

blasphemy. By 1179 B.C. murder was a capital crime among Egyptians and Greeks. In India, the

Indian Epics namely, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana also contain references about the

offender being punished with vadha-danda which means amputation bit by bit. Fourteen such

modes of amputating the criminals to death are known to have existed. This illustrates that in

every country in the world Capital Punishment existed since times immemorial. Capital

Punishment was prescribed for offences against the property and human body. Now, in the

modern world, capital offences further covered drug-trafficking, hijacking the airplanes, bribery

etc., Some Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia even want to add "artificial insemination" also to

the list of capital offences. So many people who say like scriptural point of views Capital

Punishment is inhuman and barbaric. Man is a wonderful creation of God. One cannot destroy it

in the name of punishment. The physical pain caused by the action of killing a human being

cannot be qualified. Nor can the psychological suffering caused by for knowledge of death at the

hands of the State. Whether a death sentence is carried out six minutes after a summary trial, six

weeks after a mass trial or sixteen years after a lengthy legal proceeding, the person executed is

subjected to uniquely cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment. It denies the

value of human life. A great reverence to human life is worth more than a thousand executions

in prevention of murder: and is, in fact, the great security of human life. The law of Capital

Punishment While pretending to support the reverence does in fact tend to destroy it. It is against

the spirit of humanity. It brutalizes the human intellect. Now we try to discuss one by one the

various religious views on capital punishment:


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Christianity: In Christianity the execution of Christ is the center point of most Christian

cosmology. This particular story of capital punishment has been heavily invested with meaning

by Christians over the centuries. Most Christian denominations have held that Christ's execution

was a unique event metaphysically. Moreover, the suffering of Christ on the cross became an

iconic image, depicted over and over again in Christian artwork. This has undoubtedly colored

the Christian perception of capital punishment. Some argue that Jesus spoke against capital

punishment with his statement "Let he who is without sin cast the first stone". Some Christians

consider this argument to be badly flawed, because Jesus was speaking to a mob, not a

government. They suggest that individuals, alone or grouped as a mob, were admonished

because they did not have authority from God to administer capital punishment. Jesus never

spoke against capital punishment administered by governments. During his own trial He

acknowledged that the government had power over Him, given to it by God the Father. Jesus

never questioned the jurisdiction of the court, or its authority to impose capital punishment. He

could have removed Himself from jeopardy with mere thought, but He never did. The Bible

states that Jesus Christ will enforce capital punishment when He returns as King and sole

government of the earth. He will execute all those who stand with the Anti-Christ in opposition

to the King of Kings. What ever the above view, among Christian denominations there is

disagreement as to whether or not it is permissible. Furthermore, not all Christians follow the

official teaching of their church on the matter. Christians in countries that practice the death

penalty are more likely to support its use than those in countries in which it has been abolished,

so that, for example, capital punishment has far greater support among Christians in the United

States than in Europe.

Those in favour of capital punishment often point to passages in the Old Testament of the Bible

that advocate the death penalty such as Genesis 9 which states, "Whoever sheds the blood of

man, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image of God has God made man." Those against

tend to select passages from the New Testament that advocate love, forgiveness, and mercy. In

the Antithesis of the Law, Jesus says:

“You have heard that it was said, 'Eye for eye, and tooth for tooth.' But I tell you, Do not

resist an evil person. If someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other

also… You have heard that it was said, 'Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I

tell you: Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be sons

of your Father in heaven.

Capital punishment is a subject which arouses in men the strongest emotions and one on which

there are divergent views, some of them at variance with one point or another of Catholic

teaching. There are, for example, those who deny openly that the State has any right to inflict the

death penalty, at least in times of peace. Others affirm categorically that the death penalty is

something which no Christian can tolerate. Furthermore, some of those who are not Catholics

look upon the teaching of the Church on this question as out-dated and old-fashioned, while


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others, inside the Church, will say that capital punishment is a matter about which Catholics

must make up their own minds. In view of this variety of opinions, Catholics need some

guidance if they are not to be misled by such utterances, if they are to know in what sense, and to

what extent, they are free to form their own opinions on this question.

The Right of the State to inflict Capital Punishment

The first point to note is that the Catholic Church has always defended the view that the right,

and therefore the power, of inflicting capital punishment on those who have been found guilty of

more atrocious crimes, has been conceded by God to the lawful supreme civil authority for the

common good. All Catholic commentators agree that the lawful civil authority has the right to

punish wrong-doers even by death – ‘it is not for nothing that he bears the sword’. Although

some interpret that John 8:7 of the Bible condemns the death penalty, Christian positions, as on

many social issues, vary.

Roman Catholic Church: The Roman Catholic Church traditionally accepted capital

punishment as per the theology of Thomas Aquinas (who accepted the death penalty as a

necessary deterrent and prevention method, but not as the means of vengeance). The Roman

Catholic Church holds that the death penalty is no longer necessary if it can be replaced by

incarceration. The Catechism of the Catholic Church says "If bloodless means are sufficient to

defend human lives against an aggressor and to protect public order and the safety of persons,

public authority must limit itself to such means, because they better correspond to the concrete

conditions of the common good and are more in conformity to the dignity of the human person".

But recent efforts of the Catholic Church to oppose capital punishment can have a political

impact.

Anglican & Episcopalian: The Lambeth Conference of Anglican and Episcopalian bishops

condemned the death penalty in 1988. In Protestantism, both Martin Luther and John Calvin

followed the traditional reasoning in favor of capital punishment, and the Augsburg Confession

explicitly defends it; the Mennonites and Friends, among other, smaller groups, opposed it. Some

Protestant groups have cited as for permitting the death penalty. Both proponents and opponents

derive their own stance from the Bible itself. Until recently, however, the retentionist position

was held by all but a relatively few groups.

United Methodist Church: The United Methodist Church, along with other Methodist

churches, also condemns capital punishment, saying that it cannot accept retribution or social

vengeance as a reason for taking human life. The Church also holds that the death penalty falls

unfairly and unequally upon marginalized persons including the poor, the uneducated, ethnic and

religious minorities, and persons with mental and emotional illnesses. There are some significant

arguments used by some Christians and many pseudo-Christians against the death penalty as the

Scriptures speak of it. One is that capital punishment is immoral because of the commandment

not to kill. Another is that the death penalty "cuts short" the possibility for the evangelism of the


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criminal (essentially condemning him/her to hell without a "chance"). The third argument,

somewhat more serious, is that execution for the crime of murder is acceptable, while execution

for other crimes is not. But those who accept in capital punishment they said, death penalty

moreover serve the balance out the disturbance to the moral order

ISLAM: In Asian and Middle Eastern countries, violent and nonviolent crimes are punishable

by death under Islamic and Sharia laws: murder, drug trafficking, armed robbery, apostasy,

adultery, blasphemy, sorcery, prostitution, conjugation between partners not married to each

other, converting to Christianity or Judaism, plotting to overthrow the Islamic regime and

conspiring against the government. Like Jews and Christians, Muslims believe that the present

life is only a trial preparation for the next realm of existence. Basic articles of faith include: the

Day of Judgment, resurrection, Heaven and Hell. When a Muslim dies, he or she is washed,

usually by a family member, wrapped in a clean white cloth, and buried with a simple prayer

preferably the same day. Muslims consider this one of the final services they can do for their

relatives, and an opportunity to remember their own brief existence here on earth. The Prophet

taught that three things can continue to help a person even after death; charity which he had

given, knowledge which he had taught and prayers on their behalf by a righteous child. Islam is a

monotheistic religion originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th

century Arab religious

and political figure. It is second largest religious in the world today, with an estimated 1.4

million adherents, spread across the global, known as Muslims. Linguistically, Islam means

“peace”, ‘acceptance’ and “submission”, referring to the total surrender of ones self to God and

a Muslim is “ one who submits” (to God). Muslim’s belief that God revealed the Quran to

Muhammad and that Muhammad is God’s final prophet. The Quran and the traditions of

Muhammad in the Sunnah are regarded as the fundamental sources of Islam.

Sharia Law or Islamic law may require capital punishment; there is great variation within Islamic

nations as to actual capital punishment. In Islamic law, as expressed in the Qur'an, capital

punishment is condoned. Although the Qur'an prescribes the death penalty for several hadd

(fixed) crimes—including robbery, adultery, and apostasy of Islam—murder is not among them.

Instead, murder is treated as a civil crime and is covered by the law of qisas (retaliation),

whereby the relatives of the victim decide whether the offender is punished with death by the

authorities or made to pay diyah (wergild) as compensation.

"...If anyone kills a person - unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in

the land - it would be as if he killed all people. And if anyone saves a life, it would

be as if he saved the life of all people" (Qur'an).

The key point is that one may take life only "by way of justice and law." In Islam, therefore,

the death penalty can be applied by a court as punishment for the most serious of crimes.

Ultimately Life is sacred, according to Islam and most other world faiths. But how can one

hold life sacred, yet still support capital punishment? The Qur'an answers, "...Take not life,


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which God has made sacred, except by way of justice and law. Thus does He command you, so

that you may learn wisdom". But even though the death penalty is allowed, forgiveness is

preferable. Forgiveness, together with peace, is a predominant Qur'anic theme. Muslims

believe that capital punishment is a most severe sentence but one that may be commanded by a

court for crimes of suitable severity. While there may be more profound punishment at the

hands of God, there is also room for an earthly punishment. Methods of execution in Islamic

countries vary and can include beheading, firing squad, hanging and stoning. In some countries

public executions are carried out to heighten the element of deterrence. Each case is regarded

individually and with extreme care and the court is fully able to impose more lenient sentences

as and when they see fit. Muslim countries vary in the extent to which they practice capital

punishment, though all retain it at present. Islamic countries that practice a very strict Sharia

law are associated with the use of capital punishment as retribution for the largest variety of

crimes. In Islamic law, the death penalty is appropriate for two groups of crime:

Intentional murder

Fasad fil-ardh ("spreading mischief in the land")

Intentional Murder

The Qur'an legislates the death penalty for if any one intentionally murder. In these cases the

victim's family is given the option as to whether or not to insist on a punishment of this severity.

One’s eternal punishment is in God's hands, but there is a place for punishment in this life as

well. The spirit of the Islamic penal code is to save lives, promote justice, and prevent

corruption and tyranny. Islamic philosophy holds that a harsh punishment serves as a deterrent

to serious crimes that harm individual victims, or threaten to destabilize the foundation of

society. Although in Islam forgiveness and compassion are strongly encouraged. The murder

victim's family is given a choice to either insist on the death penalty, or to pardon the

perpetrator and accept monetary compensation for their loss.

Fasaad fi al-ardh

The second crime for which capital punishment can be applied is a bit more open to

interpretation. "Spreading mischief in the land" can mean many different things, but is generally

interpreted to mean those crimes that affect the community as a whole, and destabilize the

society. Crimes that have fallen under this description have included are followed:

Treason / Apostasy (when one leaves the faith and joins the enemy in fighting against the

Muslim community)

Terrorism

Land, sea, or air piracy


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Rape

Adultery

Homosexual behavior

If we see, the actual methods of capital punishment vary from place to place. In some Muslim

countries, methods have included beheading, hanging, stoning, and firing squad. Executions are

held publicly, to serve as warnings to would-be criminals. It is important to note that there is no

place for vigilantism in Islam -- one must be properly convicted in an Islamic court of law before

the punishment can be meted out. The severity of the punishment requires that very strict

evidence standards must be met before a conviction is found. The court also has flexibility to

order less than the ultimate punishment (for example, imposing fines or prison sentences), on a

case-by-case basis. Scholars of Islam hold it to be permissible but the victim or the family of the

victim has the right to pardon. In Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), to forbid what is not forbidden is

wrong. Consequently, it is impossible to make a case for abolition of the death penalty which is

explicitly endorsed. In Islamic view “The Ulamas (those who are learned in Islamic Law,

constitution and theology) do not always agree on the interpretation or authenticity of the sacred

texts. Neither do they agree on the social context in which these texts should be applied.”

Sharia law is often used by repressive powers that attack women and the poor. There are

incidences of these states summarily executing those who are accused whilst denying them

access to a lawyer. These acts are totally contradictory to the concept of Islamic justice. The

dangerous escalation of violence in the world is disturbing to all people of conscience, from

September 11 to the Middle East battles, and other random acts of violence perpetrated at

innocent civilians. It is important to understand who or what is our enemy. We can only fight

against this horror if we understand its causes and motivations. If we see in Islam, the fight

against terrorism of all forms, In Islam, several things are clear:

Suicide is forbidden.

The taking of life is allowed only by way of justice but even then, forgiveness is better.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, retaliation and mass murder was commonplace. If someone was

killed, the victim's tribe would retaliate against the murderer's entire tribe. This practice

was directly forbidden in the Qur'an.

The Qur'an admonishes those who oppress others and transgress beyond the bounds of

what is right and just.

Harming innocent by standers, even in times of war, was forbidden by the Prophet

Muhammad (peace be upon him). This includes women, children, noncombatant

bystanders, and even trees and crops. Nothing is to be harmed unless the person or thing

is actively engaged in an assault against Muslims.

The predominant theme in the Qur'an is forgiveness and peace. Allah (God) is Merciful and


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Forgiving, and seeks that in His followers. Muslims believe that capital punishment is a most

severe sentence but one that may be commanded by a court for crimes of suitable severity. While

there may be more profound punishment at the hands of God, there is also room for an earthly

punishment. Muslim countries vary in the extent to which they practice capital punishment,

though all retain it at present time. Islamic countries that practice a very strict Sharia law are

associated with the use of capital punishment as retribution for the largest variety of crimes. At

the other end of the spectrum are countries such as Albania and Bosnia, which still retain the

death penalty as part of their penal system, but are abolitionist in practice. There are incidences

of these states summarily executing those who are accused whilst denying them access to a

lawyer. These acts are totally contradictory to the concept of Islamic justice.

Judaism: The official teachings of Judaism approve the death penalty in principle but the

standard of proof required for application of death penalty is extremely stringent, and in practice,

it has been abolished by various Talmudic decisions, making the situations in which a death

sentence could be passed effectively impossible and hypothetical. "Forty years before the

destruction" of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE, i.e. in 30 CE, the Sanhedrin effectively

abolished capital punishment, making it a hypothetical upper limit on the severity of punishment,

fitting in finality for God alone to use, not fallible people. In law schools everywhere, students

read the famous quotation from the 12th Century legal scholar, Maimonides, "It is better and

more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death."

Maimonides argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would

lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely

"according to the judge's caprice." (Caprice of all kinds is more visible now with computers,

statistics, DNA evidence, and new discovery laws directed at prosecutors' files.) Maimonides

was concerned about the need for the law to guard itself in public perceptions, to preserve its

majesty and retain the people's respect.

Hinduism: The divinity in every human being is beautifully enunciated in the Brahmasukta of

Atharvaveda: "Indeed these killers are Brahma (God); these servants (or slaves) are Brahma;

these cheats and rogues are also manifestation of one and the same Brahma itself." That said,

ancient Indian lawgivers considered danda (punishment) as essential for the maintenance of

dharma. The king was called Dandadharita, wielder of the scepter of punishment. The

Mahabharata refers to four kinds of punishments: gentle admonition (dhigdanda), severe reproof

(vagdanda), imposition of fine (arthadanda) and lastly capital punishment (mrityudanda). Capital

offenses in India included murder, arson, manslaughter, poisoning, and sale of human flesh,

theft, adultery, forgery, treason and destruction of a temple. In ancient India, the use of the death

penalty is referred to by Kautilya, Manu, Yajnavalkya and Kamandaka. Manu stated that if the

king does not "inflict punishment on those worthy to be punished, the stronger would roast the

weaker like fish on a spit." In another verse he says, "The king who pardons the perpetrator of

violence quickly perishes and incurs hatred.


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Jainism: Ahimsa is central to Jaina philosophy, which does not allow for the killing of even

small creatures. However, according to Jain legal expert Lekh Raj Mehta, "Jain rulers, in fact,

dealt with instances of crime as was done by any other ruler, including by capital punishment,

though it was rare." These rulers also maintained armies, he said, which necessarily fought and

even eliminated opponents. The issue of statecraft is not dealt with much in Jain scriptures,

according to Mehta. The overriding Jain principles are nonviolence, search for truth, forgiveness

and reform.

Buddhism: Buddhist philosophy clearly advocates the rehabilitation of criminals. There is the

famous story of Buddha himself reforming--to the astonishment of the local king--the feared

murderer and highway robber Angulimala. The Dhammapada says, "Hatred does not cease by

hatred, hatred ceases by love; this is the eternal law." At issue, however, is the actual practice of

Buddhist rulers. One of the earliest, Emperor Ashoka, said, "The state should not punish with

vengeance." Nevertheless, that he did resort to execution is documented in his rock edicts. The

4th century Chinese monk Fa-Hsien wrote that he met a king of India who "governed without

capital punishment." While most Japanese Buddhist rulers employed capital punishment, there

were notable exceptions, including Emperor Shomu in the 8th century. One might be surprised to

learn that Buddhist Tibet had the death penalty until 1920, when it was eliminated by the 13th

Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso. In modern times, four countries have Buddhism as their state

religion: Bhutan, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Of these, Cambodia eliminated the death

penalty in 1993, and Bhutan eliminated it in 2004. Thailand has more than 1,000 prisoners

awaiting execution. Sri Lanka reactivated the death penalty in 2004 after a 27-year moratorium.

Reference Readings:

Hanks, Gardner C. (1997). Against the death penalty: Christian and secular arguments against

capital punishment. Herald Press (VA).

Honderich, Ted. (2005). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York: Oxford University

Press.

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/religion_and_capital punishment. On 10.08.2012

Rang char S. A Primer of Ethics, p.139-140

Gollanz (1955). Capital Punishment: The Heart of the Matter: p.6.

Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Chapter: CCLXVII: Verses-4-13

Rabbi Ben Zion Bokser (1960). “Statement on capital punishment” in Proceedings of the

Committee on Jewish Law and Standards 1927-1970, Volume III, p.1537-1538

http://www.acts1.info

Punishment in Islamic Law. Etd by. Mohammed’s El,

Banerji, S.C. (1996). Principles of Hindu Jurisprudence. Sharada Publishing House.

Oder berg, David S. (2008). Applied Ethics –a non- consequentialist approach. Blackwell

Publishers, pp. 146-147.

Mackenzie, John S. (1987). A Manual of Ethics. Oxford University Press.


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PRIVATE EXPERIENCE AND ITS EXPOSITORY MEANING

Siddhartha Shankar Joarder

Abstract

Every experience is conclusively private. But whenever this experience is expressed in language it can no

longer be private because the aim of language is to communicate with others. It needs to follow the rules

of language i.e. the syntax of the formation of sentence to be meaningful. Language consists of

vocabulary and syntax. Therefore, the rules of the formation of sentence must be known to the people and

these rules have a definite structure. However, in the case of private language it is always found to be

arbitrary and the deduction from which it is brought does not follow the rules of language. This paper is

an attempt to prove that every word and sentence must refer something that needs to be existent

conclusively. Therefore there should be no scope of any experience which might be thought to be private.

Introduction

"Private"," experience", "sense", "perception", "knowledge" and "public appearance of an object"

are the terms which refer to different ideas of our known phenomena, have a deep rapport with

each other to make a clear sense to the observer. An experience which is privately sensed,

confined within oneself does not have a characteristic of public enterprise is called private

experience. This is commonly assumed that private language is closely connected to private

experience. Private experience, therefore, is an experience which is usually thought to be most

inalienable mental provocation. It is called private because it is devised to enable a small group

of people to communicate with each other which is mostly unintelligible to others except them.

The detective branch of police or military intelligence group does use their confidential code and

it is strictly forbidden to public. Shorthand's writings and especial code or password for the

warriors in the battle field is considered to be private language. It is not, strictly speaking, private

because it is structured in such a way that it must be comprehensible at least to the people within

the group. Having been experienced of that language people does their functions within their

stipulated project very secretly. So, the above terms are very much important for making the

significant communications. Every process in making significant sense these terms work together

and do function invariably. But in spite of their congruent workability it can never be told that

they do justice to the observers properly. So, the question may there be asked, 'Isn't our

experience has got the public appearance?' Or, more precisely, ' can there be private experience?’

I think we are in urgent need to solve the problem of these aforementioned terms and then to the

process of construction of ideas by which we do usually build the relation with the external




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world. This is an effort to prove that there can never be such experience which might be coined

as the private experience.

Private Experience

Let us, now, see how the feelings of human mind become solitary. There are some important

cases which are thought to be private in nature which need careful and adequate checking.

a. Macbeth waits. His imagination begins to work and he sees a visionary dagger before him. He

tries to seize the dagger in his hands, but cannot do so. He asks if it is a "dagger of the mind" and

"a false fevered brain".

b. When we go through a bank of the river in a moon-lit night, we might feel that the moon is

also moving towards our destination with us. But this is thought to be a false-perception.

c. In a dark night when we cross over the road, sometimes it is felt to be a snake in lieu of a piece

of rope.

d. Mystics are usually found claiming to have direct acquaintance with the ultimate being. This

perplexing and costly hypothesis builds a serious dilemma for all kinds of people including

philosophers.

These examples of human perception are hallucinatory or illusory because it never takes an

objective view whatsoever. It is not possible for the observers to repeat their perception

successfully. The conditions usually compel the observers to perceive the thing differently or in a

distorted mode. Private feelings are exactly something which is absolutely mental. Nobody can

be able to translate his feeling to a large number of people correctly. Here the term 'large number'

and 'correctly' are needed to explicate plausibly because sometimes it is seen that people who

have the same feelings about mysticism1 or religious experience or something like that do speak

and express the same emotions. Accordingly, it is rather difficult to make the distinctions

between common sense believer and the people of especial kind who have mystic2 complication

in the mind. Their demand about the above feelings is almost same in every case. Here, large

number of people mean that the people who just depend on their cognition in recognizing the

object rather than emotive persuasions. So 'correctly' means having the perception of something

devoid of maximum philosophical dispute. We are, thus, convinced from the history of human

intellect that scientific knowledge is wholly impersonal. It needs, therefore, to convince every

people about every sense of human cognition.

‘It is often', Ayer writes, 'held that for a language to be public it must refer to what is publicly

observable: if a person could limit himself to describing his own sensations or feelings, then,

strictly speaking, only he would understand what he was saying; his utterances might indirectly

convey some information to others, but it could not mean to them what it mean to him.'3.

Macbeth's hallucinatory dagger has a definite meaning to him which reflects his feeble mind's


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emotion but its experience is extremely mental. Every people of bad conscience feel alike during

the time of their reminiscences. If he were asked, then, to show it to Lady Macbeth at least,

certainly he would fail to show it because of its non-factual reality. Learning or being

experienced about something is a process in which we need to translate to other person

regardless of the circumstances. When the baby learns to have the taste of bitter gourd in his

early boyhood he learns it what exactly his parents want to mean by it. What his parents learnt in

their childhood might not have the different meaning for the case of their children. When we use

to take a cup of sugar beverage at the family reunion each of us surely expresses the same taste

or experience during the time of drinking. Why does it take hold of same taste? Why the people

are found exposing the same feeling and same mental state during the time of taking the same

thing. It is never seen anyhow to have different sign in their face while they are having same

experience? It does never happen that someone shouts with its pungent taste and another is

keeping mum following the same incident. Why does it happen to be? When our senses are

allowed to interact with the external world it normally occurs to have the same experience for all

the people under the same condition. If the senses are sound and prevails the same conditions all

around, nobody would expect the different results from the events. If the case would have been

different nobody would found to say "saccharine is sweet" or "quinine is bitter".

The process of learning depends on the approbation of human thoughts. Sweet, bitter, sour, pain,

sorrow, etc. are the human internal feelings which are extremely personal but when it is learnt

first its sensations take an objective shape. When once learning is complete nobody would expect

it to be different from the same occurrences. If there is any shortage of sweetness in sugar it

never implies that sugar is not sweet, it must be apprehended in the case that this special amount

of sugar contains the adulteration. The sweetness of sugar may never be slackened. How the

parents, at the outset, start in teaching their children about the taste of sweetness in their

boyhood? How the children learn to distinguish between the taste of sweet and bitter? Don’t they

depend on their preceptor who first teach them by giving them a piece of ripen mango and

convince them to learn it as sweet? Yes, they must learn their experience from the convention at

the beginning which is agreed to be conceded as: 'this is sweet' or 'this is sour'.

I argue that private experience which is expressed in language would no longer be private when

it is expounded for public. The function of language is to communicate with others which are

mutually accepted as to refer the same thing. If I say 'this boiling water is hot' or ‘that piece of

snow is cold’ does mean that nobody would cast doubt about its hotness or coolness if the senses

are found to be sound. Likewise, the language of the umpire of cricket match is same to that of

the symbol of traffic light. This is mere a sign of some events which imply something beyond the

occurrences. All we have agreed to go by the meaning of red or green light in accordance with

the convention. Red light or green light has no definite meaning for itself and it is completely

meaningless either, if we do not inscribe the meaning on it. Accordingly, the experience of these

events is also private but it becomes meaningful whenever it works as per the agreement of

people. Now we will categorize some essential properties of private experience as follows:


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a) Private experience is extremely personal and it has no meaning at all when it does speak only

human inner felling.

b) It is the immediate sensation of the observer which has no definite meaning until it is achieved

objective acceptance.

c) It is unintelligible to other people because it talks nothing about the events outside of the

world which they do represent.

We will see, later on, why it happens to the person who claims it to have private experience.

Now we will examine some cases which may be pointed out as the private sensation.

Critical Approach towards Private Experience

This cannot be denied that the process of making perception about any object of the world is

private. It is private in the sense that there is a long complicated psychological process which

solely depends on human brain and its constant functions on the way of its formulation. The

experience of anybody cannot transfer to anyone during the time of occurrence. Every people are

responsible for their respective experience. It never happens that one can transfer his red light

sensation to a man who is blind from birth. However, it does never take a subjective shape

following finishing up with its courses. ‘I see a cuckoo at the top of my house’, for example, is a

case of very personal sensation but when everybody of my house comes out to see it and concede

it to be cuckoo thereafter, there might be no disagreement among the members of my house

about its acquaintance. It might not be happened for anybody to identify it as swallow rather

than cuckoo. In case of a tiny member of my family who is yet to be acquainted with this special

species of bird may shout suddenly by saying it as crow! It is nothing unnatural for him to

identify it as crow because his experience with the language is yet to be bridged up.

Learning of language depends on two important ways. One is verbal definition4 and another is

ostensive definition.5 A word may be learnt in terms of other words and this process depends on

definition. ‘Arthropod’, for example, is a group of animal which has a segmented body having a

strong skeleton. If this is said that it is a lobster it means that it has got very properties of

Arthropod. When we learn to be acquainted with a new term, like lobster, we actually depend on

some verbal definition until we reach at the last point which it is referred to. Other process is

more efficacious which just refer to the objects or events directly. When we start teaching our

baby with many new events or terms around us like "rain", "sun", "moon", "storm" or "dinner",

what do we mean by that? What do we usually tell then? During the time of raining we just tell

them, ' it is called rain', or showing the shimmering nugget in the sky at noon we say them 'it is

called sun'. No child can learn anything at the outset of his life by verbal definition.

'Consequently the meaning that the child comes to attach to the word is a product of his personal

experience, and varies according to his circumstances and his sensorium'.6 Every language needs

to refer something which must be conclusively referential to be meaningful. 'I am seeing a

cuckoo' and ' I am seeing a ghost' are the statements which do not have the same meaning to the


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observer since the case is non-referential for the later statement. Nobody believes in ghost. Why

do they disbelieve in ghost? It seems to be an easy answer to that. Ghost is a non-existent

concept which does refer nothing. When anybody of my family claims to have the experience of

ghost what we usually do then? We demand to show it again. What does the observer say then?

This case is not very better than a spiritualist who constantly claims to have knowledge of the

mystic short. There is a big question in philosophy and also in psychology how the process of

perception takes place and in what circumstances perception may be called in question.

Perception is usually thought to be private and public and it is often misunderstood for the case

of private sensation. In most of the instances hallucinatory or false perception takes place for the

case of private affair. Moreover, in many other cases we may stumble into our common sense

believe and our senses on which we do rely dogmatically.

When a book is kept on the table it should never be told that it looks the same from the different

points of view to the different perceivers. Its shape, size, color, hardness might not be the same

to each of the perceivers at every moment. Why does it look different? Why the book is thought

to be different to the same observer under different conditions and different mental-state of the

perceiver? It is sometimes pointed out that circumstances or conditions are very important

factors under which the objects are being perceived. So, it should be called the relativity of

perception. It is important to ask, why does people do not see the same thing at every level of its

position. Is there anything which works between the object and the preserver? To press on this

argument we will now go on to elucidate the terms by which we started our essay. "Private" refer

to personal feeling. It denotes to subjective affairs. "Experience" is used to mean the source of

human knowledge which is thought to be asymmetrical to empiricism. Therefore, private

experience means the experience which is felt personally can't be an easy task to transfer to

somebody. It is only felt mentally as the devotee claims to have a direct acquaintance with the

Being. But the question arises then, are all our experiences personal? I am seeing a white paper

kept on my table. I am getting immense pleasure by reading Dr.Sajahan Miah’s book on

Bertrand Russell's theory of Perception (1905-1919). This should not be denied that all the

experiences acquired from the above events are personal indeed. If I had a major cut in my finger

and had a bleeding with that nobody can assume the pain of my body. Can I ask then anybody,

do you feel pain what has inflicted me? That is not possible actually. At best the visitors who

come to see me can tell and memorize their similar experience which they have had many days

ago. How the children learn the feeling of joy or pain? Pleasure, pain, mental agony, ecstasy are

the events which people learn from their childhood regardless the circumstances. When the

children had to stumble during the time of their first walking their parents ask them whether they

got pain from the mishap. They usually concede that, "yes" they have. How do they come to

know that discomforting in the muscle is called pain? How the parents think that their children

have received the painful sensation? Possibly there is an easy solution to that problem. Parents

will reply, in the very circumstances, every sentient being feels pain. They themselves have got

the similar experiences and received numerous injuries in their life from which they learn to have

the sensation of pain. So the case might not be different for their babies.


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Feeling pain is a case of extreme private but it never goes in confine within oneself. Finally,

when it is expressed in language it becomes more public. The question may there be asked, isn't

the felling of pain of one is asymmetrical to that of others? John Hospers says, "If you have just

cut yourself badly and I see your agonized behavior, do I, in saying that you feel pain, mean only

that you behave as if you felt pain? Surely I mean that your behavior is an indication that you

feel pain--and when I say that you are in pain I mean to say exactly the same thing about you that

I am saying about myself when I say that I am in pain. The only difference between "I am in pain

" and "You are in pain" is the personal pronoun. What I am saying about me about you is exactly

the same in the two cases. The question is, how can I verify the pain in your case, as I can do so

immediately in my own?"7

Radical behaviorists8 of twentieth century distinguish covert and

overt behavior by the way to explain human mind and its different states. They hold that only

overt behavior could be studied objectively and that is the true method of behavioral science.

They categorically denied having any kind of knowledge of private thoughts and rejected it

outrightly.

However, this method is unsatisfactory for different grounds. All human activities cannot be

reduced to observable experiences. And it is not sure that what is explicitly done is thought to be

an unvarnished deed. This might not be denied that in every case all people may not express

themselves exactly what is going on inside the body. What then is the development? One can

hide his/her internal pain or can pretend to have pain inside the body. As it is not an easy task to

infer one's mental events. So, how can we understand the actual mental state? J.A. Shafer9

divides two ways to know the level: how people are known to be conscious i.e. the case for other

people and for the case of myself. These two ways are categorized as Third Person and First

Person Account. When we come to know other people’s mental state how they are thought to be

conscious is called third person account according to Shafer. And it is the way that Behaviorist

does follow to know other people’s consciousness. Accordingly, for my case when we

understand myself and feel my level of consciousness is called First Person Account. Third

Person Account is the process by which the typical behaviorist uses to know other peoples state

of consciousness. Actually we use the process to know the inner state of human being through

the external behavior. But the case is not as easy as it is thought to be since it contains some

obstacle on the way to assume other mental events. It does not follow that one can behave and

express the events of the mind exactly. So it cannot be assumed every time to understand events

of actual affair through the exposed behavior. On the face of it behaviorist in the similar case

emphasizes the need to depend on the disposition to behavior i.e. what people usually behave

under the stipulated circumstances. This can easily be understood beyond his poker-face or

poker-behavior.

J. A. Shafer denies accepting the behaviorist stance. He maintains that in the case of the situation

we need to explore metaphysical behavior. But in spite of that finally Shafer didn't dishearten

with the tactic of the behaviorists by which they successfully operate other's mental events.10

. So,


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it can be said that sensation is rather private and might not be the same to others but it must have

a public appearances. One can cries out watching a horror show on the television or feel

extremely joy watching an exciting cricket match in the ground. Although these feelings are

although private, in my opinion, it makes a public look that has to supersede personal line of

human feeling. The argument from analogy is often invoked to explain the similar cases. If the

two events are completely similar and if something happens to one, it can easily be inferred that

the same event must be occurred to the case of later. I have an experience of cutting finger and

severely pain thereby, so I can assume others pain in the same situation. If I had lost my parents

and had a deep shocking with that, can't I understand one's agony that had lost his parents also?

Skeptic may twist his argument and say, "not exactly". Sensibility and mental flexibility are not

equal for everybody. Even it may not be the same to the case of twin brothers. So it might be a

bad analogy to the case of similar events. It seems to be a good argument but it is a victim of

inadequate logical application. It is not true that every man is identical even in the case of twin

brothers if they are not identical twin. They might have different mental states, different

personality, different attitude towards shocking events, but it does not follow that their mental

upheaval is to be different, for the same events. Their style may be different their expression may

be at distance but it should never be understood that they do not feel the same mental pang.

Carnap argues11

that people can understand one another's experience in certain cases. He has

named it protocol language which is obtained from the direct experience. He holds that every

word of any language is reduced to other words and consequently to the words which occur in

observation sentences. This is called protocol sentences. This can be assumed that people do

acquire protocol experience from protocol language. Protocol sentences can also be called

primary sentence. When we do have direct acquaintance with something it follows that we have

protocol experience. But the problem is that: if we do wait for direct experience of something it

must leads to solipsism.12

On the other hand since Carnap is a realist so he needs to get out of

this dilemma. In The Unity of Science, he has maintained that protocol language is a part of

physical language.' That is, he concludes that sentences which on the face of it refer to private

experiences must be logically equivalent to sentences which describe some physical state of the

subject.'13

. Carnap, further appended in explaining the case, says, if an utterances like 'thirst

now' belonging to protocol language of a subject s1, is construed as expressing' only what is

immediately given' to S1,it cannot be understood by anyone else. Another subject s2 may claim

to be able to recognize and so to refer to s1's thirst, but 'strictly speaking' all that he ever

recognizes is some physical state of s1's body. 'If by "the thirst of s1" we understand not the

physical state of his body, but his sensations of thirst, i.e. something non-material, then s1's thirst

is fundamentally the reach of s2's recognition.' Carnap further added ' every statement in any

person's protocol language would have sense for that person alone. ...Even when the same words

and sentences occur in various protocol languages, there sense would be different, they could not

even be compared. Every protocol language could there be applied only solipsistically: there

would be no inter-subjective protocol language. This is the consequence obtained by consistent

adherence to the usual view and terminology (rejected by the author).14


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In Philosophical Investigation Wittgenstein has extensively discussed about personal language

and its application in our daily life usage. He strongly opposes the idea of private language. "He

seems to take the view that someone who attempted to use language in this private way would

not merely be unable to communicate his meaning to others, but would have no meaning to

communicate even to himself. He would not succeed in saying anything at all"15

...Ayer says, if

any word needs to be entirely meaningful its subject or meaning must not be impersonal. If any

meaning of a word confine within oneself it does imply nothing and it can never be meaningful

at all. 'Pain', 'sorrow',' discomfort' and other feeling-provoking words are used in sentences

meaningfully. 'I am in pain', for example, is a sentence which needs to justify: how is it being

used in language? We can teach a small boy how this sentence is used in language? When he

does feel pain and cry: we ask then, 'I know that you have got the pain', 'don't think, you will be

cured soon' and so forth. Then, in such way the boy obviously acquire the feeling of pain

behavior. So it might be learnt that groaning and fidgeting are indications of pain, hence it

becomes synonymous to pain. Wittgenstein also underscored the need to evaluate the

circumstances and the environment regarding the issue. An actor is groaning in a stage when he

received an injury as a part of his acting does mean nothing to the viewers. It does not follow that

people have to believe his groaning to be true because they must judge the situation and

convinced that it is mere acting. But during the time of performance, suddenly if the stage is

broken down and the actor had a serious injury in his head they might think it to be true. So

common sense can be normally applied to the fact. Moreover, many technologies have been

advanced to detect the inner state of mind and its different courses now a day. Toothache or

headache is now not an undetectable case for the technician. Even many internal complications

following brain hemorrhage could easily be diagnosed. Therefore the problem of other mind

might not be an abstruse fact to the people. G. E. Moore writes in his Lecture Notes.16

Private Experience Concerning Human Observation

How do people perceive? How can we know that there is an object before our eyes? Can we

know it directly? Or is there any intermediary factor that enables me to see the object?

Philosophers don't accept the thing easily which normally try to convince them. There is a big

question in our daily life perception that weather is it true what is normally taken for granted?

From the point of perception, table, chair, bird, pen, spectacle, book are not really an easy object

which might be taken as we normally think to be. From this crucial point of view Russell's

exposition of the observances of object is of much needed question to press on this issue. 'My

knowledge of the table as a physical object, on the contrary, is not direct knowledge. Such as it

is, it is obtained through acquaintance with sense-data that make up the appearance of the

table.'17

Perception is a long physiological and mental process which is rather complicated to

explain. And it becomes an important epistemological enterprise on the long way to knowledge

formation. I have mentioned, at the outset, that perception, (private, public) and knowledge of an

object are the terms which need a consistent operation during the time of knowledge formation.


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In spite of their congruent function perception is not an easy way to define. Russell made a

difficult twist on our daily life believing. He says," In our daily life, we assume as certain many

things which, on a closer scrutiny, are found to be so full of apparent contradictions that only a

great amount of thought enables us to know what it is that we really may believe. In the search

for certainty, it is natural to begin with our recent experiences, and in some sense; no doubt,

knowledge is to be derived from them."18

. So it is commonly assumed that nothing in the world

should be taken to be final without any doubt. It is thus calculated that there might be a serious

gap between appearance and reality. Russell's skeptical view on the common sense believing of

human being is never akin to that of Bradley's contradistinction between the so called appearance

and reality. Russell is more coherent and his argument on perception is more logical than

Bradley. It has been settled doubtlessly that all our empirical knowledge generate from our

senses. Different senses of our body are responsible for the respective knowledge. Color, for

example, can never be known by our own skin or the taste of our food must be tasted by our

sound tongue. Isn't it our normal eye that takes the responsibility to discern the patch of color? Is

there any alternative to have the knowledge of our food without having tested by our senses? So

the respective senses are solely responsible for our empirical knowledge. This can never be

denied that physical science chiefly depends on our empirical justification. Probably physical

science does not seek any other help except abstract reasoning from logico-mathematical

proposition. 'All synthetic knowledge is based on experience' says Bertrand Russell. Synthetic

propositions are a posteriori. There can be delusion in the empirical hypothesis but whether that

is delusion or veritable this confusion can also be settled by the senses. When a school boy

shouts having seen a snake on the road while returning from school it needs another senses to

refute his false perception altogether.

Russell points out that, the chief function of language is communication. And to serve the

purpose it must be public, not a private dialect invented by the speaker. It is true that what is

most personal in each individual's experience tends to evaporate during the process of translation

into language.19

Conclusion

Now I will conclude the discussion with a summary of the above elucidation. It shouldn't be

denied that every sense is private. It is private because when it is sensed nobody could be able to

understand his actual mental events. Senses are individual for every people. So what is sensed by

individual organ would always be private. But the case is quite different for practical life. When

people invented language there was possibly a common agreement among the inventors that it

must mean the same thing what they actually refer to. It is very curious that what it is meant by

'mango' mean the same fruits in every language of the world. Therefore, it is commonly held that

there must be a common element in every language. If I say, what do you understand by 'toovy'?

You will find no meaning of such a word toovy in the dictionary. Nobody did agree to mean

something by the word toovy in the past. So it contains nothing but an interesting sound toovy.

Every experience, thus, needs to have the capabilities of being confirmed to be meaningful.


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Otherwise the case might not be better than the experience of the so called toovy, however

respectful the word might be.

Notes and References:

1. Mysticism: Mysticism is one kind of belief or experience of a reality which surpass as

usual human cognition or experience. It is also thought to be an essential understanding

to unravel the secrecy of nature. It is often claimed that mysticism is immediate

consciousness of the transcendent or the supreme reality.

2. Mystic complication: It is very obscure and confused belief. So it creates serious

complication for human mind. Realists explain this belief as vague, groundless and

fabricated.

3. Ayer, A.J: The Concept of Person; London, Macmillan and Co Ltd, New York, St

Martin’s Press, 1964, p-37

4. Verbal definition: Verbal definition is used to recognize or to make out the term

verbally. It is expressed in spoken rather than written words. At the outset of the learning,

in most of the cases, verbal definition is used as a contract.

5. Ostensive definition: It is the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. It is often used

where the term is difficult to define verbally. When the words are not understood verbally

because of the nature of the term color, sensations of different kinds for example,

ostensive definition has no alternative to make out the term clearly. This definition

assures the questioner to recognize the type of information being given.

6. Russell, B; Human Knowledge Its scope and Limits, Routledge, London, p-17

7. Hospers, John: The Problem of Other Minds ( John R. Burr and Milton Goldinger (ed.)

Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Ninth Edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private

Limited, New Delhi,2008 .p-389

8. Radical behaviorism: It is a school of psychology that is known as experimental analysis

of behavior. It says, although private events are not publicly observable behaviors, radical

behaviorism accepts that we are each observer of our own behavior. B. F. skinner is the

founder of this theory among many innovative psychological theories.

9. Shafer, J. Philosophy of Mind, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi-

1982,pp-30/31

10. Ayer, A.J: The Concept of Person; London, Macmillan and Co Ltd, New York St. Martin

Press,1964, p-38

11. Carnap, R.: The Unity of Science, p-79

12. Solipsism: Solipsism is a philosophical idea that expresses the events of one’s mind. No

other events happened in other mind is sure to be knowledge. So it strongly holds that

knowledge of anything outside of one’s mind is quietly unsure.

13. Carnap, R.: The Unity of Science, p-79

14. Ibid-79


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15. Ayer, A.J: The Concept of Person; London, Macmillan and Co Ltd, New York, St

Martin’s Press, 1964, p-39

16. Ammerman, R.R: Classics of Analytic Philosophy,( G. E. Moore; Wittgenstein lectures in

1930-1933), Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, Bombay- New Delhi,

17. Russell, B.: The problems of Philosophy, p-47

18. Ibid-7

19. Russell, B; Human Knowledge: its Scope and Limits, Routledge, p-17.


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EVOLUTION OF SANSKRIT DHATUPATHA –A STUDY

Viswaja S.Nair

Sanskrit grammar, which known as mouth of Veda is considered as a source of plenty sacred

knowledge. Paniniyan system of grammar does not consist only the sutrapatha, or ashtadhyayi,

but also comprises dhatupatha, ganapatha, paniniyasiksha, and linganushasanam. And hence

Sanskrit grammar is widely known as Panchangam vyakaranam. According to paniniyasiksha,

Panini is the exponent of complete grammar.1 This is a matter of controversy. How much of the

terminology is his own creation and how much borrowed from his predecessors is not sure.

Scholars argued that dhatupatha was mainly work of earlier grammarians, which work Panini

took over from his predecessors and structured it. The dhatupatha contain many more roots that

are necessary for the rules of ashtadhyayi. In addition Panini uses the term upadesa to refer

dhatupatha, which shows that Panini gained this as an upadesa, from his acharyas. This paper is

an attempt to trace out the expansive views of dhatupatha.

Meaning shades of the term Dhatu

The term Dhatu has wide range of connotations, and used in various contexts to convey different

things. The term is derived from the root dudan dharanaposhayoh. The suffix tun2 is added to the

root thus the world dhatu is derived. Etymological sense of the word is that which sustain.

Dhatu has several meanings, as a constituent part, primitive matter, primary element of the earth,

element of word, grammatical verbal root or stem etc. A causal glace at these meanings of dhatu

reveals that the term connotes both micro and macro levels. It stands on one hand for the great

elements prithivi, ap, tejah, vayu, akasha. On the other hand it denotes the basic elements of

which the human body is constituted- vayupittakapha etc. it is interesting the word stands for

both the fundamental physical substance and the supreme consciousness.

In grammar it means the essential element of a word. Panini does not define it but merely names

two important roots – one of the first conjugation-bhu, and one of the second va, and says that

roots are of the nature of these. His aphorisms "bhvadayah dhatavah".3

Evolution of Dhatupatha

1 Krtsnam vyakarama proktam - Paniniyasiksha, Verse57. 2 Unadisutra, 1/ 62. 3 Ashtadhyayi - 1/3/1.




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In the history of linguistic speculations in Sanskrit the concept of root always remained in the

center. Entire Sanskrit words except ‘nipatah’ are based on the element dhatuh. Dhatupatha is

the list of roots. Various schools of Sanskrit grammar had their own separate dhatupatha. We get

much information about the dhatupatha which belongs to the pre-paninian, paninian, and post-

panianian periods. While these root lists share large common things each dhatupatha differs by

the addition, omission, alternative classification and modification of roots in the list. There are

several reasons for this variance in the contents and ordering among these root lists. Mainly roots

may have been deliberately added by grammarians to their dhatupatha in order to account for

forms in the Sanskrit language as known to them and appropriate for their grammatical school.

Such roots would account for new words not known to Panini or other early grammarians. This

may have come into Sanskrit due to historical sound change and from borrowing into Sanskrit

from regional and foreign languages. In addition to these the linguistic processes create new verb

forms in Sanskrit to be accounted for by reclassification of roots within the dhatupatha.

Among the various rootlists, Panini’s is the one which grammarians used as authentic. This is

the basis for all the postpaninian dhatupatha and other language’s grammar into some extent.

Paninian Dhatupatha

According to Panini, the stems like bhu and va are called dhatu. Panini divided these roots into

ten major classes. The basis of distribution is the way in which the roots form their present stem.

Name of these ganas or classes are formed from the first dhatu in that class. Panini ascertain an

augment (vikaranapratyaya) for each group, which inserted between the root and the suffix or

ending or between the last vowels and the following consonant of the root. The ten classes are:-

Bhvadigana with the vikarana pratyaya sap4 including 1035 roots.

Adadigana seeing with the disappearance of sap5 including 71 roots.

Juhotyadigana appered with slu6 a simple absence and having reduplication of the roots,

including 24 roots.

Divadigana with the vikarana pratyaya syan7 including 141 roots.

Svadigana with snu8 including 34 roots.

Tudadigana marked with sa9 including 155 roots

Rudhadigana signed with snam10

including 25 roots.

Tanadigana marked with u11

including 10 roots.

4 Ashtadhyayi - 3/1/63. 5 Ibid - 2/4/72. 6 Ibid - 2/4/75. 7 Ibid - 3/1/69 8 Ibid - 3/1/73 9 Ibid - 3/1/77 10 Ashtadhyayi- 3/1/78 11 Ibid - 3/1/79


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Kryadigana marked with sna12

including 62 rots.

Curadigana signed with nich13

and sap including 410 roots.

Thus we get paninian dhatupatha of 196714

roots. There is one more group also, which is

consisting mainly of nominal stem, kandvdayah consist of 410 roots. When we added this with

paninian dhatupatha the total number of roots will be 2014. The number of roots in the paninian

dhatupatha is still a subject to controversy. According to madhaviyadhatuvritti there are 1944

roots. Considering the dhaturatnakara we get 2045 roots, including kanduyadigana, without that

there is 1982 roots. According to Maya A. Cainani, there are only 1905 roots.

Panini refers each root with anubhandha suffixes, which have different functions. He used 19

suffixes. They are a (udatta), a (anudatta), a (svarita),a,ir,i,u,r,l,e,o,n,ni, tu, du, mit, and p.

The 10 classes have subgroups, which may overlap with or be included in another. They are

named according to their first root. Thus in Bhvadigana we get 7 subgroups, they are –

dyudadiga¸a, vritadigana, khatadiga¸a, phanadiga¸a, jvaladigana, and yajadigana. In Adadi

gana we get 2 sub-groups rudadigana and jaksadigana. In Divadigana we get svadigana and

pusadigana. Tudadigana consisting three subganas kutadiga¸a, kiraigana, and mucadigana.

Kryadi have two subgroups pvadi and lvadi. In curadi we get four subgroups akusmiya,

asvadiya, adhrisiyaand agardhiya.

Roots in the Paninian dhatupatha can be classified into two groups on the basis of conjugation.

They are atmanaipada, denotes the active endings and parasmaipada denotes middle or passive

endings. A root is conjugated in the atmanaipada if the fruit of the action occurs to the agent, if

not then the root is conjugated in parasmaipada. The roots which belong to both conjugational

type is known as ubhayapadinah. For example- Raja yajate (A king perform a sacrifice. king

should perform a sacrifice if he has a desire for himself. Thus the results of the act sacrifice

being connected with the agent. So the verb is used in atmanaipada), viprah yajati (A priest

performs sacrifice. In this case priest performs a sacrifice not for his own purpose but for the

king. So the verb is used in the parasmaipada).

In every type a root is conjugated for six different tenses and four moods. They are called

dasalakaras. Roots are also categorized as sakarmaka, akarmaka and dvikarmaka. According to

Kaundabhatta, the action (vyapara) and result (phala) subsists in the different substratum in the

case of transitive (akarmaka) roots, whereas they subsist in the same substratum in the case of

intransitive (sakarmaka) roots. There are dvikarmaka roots also; which we get as a listed form

12 Ibid - 3/1/81 13 Ibid - 3/1/25 14 Dhatupatha, Sriramlalkapurtrustgranthamala-38, 2000.


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from siddhantakaumudi. We get more categorization in the roots like set rots and anitroots,

simply if the root accept the augment i it is set, and if it does not it is anit.

Pre-Paniniyan Dhatupatha.

The authorship of dhatupatha itself is controversial, whether Panini used a traditionally available

one or composed his own. From various investigations one can believe that Panini received the

dhatupatha from the tradition in a manner in which he desired to use it.

According to Yudhishtiramimasaka in ancient time, dhatu was termed as pratipadika. He said

that Indra is the first one who set a dhatupatha. Bhaguri an early grammarian also had

dhatupatha for his own metrical grammar. But we have hardly got information about these two

dhatupatha.

Apisali is also a famous grammarian in the pre-paniniyan period. Apisala’s (the students of the

grammar of apisali) had their own dhatupatha, which is not available now. Patanjali said that

according to apisala school the root as was s the a and ¡ in the forms like asti, asit etc are

augments (1/111/22). From much information Yudhishtiramimasaka concluded that, there

existed a dhatupatha of apisali which is slightly different from Panini.

Sakatayana also settled a dhatupatha for his grammatical school. It is Sakatayana who held the

view that all the nouns were derived from verbs and that the verbs were the primal element of the

whole structure of language. Patanjali yaska etc. quoted him.

Kasakrsthna was also a pre-paniniyan grammarian. His dhatupatha with the Kannada

commentary of Channaveera was published by Pune Dhakkhan College. It includes 2511 roots

with meaning. The roots are divieded into 9 classes. Comparing to paninian dhatupatha

juhotyadigana is included in Adadigana. In each gana first part of roots are parasmaipadas.

Second part included the atmanaipada and last part is of ubhayapadaroots. Several root which

Panini mentioned as parasmaipada is considered as ubhayapada in this dhatupatha. For

example- vasa nivase, duosvi gativriddhau, are taken as ubhayapadinah. Certain root takes as

one in paniniya dhatupatha is taken as two in this dhatupatha.

According to Yudhshtiramimasaka there existed the dhatupathas of Indra, vayu bhaguri,

sakatyana, kasakrstna apisali and others. But they are not available now except kasakrstna

dhatupatha.

Post-Paniniyan Dhatupatha

Like pre-paniniyan period the post-paninian grammarians also had their dhatupathas, related to

various grammatical schools. Very important thing is that all these dhatupathas are mainly based

on paniniyan dhatupatha.


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Candra Dhatupatha:- Compared to paniniyan dhatupatha it is small, which includes 1575 roots

only. It is settled by Candragomi. (Vamgadesa, A.D. 5th

century). Most of the roots in this

dhatupatha have only one meaning (ekarthadhatava). Only 17 roots have more than one

meaning. An extra anubhandha suffix µi is appered in Candra dhatupatha.

Jainendra Dhatupatha:- It includes 1478 roots. This dhatupatha was arranged by acarya

Devanandi (5th to 7th

century A.D.) Extra suffixes ai and au are appeared with certain roots,

which is not in Paniniya. Roots are classified into 10 classes. Here juhotyadi is used before

adadi. Meaning of certain roots differs from Paniniyan dhatupatha. The root ksubha have

meaning sancalane in Paniniyan dhatupatha, in jainendra it have the meaning sankshobhe.

Katantra Dhatupatha:- It is written by Durgasimha (1st century A.D) It includes 1858 roots.

Probably it is based on the Katandra system of grammar. Like kasakrstna dhatupatha it also has

9 classes, juhotyadigana is included in Adadigana. Order of roots is also same in both. The root

cara has the meaning asamsaya in both; but in others it is used to denote samsaya.

Sakatayana Dhatupatha:- Palyakirtisakatayana is the author of this dhatupatha, who lived in 9th

century A.D. It includes 1851 roots. Roots are divided into 10 classes. Order of the ganas is

slightly different from paniniya dhatupatha. Kryadi is placed after svadigana, and tanadi is

placed after tudadigana. It is also known as prakrtipatha.

Haima Dhatupatha:- Hemacandrasuri has settled this dhatupatha, (Gujarat in 1145 to 1229).

1980 roots are included in this dhatupatha, with its meaning. The whole roots are arranged in

alphabetical order. Like Kasakrtsna and Katantra in Haima also have 9 classes, reason is the

same.

Kavikalpadruma Dhatupatha:- It is written by Vopadeva (Maharashtra, 13th

century A.D). Main

thing is that it is a metrical work, in the form of a poem, in anusthup meter. Include 2358 roots.

43 anubhandha suffixes are used in it, 17 anubhandha suffixes are taken from paniniya au is

taken from jainendra and the rests are made by Vopadeva himself. It does not have classes, but

has groups based on the final letter of the roots.

Dhatupatha - some controversies.

Regarding the text dhatupatha and its authorship, some controversies are there. The dhatupatha

does not seem to be the author of sutrapatha, but seem to be the work of his predecessors. But

nevertheless the arrangement of roots, and the system in the dhatupatha clearly shows that the

author of the dhatupatha knew very many sutras now found in ashtadyayi and so arranged the

roots in the dhatupatha as to serve the purpose of those sutras. From the rules dvita kriti15

,

15 Ashtadhyayi – 3/3/88


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anudattanitha athmanepadam16

etc. one can believe that there existed a dhatupatha which Panini

used, established before beyond any doubt, as a part of oral tradition. At present we get

paniniyandhatupatha with meaning. But whether these meaning are added by Panini or anyone

else is a matter of controversy amongst grammarians. Yudhishtiramimasaka discussed this topic

with its details. There is evidence in mahabhashya that Katyayana regarded the meaning entries

as non paniyan as Bhattoji notes paninistu bhvedha ityapatit iti bhasyavarttikayu spastam.

Nagesha suggest that the meaning entries along with the roots are made by Bhimasena. Many

others also noted this. But we didn’t get much information about him. The references lead one to

conclude the view that there was a listing system much earlier to Panini. He successfully used

that technique.

According to Yudhishtiramimasaka there exist two version of dhatupatha, one with meaning of

each roots and another without meaning. He said that Panini used dhatupatha without meaning

like bhvedhaspardha for the students of his school, and in the another version he used the roots

like bhusattayamudattah edha vrddhau. We could see this view in the introductory part of the

Madaviyadhatuvrtti and said that the rootlist with meaning entries is known as vrddhapatha, and

as lakhupatha. In any way at present we have only one version of paninian dhatupatha which

refered as vrddhapatha.

The dhatupatha is only preserved now as it is known to commentators. The dhatvartha is

generally expressed in the locative case; to include that use of roots will be found in the activities

or conditions described by the dhatvartha. Dr. Maya a Cainani said that the meanings of 1316

roots in the dhatupatha are mentioned in the locative case.

Conclusion

Roots are the basic part of a word. Dhatupatha is the list of dhatus. From the available sources

we could assume that, a form of dhatupatha is existed for millennia, as oral tradition.

Grammarians like sakatayana, kasakristna, apisali, hemachandra, indra, vopadeva etc. arranged

roots appropriate to their grammatical school. At present dhatupatha which we use is arranged

by none other than Panini. In it’s the evolutionary period Paniniya dhatupatha remains constant,

just because of its greatness comparing to others. Several versions of dhatupatha are came

existence but panini’s dhatupatha is considered as authentic.

Bibliography

Dhatukarika, Samskritaparishadgranthamala-47, Sanskrit Academi, Osmania

University, 1996.

16 Ibid 1/3/12


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Dhatupatha, the Roots of Language, Stephen R.Hill, Peter G.Harisson,

Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 3rd. 1997.

Dhatupatha, Panini, Sriramlalkapurtrustgranthamala-38, Mantri ramlalkapur

trust, Pro. Shahpurtark Senapati, 6th edition, 2000.

Dhatupathom mein arthanirdesh, Maya A.Chainani, Vidyanithi prakasan, 1994.

Madhaviyadhatuvritti, Srisayanacharya, Swami Dwarakadasshastri, Tara Book

Agency, Varanasi, 2000.

Panini A survey of research, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

Post paniniyan systems of Sanskrit grammar , Dr. R.Saini, Parimal Publication,

Delhi, 1999.

Recent research in Paninian studies, Cardona George, Motilal Banarsidas

Publishers Pvt. Ltd.1999.


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CONSCIOUSNESS AS A PREDICTOR OF SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE

Preet Kumari, Gargi Sharma, Swami Pyari, Umang Verma

Abstract

The main aim of the present study was to examine the relationship among private self-conscious, public

self conscious, Social Anxiety and Spiritual intelligence. The sample consisted of 100 adults, age ranging

from 25 to 45 year. Self Consciousness scale and Spiritual intelligence Scale were used to measure

private self-conscious, public self conscious, Social Anxiety and Spiritual intelligence respectively. For

analysis of the data multiple regression analysis was used. Private self-consciousness is more positively

correlated with spiritual intelligence, than public self conscious and social anxiety. Private self-

consciousness is highly predictor variable of Spiritual intelligence.

Key Words: Private Self-Conscious, Public Self Conscious, Social Anxiety and Spiritual Intelligence

Introduction:

Health is a state of well-being with physical, cultural, psychological economic and spiritual

aspects, not simply the absence of illness. The role of spirituality in health is of increasing

interest to research. Indeed as spirituality is associated with mental health. Practicing spirituality

may have benefits for your psychological and physical health. It is clear that we are more than

physical, psychological and social being. We also are spiritual beings in search of relationship

with sacred.

A healthy personality is well-balanced, cheerful and stress-free. Healthy people have self-

discipline and self-control. They are honest with themselves. They have a great ability to

understand others and they know well how to deal with people. They have a strong faith in

themselves. They always listen to their mind, rather than following the majority. A

psychologically healthy and contented person achieves all happiness and takes hard efforts to go

beyond, through a process of self-realization. Such healthy people contribute a lot to overall

happiness and health of the society. A healthy person possesses individualistic uniqueness in

his/her character and personality.

Spiritual Intelligence is the ultimate intelligence which we address and solve problems of

meaning and value, the intelligence with which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider,

richer, meaning-giving context, the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of

action or one life path is more meaningful than another.




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Spiritual Intelligence is not necessarily religious or even dependent upon religion as its

foundation. It can be defined against or observed through some telling criteria such as:

truthfulness, compassion, respect for all levels of consciousness, constructive empathy, a sense

of being a player in a large whole, generosity of spirit and action, a seeking of being 'in tune'

with or 'in synch' with nature of the universe, and being comfortable with being alone without

being lonely.

Those who have Spiritual Intelligence: have the capacity for transcendence; have heightened

consciousness; have the capacity to endow everyday activity with a sense of the sacred; use

spiritual resources on practical problems; engage in virtuous behaviour (forgiveness, gratitude,

humility, compassion and wisdom.

Consciousness is a term that refers to a variety of aspects of the relationship between the mind

and the world with which it interacts. It has been defined as: subjectivity; awareness; the ability

to experience feelings; wakefulness; having a sense of selfhood; or the executive control system

of the mind. Max Velma’s and Susan Schneider wrote in The Blackwell Companion to

Consciousness: "Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our

consciousness, making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious

aspect of our lives.

Consciousness was viewed with skepticism by many scientists, but in recent years it has been an

increasingly significant topic of research. In psychology and neuroscience, the primary focus is

on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in

consciousness—that is, on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness.

The majority of experimental studies uses human subjects and assesses consciousness by asking

subjects for a verbal report of their experiences (e.g., "tell me if you notice anything when I do

this"). Issues of interest include phenomena such as subliminal perception, blind sight, denial of

impairment, and altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs or spiritual or

meditative techniques.

Private self-consciousness is a tendency to introspect and examine one's inner self and feelings.

Public self-consciousness is an awareness of the self as it is viewed by others. This kind of self-

consciousness can result in self-monitoring and social anxiety. Both private and public self-

consciousness are viewed as personality traits that a relatively stable over time, but they are not

correlated. Just because an individual is high on one dimension doesn't mean that he or she is

high on the other.

Different levels of self-consciousness affect behavior, as it is common for people to act

differently when they "lose themselves in a crowd". Being in a crowd, being in a dark room, or

wearing a disguise creates anonymity and temporarily decrease self-consciousness.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awareness

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Velmans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindsight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosognosia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosognosia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior

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Social anxiety is anxiety (emotional discomfort, fear, apprehension, or worry) about social

situations, interactions with others, and being evaluated or scrutinized by other people. The

difference between Social Anxiety and normal apprehension of social situations is that social

anxiety involves an intense feeling of fear in social situations and especially situations that are

unfamiliar or in which you will be watched or evaluated by others. The feeling of fear is so

strong that in these types of situations you may be so worried that you feel anxious just thinking

about them and will go to great lengths to avoid them.

In the present study researcher explored the relationship between consciousness and spiritual

intelligence and also investigate the predictor variable of spiritual intelligence.

Problem:

To study relationship among private self-conscious, public self conscious, social anxiety and

spiritual intelligence.

Hypotheses:

(1) Spiritual intelligence would be more positively related with private self-conscious than

public self conscious and social anxiety.

(2) Relative contribution of private self-conscious would be more as compared to public self

conscious and Social Anxiety towards on spiritual intelligence.

Sample:

The investigator adopted the following selection criteria for the sample of the present

investigation. The sample consists of 100 adolescence were taken as a sample. The subjects were

belonging to age group of 25 to 45 years.

Tools:

For measuring Consciousness, Self-consciousness scale was used, developed by Feinstein (2010)

and measuring spiritual intelligence Spiritual Intelligence Scale was used. It was developed by

Neal (2004).

Results:

The coefficients of correlations were computed among private self-conscious, public self

conscious, Social Anxiety and Spiritual intelligence by using Pearson’s product moment method.


http://www.answers.com/topic/anxiety

http://www.answers.com/topic/emotion

http://www.answers.com/topic/fear

http://www.answers.com/topic/fear

http://www.answers.com/topic/worry-4

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TABLE 1 CORRELATION MATRIX

**P<.01, *P<.05

Table 1 show that spiritual intelligence is more positively related to private self-conscious

than public self-conscious and social anxiety.

For interpreting the results obtained from multiple regression analysis, the variance caused by the

combined effect of total predictor variables is seen by obtained R square, which is further

adjusted into adjusted R square. Individual contribution of each predictor variable can be noted

with the help of Beta weights. Level of significance indicated in the table against each predictor

variables shows the variable which are significant enough, and to which extent, to predict the

variance caused by each variable individually, beta weights of each predictor variable are

multiplied by their respective correlation coefficients. The sum total of this individual proportion

value is found equal to the value of R square.

TABLE 2 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

MULTIPLE R 0.483601

R SQUARE 0.233869

ADJUSTED R SQUARE 0.209928

STANDARD ERROR 12.08553

VARIABLES

M

SD

Private self-

Conscious

Public self

Conscious

Social

Anxiety

Spiritual

Intelligence

Private self-

Conscious, 15.13 3.6 1

Public self

Conscious

13.27 4.5 0.46** 1

Social Anxiety 8.87 3.6 0.43** 0.308** 1

Spiritual

Intelligence

115.8 13.5 0.45** 0.311** 0.303** 1


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TABLE 3 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

ANOVA Df SS MS F

Regression

Residual

3

96

42.80

14021.75

1426.76

146.059

9.76834**

**P<.01

Variables

b

SE

β

T

r

Coefficients of

determinations

private

self-

Conscious,

1.32 0.36 0.35 3.34** 0.45** 0.165

public self

Conscious

0.32 0.45 0.10 1.05 0.311** 0.033

Social

Anxiety

0.43 0.36 0.11 1.15 0.303** 0.034

Constant 87.64

**P<.01, *P<.05

The table-2 shows the result of multiple regression analysis when spiritual intelligence

was taken as dependent variable. To see the strength of relationship between dependent variable

and several independent variables coefficients of multiple correlations was computed. The value

of multiple R of .48 (F 3, 96) =9.76834, P <.01 was found. The multiple R square of .23

indicated that 23% variance in spiritual intelligence is to be accounted for by these variables. In

the table of Adjusted R square was 0.21 which indicates 21 % variance in spiritual intelligence

is to be explained by combined predictor variables private self-Conscious and spiritual

intelligence. The individual contribution of private self-conscious score was found to be 16 %


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which is worth finding that association between is positive. Thus, increase in private self-

Conscious score increases the spiritual intelligence of an individual

The effect of private self-conscious was highest than the other two variables on spiritual

intelligence i.e. 16 % variance in spiritual intelligence was due to private self-conscious.

Discussion:

Positive relation has been found among private self-conscious, public self-conscious, social

anxiety and spiritual intelligence. The survey suggested that if person is highly spiritual then

he/she also aware about himself/herself (consciously aware about themselves). Private self-

conscious is highly contributor variable in determining spiritual intelligence .Person who are

more conscious about one selves possesses some characteristics i.e. they became more open to

diverse idea about consciousness, more self-aware and more committed to meditation and self-

reflection. Present studies finding in line with (Green and Noble 2011; Glass and Carver 2010;

and Ayranci 2011) studies support that person who spiritual aware is generally aware conscious

about him/her.

Conclusion:

In end it can be conclude that private self consciousness is highly predictor variable in

determining spiritual intelligence in comparison of other variables.

References:

Ayranci,E. (2011). “Effects of Top Turkish Manager Emotional and Spiritual

intelligences on their organizations financial performance” in Journal of Business

Intelligence,3 (02),95-98.

Feinstein,A (2010). “Self-consciousness Scale” available http// www.google.com

Glass,D. & Carver,C. (2010). “The Self-Consciousness Scale: A Discriminant Validity

Study” in Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 10 (05) 102-145.

Green,W.,& Noble,D. (2011). “Foster Spiritual Intelligence: Undergraduates growth in a

course about Consciousness” in Journal of Advanced Development, 9(01) 66-73.

Neal,J.(2004). Spiritual Intelligence Scale available http// www.google.com


http://www.google.com/

http://www.google.com/

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YEATS’ THE SORROW OF LOVE 1825: A STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

Jyoti George

Introduction

Linguistics is the science of describing languages and showing how it works. Stylistics is that

part of linguistics, which concentrates on variation in the use of language, often, with a special

attention to the complex uses of language in literature. Stylistics is not a stylish word but it is

well connected. It means a scientific and a methodical study of the form of the text. A

stylistician, who makes a methodical study of the principles of style, applies it to study the lexis,

structures and phonological features. Linguists and Idealists like Spitzer, Edward Sapir, Leonard

Bloomfield, Ferdinand de Saussere, Michael Halliday, Enkvist and others have brought about

new theories and methods for linguistic analysis. An attempt is made to study the stylistic

features of “The Sorrow of Love 1925” of W.B Yeats. The text would be studied in terms of

linguistic forms i.e., the lexical, grammatical and phonological features.

Stylistics: A Historical Retrospect

Meaning and Origin

According to O.E.D., word ‘stylistics’ – as we understand it today – was used in English for the

first time in 1906. Being a scientific discipline, stylistics aims at providing a systematic, precise

and objective description of the style of a given author or discourse. The traditional view of style

was largely subjective and lacked in descriptive accuracy; impressionistic labels like ‘sublime,’

‘lyrical,’ ‘terse,’ etc. tell us more about the intuition of the critic than the linguistic features in the

text responsible for the intuition. Modern stylistic studies attempt to provide an accurate

description of the linguistic patterns and structures, which give the style, a discourse its

characteristic quality. Modern linguistics, particularly the post-Chomskyan linguistics, provides a

satisfactory framework for analyzing language. Stylistics has borrowed its framework for the

description of style. Hence, “Stylistics was born of a reaction to the subjectivity and imprecision

of literary studies”(Fish 1981:53). Further, the term ‘stylistics’ has been derived after the French

word “stylistique.” Tracing the history of the word in English and other European languages,

Ullmann writes, “The term ‘stilistik’ has been in current use in German since the early nineteenth

century; the first example recorded by Grimm’s dictionary is from Novalis” (Spencer and

Gregory) 1964:63). In short, if style is the art of expression, stylistics is the science of style.




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Stylistics: it’s Relevance to Our Age

A persistent concern with concepts and methodology has been a fundamental trait of the modern

mind. Langer observes “every age is unique in the way it treats its problems, the questions that it

asks” (1967:3). The impetus for this enquiry has come mainly from natural sciences in which

both conceptual thinking and methodology have undergone change because of new findings.

Concepts have been redefined in rigorously formalized terms and there has been a perceptible

swing towards a “quantitative and objective knowledge.” The intellectual vigour released by

scientific disciplines has influenced social and humanistic disciplines too. The new attitude

demands accurate observation and description of facts, formal tools of analysis, and verifiable

data to support the statements made.

Literary criticism has until now been without a sound theoretical foundation. To be in

consonance with the current intellectual climate, it should develop objective tools of

investigation. Tallentire observes, “Today’s reader of literary criticism has been conditioned by a

computerized world, to expect objective analysis and is less apt to be satisfied by conjecture. For

literary criticism to be accepted as a respectable discipline in modern times, its quality judgement

must be corroborated by facts” (1971:973). Since these methodological commitments underlie

stylistics, it is a welcome development in the field of criticism. As a discipline, it aims at making

objective statements about the style of a given text as opposed to the intuition-based judegements

of traditional style critics. In other words, stylistics aspires to be a scientific discipline.

Influences

Verbal Criticism – I.A. Richards & New Criticism

The emergence of the textual or verbal criticism in the 1920s was a reaction against easy going

and vaguely laudatory criticism prevalent then. The assumption underlying this criticism was

that literature was “a product of moonlight exaltation” and that it was “adequate and desirable

merely to communicate evocatively one’s private-responses” (Fowler1971:105). In the absence

of a shared critical vocabulary criticism degenerated into self-indulgence.

The critical spirit registered a change in the post-Edwardian era, which was a concomitant result

of a general intensification of the study of language and symbolism. A new consciousness

regarding the language of literature pervaded the critical writings of Hulme, Pound and Eliot.

Eliot in particular by his close comparative analysis of poetry and well-informed discussion of

poetic elements created an intellectual base for new critical thinking. The Sacred Wood (1920) in

which ‘Objective correlative’ is used by Eliot to explain how emotion can be best transmitted to

the mind of the reader through a concrete picture. “The object in which emotion is thus bodied

forth is its external equivalent or ‘objective correlative’ ” (Prasad1965:236). In other words, a set


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of objects or a sequence of events can trigger off a particular emotion. Homage to John Dryden

(1924) and the essays published later bear witness to Eliot’s interest in the linguistic surface of a

literary work. In Tradition and Individual Talent, Eliot describes tradition as changing and

directing the present so that present alters and modifies the past and the progress of an artist is a

continual self-sacrifice, a continual extinction of personality. This he elucidates by examining,

“the relation of the poet to the past and the relation of the poem to its author” (Ibid 1965:235). To

Eliot’s practice of close reading, a scientific touch was provided by I.A.Richards’ theories of

aesthetic response and contextual semantics. His critical ideas were expounded in Principles of

Literary Criticism (1924) and Practical Criticism (1929).The whole effort of Richards was

directed towards replacing the vague, subjective criticism by a practical method, which would

establish a close connection between the reader’s response and the words on the page. To

provide his ideas a theoretical base, he developed the theory of contextual semantics. Meaning is

a property of the context. In a literary work, words acquire new shades by interacting with each

other; and hence the need to consider the total context. Richards, therefore, proposed that

through close study of the verbal surface and of the relationships between words, the reader

could discover the sense, feeling, tone and intention of the poem. Criticism needed less

poeticizing and more detailed analysis and investigation. It is easy to see how this emphasis on

linguistic elements culminated in modern descriptive stylistic studies.

With Empson’s analytical criticism got firmly planted. Through lexical and syntactic analyses,

he studied the phenomenon of double or multiple meaning “plurisignation”

(Wheelright1962:45), as it was termed to suggest how ambiguity creates complexity of meaning

in poetry. The new interest in linguistic elements is reflected in Empson’s frequent use of

grammatical categories and terms. Notions like parts of speech, ‘subject of,’ and ‘object of,’ etc.

are used to decipher the function and meaning of words.

Taking the cue from Eliot, Richards and Empson, a group of American academics, which

includes J.C. Ransom, Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks, R.P.Warren, R. P. Blackmur and Hyman,

have done the bulk of serious critical thinking in recent years. Since they believe in

reconstructing the meaning of the poem through its formal characteristics, they are known as

formalists, textual critics or ontological critics. The term most commonly used is New Critics,

after the book New Criticism (1941) by Ransom.

The New Critics of Britain and American and the Formalists of Europe were inheritors of

rhetoric. They were textualists and believed that a poem should be interpreted only in terms of its

formal features, the verbal clues that the text provides. The most significant aspect about modern

stylistics is that the new, analytical methods of linguistics have been adopted with a view to

provide a precise and adequate description of the language of a given text. All other

considerations are extraneous to the business of criticism. Social, moral, cultural, biographical

and psychological concerns are declared irrelevant to a proper understanding of the text. Hence,


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a modern critic tends “to force his attention back to the text of the work itself, that is, to look at

the poem neither as an appendage to the biography, nor as an illustration of the history of

ideas”(Stallman1949:xix).

Consequently, with all New Critics, despite differences in their individual method, the ‘form’ of

the poem became all-important. The formal elements of the poem – diction, images, symbols,

rhyme, metre etc, will on an objective analysis, yield the meaning or the knowledge that the

poem has to communicate. Thus, the form was identified with the meaning and the different

elements combine to produce effects that are unique in poems. The assumption underlying this

affirmation is that meaning is a property of the text. Words derive their meanings in the way they

are made to interact with each other. Any change of words or in the arrangement of words results

in a change of meaning. Further, Jakobson, a critic of the New Criticism had formulated a model

of language founded on Sausssure’s thesis that there are three levels of interaction between

language and meaning: signifier (the visual or phonemic substance of the word); signified (the

concept or image represented by the word); referent (the pre-linguistic object or condition). This

provides a continuous tension between the combinative and the selective axes of language. “The

poetic function projects the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection into the axis of

combination”(1988:39). The axis of combination includes the set of rules in which words are

combined to form a sentence and can be termed as syntagmatic chain, hence, the axis of selection

includes the choices made from the different words available for example, “The person looks,

sees, watches etc. In the principle of equivalence, the two axes in terms of syntagmatic chain are

matched for example (Its person is see) is grammatically incorrect, secondly an equivalent

relation between the rules of the syntagm, the perceived relation between language (signifier and

signified) and the pre-linguistic world (the referent). For example, “A tree sings” satisfies the

rules of the syntagm because “walks” like “grows” is a verb used in its correct grammatical

position but has deviated in its equivalent relation between language and the pre-linguistic world.

This unexpected use of the selective axis is the basic principle of metaphor, which Jakobson

claimed, made the language poetic. Similarly, prose (novel) is more closely allied to metonymy;

its linguistic selections maintain a close relationship between the written word and its

representation. Two Russian Formalists, namely Viktor Shklovsky and Vladmir Propp reduced

fictional structures to two opposing and interacting dimensions i.e., “sjuzet and

fabula”(Bradford1997:52). While “fabula” refers to the actual order of events that make up of

narrative, “sjuzet” comprises of order, manner and style. For example, the experiences of Pip in

the city of London refer to “fabula” of Dickens’s Great Expectations and “sjuzet” is his narration

with temporal and emotional registers. Thus, there is close affinity between Jacobson’s

differentiation between the poetic function (operation and effect of poetic devices), the

referential function (what the poem is about) and Shklovsky’s distinction between “sjuzet”

(narrative devices) and “fabula” (the story of the novel). Hence, Shklovsky’s and Jakobson

focused on the ways in which poems and novels coalesce and change the non-literary language

and experience.


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The Relevance of New Criticism

Literature is sought to be analyzed in objective terms, ignoring considerations of author period or

other extra textual evidence. In this way, they make for formalistic, anti-historicist approach to

literature and they all of recent origin. Practical Criticism, New Criticism and Stylistics are some

of the theories that come under this category. It is in its insistence on the primacy of the text, on

close reading of the linguistic features, and in its positivistic approach, that New Criticism

anticipated the scientific nature of modern stylistics and paved the way for its emergence. The

question about the relevance of New Criticism to stylistics is pertinent. However, one can notice

some significant differences. Stylistics or linguistic criticism deals with the whole text (the

method of random sampling may be used where the text is unwieldy), whereas New Criticism

focuses only on significant details. Linguistic criticism uses formal techniques for discovering

recurrent pattern and significant details, but New Criticism relies on the reader’s sensibility. “It

embodies a response to a poem not merely in terms of the reader’s linguistic capabilities, but also

in terms of his critical faculties and sensibilities”(Schorer1972:340). Hence, New Criticism is

value-oriented but linguistic criticism makes no such claims.

The Model

Proposing a viable stylistic model for the novel is perhaps the most challenging task a stylistic

critic faces. For one thing, generally this genre with its multiple episodes and characters occupies

a comparatively large canvas. A poem, on the other hand, is quite compact because much greater

degree of crystallization takes place in it.

From the foregoing discussion, it emerges that an eclectic model for the analysis of fiction is not

only possible but necessary as well. Accordingly, the Prague School of Linguistics, where the

notion of style includes textual as well as extra-textual context such as genre, dialect and

interpersonal relationship have been selected for analysis. It will also focus on stylistic features

of lexis, grammar and phonology.

Sampling

A note on sampling is necessary at this point. There are several sampling techniques. Techniques

like Random Sampling and Block Sampling are aridly mechanical and are marked by critical

blindness, whereas criticism, as Freeman rightly observes, “does not proceed from a tabula

rasa”(1981:5). If this statement is true, then intuitive sampling based, of course, on some

principle of stratification. In the fluid state of the present day stylistics the right thing, perhaps,

would be to use several theories and concepts as far as they suit our purpose of interpretation, not

sticking rigidly to one particular theory or trend. Therefore, it was felt to use transformational

methodology and Prague school of linguistics’ central notion of style as foregrounding, which is

a device in a literary passage through the use of unexpected lexical collocation, syntactic

inversion etc, in my analysis of the text.


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The analysis that follows has been based on a close reading of the text. The prominent linguistic

items of the poem have been examined under the heads of lexis, syntax, phonology and

interpretation. In some cases, the linguistic items examined include grammatical categories such

as, verb, pronoun and other structural peculiarities of the texts concerned. Under lexis, the

prominent lexical items in the text have been listed to show how they give a clue to the main

theme. While the syntax part examines the structural and the dominant syntactic characteristics

of the text, phonology is mainly concerned with phonological patterning and the device of

alliteration. The section on interpretation and comment attempts not only to relate the various

prominent stylistic features of the text to its theme.

Yeats naturally inherited and rooted in a regional tradition from Ireland could assume the voice

of an ancient bard challenging the changing modern with its vanishing values. Marcus (1970),

Jakobson and Rudy (1977), Thuente (1981), Kinahan (1988) Bawer (1982), Pierce (1989), Smith

(1990) opine that Yeats came to believe that finite world of 19th

century materialism was found

among the Irish peasants folklore and that poetry must be brought to the people by song. While

rediscovering the old Irish legendary material, he was being national and uncoloured by modern

politics. “Yeats is primarily an Irish poet and his poetry is distinctively Irish” (MacDonald

2001:302). He was perhaps the twentieth century’s finest stylist and for him “poetry is the

natural words in the natural order” as he was naturally drawn “to stylistic device of antithesis,

foregrounding, iambic pentameter, play on words, alliteration, rhyming sentences, assonances

etc.” (Smith1990: 122). He made a new religion of an infallible church of poetic tradition.

“Yeats’ poems celebrate the rose, the mystic rose, ancient Celtic symbol in the human soul,

which repeatedly represents beauty, ladylove, or even Ireland” (Lampeusa 1989:49). In a sense,

Yeats although modern, was not modernist as he was the least experimentalist, yet he possesses

distinctive strength for his thought provoking contribution to critical debate. The familiar view of

Yeatsian poetry develops with increasing absorption and pursuit of hieratic knowledge of literary

milieu of late nineteenth and early twentieth century Ireland. Hence, transformational generative

and structural methodology is used to analyse both the habitual and unfamiliar appearance of the

text of Yeats’s “The Sorrow of Love 1925”

The brawling of a sparrow in the caves,

The brilliant moon and all the milky sky,

And all that famous harmony of leaves,

Had blotted out man’s image and his cry.

A girl arose that had red mournful lips

And seemed the greatness of the world in tears,

Doomed like Odysseus and the labouring ships

And proud as Priam murdered with his peers,

Arose, and on the instant clamorous caves,


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A climbing moon upon an empty sky,

And all the lamentation of the leaves,

Could but compose man’s image and his cry.

The Subject

The subject of the poem, The Sorrow of Love1925, is set within the framework of contended

domesticity. The narrator is serenely at peace with the natural and ethereal world in complete

harmony. The lamentation of the leaves is an indicator that peace may be disturbed and the loud

song of the ever singing leaves forebodes that the wind of change is up. The second stanza

describes “banishment of content” (Kinahan1988:100).Yeats contrastive sets of star laden sky

and the white stars of the sky juxtapose that happiness cannot last for long as things will fall

apart. The Rose with all her beauty shattered his contentment and left a trail of sorrow. Yeats

associates Helen of Troy, the eternal figure of the tragic heroine with the greatest human beauty.

Composition

The poem consists of three quatrains. Quatrain I and III display dual opposition. The last lines of

quatrains I and III have man as its main topic. Both quatrain I and III portray different levels of

thought and are at conflict with each other. One portrays victory and the other portrays defeat.

Yeats maintains the contiguity with mutual metamorphosis of two contrastive sets of quatrain

with the auditory and visual, earthly and celestial phenomena. The second quatrain has the girl as

the heroine who represents the tragic and heroic human world.The division of the poem into six

lines in the outer quatrain (lines 1-3 and 9-11) as opposed to the six lines (4-8 and 12), represent

two different metaphysical realms; the upper/over ground level and lower/terrestrial level

respectively. The middle stanza is completely devoted to the lower/terrestrial realm; the outer

stanzas bring the two realms into conflict but with a different outcome.

Phonological Features

(a) Rhyme

Within rhyme, the twelve lines of the poem the interplay of words similar in sound creates an

affinity and contrast either between the components of the same line or between diverse lines

within the same quatrain. The appearance of expressive consonantal clusters though the use of

tightly-knot word groups and of vocalic syncope furthers and widens the application of this

poetic device. In the first distich of I, a distinct alliteration binds the words. In quatrain I

brawling /br. І/ - brilliant / br.І/ - had blotted /bl /. In quatrain III clamorous /kl.m / - climbing

/kl.m/ - empty /mp/ - lamentation / l.m / - could but compose /k.mp /.


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The consonantal cluster /db / is common to both final predicates of the outer quatrains. Quatrain

I Had blotted, III could but and similarly / tk / of III instant clamorous – III but compose I –

harmony / m.n / and III lamentation /m-n/, moon - /mn / man / m-n /, II mournful / m-n /. It is

significant to note that the final picture of the lonesome lunar wanderer contains the greatest

accumulation of nasals: III – A climbing moon upon and empty sky (with seven nasals) is

predominantly prevocalic in the outer quatrains (braw-ling, spa-rrow brill-iant, cry, a.rose, cla-

mo.rous, cry) but post- vocalic in the inner quatrain (girl, mournful world, tears,la.bour.ing,

mur.dered, peers). The inner quatrain unified by dense consonance and alliteration: had red

mournful…murdered /dr /, / dm /, / r –m /, / rd /, / rd /, proud – Priam –peers / pr /, / pr /, /p.r /.

The intense consonantal and alliterative patterning that is observed does not pervade the text

indiscriminately but rather establishes semantic connection with careful choiced sound patterns.

Alliteration and consonance pervades the text but only in random order. These combine to para

rhyme, often in multiple linkages.

sor. row - spar. row

brawl. ing - brill. iant

love - leaves

man’s - har. mon. y – moon-la. men. tation climb. ing- com.pose – clam. or. ous

The central stanza has only one instance of para rhyme, and this is only partial and single.

mourn. ful – mur –dered

The other schemes like alliteration, consonance, assonance and rhyme, occur in the text like

proud – priam – peers lips – la. bour. in a. rose – red world – with seemed – ships had –

his that – the – this A-And…and –And –as

Vowels in functional words in the inner stanza also echo vowels in the stanziac rhymes:

in – with – his – ships – lips.

(b) Rhythm

The brawling | of a sparrow| in the eaves,

The brilliant moon | and all the | milky sky,

And all | that | famous | harmony of leaves,

Had blotted out | man’s image | and his cry.

A girl | arose | that had | red mournful lips,

And seemed | the greatness | of the world | in tears,

Doomed | like Odysseus | and the labouring | ships,

And proud | as priam murdered | with his peers.

Arose |, and on the instant | clamorous leaves,

A climbing moon | upon an | empty sky,


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And all | that | lamentation | of the leaves,

Could but compose | man’s | image | and his cry.

Grammatical Features

Nouns- There are twenty-seven nouns, nine in each quatrain for example, sparrow, caves,

moon, sky, harmony, leaves, man’s image, cry; girl, lips, greatness, world, tears, Odysseus,

ships, Priam, peers; instant eaves, moon, sky, lamentation, leaves, man’s image, cry.

(a) abstract nouns – There are three abstract nouns, i.e. harmony, greatness, lamentation, one

in each stanza, and followed by of.

Pronominal attributes – There are three pronominal attributes in each stanza, such as

brilliant moon, milky sky, famous, red mournful, labouring ships, clamorous, climbing,

empty.

Pronouns – his, that, all, each is repeated three times.

Articles -- There are nine occurrences of definite article (the), and four occurrences of

indefinite article (a,an).

Conjunction – There are nine occurrences of and, three in each stanza.

Prepositions – There are nine occurrences of prepositions, for example, of, in of, of in, with,

on upon of.

Finite Verbs – had blotted out, arose, had seemed.

Modal – could

Lexical Features

Pairs of opposites – empty sky – milky sky, brawling – cry, brilliant moon – climbing moon,-

blotted out man’s image – compose man’s image and his cry, harmony of leaves, man – moon,

mournful – labouring, Doomed – proud

Colour terms - red, milky, brilliant,

Simile- Doomed like Odysseus, proud as Priam

Epithet - brilliant moon, climbing moon, empty sky, milky sky

Puns -Arose ,a rose

Symmetry -And all that famous harmony of leaves

And all that lamentation of the leaves

Classical imagery – proud as Priam, Doomed like Odysseus

The analysis at the phonological level is mainly conducted to study the patterns of poetic

rhythm and rhyme. While the study of rhythm involves the analysis of the metrical structure of

the poem, the study of rhyme involves the study of the external and the internal rhyme scheme

in the poem. The rhythm, as can be seen in this 12 lines poem, is controlled at line ends. The

stressed syllables in each of the lines in the poem are five primary stressed and five unstressed

(weak). The Sorrow of Love is written in iambic pentameter. Each line begins with a weak


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stress, followed immediately by a primary stress. The most illuminating aspect of the rhythm is

the various patterning of the two fundamental prosodic types of words, which fulfill the

downbeat of the binary meter. For example, there is significant difference between down beat

carrying the primary stress in the separate lexical constituents e.g., “milky sky,” with two

primary stresses, as opposed to harmony with the primary stress on the first and last syllable,

and “in the eaves,” with primary stress on the third.

In addition to rhythm, rhyme scheme of the poem is ab ab, cd cd. However, there are instances

of alliteration, assonance and consonance, which function as stylistic features that help in

weaving the poetic texture of the poem. The pertinent role played by the auditory and visual

phenomena in the stanzas is worth mentioning. The second line of the outer quatrain finishes

with “moon” whereas the fourth line ends with “man.” Thus, the poem has deviant

phonological features.

To discard tradition was a vital loss for Yeats. The old metaphors, sensuous tradition was lost

in the meanders of innovation. For him the innovations did not strike relationship with old

poetic materials. “Yeats in his poetry has imbibed the ideas from the various sources of the

philosophy…Irish folklore and mythology”(Kaur2001:105)Since mythological figures half-

historical, half-fictional and half-imaginative have an older tradition modern poetry with its

insistence on intellect ignored the past and its claim for self-sufficiency refused to take any

support.

Genuine originality in the works of art is achieved within the framework of tradition. The

originality of the moderns is deliberately twisted to give an impression of intellectual novelty.

In Yeats’ view to seek originality is self-seeking. Further, Yeats believed that every folk art,

jazz and musical songs should be rejected if it does not go back to Olympus. Yeats thus, draws

distinction between genuine and spurious folk art. Yeats, a master of the pentameter chooses a

traditional stanza but always safe from the upheavals of historical change. The Sorrow of Love

1925 seems to evoke the legends of race, culture and a sad figure of a lady. What Yeats implies

is that genuine passionate thoughts and feelings cannot be expressed without invoking the

traditional resources of language and metre. With technical resources pushed to the limit,

nothing is superfluous or even incidental, the lines move with ease of perfect movement, set in

perfect verses enough to evoke the enchanted landscape of sound and resonance of centre

grace. Thus, Pierce “Yeats philosophy is rooted in Platonism and his work reflects the Pre-

Socratic dilemma of being and becoming. Yeats was deeply indebted to Gaelic, Irish literary

ballad and to 19th

century Irish poets. He along with other poets was grouped as poets of the

Irish Mode which allows for clear pronunciation of several syllables between stress and

stress”(1989:93).Yeats’ verse has the musical quality of Irish chant, which saves Irish speech

from too definite a stress and from an utterance too monotonous and harsh. Combined then

with the purity of style, celebrating love, delicately varying between repetition and balance,


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The Sorrow of Love 1925 is an accomplished poem because it has perfect symmetry and

similarity between central/upper/overground parts verses peripheral/lower/terrestrial parts,

initial parts versus final parts, and odd parts versus even parts. It has attained “lyrical geometry

and numerical” (Cureton2000:359).Yeats is strictly adhering to multiples of three as there

twenty-seven nouns besides three –ing forms, one in each of the three stanzas such as

“brawling, labouring, and climbing.” Each of such form introduces the motif of movement.

One even line of each quatrain has three nouns, and any other line – two nouns. This can be

further specified. In the outer (odd) quatrains, the even line of the even distich contains an odd

number of nouns (3), whereas in the inner (even) quatrains three nouns are found in the even line

of the odd distich. The poem contains six personal nouns, out of which two are common nouns

(girl and peers), two are proper nouns (Odysseus and Priam). The outer quatrain has only one

personal noun, the possessive man’s, only are relative pronoun (that) and the inner stanza has a

noun of feminine gender (girl), the rest are masculine.

Only nouns functions as rhyme-fellows and the plural occurs solely in rhymes, eight of the

twelve rhymes-fellows are plural nouns. It is only in the inner part of the line, the actual arena as

it were the individual actors, such as “the brawling sparrow,” “the brilliant moon,” “a girl,” “a

man,” “Odysseus and Priam,” perform the drama. Nouns are temporally cyclical, because they

are concrete and stative. The two constituents of each of the six rhymes are morphological

homogenous but syntactically heterogeneous. In each quatrain one line ends in a grammatical

subject I (sky); II (ships); III (eaves), one in direct object I (cry); II (lips); III (cry), and two in

prepositional constructions I (in the eaves, of leaves); II (in tears, with his peers); III (upon an

empty sky, of the leaves).The post-positive attributes occur in the second stanza with two past

passive participles, “Doomed,””murdered” and one adjective, “proud.” Adjective are qualities of

intensity therefore they are temporally centroidal.

The nine occurrences of the in the three quatrains form an arithmetic regression: 4-3-2. In the

first half of the poem, three lines contain two definite articles each, and three none, whereas the

second half has three lines with one definite article in each, and three without any. In each

quatrain of the poem, there are two lines with, and two without, definite articles. It is presented

in figures below.

Line: 1 2 3 4 Total

I: 2th 2th - - 4

Quatrain II: - 2th 1th - 3

III: 1th - 1th - 2

9

The distribution of the articles of the first quatrain forms a rectangle while the second and third

quatrain forms an oblique-angled quadrangle. The poem contains two equational conjunctions,


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both confined to the inner quatrain (II like, as ) and the other three instances of and in each

quatrain. Only three attributive pronouns occur in the poem and each of them – his, that, all is

repeated three times. His occupies penultimate syllable of the last line in each quatrain. All

occurs only in the outer quatrains, twice in the in the first stanza and once in the third. That

appears twice as the demonstrative pronoun in the first and the third stanza only. In the first half

of the poem three lines are without finites, followed by three lines each containing one or more

finites and finally in the second half of the poem the last line or each three-line group contains a

finite.

The number of finites is limited to six active forms referring to the third poem. Three of these

forms (1+2) appear in the outer quatrains, and three-in the first distich of the inner quatrain. The

ratio of verbs to nouns is 1:3 in the inner and 1:8 in the two outer quatrains.

The three other semantic type of verbs are two compound forms verbs of action represented by (I

had blotted out, and III could but compose). The verbs of state are (II had, And, seemed) in the

inner quatrain and the verbs of process occurs in inner and last quatrain (II arose, III Arose).

The major facts are co-occurent qualities of the linguistic forms that Yeats uses to articulate The

Sorrow of Love in relation to human sensibility. Further, the homogeneity between nouns; the

patterning of plural versus singular nouns; the distribution of verbs of action, state and process;

the distribution of the pronoun, gender, postpositive attributes and conjunctions are positional

and poetically significant. The heterogeneity and contrastive claims of the poem are equally

worthy of note. The verbal meaning is both dynamic and static. Gender is impersonal and

personal. Rhymes are mixed and plural. Voice is active as well as passive. Pronouns are

demonstrative and relative therefore linear and person is generic and third person. There are

many derivational and inflectional forms in the text. Modal “could,” deals with probability

therefore, it is linear.

Conclusion

Though Yeats’ lexis is extremely wide and diverse, “The Sorrow of Love 1925” is a Rose poem

and shares a common theme with the other Rose poems. Yeats’ symbol of Rose is multifaceted

yet taken in isolation it could represent Ireland, Maud Gonne ,supreme beauty, Helen, God’s

love, divine nature, kingdom of God. Yeats’ had a passion for mystical Rose. Placed with such

juxtaposition, it could only broaden the connotations of Rose symbol, such as commenting on

Irish history, his vision of universe, the whole order of things that concerns him. The way he

appropriated the English language, Yeats must be understood in relational terms because he is

both Anglo and Irish. Irish because for Yeats the symbol of Rose is couched in an occult

subculture of time, a common property of ancient culture of Gaelic poets who had lived in an

ancient isolated Irish countryside, which has endured the passage of time. The Rose for Yeats is


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a ‘terrible beauty’ and the image of romantic Ireland, which represents unbroken continuity, and

permanence of Gaelic tradition. “Yeats romanticized, nostalgically imagined heroic tragedy of

ancient days. He sings of the Romantic Ireland’s dead and gone, seems to gorge a link between

himself and the deceased in a strong sense of continuity with the past”(Bawer1982:97) and

hence, expressed his Anglo side by his Anglo-Irish literature.

References:

Primary Source:

Macneice, Louis. 1941. The Poetry of W.B.Yeats. New York: Macmillan.

Secondary Source:

Bawer, Bruce (1982). “Two on a Tower. Hardy and Yeats.” Yeats Eliot Review. 7th

ser.1

& 2:91-107.

Bradford, Richard (1997). Stylistics. The New Critical Idiom. London: Routledge.

Cureton, Richard D.(2000).“Jakobson Revisited. Poetics, Subjectivity, and Temporality.”

Journal of English Linguistics. 28th

ser. 4: 354-392.

Fish, Stanley E .(1981). “What is Stylistics and Why are They Saying Such Terrible

Things About It?” Essays in Modern Stylistics. Ed. Donald C. Freeman.London:

Macmillan. 53-78.

Fowler, Roger (1971). The Languages of Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Freeman, Donald.1981. Essays in Modern Stylistics. London : Methuen.

Jakobson, Roman (1988). “Closing statement: Linguistics and Poetics.” Style in

Language. Ed T. Sebok. Cambridge. MIT Press. Reprint in Lodge.

Jakobson, Roman and Stephen Rudy (1977). Yeats’ Sorrow of Love: Through the Years.

Holland: The Peter De Ridder Press.

Kaur, Tejinder. 2001. “Women in the Poetry of W.B. Yeats.” Language Forum. 27th

ser.

1 & 2: 105-115.

Kinahan, Frank.1988. Yeats, Folklore, and Occultism. Context of the Early Work and

Thought. Boston: Unwin Hyman.

Lampeusa, Giuseppe Tomasi di. 1989. “W.B. Yeats and Irish Renaissance.” Yeats Eliot

Review. 10th

ser. 2:46-51.

Langer, Susan. 1967. Philosophy in a New Key. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Marcus, Phillip.1970. Yeats and the Beginning of the Irish Renaissance. London.: Cornell

University Press.

McDonald, Peter (2001). “Rev. of Yeats as Precursor: Reading in Irish, British and

American Poetry” by Steven Matthews. The Review of English Studies. 52nd

ser. 206:

302-304.

Pierce, David (1989). The State of Art, W.B. Yeats. London: The Bristol Press.


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Prasad, Birjadish (1965). An Introduction to English Criticism. New Delhi:Macmillan.

India.

Richards, I. A. (1970). Pratical Criticism. Delhi: Orient Longman.

Schorer, Mark (1972). “The Analogical Matrix.” Essays in Stylistic Analysis. Ed. Howard

Babb. 338-52. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Stallman, Robert (1949). Critiques and Essays in Criticism. New York: The Ronald

Company Press.

Smith, Stan (1990). W.B. Yeats. A Critical Introduction. London: Macmillan.

Spencer, John and Gregory (1964). “On Defining Style.” Linguistics and Style. Oxford:

Basil and Blackwell.

Tallentire, D.L. (1971) . “The Mathematics of Style.” Times Literary Supplement. 973-

974.

Thuente, Mary HeleN (1981). W.B. Yeats and Irish Folklore. New Jersey: Gill and

Macmillan.

Wheelright, Philip (1962). Metaphor and Reality. Bloomington: Indiana Press.


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EMPOWERING WOMAN: A STUDY ON NAGALAND

Sanjay Chhabra

INTRODUCTION

Nagaland is a State that does not conform to the general perception of women’s status in India.

Apart from traditional practices that have generally cared for women and the girl child, the State

has successful achievements in the fields of literacy, increasing sex ratio, health and entrepreneur

development. The literacy rate of women and the enrolment rates for girls in Nagaland are higher

than the national average. In the area of health, the positive achievements are improving sex

ratios, absence of female feticides and low maternal mortality rate. There are almost no cases of

malnourishment among women and children. However, the very high fertility rate is a cause of

concern. The vast majority of Naga women are engaged in agriculture and allied sectors, such as

minor forest produce and cultivating cereals, The Communitisation initiative has created the

policy framework for bringing about substantial improvement in the quality of education.

Women’s participation in the manufacturing sector is as low as 6 percent. Participation in the

services sector is only 14 percent, out of which only around 7 percent are professionals. In recent

times, in the wake of education and exposure, women have started entering other sectors, such as

trading, cottage industries, floriculture, restaurants, etc. There are also areas where interventions

are required like employment generation, higher education for women, financial support for

women’s development, social problems, including violence against women, health problems,

including HIV/AIDS and substance abuse. Naga women’s exclusion from land rights and from

formal decision-bodies is areas of concern. The absence of women legislators in all the 10 State

Legislative Assemblies since statehood in 1963 is significant.

The State policy for empowerment of women has been formulated and a new department of

women has been established. The reservation of seats and earmarking of 25 percent of funds for

women in the Village Development Boards have been the first steps in the State for

empowerment of women and their participation in the governance and development of their

communities. With the participation of women in local bodies, and even greater numbers in the

self-help groups, the scenario could change as more women become familiar with governance.

Empowerment of women will be vital as Nagaland marches towards its vision of a peaceful,

developed and secure society. New opportunities are coming in the way of Naga women through

education, policy interventions in governance, economic development and greater interaction

within and outside the State. The focus must now shift to development of the human being in its

totality, and enabling each one to realise his/her highest potentials.




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1. Status of Women: An Overview

Empowering women has become integral to the new approach in promoting sustainable human

development. It is in this context that Mrs Nini Meru, Secretary of the Nagaland Board of School

Education, said, “A Naga woman, to me, enjoys more privileges than most other women

elsewhere.”However, what must be kept in mind is that the vast majority of Naga women are still

engaged in agriculture. No doubt, challenging life experiences are emerging all the time as a

consequence of education, changing vocations, increasing mobility, awareness and participation

in various workforces. But what has left an indelible mark on Naga women has been the impact

of prolonged and protracted insurgency. They have been not only victims of violence but also

charged with additional responsibilities of supporting their families and communities to cope

with the adverse impact of violence. Naga women have played a pivotal role, individually and

collectively, in helping their communities survive and in enabling human development across

Naga society. The fact sheet above shows some of the areas of strength with high literacy rates,

low maternal mortality, rising sex ratio and a quality of life in general better than the national

average. However, there are also areas where interventions are required like employment

generation, higher education for women, financial support for women’s development, social

problems, including violence against women, health problems, including HIV/AIDS and

substance abuse.

Literacy

While the female literacy rate of Nagaland is above the national average, it is still far behind

those of developed countries where almost entire populations can read and write. Within the

State itself, there is a wide disparity in the literacy rates. Districts like Mon and Tuensang have

female literacy rates of 37.12 percent and 46.12 percent only as per 2001 figures, in sharp

contrast to districts like Mokokchung, Wokha and Dimapur (82.20%, 76.46% and 73.34%). It is

noteworthy that the first primary school opened by the Christian missionary Mrs. Mary Mead

Clark at Molungyimsen was for girls. The school enrolment rates for girls in Nagaland is higher

than the national average, although it is still not comparable with the most literate states in the

country. This reflects on the potential of Naga women to attain better educational qualifications

and hence better economic and social status. However, the lack of vocational education at school

and college levels is a cause of serious concern.

Health

Though the age at marriage among Naga women is much higher than in other states, the high

fertility rate causes concern. There is a strong gender bias in the use of contraceptives. For

instance, the terminal methods are usually used by women only. NFHS II found that none of the

sampled women reported male sterilisation as the method of contraception. Use of contraceptives

is essential for spacing and has a direct bearing on the health of women. Compounding the

problem, most deliveries are still home-based without assistance of trained health personnel.


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Anaemia, due to worm infestations and frequent pregnancies, is common among women of

childbearing age. There are other areas of concern such as the high infant and under-five

mortality rates.

Income and Livelihood

The vast majority of Naga women are engaged in agriculture and allied sectors, such as minor

forest produce (MFP) and cultivating various kinds of cereals, vegetables, etc. Around 70 percent

of women are involved in agriculture. Generally, all the sowing, harvesting, etc., in the field are

done by women, who also do the household chores. Women’s participation in the manufacturing

sector is as low as 6 percent. Participation in the services sector is 14 percent, out of which only

around 7 percent are professionals. Nevertheless, women’s contribution to family earnings, in

financial terms, is lesser and not commensurate with the amount of work they do. This is because

their work is usually not calculated as income. The nature of their work is mainly household or

they work in their own fields, for which no financial remuneration is given. What is encouraging

is that the number of those launching out with their own business initiatives is increasing in

recent years. In recent times, in the wake of education and exposure, women have started

entering other sectors, such as trading, cottage industries, floriculture, restaurants, etc. A handful

of them have also entered the highly competitive export market. Now, with the opening up of the

tourism sector, new opportunities will become available.

Women and Marriage

The average age of girls at marriage in Nagaland is 22–23 years. However, in some interior areas

it is still common to have girls married at 15–16 years of age. Early marriage and high fertility

rate have contributed to very high decadal growth rate in Nagaland. Women traditionally married

within their own tribes, a practice that is still common today. Men traditionally paid dowry to the

family of the bride at the time of marriage in the form of livestock. This practice is different from

most parts of India, where the bride’s family pays dowry. Rooted in this tradition and governed

by a general culture of care, the valuing of the girl child has continued till today. There is no

prevalence of female foeticide in Nagaland.

Violence against Women

There has been increasing concern across the world about violence against women, especially

within the home, which usually goes as unreported. This global concern arises because this is not

only an issue of human rights violation but also creates health burdens with intergeneration and

demographic consequences. During the past five decades Naga society has been a witness to

conflict and violence. Insurgency has taken a heavy toll, with women receiving the brunt of the

consequences. Often, women themselves have been victims of violence and conflict, and many

of them also had to take care of their families single-handedly. Incidents of dowry deaths, female

infanticides, and neglect of the girl child are absent in Naga culture. However, other forms of

violence like wife beating, rape and molestation are on the increase and are being reported in


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recent years. The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) made a study to assess whether

women viewed wife beating as justified and to measure the prevalence of violence against

women, including that committed by their husband. The incidence of beating or physical

maltreatment was found to be more in rural than in urban areas. Also, the percentage of violence

involving husbands was much more than others, viz. in-laws and other relatives.

II. Traditions and Gender-based Roles

Women down the centuries, have cultivated the fields, raised families, woven cloth, provided

food and marketed local produce. The impact of all these on Naga society from then to now has

been significant. They continue to do so, but are also participating in newer areas and in

changing environment. This has meant some new challenges and called for newer

understandings.Traditional Governing SystemsThe traditional governing system of the Nagas

was either chieftainship, under the Village Council or an informal council of elders. Only male

members were included in these decisionmaking bodies. Women were excluded from formal

decisionmaking processes. Some tribes, like Angami, have had informal spaces for women to be

consulted. In their homes, the women had wide latitude in making decisions. In cultural

ceremonies and rituals too, the women had specifically assigned roles.Land and InheritanceIn

Nagaland, cultivable land is the most valued form of property for its economic, political and

symbolic significance. It is a productive, wealth-creating and livelihood-sustaining asset. It also

provides a sense of identity and rootedness because it has a durability and permanence, which no

other asset possesses. Over and above this, in the Naga context, ancestral land has a symbolic

meaning, which purchased land does not. What is more, there are different rules for the

devolution of ancestral and self-acquired land.

Traditional Position of Women in Ritual Celebrations

“There used to be two main ritual arenas of the Naga tribes. These were feasting and head

hunting. Both tended to centre around the exploits of men. Whereas head hunting was a totally

male preserve, women had better social status as far as feasting was concerned. In Naga

societies, at birth both boys and girls take their social identity from their father and are placed in

his agnatic group and familial unit. A female child’s membership of her father’s agnatic unit is

neither permanent nor complete. Gender differences in group membership and social identity are

closely connected with the patterns of inheritance and resource distribution. In Naga societies,

property is inherited by the male heirs and transmitted through them. They have coparcenary

rights in ancestral property. The women have no share in such inheritance although acquired

properties can be gifted to daughters also. It is widely believed that the daughters after their

marriage come under the care of the husband’s clan and family. Largely because of this, in

practice, no landed property was gifted to women although most of the work on the land was

done by the womenfolk. Even though a man cannot leave land in perpetuity to a daughter and no

woman can permanently inherit land of any sort, temporary ownership of land during her

lifetime, is allowed for daughters as well as widows. In recent times, a few pioneering initiatives,


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both private and official, are being taken to allow women to own land. There is a broad debate

amongst Naga women around rights to land. Among poor households, land rights could reduce

women’s and their households’ risk of poverty and destitution. Giving women access to

economic resources has resulted in poverty alleviation.

III. New Changes and Policy Influences Democratic Governance

Though slow in coming, changes are taking place both through societal action and through

official policy interventions. Indeed, moving on from traditional institutions of governance,

Nagaland today is in the midst of a very innovative experience in democratic governance.

Traditional ‘men only’ institutions have given way to democratic practices with provisions for

women’s participation. Article 371(A) of the Indian Constitution, wherein Naga customary laws

have been given special safeguards. Customary law is intrinsic to the culture and tradition of

Naga society although it has also been subjected to socio-cultural change. There have been times

when the interpretation was not women-friendly. However, the continuing practice of

Christianity and wider interactions have all brought changes in customary practices. Women

have benefited out of some of these social changes.

Representation of Women in Governance

Naga women have played a limited role in institutional politics. At present there are no women

in either the State Assembly or in the Parliament. However, women have remained active

participants in the electoral process since statehood, in terms of voter turnout and in canvassing.

The peace movements, if not led by women, are overwhelmingly supported by them.

National Parliament

Nagaland has two parliamentary seats, one each in the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha. Nagaland

sent a woman, Mrs. Rano Shaiza, to the 6th Lok Sabha in 1977. Since then, no woman has

represented the State in either House of Parliament. Hopefully, the increasing participation of

women in the local bodies will have an impact.

State Legislature

The absence of women legislators in all the 10 State Legislative Assemblies since statehood in

1963 is significant. Till date, four women have contested the assembly elections, three of them in

the February 2003 elections. However, none of them could win. With the participation of

women in local bodies, and even greater numbers in the self-help groups (SHGs), the scenario

could change as more women become familiar with governance.

Local Bodies

The participation of women in the local bodies, especially at the village level, is increasing. The

Nagaland Village Development Board (VDB) Act has reserved 25 percent for women’s

representation. This directive was to first ensure women’s participation in village development

and local bodies. This positive empowerment policy has produced some very successful women


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VDB Secretaries. It has also been reported from Zunheboto district where a woman has been

elected to the post of Gaonbura (village elder), another traditional male domain. This points

toward the possibility of women’s participation in traditional institutions in larger numbers in the

future.

Policy Interventions

The 8th Five Year Plan marks a definite shift from development to empowerment of women.

Empowerment of women across sectors is recognised as the central issue in determining the

status of women. A separate Ministry of Social Welfare was established in the Government of

India in 1967 to look into issues relating to women, children and disabled persons. In Nagaland

too, women’s development was under the working of the State Ministry of Social Welfare till

2003. In 2003, the Government of Nagaland established a separate Department of Women’s

Development.

The reservation of seats and earmarking of 25 percent of funds for women in the Village

Development Boards have been the first steps in the State for empowerment of women and their

participation in the governance and development of their communities, the innovations brought

about through NEPED and Communitisation have had considerable impact. The State Level

Working Committee on Women’s Empowerment has asked that a minimum of one-third women

be made mandatory in the Village Councils, Village Development Boards, Women Dobashis,

Town Committees/Municipal Boards, State and District Planning and Development Boards,

Nagaland Public Service Commission and all other recruitment boards.

Nagaland Draft State Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2003

The draft State Policy on Empowerment of Women, 2003, was declared after extensive and

broad-based consultations. This draft policy aims to bring about advancement, development and

empowerment of women. Some of the important recommendations contained in the policy are

given below:

Setting up of a State Commission for Women to promote the interests of women.

Setting up of Women’s Development Corporations (WDCs) to channel financial

assistance for promotion of economic enterprises by women, poverty alleviation and

employment generation to be considered for Nagaland.

Provision of financial resources for training and advocacy for women’s participation at

all levels of decision-making process.

The judicial system be made more responsive and gender sensitive especially in cases of

domestic violence and personal assault.


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Changes in the personal laws related to marriage, divorce, maintenance, inheritance,

guardianship, etc., to eliminate discrimination against women.

To make the laws relating to ownership and inheritance of property gender just.

Women police cells in all the districts.

Vocational education and gender sensitivity be incorporated in the school curriculum.

Social, developmental and health consequences of HIV/AIDS to be tackled from a gender

perspective.

Women’s health care and counselling centres be set up at the village level.

Special efforts to tackle the macro- and micro-nutrient deficiencies, especially amongst

pregnant and lactating women.

Institutions/mechanisms for prevention of crimes against women be established.

Steps to tackle the menace of trafficking in women and girls.

Access to credit and training for women to set up self-employment ventures.

Quota for girls in institutions of higher and technical education.

Encouraging women to participate in developmental process by providing support

services like child care facilities at work places, homes for short stay and free legal aid.

IV. Strategies for Better Income and Livelihood

Strengthening Agricultural Practices

The vast majority of Naga women are engaged in agriculture. To strengthen and build upon the

traditional agricultural practices, the State Government a few years ago, launched a pilot

initiative called the ‘Nagaland Empowerment of People through Economic Development’

(NEPED). 158 Nagaland State Human Development Reportassistance to farmers through village

administered revolving funds, organising women’s SHGs, capacity building of women by

technical training, etc., NEPED has ensured greater space, empowerment and involvement of

women. Financial assistance to women was provided through mandatory provision of 25 percent

of the allocated funds to participate in the project, establishing revolving funds and credit link

assistance with local financial institutions. Besides financial assistance, the project helped

women explore their access to land in newer ways.

Small-scale Industry

The State Industrial Policy (1991) paved the way for interventions like opening of women’s cells

in banks and financial institutions. At entrepreneurship in the conventional sense. The presence


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of women selling vegetables, seasonal fruits, handloom products and other home products was

slowly emerging by the roadsides and market places in the major towns of the State. Today,

while continuing these small income-generating ventures they have also expanded into small-

scale industries.

“Cottage industry is part of the working culture of Naga women”. These practices were adopted

by women to provide clothing for their families. They slowly extended this outside their families

to increase their income. The expertise of Naga women in the use of cane and plant fibre is

another area that can be exploited advantageously. National and international markets exist today

for these hand made products. Naga women are also fully engaged in meeting the demands of an

emerging clientele for indigenous goods and many have thriving businesses in the markets of

Cottage industry that has its roots in traditional spinning and weaving.

Weaving Dreams on Handloom

Analysis of women entrepreneurship would be incomplete without looking into the larger picture

which includes the vibrant tradition of Naga handloom, the mainstay activity of Naga women.

The potentials of the handloom sector are immense. The high-end market, including international

market appreciation and acknowledgement of ‘handmade’, are applicable to Naga handloom

products.

Role of Non-government Organisations

The various success stories and case studies reflect the important role of NGOs and their great

potential in Nagaland. Many SHGs and women’s societies also successfully dot the landscape of

Nagaland. Indeed, in Nagaland’s experience, these groups have proved to be among the most

successful. In many towns, there are buildings built by women’s SHGs, which are fetching

handsome income. A major participant in this sector is the Church in Nagaland, comprising

Baptist, Catholic, Revival, Assembly of God, Pentecostal Mission, etc. Several denominations

have their own developmental organisations. Among them, the Nagaland Development Outreach

(NDO), the developmental wing of the Nagaland Baptist Church Council (NBCC), is one of the

better-known organisations. Naga women know that building a society to live in peace would

mean creating a climate that is conducive. Women’s organisations like the NBCC women’s wing

and the Naga Mothers’ Association (NMA) have been working for peace, human rights issues,

environment conservation, women’s empowerment and on health issues like alcoholism, drug

addiction and AIDS. The Naga Mother’s Association (NMA) was formed on February 14, 1984,

as a State level voluntary organisation with the objective of combating social evils confronting

the society in various forms. It also provides a common platform for women, where women’s

issues and interests could be addressed, and to uphold the dignity of motherhood. Its motto is

‘Human Integrity’. The NMA has also contributed significantly towards forging the peace

process and has been working on human rights issues, afforestation, environmental conservation

and empowerment of women. The NMA had also, along with the Church, spearheaded the

successful movement for imposition of prohibition in Nagaland. It had been working with other


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organisations to reduce violence and cruelty in Naga society. Their activities related to the peace

process have concentrated primarily in three areas, viz., peace and reconciliation, participation in

capacity building and the people-to-people dialogue with civil society. Women’s intervention has

helped greatly to reduce tensions and violence in society. They have also started projects such as

hospice for people living with AIDS to provide care, support and space.

V. Special Challenges and Way Ahead

While traditional society valued the girl child equally, as all children are accepted as divine

blessing, the peculiar situation of Nagaland, with its protracted violent insurgency, had

frequently placed Naga women in especially difficult circumstances and confronted them with

enormous challenges. A few areas of special challenges are discussed below:

Conflict and Peace Building

For over five decades, Naga society has been a witness to violent conflict. Insurgency has taken a

heavy toll on society as a whole. Frequently, the women had to face the brunt of violence by

being forced into a situation where they had to take care of the families single-handed in the

absence of male members, either falling prey to violence or going underground for years. This

extraordinary situation stunted their emotional and psychological growth. The survival, health

and growth of the society were almost entirely entrusted to their care, in the midst of

environment not conducive to normal living. There has been no proper documentation on Naga

women’s experiences and needs during the conflict period. Thus, the value of their experiences

and their relevance to the society and the State are yet to be compiled and assessed. The

contribution of Naga women to peace building has been multidimensional. They havebeen

preparing for ‘life in peace’ based on shared compassion and empathy within and across the

society. The first steps have been to take stock of social and economic resource bases and

addressing structural issues, including women’s rights in order to help establish peace and

stability. To this, they have integrated development, encouraging gainful employment for youth

in order to develop a just and productive society.

HIV/AIDS

Nagaland is addressing the growing HIV/AIDS epidemic with resolve and responsibility. A

cause for great concern is the spread of AIDS from mother to child. Between 1999 and 2002,

antenatal screening of mothers showed a persistent prevalence rate of 1.25 percent. This requires

targeted education and intervention as well as specialised obstetric and paediatric services. The

NMA recognised the need to help those afflicted by drug addiction and decided to set up a de-

addiction-cum-rehabilitation centre for them. Thus, on February 12, 1989, the Mount Gilead

Home, in Zubza, Kohima, was inaugurated as one of the first de-addiction-cum-rehabilitation

centres in the North East. Its counsellors and recovering addicts became active apostles in

spreading awareness in the State. The NMA later set up Cradles Ridge, an AIDS Care Hospice,


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to look after the body, mind and spirit of the victims and to provide them with a dignified life.

The emphasis shifted from cure to care. The NMA’s HIV/AIDS Care Hospice (community

residential care) was dedicated in 2001 as a 10-bedded facility. The Times of India survey on

social indicators, taken by women’s groups all over India, reported that the NMA’s role was ‘an

excellent example’of producing positive results in fighting against drugs in North-East India.

Courtesy: Naga Mothers’ Associationpartnership with the community to take care of people

living with AIDS. The classic example of dedicated community-based care is the Eleutheros

Christian Society.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

Empowerment of women will be vital as Nagaland marches towards its vision of a peaceful,

developed and secure society. New opportunities are coming the way of Naga women through

education, policy interventions in governance, economic development and greater interaction

within and outside the State. The focus must now shift to development of the human being in its

totality, and enabling each one to realise his/her highest potentials. Some areas of possible

intervention include:

Education

More focus on improving literacy rates and vocationalisation of education.

Provision of life skills and health education to young girls.

Building knowledge and information base on women and issues connected with them in

the State.

Research studies on women’s issues and special needs in the context of Nagaland.

Initiate institute of excellence on Naga women’s issues with a view to making

contributions.

Provision of health education particularly in reproductive and child health & HIV/AIDS.

Improve women’s access to antenatal, natal and postnatal care.

Create greater awareness on reproductive health through special campaigns and health

awareness days.

Income and Livelihood

Ensure opportunity and build capacity of women to enjoy secure livelihoods.

Encourage poverty alleviation and income generating activities.

Encourage entrepreneurship development.

Access to micro-credit: women also need to be trained to access credit and to form self-

help groups as well as generate micro-credit on their own.


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Ensure greater access and equal land rights to women.Crime Against Women

Inspiring Leadership

Introduce gender sensitisation modules in educational institutions for both boys and girls.

Criminal cases involving women should be dealt with by women police force. For this a

special women’s cell should be attached to all the district police headquarters.

Affirmative action, through reservations, for women judges should be explored. This will

make the law enforcing machinery more gendersensitive. Governance

Spread awareness and education about importance of women’s participation.

Strengthen leadership of women at all levels.

Leverage/Lobby political and financial support for women.

Forge new partnerships with Government, NGOs/private sector and women’s

organisations.

Introduce innovative approaches for women’s empowerment and gender mainstreaming.

Create support structures for women’s development and facilitate networking.

Explore possibilities of reservation for women candidates to ‘kickstart’ their participation

in democratic political institutions at all levels of governance

References:

Source: Jacobs, Juliana; “The Nagas–Hill People of North East India’, 1990.

Nagaland State Human Development Report.

The Global Human Development Report 2003.

Report from The Rural Development and Social Welfare: Govt. of Nagaland.

Report from The State & District Urban Development Agencies: Govt. of Nagaland.


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NEW PUBLICATION

Feminism - Conceptual and Ethical Issues-Merina Islam

About the Book : The book Feminism: Conceptual and Ethical Issues presents what moral reasoning and gender and how the feminist thinkers construct different sets of feminist values. In this book attempt is made to revaluate the ontological and axiological commitments underlying the patriarchal discourses from the feminist perspectives and cover a variety of contemporary gender related moral issues. The book ends with favour of the contention that our understanding of moral situation becomes definitely better if it is gender sensitized, that is, an ethical theory which generates nonsexist ethical principles, policies, and practices for both females and males.

About the Author: Merina Islam (b. 1977) is an Assistant Professor in Philosophy at Cachar College, Silchar Assam. She was the best Arts Graduate (Honours in Philosophy) in the year 1999 and awarded Gold Medal for that. She stood 1st class 1st in M.A in Philosophy in 2001 and awarded Gold Medal by Assam University, Silchar. Then she qualified NET. She was awarded Doctoral Research Fellowship, Indian Council for Social Science Research, New Delhi. She has participated several seminars, conferences, and contributed research papers in different journal on philosophy and interdisciplinary studies. She is one of the active members of Society for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (SPPIS) Haryana and associate editor of Milestone Education Review (The Journal of Ideas on Educational & Social Transformation) an online peer-reviewed bi-annual journal of Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa (Kurukshetra).

Link:

http://www.mittalbooks.com/products/Feminism-%252d-Conceptual-and-Ethical-Issues.html


Volume III, No. 02 (September, 2013), p.96


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PHILOSOPHY NEWS IN INDIA

World Philosophy Day-2013

World Philosophy Day was proclaimed by UNESCO to be celebrated every third Thursday

of November. It was first celebrated on 21 November 2002. World Philosophy Day is celebrated by the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization) to honor the philosophical reflections and works of philosophy by people around the world, through ages. On this day people are to share thoughts, discuss and explore new ideas and focus on the challenges that our society is facing today. This year World Philosophy Day is being celebrated on November 21, 2013. The Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS) in association with the Department of Philosophy going to celebrates the World Philosophy Day through an essay-cum-presentation competition for students. The details are given below:

Theme: Indian Society and Ideological Crisis

Subthemes: Students can choose any topic reflecting on the theme.

Eligibility: Undergraduate student from any stream. Last Date of Submission: 15th November, 2013. Presentation: 21st November, 2013. Procedure: First students have to submit an essay about 1000 words, neatly written or typed in Hindi or English language, reached us till 15th November, 2013 or email to [email protected]. In the second stage selected essays will be presented on the event date. Benefits of Participation: Selected candidate will be provided a merit certificate with a prize and essay will be published in an online publication of the Centre.

For further details contact: Dr Desh Raj Sirswal

Department of Philosophy, P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh (India)

Email:[email protected] Contact Number-09896848775, 08288883993

http://positivephilosophy.webs.com




mailto:[email protected]

http://positivephilosophy.webs.com/

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SPPIS NEWSLETTER 16th October, 2013

Dear Friends,

Greetings from SPPIS Haryana and welcome new members. Here are some updates:

Call for Paper:Intellection

De-colonising the Mind; De-westernising the Soul

World Philosophy Day-2013

International Conference on Ethics

Ph.D.Admissions

5th PIMG International Conference

10th International Conference of Management and Behavioural Sciences

International Education Conference

Symposium on Creative Education

Philosophy Talk

Assistant Professor – Philosophy

ICSSR National Seminar

Jobs in DEVI AHILYA VISHWAVIDYALAYA, INDORE

International Conference on “The Asiatick Society, Indology and Indologists During late 18th and 19th Centuries (ASII)”

CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS ‘CONTEMPORARY POETRY-AN ANTHOLOGY OF BEST PRESENT DAY POEMS’

Link:

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com


http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/13/3568/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/13/de-colonis%e2%80%8bing-the-mind-de-western%e2%80%8bising-the-soul/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/world-philosophy-day-2013/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/international-conference-on-ethics/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/ph-d-admissions/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/5th-pimg-international-conference/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/10th-international-conference-of-management-and-behavioural-sciences/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/international-education-conference/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/symposium-on-creative-education-2/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/10/philosophy-talk/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/10/assistant-professor-philosophy/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/07/icssr-national-seminar/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/06/jobs-in-devi-ahilya-vishwavidyalaya-indore/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/03/international-conference-on-the-asiatick-society-indology-and-indologists-during-late-18th-and-19th-centuries-asii/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/03/international-conference-on-the-asiatick-society-indology-and-indologists-during-late-18th-and-19th-centuries-asii/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/03/call-for-submissions-contemporary-poetry-an-anthology-of-best-present-day-poems/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/2013/10/03/call-for-submissions-contemporary-poetry-an-anthology-of-best-present-day-poems/

http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com/

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Volume III, No. 02 (September, 2013), p.99

CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE

Mrs. Sandhya Gupta, Lecturer-II , Dept.of Ethics & Governance , School of Social Sciences, College of Humanities & Education , Fiji National University (Natabua Campus) | Lautoka. Dr. Jitendra R. Ranka, Mahaveer Bal Mandir, Pali, Rajasthan. Dr. Mane Pradeepkumar Pandurang, Department of Philosophy, University of Pune, Ganeshkhind, Pune (Maharashtra). Mr. Devartha Morang, Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India.

Dr. Prabhu Venkataraman, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India

Mr. Kaizar Rahaman, Ex-Research Fellow-ICPR,NBU, Department of Philosophy, Ananda Chandra College,Jalpaiguri.

Dr. Siddhartha Shankar Joarder, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, Jagannath University, Dhaka (Bangladesh).

Ms. Viswaja S.Nair, Research Scholar, Department. of Vyakarana, SSUS Kalady, Kerala.

Dr.Preet Kumari, Lecturer, Department of Psychology,Dayalbagh Educational Institute Dayalbagh, Agra.

Ms.Gargi Sharma, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Dayalbagh Educational Institute Dayalbagh, Agra.

Ms.Swami Pyari, Student. Department of Psychology,Dayalbagh Educational Institute Dayalbagh, Agra.

Ms. Umang Verma, Student. Department of Psychology, Dayalbagh Educational Institute Dayalbagh, Agra.

Dr. Jyoti George Roy, Vice-Principal and Reader, Department of English, Patkai Christian College (Autonomous), Dimapur (Nagaland).

Dr. Sanjay Chhabra, Principal, Unity College, Dimapur (Nagaland).


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Instructions to the Contributors

Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) welcomes contributions in all areas of

research proposed by the Centre. All articles are sent to experts who evaluate each paper on

several dimensions such as originality of the work, scientific argument, and English style,

format of the paper, references, citations and finally they comment on suitability of the article

for the particular Journal. In case of review articles the importance of the subject and the extent

the review is comprehensive are assessed. Prospective authors are expected that before

submitting any article for publication they should see that it fulfills these criteria. The

improvement of article may be achieved in two ways (i) more attention to language (ii) more

attention to the sections of the article.

Format of Submission: The paper should be typewritten preferably in Times New Roman with

12 font size (English) and Kruti Dev (10) with 14 font size (Hindi) in MS-Word 2003-07 and

between 3000 to 5000 words. They should be typed on one side of the paper, double spaced with

ample margins. The authors should submit the hard copy along with a CD and a certificate of

originality of the paper to be sent to the editorial address.

Time Line: The last dates of submission of the manuscript are as follows:

For April to September Issue: 31stAugust every year.

For October to March Issue: 31st January every year.

Reference Style:

Notes and references should appear at the end of the articles as Notes. Citations in the text and

References must correspond to each other; do not over reference by giving the obvious/old

classic studies or the irrelevant. Give all journal titles in full and not in an abbreviated form,

LJPP follows APA format for references. The following style of reference may be strictly

followed:

In case of Journal: Venkona Rao,A.(1980) Gita and mental sciences. Indian Journal of Psyhiatry, 22,

19-31.

In case of a Book: McKibben, B. (1992). The age of missing information. New York: Random House,

23-24.

Chapter in an Edited Book: Hartley, J. T., Harker J. O.,& Walsh, D. A. (1980). Contemporary issues and

new directions in adult development of learning and memory. In L. W. Poon (Ed.), Aging in the

1980s:Psychological issues . Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association,250-253.

For unpublished work: Gould, J. B. (1999). Symbolic Speech: Legal mobilization and the rise of

collegiate hate speech codes (Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1999),54-55.

In case of institution/Govt. Report: Administration on Aging. (1984). Alzheimer's disease handbook

(DHHS Publication No. OHDS 84-20813). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 65.

For detailed reference-style sheet follow our CPPIS Manual for Contributors & Reviewers

available at http://lokayatajournal.webs.com



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CPPIS, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)

Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies(CPPIS) Pehowa is a joint academic venture of Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa and Society for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (SPPIS), Haryana (online) to do fundamental research in the field of Humanities and Social Sciences.

SPPIS Newsletter

The Centre also circulates a Newsletter which includes new information related to events, new articles and programme details. One can register himself on the below given address and will get regular updates from us.

Link for registration: http://drsirswal.webs.com/apps/auth/signup

All contributions to the Journal, other editorial enquiries and books for review are to be sent to:

Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Chief-Editor, Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy, Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Milestone Education Society (Regd), Valmiki Dharamshala, Pehowa, Distt. Kurukshetra (HARYANA)-136128 (India) Mobile No.09896848775, 08288883993 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

“My objective is to achieve an intellectual detachment from all philosophical systems,

and not to solve specific philosophical problems, but to become sensitively aware of

what it is when we philosophise.”- Dr Desh Raj Sirswal


http://drsirswal.webs.com/apps/auth/signup

Documents

Lokayata Vol III,No 02 (Sept. 2013)