Live It up...For Life! - Home€¦ · Web viewSaskatchewan Education acknowledges the contributions of Donald McLeod, a teacher with the Saskatoon Public School Division, and Rick

A Student Journal of Social Psychology Volume 3, Number 1

In this issue:

Unit Two: Who Am I?

Page 2

A Journal of Social Psychology to support Psychology 20, a course offering of Saskatchewan Education

In this issue: How do we make sense of our world?

How do we make sense of our world?This article describes the three aspects to the way in which we make meaning out of social

situations: social cognition, or the ways in which we form impressions and make judgments about people and situations; social perception, or the ways in which we try to understand why people do what they do; and self-understanding, or the influence that the way we feel about ourselves has upon how we interpret other people's behaviour.

Self-concept When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you experience

when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001) This article addresses the issue of self-understanding by looking at how we develop a self-concept, the importance of a positive self-concept, how we can change or improve our self-concept, as well as the cultural and gender influences on self-concept.

Social Perception: Answering the "Why?" question Social perception is the process by which people come to know and evaluate one another.

Researchers in social perception study how we form impressions of each other, how we explain the causes of our own and other people's behavior, and how we form stereotypes and prejudices toward social groups. It helps people feel competent and masterful, maintain a sense of balance, because it helps them predict similar events in the future.

How to get out of bed in the morningUsing the flowchart presented (How to get out of bed in the morning) as a model, create your own

flowchart that describes how to act in certain situations. For example, how to get the dye out of your hair, how to write a psychology exam, how to make popcorn, how to identify an Oilers (Leafs, Canadiens, Flames) fan, etc.

Feature Articles

Social Cognition: Answering the "What?" questionThis article will discuss the processes which people use to make sense of events, people, oneself

and the world in general, the types of mental schemas which we construct, the ways in which we interpret those schemas, and the various factors that influence our judgments.

A Journal of Social Psychology to support Psychology 20, a course offering of Saskatchewan Education

Making connections….. ….

Dear Pat Interactions gives you, the student, a chance to offer your knowledge, opinions and advice in our

Dear Pat Advice column.

My Anthology To truly make Interactions your own, use the space provided to keep sayings, pictures, poems,

anecdotes, musical lyrics, or anything that you find intriguing, inspiring, amusing or thought provoking.

Dialectical Reasoning There are many different ways to reach a decision. This article describes one of those methods, the

dialectical reasoning model of decision-making. By describing the process, providing examples for each of the steps involved, and then suggesting several issues for students to explore using the dialectical approach, Interactions seeks to guide students to a better understanding of the dialectical reasoning model of decision-making.

The changing role of adolescents in our society: An interview with a senior citizenUsing Interactions as the organizer, students are invited to interview a senior citizen or Elder, to

inquire into how the roles, expectations and demands on adolescents have changed over the past several decades.

Beauty: A research study in social psychology What does it mean to be beautiful? Are there advantages to being beautiful? How does culture, age

and the media, influence our conceptions of beauty? This article suggests many different research possibilities for an independent, or small group, research project on a key topic or issue in social psychology.

On the cover: Hand with Globe, M.C. Escher, Copyright

Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?

There are three aspects to the question, how do we make sense of our world? The first aspect deals with how we make judgements and decisions inside our heads based on what we are experiencing. This whole body process, because all of the senses are involved, is termed social cognition, or our attempts at answering the "What are they doing?" question. The second aspect is closely linked to the first. This process, known as social perception, involves our attempts at understanding why people are behaving in such a manner. In other words, "Why are they doing that?" In seeking to understand the behaviour of other people, we attribute certain reasons or motives that allow us to form impressions. The third, and final aspect that influences our making sense of the world is our own self-concept. We see the world through our own unique set of lenses, lenses formed through experiences in a social world. When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you experience when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001)

Social Cognition

How do we make sense of the behaviour of other people? The thought process of making sense of events, people, oneself, and the world in general through analyzing and interpreting them is known as social cognition. Making sense of the behaviour of others affects judgements, choices, evaluations, and ultimately, behaviour. (Lefton et al., 2000) Social cognition focuses on the way in which our thoughts are affected by the immediate social context, and in turn how our thoughts affect social behaviour. The approach can be summarized as follows: People have a limited capacity to process

information about the social world and will take cognitive shortcuts (such as stereotyping) in order to minimize the load.

We develop schemata that represent our knowledge about ourselves, others, and our roles within the social world. These schemata, once formed, bias our judgements about ourselves and others.

Schemata become more complex and organized over time, and also harder to change. (Cardwell, 1998)

Where do these schemata come from? Each of us uses a particular organizing schema to make sense of the information about others. We do this by using perceptual schemata - cognitive frameworks that allow us to organize the raw data we have selected. Five types of schema help us to classify ourselves and others:

Physical constructs classify people according to their appearance: male or female, beautiful or ugly, fat or thin, young or old, and so on.

How do we make sense of our world?This article describes the three aspects to the way in which we make meaning out of social situations: social cognition, or the ways in which we form impressions and make judgments about people and situations; social perception, or the ways in which we try to understand why people do what they do; and self-understanding, or the influence that the way we feel about ourselves has upon how we interpret other people's behaviour.


Role constructs use social position: student, lawyer, wife, and so on.

Interaction constructs focus on social behaviour: Friendly, helpful, aloof, sarcastic.

Psychological constructs: curious, nervous, insecure and so on.

Membership constructs help us to identify others according to the group in which they belong: teacher, Liberal, Environmentalist, and so on.

Social perceptionSocial perception helps people make sense

of the world, organize their thoughts quickly, and maintain a sense of control over the environment. It helps people feel competent and masterful, maintain a sense of balance, because it helps them predict similar events in the future. (Lefton et al., 2000) Fritz Heider (1958) is often referred to as the "Father of Attribution Theory". One of Heider's most valuable contributions is a simple dichotomy: When trying to decide why people behave as they do, we can make either an internal (dispositional) attribution or an external (situational) attribution. Another of Heider's important contributions was his discussion of our preference for internal attributions over external ones. While either type of attribution is possible, Heider noted that we tend to see the causes of a person's behaviour as residing in that person. We are perceptually focused on people - they are who we notice - and the situation, which is often hard to see and hard to describe, can be overlooked. (Aronson et al., 1994)

How are social perceptions formed and changed? Research has shown that people form impressions of each other in two ways. Sometimes people make quick and effortless judgments based on others' physical appearance, facial expressions, or body language. Studies have shown, for example, that people who are physically attractive are perceived to be happy, warm, friendly, successful, confident, and well-adjusted. At other times, however, people form impressions based on a careful observation of a person's behavior.

According to this latter view, people act like amateur scientists, gathering and analyzing behavioral evidence before evaluating others. The explanations for behavior that people come up with are called attributions, and the theory that describes the process is called attribution theory. (Aronson et al., 1994)Self-concept

The self-concept is extremely subjective, being almost totally a product of interaction with others. The self-concept has four components: self-image, self-esteem (or self-regard), ideal-self and self-efficacy. Self-image is the sort of person we think we

are. One way of assessing self-image is to ask people to answer the question 'Who Am I?' 20 times. This typically produces two main categories of answers relating to social roles and personality traits. Self-image also includes body image.

While self-image is essentially descriptive, self-esteem is essentially evaluative. Self-esteem is the extent to which we like or approve of ourselves, and how worthwhile we think we are.

The ideal-self is the kind of person you would like to be. In general, the greater the gap between self-image and ideal-self, the lower the self-esteem. (Gross, pg. 402)

According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy, or one's expectations of success in a given situation, is an important determinant of whether one will attempt to make changes in one's environment. Each day, we make many decisions based on our perceptions of the extent to which our actions will produce reinforcement. Our actions are based on our evaluations of our competency. Moreover, self-efficacy not only determines whether we will engage in a particular behaviour, it also determines the extent to which we will maintain that behaviour in the face of adversity. (Buskist & Carlson, 1998)

When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you


experience when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001)

Making Connections …………… Cover Graphic: What connection would the cover graphic, a print by M.C. Escher entitled Hand

With Globe, have with making sense of our world? Design an alternate graphic or image that represents the theme of this unit of study.


Social Cognition: Answering the "What?" Question

How do we make sense of the behaviour of other people? The thought process of making sense of events, people, oneself, and the world in general through analyzing and interpreting them is known as social cognition. Making sense of the behaviour of others affects judgements, choices, evaluations, and ultimately, behaviour. (Lefton et al., 2000)

Social cognition focuses on the way in which our thoughts are affected by the immediate social context, and in turn how our thoughts affect social behaviour. The approach can be summarized as follows: People have a limited capacity to process

information about the social world and will take cognitive shortcuts (such as stereotyping) in order to minimize the load.

We develop schemata that represent our knowledge about ourselves, others, and our roles within the social world. These schemata, once formed, bias our judgements about ourselves and others.

Schemata become more complex and organized over time, and also harder to change. (Cardwell, 1998)

Where do these schemata come from? Each of us uses a particular organizing schema to make sense of the information about others. We do this by using perceptual schemata - cognitive frameworks that allow us to organize the raw data

we have selected. Five types of schema help us to classify ourselves and others: Physical constructs classify people according

to their appearance: male or female, beautiful or ugly, fat or thin, young or old, and so on.

Role constructs use social position: student, lawyer, wife, and so on.

Interaction constructs focus on social behaviour: Friendly, helpful, aloof, sarcastic.

Psychological constructs: curious, nervous, insecure and so on.

Membership constructs help us to identify others according to the group in which they belong: teacher, Liberal, Environmentalist, and so on.

In what ways do we interpret our schemas? Once we have selected and organized our perceptions, we interpret them in a way that makes some sort of sense. Interpretation plays a role in virtually every interpersonal act. Several factors cause us to interpret an event in one way or another:

Relational satisfaction: The behaviour that seems positive when you are happy with a partner might seem completely different when the relationship is not satisfying.

Degree of involvement with the other person: We sometimes view people with whom we have or seek a relationship more

This article will discuss the processes which people use to make sense of events, people, oneself and the world in general, the types of mental schemas which we construct, the ways in which we interpret those schemas, and the various factors that influence our judgments.


favourably than those whom we observe from a detached perspective.

Past Experience: What meaning have similar events held?

Assumptions about human behaviour: "People generally do as little work as possible to get by", or "in spite of their mistakes, people are doing the best they can." Beliefs like these will shape the way we interpret another's actions.

Expectations: Anticipation shapes interpretations. If you imagine that your boss is unhappy with your work, you will feel threatened by a request to "see me in my office first thing Monday morning."

Knowledge: If you know that a friend has just been jilted by a lover or laid off from a job, you will interpret any aloof behaviour differently than you would if you were unaware of what had happened.

Self-concept: When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you experience when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001)

How do we form impressions of people? The evidence indicates that we follow a weighted averaging model in combining information about people. That is, we keep a rough "running average" of our trait ratings in our heads, as we discover more characteristics about people. Of course, we know that every person is unique, and that no two classes, no two hockey matches are exactly alike. Yet there are similarities among certain types of people or events. Thus, we tend to organize our view of the world in terms of categories. People are generally categorized in terms of easily observable characteristics, such as gender, ethnic group, occupation or age. Similarly, we construct categories of events, activities, objects and even ideas. (Alcock et al., 1998)

Cantor and Mischel (1979) suggest that we often use prototypes, mental images of a typical example of that category, for example a dog as a prototype of the category, mammal. The extent to

which a particular object resembles the prototype, and the extent to which you allow for variations, will determine how readily you identify the object with the category.

Once we have selected an organizing schema to classify people and form impressions about them, we use that schema to make generalizations about members of the groups who fit the schema we use. But when generalizations lose touch with reality, they lead to stereotyping - exaggerated generalizations associated with a categorizing system. Stereotypes may be based on a kernel of truth, but they go beyond the facts at hand and make claims that usually have no valid basis. (Adler et al., 2001)

In addition to schemas, people use judgmental heuristics to help us deal with the large amount of social information with which we are faced. Heuristics are rules of thumb people follow in order to make judgments quickly and efficiently. The availability heuristic refers to the ease

with which we can think of something, which has a strong effect on how we view the world. The quicker something "comes to mind" then the more likely we are to make judgments on that basis.

The representative heuristic helps us decide how similar one thing is to another; we use it to classify people or situations on the basis of their similarity to a typical case. When using this heuristic we have a tendency to ignore base rate information - that is, the prior probability that someone or something belongs in that classification.

People also rely on the anchoring/adjustment heuristic, wherein an initial piece of information acts as an anchor, or starting point, for subsequent thoughts on the subject. (Aronson et al., 1994)

Another type of judgmental heuristic is known as illusory correlation, or the process by which people conclude that A and B belong together.


The simulation heuristic helps us make judgments because something is more likely if you can imagine it.

When using the false consensus heuristic, however, we tend to overestimate the extent to which others are similar to us. (Alcock et al., 1998)

What are some errors in forming impressions? Researchers have noticed several interesting biases in how first impressions of people are formed. First, people tend to form impressions of others which are positive rather than negative, a positivity bias. But while we have this bias towards being positive in our impressions of others, those impressions will be influenced more by negative than by positive information. This is called the negativity effect. In forming impressions of others, people bring their own personal way of looking at the world. We have our own set of implicit personality theories, a set of unstated assumptions about certain types of people in general. (Alcock et al., 1998) The tendency to form an impression of a person based on the initial information we learn about him or her is called the primacy effect. The first impression we receive of a person seems to be resilient. (Buskist & Carlson, 1998) A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a person's expectations of an event make an outcome more likely to occur than would otherwise have been true. There are two types of self-fulfilling prophecies: Self-imposed prophecies occur when your own

expectations influence your behaviour. A second category of self-fulfilling prophecies

is that imposed by one person on another, so that the expectations of one person govern another's actions. It is not just the observer's belief that creates the self-fulfilling prophecy for the person who is the target of the expectations. The observer must communicate that belief in order for the prediction to have any effect. It is important to recognize the tremendous

influence that self-fulfilling prophecies play in our

lives. To a great extent we are what we believe we are. In this sense we and those around us constantly create our self-concepts and thus ourselves. (Adler et al., 2001)

Making Connections …..

Using the template supplied, interpret the image in terms of the 5 different kinds of constructs as described above.

What do you believe about people? Are they basically good or bad? Are they basically lazy or hard working? Are they basically fair or unfair, greedy and self-centered or cooperative and altruistic? Write your own basic set of belief statements about people.

Describe your schema for one, several or all of the following: Mother Father Grandparent You Next door neighbour Teachers Lawyers Construction workers Farmers Politicians Gangs Professional athletes Striking workers Single moms Artists


Constructs and Schema FormationRole Physical

Psychological Interaction

Membership


How to get out of bed in the morning!A flowchart is a graphic, decision-making process that leads the reader through all of the necessary issues and decision points to arrive at a behaviour. Based on the sample below, create your own flowchart!

Is your alarm sounding?

Are your eyes open?

Is it Saturday?

Do you have an exam today?

Reset the alarm

Do you have at least thirty

minutes to get ready?

Do you have a first period spare?

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

That's it, time to get

up!

Reset the alarm


Social Perception: Answering the Why? Question

What is social perception? Social perception helps people make sense of the world, organize their thoughts quickly, and maintain a sense of control over the environment. It helps people feel competent and masterful, maintain a sense of balance, because it helps them predict similar events in the future. (Lefton et al., 2000) Fritz Heider (1958) is often referred to as the "Father of Attribution Theory". One of Heider's most valuable contributions is a simple dichotomy: When trying to decide why people behave as they do, we can make either an internal (dispositional) attribution or an external (situational) attribution. Another of Heider's important contributions was his discussion of our preference for internal attributions over external ones. While either type of attribution is possible, Heider noted that we tend to see the causes of a person's behaviour as residing in that person. We are perceptually focused on people - they are who we notice - and the situation, which is often hard to see and hard to describe, can be overlooked. (Aronson et al., 1994)

How are social perceptions formed and changed? Research has shown that people form impressions of each other in two ways. Sometimes people make quick and effortless judgments based on others' physical appearance, facial expressions, or body language. Studies have shown, for example, that people who are physically attractive are perceived to be happy, warm, friendly, successful, confident, and well-adjusted. At other times, however, people form impressions based on a careful observation of a person's behavior. According to this latter view, people act like amateur scientists, gathering and analyzing behavioral evidence before evaluating others. The explanations for behavior that people come up with are called attributions, and the theory that describes the process is called attribution theory. (Aronson et al., 1994)

How do we select information about others? Because we are exposed to more input than we could possibly manage, the first step in perception is the selection of which data we will attend to. There are several factors that cause us to notice some messages and ignore others: Stimuli that are intense often attract our

attention. Repetitious stimuli also attract our attention.

Just as a quiet but steadily dripping faucet can come to dominate our awareness, people to whom we are frequently exposed become noticeable.

Social perception is the process by which people come to know and evaluate one another. Researchers in social perception study how we form impressions of each other, how we explain the causes of our own and other people's behavior, and how we form stereotypes and prejudices toward social groups. It helps people feel competent and masterful, maintain a sense of balance, because it helps them predict similar events in the future.


Attention is also frequently related to contrast or change in stimulation. Put differently, unchanging people or things become less noticeable.

Motives determine not only what information we select from our environment but also how we perceive people. For example, someone looking for a romantic adventure will be especially aware of attractive potential partners. (Adler et al., 2001)

What are the physiological influences on our perceptions? The senses: For example, the loudness of your

stereo, whether it is too hot or too cold in the house, smells and tastes of food.

Age: Older people often view the world differently from younger people because they have a greater scope and number of experiences. There are also developmental differences that shape perceptions, for example, Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

Health: recall the last time you came down with a cold, flu or some other ailment. Do you remember how different you felt?

Fatigue: Just as being ill can affect your relationships, so can being overly tired. Again, it is important to recognize the fact that you or someone else may behave differently when fatigued.

Hunger: People often get grumpy when they have not eaten. A number of important physiological changes occur as we eat and become hungry again.

Biological cycles: Each of us is in a daily cycle in which all sorts of changes constantly occur, including body temperature, sexual drive, alertness, tolerance to stress, and mood. Most of these changes are due to hormonal cycles. For instance, adrenal hormones, which affect feelings of stress, are secreted at higher rates during some hours.

In what ways does culture influence the accuracy of our perceptions? Every culture has its own worldview, its own way of looking at the world. Remembering these cultural differences can be a good way of learning more about ourselves and others.

Collectivist societies, which include most traditional pre-industrial societies and, to a large extent, the predominantly Catholic countries of Southern Europe and Latin America, as well as most Asian and African cultures, are characterized by an emphasis on family and community-based relations and values. The members of one's primary "in-group" - that is, one's kin, one's immediate neighbourhood community, and in the case of modern industrial societies, one's work group - are the primary sources of demands and rewards, and the primary arbiters of what is desirable, what is permissible and what is unthinkable. In short, in collectivist societies it is in-group norms and role relations that provide both the motivating force that drives the individual and the compass from which the person takes direction.

Individualistic cultures, which, not coincidentally, predominate in the nations of Western Europe that gave rise to the Protestant Reformation, as well as North America, show opposite orientations. They are characterized by an emphasis on personal goals, interests, and preferences. Social relationships are dictated by commonality of interests and aspirations and are therefore subject to change as those interests and aspirations shift over time. In such societies the individual's choices, whether of dress, diet, friends, occupation, or spouse, are relatively free of the dictates of family, neighbours or others to whom one might be linked in traditional role relations. (Nisbett & Ross, 1991)


How does gender influence perception? In every society gender is one of the most important factors in determining how people perceive one another. Some theorists have suggested that stereotypical masculine and feminine behaviours are not opposite poles of a single continuum, but rather two separate sets of behaviour. With this view, an individual can act in a masculine or a feminine manner, or exhibit both types of characteristics. The male-female dichotomy, then, is replaced with four psychological gender types, including masculine, feminine, androgynous (combining masculine and feminine traits), and undifferentiated (neither masculine nor feminine).

What influence does self-esteem have on our social perceptions? Self-esteem is the extent to which our self-evaluations are favourable or not. Many factors play a role, including early experiences with family members, with friends, and at school. One major factor seems to involve social comparison - a process in which we compare ourselves with others. Research findings indicate that self-esteem is extremely important to our well-being. In fact, self-esteem may actually be beneficial to our physical as well as our emotional health. Persons high in self-esteem appear to be more resistant to disease than persons low in self-esteem. That is, their immune systems seem to operate more effectively. Why? Some recent findings indicate that self-esteem may be linked to biochemical changes within the body; for instance, high self-esteem is associated with increased levels of seratonin in the blood, and this neurotransmitter may play a role in effective functioning of the immune system. (Baron, p. 515)

What are some biases in our causal explanations of the behaviour of others? Biases can have a profound effect on the the process of attribution: Fundamental attribution bias: the tendency

to exaggerate the importance of dispositional or personal factors and to underestimate the influence of other people and other aspects of the situation.

Actor/Observer bias: People are more likely to attribute the actions of others to stable trait dispositions, but their own behaviour to situational factors. Why the difference? One reason is that they have different perspectives from which to view the same event. Also, actors and observers have access to different information. (Alcock et al., 1998)

Self-serving bias: Protecting our ego and self-esteem as well as presenting a positive image to others are important to people, thus, people tend to attribute their own success to internal factors and their failure to external factors. These attributions refer to our tendency to take credit for our successes but to blame others (or the situation) for our failures. Self-serving attributions can result from either of two processes: (a) the lack of, or difference of, information available to them, and thus reach different conclusions about why the behaviour occurred or (b) the need to bolster self-esteem. (Aronson et al., 1994)

Defensive attributions: Explanations that defend us from feelings of vulnerability and mortality. Some defensive attributions include unrealistic optimism about the future, believing that bad things only happen to bad people or the assumption that people get what they deserve, and by "blaming the victim" as being responsible for their own bad fortune. (Aronson et al., 1994)

The illusion of control: Much of what happens in life is beyond our control. Perhaps in response, people cling to an illusion of control, an exaggerated belief in their own capacity to determine what happens to them in life. (Alcock et al. 1998)

Self-blame: Miller and Porter (1983) present the following, rather unexpected findings: (1) Victims often exaggerate their own responsibility for the event and its consequences; and (2) the degree of self-blame is often positively related to how successfully the person will cope. Self-blame may enable the person to maintain the illusion of control in life, which can be channelled into constructive


coping strategies. In addition, self-blame is one way to impose meaning on an otherwise incomprehensible event. (Alcock et al., 1998)

Cultural bias: Western culture teaches us to prefer dispositional explanations. People in Western cultures appear to be more like

personality psychologists, viewing behaviour in dispositional terms, whereas people in Eastern cultures seem to be more like social psychologists, viewing behaviour in situational terms. (Aronson et al., 1994)

Making Connections ……………….

Self-esteem and social comparison: Who do you compare yourself to? Why? What qualities or attributes of other people do you find

admirable? What do you do when you compare yourself to others and want to be 'like them'? How important is social comparison in the formation and maintenance of self-esteem? Can social

comparison ever be avoided or minimized? Should it be? Think-Pair-Share: Cultural influences, social perception and behaviour

Based on the table provided, reflect on the differences between a collectivist and individualistic society's perspective and approach towards the following: Education Health care Senior citizens or Elders Social supports such as welfare and unemployment assistance The role of women in society Employment equity Marriage Sports Competition Business and commerce

Consider both the dispositional and situational aspects to the following questions: Why does road rage happen? Why do people gamble? Why do people smoke? Why do people join gangs? Why do people get married? Why do people take dares? Why do people participate in "extreme" sports? Why are some people prejudiced and bigoted? Why do people volunteer? Why do some people persevere, and others give up? Why are people aggressive? Why do people laugh? Why do some people run marathon races? Why do people lie? Why do people like to watch sports?


Self-concept

The self-concept has four components: self-image, self-esteem (or self-regard), ideal-self and self-efficacy.

Self-image is the sort of person we think we are. One way of assessing self-image is to ask people to answer the question 'Who Am I?' 20 times. This typically produces two main categories of answers relating to social roles and personality traits. Self-image also includes body image.

While self-image is essentially descriptive, self-esteem is essentially evaluative. Self-esteem is the extent to which we like or approve of ourselves, and how worthwhile we think we are.

The ideal-self is the kind of person you would like to be. In general, the greater the gap between self-image and ideal-self, the lower the self-esteem. (Gross, pg. 402)

According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy, or one's expectations of success in a given situation, is an important determinant of whether one will attempt to make changes in one's environment. Each day, we make many decisions based on our perceptions of the extent to which our actions will produce reinforcement. Our actions are based on our evaluations of our competency. Moreover, self-efficacy not only determines whether we will engage in a particular behaviour, it also determines the extent to which we will maintain that behaviour in the face of adversity. (Buskist & Carlson, p. 459)

How do we develop a self-concept? It is generally believed that awareness of "the self" develops from early experience. Indeed, one of the first stages in the development of thinking in the

child is the capacity to distinguish what is "me" and what is "not me". (Alcock et al., 1998) Aspects of the self-concept develop by degrees, rather than clearly defined stages. Whilst young children may know their own names and understand the limits of their own bodies, they may not yet be able to think about themselves as coherent entities. Self-awareness or self-consciousness, develops very gradually. (Gross, p. 404) There exist many different theories that try to explain the development of a self-concept: According to Carl Rogers, self-concept or

identity is shaped partly by self-actualizing tendencies and partly by others' evaluations. In this way, people come to like what they are "supposed" to like and to behave as they are "supposed" to behave.(Bernstein & Nash, 1999)

Reflected appraisal is the process whereby each of us develops a self-concept that matches the way we believe others see us. The self-concept is a product of the positive and negative messages you received throughout your life. These same principles in the formation of the self-concept continue in later life, especially when messages come from what sociologists term significant others - people whose opinions we especially value. (Adler et al., 2001)

Cooley (1902) argued that we construct our self-concepts from how we appear to others, which is then reflected back to us - what he called the looking-glass self. There are several processes by which "reflection" enables us to

When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you experience when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001) This article addresses the issue of self-understanding by looking at how we develop a self-concept, the importance of a positive self-concept, how we can change or improve our self-concept, as well as the cultural and gender influences on self-concept.


construct our ideas and impressions of ourselves:

Social Identity refers to those aspects of a person's self-image that depend upon the social categories and groups to which he or she belongs. Turner (1982, 1985) describes social identification as a three-part process. First, there is social categorization: individuals perceive themselves and others in terms of membership in distinct categories or groups. Second, the typical norms, attitudes and behaviours that distinguish the groups determine behaviour to a large degree. Third, individuals conform to the stereotypes associated with the group. (Alcock et al., p. 329)

Perhaps most central to your social identity is your gender, male or female. What does "masculinity" and "femininity" mean? What is called masculinity has been described as instrumentality or agency, a concern with achieving goals and being active in the world, while femininity is described as expressiveness or communion, being other-centered and concerned with interpersonal relationships.

Self-perception theory suggests that people become aware of their own attitudes, feelings, values, dispositions and other internal characteristics in the same way that they form impressions of the characteristics of others - through observation of their own behaviour. The notion of self-knowledge through self-perception implies that, rather than introspecting about what we really believe in, and then acting on those beliefs, we first act and then discover our beliefs and values from our own actions.

Social comparison is based on three premises: Humans have a drive to evaluate their own

opinions, feelings and abilities, and want to feel confident that they are accurate.

In the absence of objective or nonsocial bases of assessment, individuals will evaluate themselves in comparison with others.

People tend to compare themselves with someone similar to themselves in opinion, background or ability. In general, people compare themselves to someone equal when the goal is self-assessment, to someone better when the goal is self-improvement, and to someone inferior when the goal is self-enhancement. (Alcock et al., 1998)

How important is your self-concept? Persons with high self-esteem are: likely to think well of others, expect to be accepted by others, evaluate their own performance more

favourably than people with low self-esteem, perform well when being watched, not afraid of the reaction of others, work harder for people who demand high

standards of performance, are inclined to feel comfortable with others

they view as superior in some way, are able to defend themselves against negative

comments of others.

Persons with low self-esteem are: likely to disapprove of others, expect to be rejected by others, evaluate their own performance less

favourably than people with high self-esteem, perform poorly when being watched and are

sensitive to possible negative reaction, work harder for undemanding, less-critical

people, feel threatened by people they view as superior

in some way, have difficulty defending themselves against

other people's negative comments, are more easily influenced. (Hamachek, 1982)

How do we change a self-concept? Self-esteem can be improved through identifying the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence important to the self. People have the highest self-esteem when they perform competently in domains important to the self: emotional support and social approval,

including both adult and peer approval.


achievement, which has much in common with Bandura's cognitive social learning concept of self-efficacy, which refers to individuals' beliefs that they can master a situation and produce positive outcomes, and;

coping with a problem rather than avoiding it. If coping rather than avoidance prevails,

people often face problems realistically, honestly and nondefensively. This produces favourable self-evaluative thoughts, which lead to the self-generated approval that raises self-esteem. (Santrock, p. 314)

What are the cultural influences on self-concept?

Individualistic cultures Collectivist cultures Self is separate, unique individual; should be

independent, self-sufficient Individual should take of themselves and immediate

family Many flexible group memberships; friends based on

shared interests and activities Reward for individual achievement and initiative;

individual decisions encouraged; individual credit and blame assigned

High value on autonomy, change, youth, individual security, equality

People belong to extended families or in-groups; "we" or group orientation

Person should take care of extended family before Self

Emphasis on belonging to a very few permanent in-groups which have a strong influence over the person

Reward for contribution to group goals and well-being; co-operation with in-group members; group decisions valued; credit and blame shared

High value on duty, order, tradition, age, group security, status and hierarchy

How does gender influence self-concept? In the 1970s, as both males and females became dissatisfied with the burdens imposed by their stereotypical roles, alternatives to masculinity and femininity were proposed. Instead of describing masculinity and femininity as a continuum in which more of one means less of the other, it was proposed that individuals could have both masculine and feminine traits. This thinking led to the development of androgyny, which refers to the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person. The androgynous male might be assertive (masculine) and nurturant (feminine). The androgynous female might be powerful (masculine) and sensitive to the feelings of others (feminine). (Santrock, p. 318)

Making Connections …..

Coping and resiliency What do you do when things are really

going wrong? What coping skills have you developed? What about your family’s coping skills and resiliency? Are there people you know who seem to be able to cope well with stress, pressure and difficult situations? What do they do?

Masculinity and femininity defined: What does it mean to be feminine? What

qualities do you admire in females? What does it mean to be masculine? What

qualities do you admire in males? Do you consider yourself to be more

masculine, feminine or androgynous?


Beauty

Is beauty really, as the saying goes, only skin deep? What does it mean to be beautiful? Who are the "beautiful people" and what makes them so beautiful? How do we define beauty? Are there social, economic, career or political advantages to being "beautiful"? In this special supplement to Interactions, you have the opportunity to consider these, as well as many other questions and issues dealing with beauty. The following questions are provided to stimulate your interest and guide your inquiry into the fascinating world of beauty.

Are we, as a society, biased towards beauty? What evidence can you find to support your position? What are the cultural differences in what is considered to be beautiful? Find examples from a variety of cultures

to illustrate what various cultures consider to be beautiful. What are the features of attractive/beautiful people in various cultures?

Gender differences and beauty: What are the characteristics of beautiful males and females? Is there common consensus as to what it means to be beautiful? Consider a research project where you survey males and females to determine their interpretations of beauty. Are there age differences as well, in other words, do our definitions of beauty change as we get older?

What is the relationship between beauty and: Leadership Self-esteem Careers/jobs Popularity Body image Psychological disorders such as eating disorders, social phobias and anxiety disorders?

Research the cultural industry of beauty. What are the economic benefits of beauty products ranging from skin care to makeup to shampoos? How is the contemporary concept of beauty promoted or communicated in the various forms of media?

Cosmetic surgery is one of the fastest growing medical services in North America. Research this beauty industry, and prepare a report on the types of cosmetic surgery, the costs, the technologies and procedures involved. Survey question: Should cosmetic surgery be paid for by our federally and provincially funded Health Care system?

Beauty pageants. How have they changed? Why do we have them? Research a Miss Canada, or Miss U.S.A. or Miss Universe to find out how their lives were changed because of their titles.

Research question: Is there any economic value in being beautiful? Do beautiful people have an advantage in the workplace, in careers and in industry? Are beautiful people paid more? On the opposite side of the coin, are "non-beautiful" people discriminated against?

Historical fads and trends in beauty. How has our definition of beautiful changed over the past century?

What does it mean to be beautiful? Are there advantages to being beautiful? How does culture, age and the media, influence our conceptions of beauty? This article suggests many different research possibilities for an independent, or small-group research project on a key topic or issue in social psychology.


Dear Pat: My mother is always saying that if you look good then you’ll feel good, and if you feel good then you’ll do good. Is this true? Can the way that you feel about yourself actually make you do better?

Doubtful in Davidson

Dear Pat: Why do people constantly compare themselves to others? Is this a good thing, or a bad thing?

Confused in Coronach

Dear Pat: How important is making a good first impression?

Unsure in Unity

Dear Pat: I am writing to ask for your advice. A very good friend of mine is constantly criticizing herself, she has a very poor self-concept. What can I do to help her?

Supportive in Saskatoon

Dear Pat


Dear Pat: I recently read somewhere that a person's expectations of an event make an outcome more likely to occur. I am starting a new part-time job soon, what does this mean for me?

Expectant in Estevan

Dear Pat: My teacher said that having a positive self-concept can actually improve your health. Is this true?

Positive in Prince Albert

Dear Pat: How, and why does our behaviour change in social situations?Social in Strasbourg


Dear Pat: Is watching too much television bad for you?Helpful in Humboldt

Dear Pat: What can I do to become a better communicator?

Tongue-tied in Tisdale

Dear Pat: Do we act based on our beliefs and values, or do we get our beliefs and values based on how we act?

Acting in Avonlea

Dear Pat: Do males and females really view the world differently, or is this just a myth?

Viewing in Viscount


My Anthology


The changing role of adolescents in our society: An interview with a senior citizen


Dialectical Reasoning

Dialectical reasoning refers to critical thinking about problems and evaluating conflicting viewpoints. Dialectical reasoning is best applied in resolving controversial issues and assessing opposing positions. Often times, there are several possible ways of resolving questions and understanding issues, rather than one single right answer. We may have situations where information is incomplete, where many approaches and views may compete, and we have to decide which one is most reasonable based on what is known, even though there is no clear-cut solution.

Dialectical reasoning consists of moving back and forth between contrary lines of reasoning, using each to cross-examine the other. This is what juries are supposed to do in arriving at a verdict: consider arguments and evidence for and against a case, point and counterpoint. It is a process in which opposing facts and ideas are weighed and compared for the purposes of determining the best solution, resolving differences, and coming to the most reasonable conclusion based on the evidence and logic.

In a democratic and pluralistic nation such as Canada, there are a number of identified issues that reasonable people will still disagree about even after a careful analysis of both sides of the issue. On the other hand, it is important to also realize that there are certain issues that reasonable people do not disagree about; for example, all reasonable people know that racism is wrong.

Some people have difficulty with dialectical reasoning because their self-esteem depends on their being right and having their beliefs accepted by others. We all have our convictions, but the inability to consider alternative views and evidence with an open mind is a major obstacle to critical thinking. Other obstacles include:

the tendency to form quick, impulsive opinions instead of fully developed arguments; reaching decisions based on what “feels right” at the moment be, and not distinguishing

between knowledge and belief, or between belief and evidence, and not seeing any reason for justifying a belief;

thinking that because some things cannot be known with absolute certainty, any judgement about the evidence is purely subjective, and defending a position with the explanation that “We all have a right to our own opinions,” as if all opinions are created equal.

When we become capable of critical thinking, we understand that although some things can never be known with certainty, some judgements are more valid than others because of their coherence, their fit with the evidence, and their usefulness. When reasoning dialectically, we are willing to consider evidence from a variety of sources, to justify our conclusions as representing the most complete, plausible or

There are many different ways to reach a decision. This article describes one of those methods, the dialectical reasoning model of decision-making. By describing the process, providing examples for each of the steps involved, and then suggesting several issues for students to explore using the dialectical approach, Interactions seeks to guide students to a better understanding of the dialectical reasoning model of decision-making.


compelling understanding of an issue, based on currently available evidence -- this means abandoning “ignorant certainty” in favour of “intelligent confusion.”

The first step in approaching an issue is to look at "both sides" of the issue. We have termed this step 'from both perspectives'. For instance, if the basic issue we are considering is "Why are human beings violent?", we would begin by looking at both sides of the issue without forming any firm conclusions or arriving at a position. The table below represents this step.

From both perspectives: Human beings are basically peaceful and cooperative.

Reasons why I agree ….. Reasons why I disagree …. Even small children throw temper tantrums. Human beings have hunted animals in order

to survive Human beings will show aggression in order

to protect themselves and others Human beings have unfortunately displayed

aggression towards others for personal profit and national glory.

History of humans is basically one of wars and conflicts.

The only way to get what you want is to take it by force.

Violence is a basic human instinct. Power is one of the primary motivators for

behaviour. "Movies for guys who like movies" are

always violent. Males are basically violent and aggressive.

Violence is learned, we can parent our children not be violent.

Not everyone is violent, there are many people who are peaceful and cooperative.

The mass media, especially television, influences young children to be violent, if there was not so much violence on television then children would not learn to be violent.

Humans are not born aggressive, I have seen very young children play together.

People become violent only when they want something, like power or material goods. If they have everything they need, they become lazy.

Some societies cooperate, they do not fight.

To think dialectically, we must evaluate evidence and question assumptions, consider alternative interpretations, and stand ready to reassess our conclusions in the face of new evidence. This process works in a cycle that involves 3 basic steps:

a thesis, which is a statement of an idea, viewpoint or position; an antithesis, which is the statement of an alternative and possibly contrary (conflicting) idea; a synthesis, which is the reconciliation of the two prior ideas in a way that integrates the best

aspects of those ideas.

Ultimately, the synthesis serves as a new thesis and the cycle repeats. The synthesis typically shows that ideas that seem to conflict or to be contradictory are not necessarily so – there is unity in the diverse aspects of the issue. The reconciliation of the ideas, however, may require discarding weaker or flawed aspects of the ideas. Thus, other aspects of the ideas can be integrated in a way that builds on their strengths and more reasonable qualities. As an example:


Question: Why are human beings violent?

Thesis Statement and Arguments: I believe that violent behaviour develops in people as they experience and learn from the world around them. Behavioural psychologists believe that people are the products of their environment and that violent

behaviour is learned. Behavioural psychologists John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov advanced the theory that "certain basic

laws of learning" can explain the actions of both humans and animals. A child is not born knowing how to act, what is good and bad, right or wrong. People learn these things during childhood and continue to learn throughout their lives. When a child grows up experiencing family violence in the form of physical abuse or battering, he or

she learns that violence is a normal and acceptable way of acting, even with loved ones. Violence is learned through images of violence on television, in movies, and other places. The mass media plays an important role in influencing behaviour, we learn to be violent through

watching it. B.F. Skinner, stated that "the consequences of an act affects the probability of it occurring again." Unless children are rewarded for good behaviour, and punished for violent behaviour, they will not

learn to control themselves. The combination of positive and negative reinforcements will largely determine how a person behaves

later in life.

Antithesis Statement and Arguments: Aggression and violence are not learned, they are basic human instincts. Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory, described aggression as a basic human instinct. Violent behaviour is determined by aggressive and destructive forces originating in the unconscious

mind. From an early age, society teaches us to repress these instincts and to channel our energies into more

socially acceptable and creative pursuits. When our basic instincts overpower our judgement, violence results. The formative experiences of early childhood are most important in determining a person's capacity

for controlling these aggressive impulses.

Synthesis: Violent behaviour is learned, and experiences in early childhood are very important in determining behaviour in later life.

Writing a Dialectical Essay

Here are some steps to guide dialectical reasoning in writing an essay.

Step One -- IntroductionWrite an introduction providing the purpose and context for the essay. Discuss why the subject of the essay is meaningful, interesting and worthwhile. Define or explain key ideas, terms, situations, controversies, complexities, etc. [First paragraph]


Step Two -- ThesisClearly state the thesis and describe it. Then present arguments for the thesis. Describe and evaluate the reasons and supporting evidence for the thesis. [Second and third paragraphs]

Step Three – AntithesisAcknowledge and present the antithesis. Describe how it is contrary to the thesis. Describe and evaluate the supporting arguments and evidence, with a degree of rigor and passion equal to the original thesis. Be fair and do it justice. [Fourth and fifth paragraphs]

Step Four -- ConclusionConclude the essay with one of three options:

Affirm the original thesis and reject the antithesis; Adopt and advance the antithesis, giving up the thesis; or Provide a synthesis combining the best aspects of the thesis and antithesis, reconciling the two

views. [Sixth paragraph]

The conclusion needs to carefully summarize the consideration given the thesis and antithesis. Weigh and compare the ideas. Point out the significant strengths/weaknesses, advantages/disadvantages of the two positions. Explain the how and why of reaching the conclusion.

On the following page is an example of a dialectical essay based on the arguments as presented above.

Following are some sample topics and issues that can be used in dialectical reasoning: Trade with countries that commit human rights violations Immigration quotas Progressive taxation Social Assistance Employment equity Public Education Medicare Young Offender's Act Censorship Freedom of Speech Euthanasia Abortion Mandatory donation of organs for transplant Legalization of hallucinogenic drugs Use of animals in research Firearms registration Rights of the individual versus the rights of society Unemployment insurance Parole

Saskatchewan Education acknowledges the contributions of Donald McLeod, a teacher with the Saskatoon Public School Division, and Rick Ast with the Regina Public School Division, for their work with dialectical models and suggestions for dialectics.


Dialectical Reasoning Strategy

Introduction: Provide context for essay Explain the subject and

purpose of essay, why topic is meaningful, worthwhile, interesting

Define key ideas, terms, controversies, complexities

Thesis: Clearly state the position you

are taking Present supporting arguments

and evidence

Antithesis: Present counter-position,

arguments and supporting evidence

Explain how it conflicts with thesis

Conclusion: Acknowledge both positions Affirm original thesis, adopt

the antithesis or combine best parts of each position to form synthesis

Explain why and how you reached this conclusion

Why are human beings so violent?

Throughout time, people have been victims or perpetrators of violence. Violence is defined as any action intended to harm, injure, violate or dominate people, other organisms and property. It is well worth our while to study violent behaviour so that we can better understand why it happens and how we might avoid or prevent it. The social science of psychology has contributed much to our knowledge of human aggression and violence. The purpose of this essay is to explain two psychological theories about the origins of violence. Behavioural psychologists believe that people are the products of their environment and that violent behaviour is learned. Other psychologists of the psychoanalytic perspective assert that violence results from an inborn instinct people possess.I believe that violent behaviour develops in people as they experience and learn from the world around them. Behavioural psychologists John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov advanced the theory that "certain basic laws of learning" can explain the actions of both humans and animals. A child is not born knowing how to act, what is good and bad, right or wrong. People learn these things during childhood and continue to learn throughout their lives. When a child grows up experiencing family violence in the form of physical abuse or battering, he or she learns that violence is a normal and acceptable way of acting, even with loved ones. If this aggression is reinforced by images of violence on television, in movies, and other places, it becomes an even more powerful influence on a person.Another behaviourist, B.F. Skinner, demonstrated that "the consequences of an act affects the probability of it occurring again." A child growing up surrounded by violence is unacceptable and wrong only when there are negative consequences for such behaviour. Positive rewards for appropriate behaviour can reinforce this learning. The combination of positive and negative reinforcements will largely determine how a person behaves later in life.An opposing theory about the cause of human violence was advanced by Sigmund Freud who viewed aggression as a basic human instinct. Violent behaviour is determined by aggressive and destructive forces originating in the unconscious mind. From an early age, society teaches us to repress these instincts and to channel our energies into more socially acceptable and creative pursuits. When our basic instincts overpower our judgement, however, violence results. The formative experiences of early childhood are most important in determining a person's capacity for controlling these aggressive impulses.Having examined both the behaviourist and psychoanalytics theories, I agree with the behaviourists. Humankind has a vast capacity and potential for learning. We are governed more by our experience than by instinct. This is what separates us from all other animal life. Violent behaviour is acquired through learning, it is not caused by instinct or mysterious forces in the subconscious mind. I find that Freud's idea about the importance of early childhood experience actually complements the behaviourist position because this is the period of life in which the most powerful learning occurs. The greater our learning, the more control we exercise over our environment. If violence is learned, it can be unlearned.

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Live It up...For Life! - Home€¦ · Web viewSaskatchewan Education acknowledges the contributions of Donald McLeod, a teacher with the Saskatoon Public School Division, and Rick