Locating Amazonian Dark Earths WinklerPrins Aldrich

8/10/2019 Locating Amazonian Dark Earths WinklerPrins Aldrich

1/19

Locating Amazonian Dark Earths: Creating an interactive GIS

of known locations

Antoinette M. G. A. WinklerPrinsStephen P. Aldrich

Journal of Latin American Geography, Volume 9, Number 3, 2010,

pp. 33-50 (Article)

Published by Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers

For additional information about this article

Access Provided by Michigan State University at 10/11/10 1:21AM GMT

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lag/summary/v009/9.3.winklerprins.html
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lag/summary/v009/9.3.winklerprins.htmlhttp://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lag/summary/v009/9.3.winklerprins.html


2/19

33 Locating ADEs

Journal of Latin American Geography,9 (3), 2010 Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers

Locating Amazonian Dark Earths:

Creating an interactive GIS of

known locations

Antoinette M. G. A. WinklerPrinsDepartment of Geography

Michigan State University

Stephen P. AldrichDepartment of Earth and Environmental Systems

Indiana State University

AbstractAmazonian Dark Earths are anthropogenic organic-rich highly fertile soils found in rela-tively small patches throughout the Amazon Basin. These soils are gaining considerableattention given the relative lower fertility of the majority of Amazonian soils in which

they are embedded because of their improved agricultural potential and also because oftheir links to Amazonian pre-colonial history. Because of their small individual extentand local nature, documenting where these soils are located in the Amazon is a challeng-ing task. Few comprehensive maps exist, and some locations are only approximate. Inthis article we present an interactive GIS in which we have tried to consolidate all knownlocations of ADEs to date, and to note for each location a level of accuracy and specific-ity of both the soil and its location. This is necessary as many older sources of locationsare historical and give only an approximation of where they are. For more recent ADEcitations, the geo-referenced location is given when available. The source citation is givenfor each location on the map, making this interactive GIS at once also a bibliography of

Amazonian Dark Earth locations. We also discuss the selection of the cited locations,the creation of the GIS, and reflect on the potential uses of the resource. We acknowl-edge that the GIS is a work in progress, and we anticipate keeping it updated as morematerials are published and otherwise made available.Keywords:Amazonian dark earths, terra preta, black earth soils, GIS, Amazon

ResumoTerras pretas so solos antropogncos, ricos em matera orgnica, bastante frteis, queocorrem em pequenas manchas por toda bacia amaznica. Esses solos tm chamadoateno porque, em geral, os solos amaznicos so de relativa baixa fertilidade e por suas

ligaes com a histria pr-colonial da amaznia. Por ocorrerem em pequenas manchasisoladas, a documentao desses solos tem se constitudo um desafio. Existem poucosmapeamentos desses solos e a localizaes dos mesmos so, muitas vezes, aproximadas.

Apresentamos nesse artigo um SIG interativo no qual consolidamos todas as ocorrnciasdocumentadas de TPs e para cada registro, indicamos o nvel de acurcia e especificidade


3/19

34 Journal of Latin American Geography

tanto do solo como de sua localizao. Isso importante pois muitas fontes de informa-o sobre a localizao desses solos so antigas e do apenas uma indicao aproximadade onde realmente esto. Para citaes mais recentes de TPs, a localizao georeferencia-da dada, quando disponvel. A fonte da informao de cada registro citada, tornandoesse SIG interativo uma bibliografia geogrfica de TPs. Tambm discutimos o processode seleo das localidades citadas, a criao do SIG e refletimos sobre potenciais usosdessas informaes. Reconhecemos que esse SIG um trabalho em andamento e an-tecipamos incorporar mais registros medida que novas informaes so publicadas edisponibilizadas.Palavras chave: Terra Preta, Amaznia, SIG

Introduction Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs) are anthropogenic soils found mostly insmall patches throughout the Amazon basin. High in organic matter and often contain-ing pottery sherds, these soils are evidence of long-term settlement in the past and arethe most compelling piece of evidence that scientists have in regard to revising Ama-zonian prehistory. Over the last decade these soils have received much attention fromscientists from a variety of backgrounds, and there has been a signicant increase in

research on them, much of it published in four edited volumes on the topic (Lehmannet al. 2003; Glaser and Woods 2004; and Woods et al.2009; Teixeira et al.2009) as well asnumerous journal publications. Despite the surge in research on the topic, the locationsof the soils have not been well mapped, especially not at the regional basin level. Localmaps exist, especially of archaeological sites, but all of the known locations of ADEshave not, to our knowledge, been compiled into one comprehensive map. To date thebest map of the locations of all the known ADEs is a map presented in Kern et al. (2003:54) and Gerhard Bechtolds website (2008). As research on ADEs continues and the im-plications of their existence considered, we feel that time has come for a comprehensivemap and we have developed it in the form of an interactive GIS.

What we present in this article is an interactive GIS of the majority of knownADE locations to date. This GIS can be accessed via

http://www.geo.msu.edu/amazonia/dark_earths_gis.html[username adedata, password Sombroek].

It contains reference information about the source of each location and the

level of condence of each of the locations. We rst provide more background infor-mation about ADEs and then describe how the GIS was created. We realize that the GISis far from complete, and see this as the start of an on-going project.

Amazonian Dark Earths Amazonian Dark Earths, a continuum of soils that include Terra Preta do Indio(black earth of the Indians) and Terra Mulata (brown earth), are highly fertile, organic-rich soils found in patches throughout the Amazon basin (Woods and McCann 1999)(Figure 1). These patches range in size from less than two to several hundred hectares,

with the majority (80%) about two hectares. Overall it is estimated that there are 6,000-

18,000 km2

(or 0.1%-0. 3%) of ADEs in the Amazon basin (Sombroek et al.2003: 130).Researchers estimate that once all existing ADEs have been located, it is possible that theregional extent might be as much as 10% (Mann 2000). The small individual extent ofthese soils has contributed to the lack of mapping of them, despite local identication,

knowledge, and use of them. At best ADEs are described as inclusions in the dominantsoil categories for the basin, the Oxisols and Ultisols.
http://www.geo.msu.edu/amazonia/dark_earths_gis.htmlhttp://www.geo.msu.edu/amazonia/dark_earths_gis.html


4/19

35 Locating ADEs

Figure 1. Prole of an Amazonian Dark Earth in Autuba, Amazonas State, Brazil.

Depth of the soil prole is 2 meters; depth of ADE is 80-90 cm.

(Photo by Newton P. S. Falco, 2009)

The persistence of the fertility of these soils is a consequence of their highorganic matter content, which in turn is related to the existence of pyrogenic charcoalin the soil. This particular type of charcoal (also known as black-carbon or aromaticcarbon) is highly recalcitrant and resists weathering in the high temperature and humidityregime typical of the Amazon region. Aromatic charcoal is formed during slow, coolburns, a process some scientists call slash and char (Steiner et al.2004). The particularprocess of formation is not yet well understood and is being investigated by researchersin Brazil, Germany, the U.S.A. and elsewhere. Soils with this type of charcoal attract andretain nutrients better, hence there is more plant-available P, Ca, N, S in ADEs, and wateris better retained as well (Falco et al. 2009). There also appears to be an important, pos-sibly unique, microbiological composition in soils with pyrogenic charcoal, which mayalso contribute to their persistent fertility (ONeil et al. 2009; Tsai et al. 2009). ADEs are presently used for various purposes, especially for intensive horti-culture. What is not yet understood is the process (or processes there is likely morethan one pathway) of ADE formation in the past, and whether there might be a way ofreproducing them (Lehmann 2009). How deliberate people were in making these soils isnot clear, although their formation as a consequence of long-term sedentary occupancyand farming is accepted by some (Erickson 2003; Denevan 2004, 2006; WinklerPrins2009). Some ADEs are old middens, discard and refuse piles, with broken pottery sherdsembedded. Other ADEs, ones often referred to as terra mulata(brown earth), are thelikely consequence of long-term farming with in-eld burning as still seen today amongst

the Kayap (Hecht 2003; 2009), the Kuikuro (Heckenberger 2005; Schmidt and Hecken-berger 2009) and in other native Amazonian agricultural practices (Denevan 2001; 2004).


5/19


The key is that ADE formation is the result of long-term occupancy, whichis a feature of pre-colonial Amazonia. Many ADEs are documented to be about 2,000-2,500 years old (Erickson 2003) others may be older, others are denitely younger. The

ADEs located thus far, as can be seen in our interactive ADE GIS (Figure 2), are locatedmostly on riverine bluffs substantiating Denevans claim that native Amazonians livedon or near bluffs in the pre-colonial period (Denevan 1996). The existence of ADEsis contributing to the rewriting of the pre-colonial history of the region, by supportinglong-term sedentary agriculture, which has long been deemed incompatible with the en-

vironment of the region (Meggers 1996 [1970]). Although there is much evidence to thecontrary (Denevan 2001; Heckenberger et al.2007; Junqueira et al. 2010), the persistentimage of the region is that long-term sustainable farming is not possible. Failure ofcolonist farming along the Trans-Amazon highway does little to dispel this idea, althoughthe failure of the colonists has more to do with structural issues than with the inherentquality of the soil or soil management (Perz et al. 2006). ADEs demonstrate that the past

was different than previously thought, and may offer clues about how to farm the regionsustainably in the future. If it is possible to create the form of charcoal that seems preva-lent in ADEs, its potential use as a soil conditioner in tropical soils could revolutionizetropical agriculture.

Figure 2. Amazonian Dark Earth GIS as viewed in Google Earth.

Locating ADEs and Creating the GIS There are several maps showing all locations of ADEs (e.g. Smith 1980;Lima et al. 2002; Kern 2003; Bechtold 2008; Herrera and Ali 2009), however, we feel thatto date there is no comprehensive map of all known ADEs. From the literature emergea wide range of locations with varying degrees of specicity (see section below on con-


6/19

37 Locating ADEs

dence levels). Some are true geo-referenced points, others are references to ADEs

located in a general area. This is something noted in the database that is associated withthe GIS, and is discussed below. Creating a Geographic Information System (GIS) of ADE locations is a formof meta-analysis meant to represent an existing body of published research in a spatialmanner, with the goal of enabling new research directions. The process involves ac-cumulating key ADE references from sources in the growing literature on ADEs whichspans the disciplines of geography, soil science, archaeology, cultural and historical ecol-ogy, agronomy, and others. Much of the literature on ADEs is in English and Portu-guese (Woods and Denevan 2008), and we have done our best to include all of which isavailable to us. There is an emerging body of ADE literature written in other languages,though it has not been included in the ADE GIS to date. It is our hope that this literaturecan be integrated into the spatial database of ADE locations in the future. Among thesources included are journal articles, book chapters, theses, and reports which includegeographically explicit gures maps, detailed descriptions of locations, and occasion-ally even geographic coordinates. Sources that provided geographically explicit locations

were added to the GIS database, and our intent is to include more geographically explicitlocations once those data is made available to us. In certain sources, ADEs were indi-cated broadly as general areas rather than point locations. In such cases typically in themore historical accounts such as Smith (1879) or Oliveira (1926) they were includedas polygons in a separate GIS database not included here, but available from the authorsdirectly. All of the sources on which the GIS is based are listed in the Appendix.

Process For the vast majority of ADE locations precise geographic coordinates are notavailable (only one site in our database includes geographic coordinates collected in theeld); researchers typically do not publish the latitude and longitude (or UTM) of each of

their soil pits or archeological digs in journal articles as space is frequently at a premium.However, many ADE accounts do include a site map, or a regional map displaying ADElocations. Using these maps we painstakingly created a GIS database of point locationsthrough a process of heads-up (i.e., on-screen) matching of points on large-scale mapsfrom published ADE research to geographically orthorectied satellite imagery streamed

from the Environmental Systems Research Standard Map Services.1 Because most cur-rently known ADE sites are located near rivers, often on bluffs (Figure 2), most of thesesites were relatively easily located because, in the majority of cases, published maps wereof sufcient detail to match the published maps of ADE sites to features on the ortho-

rectied satellite imagery.2 However, these sites represented in the GIS are typically lessaccurate than if geographic coordinates captured by Geographic Positioning Systems

were available in all cases. Though most ADE locations were not described as areas, when accounts ofgeographic areas with substantial inclusions of ADEs were described in the literature, weincluded them in the GIS as polygons. One example of an ADE polygon was describedby Katzer (1944: 35): They can be found to the west of bidos and along the Trombe-tas [River], above all along the margins of its numerous lakes.3

For each site, whether point location or polygon, we gathered other identifyinginformation and other attributes from the literature. Figure 3 displays these attributes,

which include the name of the community connected to the ADE, the quote/locationin the reference where the site is described, a bibliographic reference for the site, a con-dence level in the location and its ADE soil (described further below), a description of

the condence level for each site, whether GPS coordinates were available, size of the


7/19


area (when available), and the type of research which describes the site (e. g. whether itwas an archaeological study, pedology, agronomy, ethnobotany, etc.). In the future, if thedata are available, we will also include attributes for the age of the soil for each site, and adescription of the process used to acquire ages, as well as any further information whichmay be useful to potential users of the GIS.

Figure 3. Example of database elds.

Sources

Our ADE GIS currently contains points and areas gathered from over 60sources (listed in the Appendix), which outline the characteristics and locations of over500 ADE sites.4 Just over half of the sources come from Brazilian journals or reports,

with the remainder coming from edited volumes or journals published in Europe orNorth America. We realize that far more sources detailing ADE sites in lowland South Americaexist, especially when the literature is expanded to include not only Portuguese and Eng-lish, but also sources published in Spanish, French, German or other languages. Cur-rently, the sources assembled in this map are drawn primarily from the geographical, ar-


8/19

39 Locating ADEs

cheological and soil science literatures; other disciplines likely also have ADE referenceswhich will eventually be included in this GIS.

Figure 4. Examples of high (A), medium (B), and low (C) levels of condence of

ADE locations.


9/19


Confdence Levels

For each ADE site we include a condence level: high (red), medium (yellow),

or low (green), indicating our best estimation of how legitimate the site is as an ADElocation. We also describe why this condence level was assigned. The condence level

is based on the specicity of the description in the source, for example, whether soil

analysis was conducted to classify an ADE as a legitimate ADE or whether it is a moregeneral description of a dark earth; whether potsherds were discovered, etc. In other

words, the level of condence is more a measure of how certain we are that the ADE site

is indeed an ADE, rather than the certainty associated with specic geographic location

(which can only be most condent if a GPS location is given).

A high condence site is one where the soil is well-described and, if possible

using standard soil description survey processes, and according to that description isclearly an ADE soil (Figure 4A). Typical examples of such cases are pedologic andarchaeological sites, the former because soil scientists have developed a way to classify

ADEs (Kmpf et al. 2003), the latter because a vast majority of archeological sites inAmazonia include potsherds and because of that are clearly recognized as ADE, and terrapretain particular (Ibid.). Medium condence sites are those which include descriptionsof ADEs or soils that sound very much like ADE soils, and are often associated withagronomic or some archaeological investigations, but are not as thoroughly documentedas the descriptions with high condence (Figure 4B). Low condence sites are typically

those associated with historical accounts which often provide only cursory descriptionsof soils, and frequently include vague or incomplete descriptions of site location (as isthe case of Figure 4C). We realize that assigning a level of condence is subjective, and therefore our

level of condence in these sites is not xed. For instance, one ADE site on Maraj

Island at the mouth of the Amazon is listed in the ADE GIS as medium condence

due to the description of the site focusing on the large number of potsherds there, butno description of the soil. If we received a more explicit description of the site whichincluded a description of the soil, and it turned out to be and explicitly conrmed ADE

site, we would adjust the condence level up (or down, if it evidence showed it was not).

This GIS database is a work in progress, and it is our hope that it will remain so for a longtime to come as more locations are documented and we obtain more information on sitesalready in the database. Therefore, no location in the database is permanently assigned toa condence level or, for that matter, other attribute information. For instance, there are

a large number of ADE sites on the right bank of the Negro river near Manaus whereagronomists and archeologists have occasionally worked together. If a site was initiallydescribed as containing potsherds but not further described as being an ADE, and there-fore being of medium condence level at best, and then is revisited and thoroughly

described so that it can ofcially be classied as an ADE, then the condence level could

be upgraded to high. Furthermore, if we are provided with geographic coordinatesfor these sites we will be much more condent in the accuracy of the location in the GIS

database. We thus welcome any information that will make our GIS more accurate.

Visualization and Scale Thus far we have described most ADE sites in the GIS database as beingeither locations or areas. In fact, as has been pointed out to us, all ADE sites areareas, often of multiple hectares. Therefore, it would seem most appropriate to displaythese sites as areas. Unfortunately, with a few exceptions, most ADE research sites havenot had a thorough and geographically explicit site survey done. They are often mapped,

when mapped at all, on a sub-regional or community scale which prohibits representa-


10/19

41 Locating ADEs

tion of the ADE area as an actual area in the GIS. In other words, as ADE sites aretypically not represented as areas in the sources, and when they are it is often throughamorphous descriptions of vast portions of the basin which have ADE inclusions andare far from specic (see endnote 4). Of course, if spatially explicit areas for sites were

made available we would enthusiastically include them in the database. Another reason for the use of point representation in the ADE GIS is becausemany ADE sites are only a few to a dozen hectares in size. When viewed at a small-scaleover the entire basin (such as 1:4,000,000), these sites appear only as points scatteredalong the rivers which drain this vast region. Of course, in an ideal world such a GIS

would include every ADE location as a perfectly geographically accurate area (this isour eventual goal, even if unattainable), but at this time, point representation is the onlypractical representation for most ADE locations currently in the database. Another way of representing these sites would be to represent ADEs as linesalong the bluffs of the rivers where many of them are located. While at regional scalesthis would be an excellent strategy, because size of the representation of a geographicphenomena is often assumed to reect the size of the phenomena, this would imply the

representation is proportional to the size of the ADE site itself (Robinson et al.1995:316-330; Monmonier 1996). At regional scales this may not be a serious problem, but atbasin scales such a representation strategy would exaggerate the area covered by ADEsand at highly local scales it would under-represent the size of ADE deposits. Therefore,a further reason for representing ADE sites as points at present is to avoid false interpre-tation of ADE area size from the GIS; the GIS is currently one of the general locationof ADE sites rather than a map of the specic sites. It is a GIS of the characteristics of

ADE sites; this information is stored as site attributes, which can be queried at each site(Figures 4A, 4B, 4C).

Eventually, we hope that the ADE community can work together to dene the

area of ADE sites in a geographically explicit way, and therefore improve this represen-tation to accurately represent not only the distribution of ADEs, but also the locationand extent of them as well. Such a project is not without some concerns, including thatmaking such information widely available could be detrimental to preserving archeologi-cal nds and may lead to land use intensication should previously unknown ADE sites

become more widely known in certain locales. However, this latter concern is not likelyto be a real issue since local land managers throughout Amazonia are already highlyknowledgeable about the soil resources available to them, including the locations of

ADEs, which they seek and use with enthusiasm (Hiraoka et al. 2003; Steiner 2009). Wehave protected our GIS with a password to forestall random access.

Possible uses for the GIS We envision several uses for our GIS. As a teaching tool it can be used to helpstudents visualize people-environment interactions in the Amazon Basin by linking hu-man activities to environmental change in the past. The display of this widespread geo-graphic data immediately emphasizes the extent to which people have been modifyingthe environments of Amazonia over the centuries, and can quite easily be used to teachabout the modication of the Amazons forest and river environments by indigenous

peoples. This GIS could quite easily be integrated into lectures or activities focusingon the indigenous populations of the Amazon, the debate surrounding the rst hu-man inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere, and even the social construction of nature(i.e., the GIS provides a picture that shows the geographic extent of the anthropogeniclandscape of Amazonia). Because these data are made available in the form of GoogleEarth KML (Keyhole Markup Language) les, they can easily be integrated into the


11/19


widely familiar, easy to use, and free Google Earth software environment. Furthermore,KML les can also be viewed in online mapping applications available on a number of

websites and the free WorldWind software environment developed and distributed by theNational Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). As a research tool the GIS and attached database will serve as a resource thatintegrates a diverse body of literature and creates a visual representation of that data.

The GIS can be used to suggest what parts of the Amazon basin could be the focus fornew ADE-focused exploratory research. As more data become available, and the GISbecomes more geographically accurate, this database could help uncover the environ-mental and social factors which may predispose certain areas to ADE formation.

Conclusions ADEs are an Amazonian resource and are attracting more attention. Theirexistence is helping to rewrite the pre-colonial history of the region as well as offeringideas for future sustainable agriculture there as well as in other lowland tropical regions(Kern et al. 2009; Lehmann 2009). With this interactive GIS we hope to help investiga-tors visualize where ADEs are and to help spur further investigation. It is important tosee the pattern of where known ADE locations are, especially so that we can query thespaces where they are not. We hope this will be of value to students and scholars inter-ested in ADEs and the historical ecology of the Amazon. The creation of this GIS is just a rst step in what will be an on-going process

of database management. We anticipate an improvement in the accuracy of the materialalready included, as well as the addition of more sources. We welcome comments andcontributions.

Acknowledgements Research support for this paper was provided by the National Science Founda-tion, Award number 055-2834, A. WinklerPrins PI. An early version of this paper waspresented at the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers meeting in Granada,Nicaragua, January 2009. We thank all those at our session, especially Bill Denevan and

Tom Whitmore, who made suggestions for making this GIS even more useful. We alsothank Newton Falco, Kirk Goldsberry, Eugenio Arima, the JLAG Editor, and threeanonymous reviewers.

Notes1 Available at: http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/arcgisonline/map_services.html,last accessed July 3, 2009.2 It is likely that a larger area of ADEs will be found in interior locations in future sur-

veys.3Original Portuguese text: Se apresenta ao oeste de bidos e ao longo do Trombe-tas, sobretudo nos trechos marginais aos seus numerosos lagos... Katzer 1944: 35 (ourtranslation).4For the time being area polygons are not included in the gures in this paper or the

downloadable GIS database because they generally replicate the point locations, but with

far less geographic specicity.

ReferencesBechtold, G. 2008. http://www.gerhardbechtold.com/TP/BrazilTP3.php. [Last ac-cessed June 3, 2010.]


12/19

43 Locating ADEs

Denevan, W.M. 1996. A bluff model of riverine settlement in prehistoric Amazonia.An-nals of the Association of American Geographers86: 654-681.

__________. 2001. Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes. Oxford: Ox-ford University Press.

__________. 2004. Semi-intensive pre-European cultivation and the origins of anthro-pogenic dark earths in Amazonia. In Amazonian Dark Earths: Explorations in Space andTime, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 135-143. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

__________. 2006. Pre-European forest cultivation in Amazonia. In Time and Complex-ity in Historical Ecology: Studies in the Neotropical Lowlands,W. Bale and C. L. Erickson (eds.),pp. 153-163. New York: Columbia University Press.

Erickson, C.L. 2003. Historical ecology and future explorations. InAmazonian DarkEarths: Origin, Properties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods(eds.), pp. 455-500. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Falco, N.P.S. 2009. Pedology, fertility, and biology of Central Amazonian Dark Earths.InAmazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann,C. Steiner, A. M. G. A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp. 213-228. Dordrecht:Springer.

Glaser, B. and W.I. Woods (eds.) 2004. Amazonian Dark Earths: Explorations in Space andTime. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Hecht, S.B. 2003. Indigenous soil management and the creation of Amazonian DarkEarths: Implications of Kayap practices. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties,

Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 355-372. Dor-drecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

__________. 2009. Kayap savanna management: Fire, soils, and forest islands. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C.Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp. 143-162. Dordrecht:Springer.

Heckenberger, M. J. 2005. The Ecology of Power: Culture, Place and Personhood in the SouthernAmazon, AD 1000-2000. New York: Routledge.

Heckenberger, M. J., J. C. Russell, J. R. Toney, and M. J. Schmidt. 2007. The legacy ofcultural landscapes in the Brazilian Amazon: Implications for biodiversity. PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society(B) 362: 197-208.

Herrera, A. and M. Ali. 2009. Paisajes del desarrollo: La ecologa de las tecnologas An-dinas.Antpoda8: 169-194.

Hiraoka, M., S. Yamamoto, E. Matsumoto, S. Nakamura, I. C. Falesi, A. Ronaldo, and C.Baena. 2003. Contemporary use and management of Amazonian Dark Earths. InAma-zonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Glaser and

W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 387-406. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.


13/19


Junqueira, A. B., G. H. Shepard Jr., C. R. Clement. 2010. Secondary forests on anthropo-genic soils in Brazilian Amazonia conserve agrobiodiversity. Biodiversity Conservation. DOI10.1007/s10531-010-9813-1.

Kmpf, N., W. I. Woods, W. Sombroek, D. C. Kern, and T. J. F. Cunha. 2003. Classica-tion of Amazonian Dark Earths and other ancient anthropic soils. In Amazonian Dark

Earths: Origin, Properties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods(eds.), pp. 77-104. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Katzer, F. 1944. A Terra Preta (da geologia do Estado do Par). Boletim da Seco de FomentoAgrcola no Estado do Par3: 35-38.

Kern, D. C., G. DAquino, T. E. Rodrigues, F. J. Lima Frazo, W. Sombroek, T. P. Myers,and E. G. Neves. 2003. Distribution of Amazonian dark earths in the Brazilian Amazon.InAmazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Gla-ser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 51-75. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Kern, D. C., M. de L. P. Ruivo, F. J. L. Frazo. 2009. Terra Preta Nova: The dream ofWim Sombroek. In Amazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W. I. Woods, W.Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp.339-349. Dordrecht: Springer.

Lehmann, J., D. C. Kern, B. Glaser, W. I. Woods (eds.). 2003. Amazonian Dark Earths:Origin, Properties and Management. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Lehmann, J. 2009. Terra Preta Nova Where to from here? In Amazonian Dark Earths:Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A.

WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp. 473-486. Dordrecht: Springer.

Lima, H. N., C. E. R. Schaefer, J. W. V. Mello, R. J. Gilkes, and J. C. Ker. 2002. Pedogen-esis and pre-Columbian land use of Terra Preta Anthrosols (Indian black earth) of

Western Amazonia. Geoderma110: 1-17.

Mann, C. C. 2000. Earthmovers of the Amazon. Science287: 786-789.

Meggers, B. J. 1996 [1970]. Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. Washing-ton: Smithsonian Institution.

Monmonier, M. 1996. How to Lie with Maps. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.

Oliveira, A. I. 1926. Reconhecimentos geolgicos e sondagens do baica do Amaznas.Boletim do Servico Geologico e Mineiro do Brasil 15: 9, 12, 30.

ONeill, B., J. Grossman, M. T. Tsai, J. E. Gomes, J. Lehmann, J. Peterson, E. Neves andJ. E. Thies. 2009. Bacterial community composition in Brazilian anthrosols and adjacentsoils characterized using culturing and molecular identication. Microbial Ecology58: 23-35.


14/19

45 Locating ADEs

Perz, S. G., R. T. Walker, and M. M. Caldas. 2006. Beyond population and environment:Household life cycle demography and land use allocation among small farm colonists inthe Amazon. Human Ecology34: 829-849.

Robinson, A. H.; J. L. Morrison, P. C. Muehrcke, A. J. Kimerling, and S. C. Guptill. 1995.Elements of Cartography. 6th edition. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Schmidt, M. J. and M. J. Heckenberger. 2009. Amerindian anthrosols: Amazonian DarkEarth formation in the Upper Xingu. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision,

W. I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L.Rebellato (eds.), pp. 163-192. Dordrecht: Springer.

Smith, H. 1879. Brazil: The Amazons and the Coast.New York: Scribners Sons.

Smith, N. J. H. 1980. Anthosols and human carrying capacity in Amazonia.Annals of theAssociation of American Geographers70: 553-566.Sombroek, W., M. de L. Ruivo, P. M. Fearnside, B. Glaser, and J. Lehmann. 2003. Ama-zonian Dark Earths as carbon stores and sinks. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Proper-ties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 125-139.Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Steiner, C., W.G. Teixeira, and W. Zech. 2004. Slash and char: An alternative to slash andburn practiced in the Amazon Basin. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Explorations in Space andTime, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 183-193. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Steiner, C., W. G. Teixeira, W. I. Woods, and W. Zech. 2009. Indigenous knowledge aboutTerra Pretaformation. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W.

Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp.193-204. Dordrecht: Springer.

Teixeira, W. et al. 2009. As Terras Pretas fo Indio da Amaznia: Sue Caracterizao e Uso desteConhecimento na Criao de Novas Areas.Manaus: EMBRAPA.

Tsai, S. M., B. ONeill, F. S. Cannavan, D. Saito, N.P.S. Falco, D. C. Kern, J. Grossman,and J. Thies. 2009. The microbial world of Terra Preta. InAmazonian Dark Earths: WimSombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. Win-klerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp. 299-308. Dordrecht: Springer.

WinklerPrins, A.M.G.A. 2009. Sweep and char and the creation of Amazonian DarkEarths in homegardens. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods,

W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.),pp. 205-211. Dordrecht: Springer.

Woods, W. I. and W. M. Denevan. 2008. Discovery, study, and bibliography of Amazo-nian Dark Earths, 1870s-1970s. InEthno- and Historical Geographic Studies in Latin America:

Essays Honoring William V. Davidson,P. H. Herlihy, K. Mathewson, and C. S. Revels (eds.),pp. 283-298. Baton Rouge: Geoscience Publications LSU.


15/19


Woods, W. I. and J. McCann. 1999. The anthropogenic origin and persistence of Amazo-nian dark earths. Yearbook of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers25: 7-14.

Woods, W. I., W.G. Teixeira. J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Re-bellato (eds.). 2009. Amazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision. Dordrecht: Springer.

AppendixReferences for sources included in the ADE Interactive GIS Database.

Araujo-Costa, F., C. S. Senna, E. Pereira, D. C. Kern. 1986. Levantamento arqueolgicona rea da UHE Cahoeira-Preta. Relatorio Global42.

Coomes, O. T. 2004. Paleoriverine features of the Amazon lowlands: human use ofthe Arena Negra soils of Lake Charo, Northeastern Peru. InAmazonian Dark Earths:

Explorations in Space and Time. B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 53-65. New York:Springer-Verlag.

Cunha Franco, E. 1962. As terras pretas do planalto de Santarm. Revista da SociedadeAgronmica e Veterinria do Par. 8: 17-21.

Eden, M. J., W. Bray, L. Herrera, C. McEvan. 1984. Terra pretasoils and their archaeologi-cal context in the Caquet basin of southeast Colombia.American Antiquity49: 125-140.

Falesi, I. 1965.Estudos preliminares sobre os resultados da colmatagem na rea de inuncia do CanalGrande Novaes Filho em Maicuru. Estao Experimental do Baixo Amazonas. Belm: IPEAN.

__________. 1970. Solos de Monte Alegre. Instituto de Pesquisa e Experimentao Agro-pecuria do Norte. 54: 106-110.

__________. 1974. Soils of the Brazilian Amazon. InMan in the Amazon. C. Wagley (ed.),pp. 201-229. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.

Fraser, J., T. Cardoso, A. Junquiera, N.P.S. Falco, and C. R. Clement. 2009. Histori-cal ecology and Dark Earths in whitewater and blackwater landscapes: Comparing theMiddle Madeira and Lower Negro Rivers. In Amazonian Dark Earths: Wim SombroeksVision, W.I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, andL. Rebellato (eds.), pp. 229-264. Dordrecht: Springer.

Fraser, J. and C. R. Clement. 2008. Dark earths and manioc cultivation in Central Ama-zonia: a window on Pre-Columbian agricultural systems? Boletim do Museu Paraense EmlioGoeldi serie Cincias Humanas3(2): 175-194.

German, L. 2003. Historical contingencies in the coevolution of environment and liveli-hood: Contributions to the debate on Amazonian Black Earths. Geoderma111(3-4): 307-331.

__________. 2004. A geographical method for anthrosol characterization in Amazo-nia: Contributions to method and human ecological theory. In Amazonian Dark Earths:



16/19

47 Locating ADEs

Glaser, B., L. Haumaier, G. Guggenberger, Z. Wolfgang. 2001. El fenmeno de terrapreta- un modelo para una agricultura sostenible em los pases tropicales. Arqueolgicasna Amaznia: o estado da arte. Grupo de trabalho: Terras. Pretas.Rio de Janeiro, Sociedade de

Arqueologia Brasileira. Anais de Resumos Sociedade de Arqueologia Brasileira.

Glaser, B., W. Zech, and W. I. Woods. 2004. History, current knowledge, and future per-spectives of geoecological research concerning the origin of Amazonian AnthropogenticDark Earths (Terra Preta). In Amazonian Dark Earths: Explorations in Space and Time. B.Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 9-17. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Gourou, P. 1950. Observaes geogrcas na Amaznia. Revista Brasileira Geologia IBGE2: 171-250.

Guapindaia, V. L. C. 1993. Fontes Histricas e Arqueolgicas sobre os Tapajs: A Coleo Fred-erico Barata do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi.Histria. Pernambuco, Universidade Federalde Pernambuco (UFPE), Brazil. Mestrado: 294.

Heckenberger, M. J., J. C. Russell, J. R. Toney, and M. J. Schmidt. 2007. The legacy ofcultural landscapes in the Brazilian Amazon: Implications for biodiversity. PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society(B) 362: 197-208.

Heckenberger, M. J., A. Kuikuro, U.T. Kuikuro, J.C. Russel, M. Schmidt, C. Fausto, B.Franchetto. 2003. Amazonia 1492: Pristine Forest or Cultural Parkland? Science 301(5640):1710-1714.

Heckenberger, M. J., J. B. Petersen, E.C. Neves. 1999. Village size and permanence inAmaznia: Two archaeological examples from Brazil. Latin American Antiquity10: 535-576.

Herrera, L. F., I. Cavalier, C. Rodrguez, S. Mora. 1992. The technical transformation ofan agricultural system in the Colombian Amazon. World Archaeology24(1): 98-113.

Hilbert, K. 1990. Salvamento Arqueolgico na Regio de Porto Trombetas (Par).Belm: MuseuParaense Emilio Goeldi.

Hilbert, P. 1955.A Cermica Arqueolgica da Regio de Oriximin. Belm: Instituto de Antro-pologia e Etnologia do Par.

Hiraoka, M., S. Yamamoto, E. Matsumoto, S. Nakamura, I. C. Falesi, A. Ronaldo, and C.Baena. 2003. Contemporary use and management of Amazonian Dark Earths. InAma-zonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Glaser and

W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 387-406. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Katzer, F. 1944. A Terra Preta (da geologia do Estado do Par). Boletim da Seco de FomentoAgrcola no Estado do Par3(2):35-38.

Kern, D. C. 1988. Caracterizao pedolgica de solos com terra arqueolgica na regiode Oriximin-PA. Unpublished masters thesis. Department of Agronomy, UniversidadeFederal do Rio Grande do Sul.


17/19


__________. 1996. Geoqumica e pedogeoqumica de solos com terra arqueolgica comterra pretana Floresta Nacional de Caxiuan (Portel-Par). Unpublished Ph.D. disserta-tion, Department of Geology, Universidade Federal do Par.

Kern, D. C. and M. L. Costa 1997. Kern, D.; Costa, M.L. 1997 Os Solos Antrpicos. In:P. L.B. Lisboa (Org.), pp. 105-119. - Caxiuan. MCT/CNPq, Museu Paraense EmlioGoeldi-MPEG, Belm-PA.

Kern, D. C., G. DAquino, T. E. Rodrigues, F. J. Lima Frazo, W. Sombroek, T. P. Myers,and E. G. Neves. 2003. Distribution of Amazonian dark earths in the Brazilian Amazon.InAmazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management, J. Lehmann, D. C. Kern, B. Gla-ser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 51-75. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Kern, D. C., M. L. da Costa, and F.J. L. Frazo. 2004. Evolution of the scientic knowl-edge regarding arcaeological black earths of Amazonia. In Amazonian Dark Earths: Ex-

plorations in Space and Time, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 19-28. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.Kern, D. C., F. J. L. Frazo, M.L. Costa, E. Frazo, M.A. Jardim. 1999. A inuncia das

palmeiras como fonte de elementos qumicos em stios arqueolgicos com terra preta. 6thSimpsio de Geologia da Amazonia, Belm, SBG Manaus.

Kern, D. C. and N. Kmpf. 1989. Antigos assentamentos indgenas na formao de soloscom terra preta arqueolgica na regio de Oriximin, Par. Revista Brasileira de Ciencias doSolo13: 219-225.

Klppel, M. P. 2006. Sistemas agrcolas e plantas medicinais em terras pretas de ndio daAmaznia central. Unpublished masters thesis, Programa Integrado de Ps-graduaoem Biologia Tropical e Recursos Naturais. Manaus, Amazonas, Instituto Nacional dePesquisas da Amaznia & Universidade Federal do Amazonas.

Lima, H. N., C.E.R. Schaefer, J.W.V. Mello, R.J. Gilkes, and J. C. Ker. 2002. Pedogenesisand pre-Columbian land use of Terra Preta Anthrosols (Indian black earth) of West-ern Amazonia. Geoderma110: 1-17.

Lleras, E., C. R. Clement, et al. Diversidade vegetal utilizada por comunidades ribeirinhasno alto rio Amazonas, Brasil. Pesquisa Agopecuria Brasileira. (Under Review).

Major, J., C. R. Clement, A. diTommaso. 2005. Inuence of market orientation on food

plant diversity of farms located on Amazonian Dark Earth in the region of Manaus,Brazil.Economic Botany59(1): 77-86.

Major, J., A. DiTommaso, J. Lehmann, N. Falco. 2005. Weed dynamics on AmazonianDark Earth and adjacent soils of Brazil.Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment111: 1-12.

McCann, J. 2004. Subsidy from culture: Anthropogenic soils and vegetation in Tapajnia.Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Geography. University of Wisconsin-Madison.


18/19

49 Locating ADEs

Meggers, B. and C. Evans. 1957.Archaeological investigations at the mouth of the Amazon. Bu-reau of American Ethnology. Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution. Bulletin 167.

Miller, E. T. and S. B. Caldarelli. 1987.Estudos de viabilidade arqueolgica nas reas de inundaoe de inuncia da UHE Ji-Paran. Relatorio de Atividades.Belm: Museu Paraense EmlioGoeldi/Arqueologia.

Mora, S. C., L. F. Herrera, I.Cavelier, and C. Rodriguez. 1991. Cultivars, anthropic soils andstability: A preliminary report of archeological research in Araracuara, Colombian Amazonia. Uni-

versity of Pittsburgh Latin American Archeological Reports, 2.

Murray, I. 2004. Cientistas tentam recriar no Par solo indgena que pode combaterfome. BBC Brasil.

Myers, T. P. 2004. Dark earths in the upper Amazon. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Explora-tions in Space and Time, B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.), pp. 67-94. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Neves, E. G., J. B. Petersen, R.N. Bartone, and M.J. Heckenberger. 2004. The timing ofterra preta formation in the central Amazon: archaeological data from three sites. In

Amazonian Dark Earths: Explorations in Space and Time,B. Glaser and W. I. Woods (eds.),pp. 125-134. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Nimuendaj, C. 1949. Os Tapaj. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi Serie AntropologiaX: 93-106.

Oliveira, A. I. 1926. Reconhecimentos geolgicos e sondagens do baica do Amaznas.Boletim do Servico Geologico e Mineiro do Brasil15: 9, 12, 30.

Pabst, E. 1991. Critrios de distino entre terra pretae latossolo na regio de Belterra eos seus signicados para a discusso pedogentica. Boletim do Museu Par Emlio Goeldi Serie

Antropologia7: 5-19.

Perota, C. 1979. Relatrio de trabalho de campo: Bacia do Rio Purus.Belm: Museu Goeldi.

__________. 1982. Relatrio de trabalho de campo: Bacia do Rio Tapajs. Belm: Museu Goel-di.

Petersen, J., E. G. Neves and M. J. Heckenberger. 2001. Gift from the past: Terra Pretaand prehistoric Amerindian occupation in Amazonia. Unknown Amazon. C. McEwan, C.Barreto and E. C. Neves (eds.), pp. 87-105. London: British Museum.

Rebellato, L., W. I. Woods, and E.G. Neves. 2009. Pre-Columbian settlement dynamics inthe Central Amazon. InAmazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W.

Teixeira, J. Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp.15-31. Dordrecht: Springer.

Rivas, S., A. Oyuela-Caycedo, A. R. Zimmerman. 2006. Informe preliminar sobre loshallazgos en el sitio arqueologico de Quistococha, Amazonia Peruana . Boletin de Estudios

Amaznicos, Unidad de Grado de Ciencias Sociales/Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos1(2): 79-97.


19/19


Ruivo, M. de L.P., E. da Silva Cunha, et al. 2004. Organic matter in archaeological blackearths and yellow latosol in the Caxiuan, Amazonia, Brazil. InAmazonian Dark Earths:


Schaan, D. P., D. C. Kern, and F.J.L. Frazo. 2009. An assessment of the cultural practicesbehind the formation (or not) of Amazonian Dark Earths in Marajo Island archeologi-cal sites. In Amazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroeks Vision, W.I. Woods, W. Teixeira, J.Lehmann, C. Steiner, and A.M.G.A. WinklerPrins, and L. Rebellato (eds.), pp. 127-141.Dordrecht: Springer.

Silva, B. N., J. V. Araujo, et al. 1970. Solos da rea de Cacau Pirra-Manacapuru. Institutode Pesquisa e Experimentao Agropecuria do Norte2: 1-198.

Simes, M. F. 1982. A pr-histria da Bacia Amaznica: Uma tentativa de reconstituio.In: Cultura Indgena, textos e catlogo. Belm, Museu Goeldi: 5-21.

Simes, M. F. and C. G. Corra. 1987. Pesquisas arqueolgicas no Baixo Uatum-Jatupu(Amazonas). Revista de Arqueologia4: 29-48.

Simes, M. F. and F. de Araujo-Costa 1987. Pesquisas arqueolgicas no baixo rio Tocan-tins. Revista de Arqueologia4: 11-27.

Simes, M. F. and A. L. M. Kalkamann 1987. Pesquisas arqueolgicas no mdio rio Ne-gro (Amazonas). Revista de Arqueologia4:83-116.

Simes, M. F. and D. F. Lopes. 1987. Pesquisas arqueolgicas no baixo/mdio rio Ma-deira (Amazonas). Revista de Arqueologia5: 117-134.

Simes, M. F. and A. L. Machado 1987. Pesquisas arqueolgicas no lago de Silves (Ama-zonas). Revista de Arqueologia5: 49-82.

Smith, H. 1879. Brazil: The Amazons and the Coast. New York: Scribners Sons.

Smith, N. J. H. 1980. Anthrosols and human carrying capacity in Amazonia.Annals of theAssociation of American Geographers70(4): 553-566.

Smith, N. J. H. 1999. The Amazon River Forest: A Natural History of Plants, Animals, andPeople. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sombroek, W. 1966. Amazon Soils: A Reconnaissance of the Soils of the Brazilian AmazonRegion. Wageningen: Center for Agricultural Publications and Documentation.

Zech, W., L. Haumaier, R. Hemping. 1990. Ecological aspects of soil organic matter in

tropical land use. In Humic Substances in Soil and Crop Sciences, Selected Readings.P. McCarthy,C. E. Clapp, R. L. Malcolm and R. P. Bloom (eds.), pp. 187-202. Madison, WI: AmericanSociety of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America.

An interesting BBC video on the ADEs is available here:http://sites.maxwell.syr.edu/clag/darkearths.htm
http://sites.maxwell.syr.edu/clag/darkearths.htmhttp://sites.maxwell.syr.edu/clag/darkearths.htm

Documents

Locating Amazonian Dark Earths WinklerPrins Aldrich