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Source: pissedandpetty.blogspot.com

Literature Review: The Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons

A810B Final Project

Professor Sarah Dryden-Peterson

By: Catherine Hwang and Patricia Villarreal

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Introduction

“The death toll from small arms dwarfs that of all other weapons systems – and in

most years greatly exceeds the tolls of the atomic bombs that devastated

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In terms of the carnage they cause, small arms, indeed

could well be described as “weapons of mass destruction” … Small arms

proliferation is not merely a security issue; it is also an issue of human rights and

of development” (Annan, 2000).

In today’s society, where “about 1 in every 150 people on earth—a total of 40 million—are

displaced by conflict or human rights violations” (Machel, 2000, p.5) with approximately half of

these being children, more attention to the proliferation of small arms must be given by the

international community. According to the International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA),

"a thousand people die every day and at least 3,000 are injured daily by small arms and light

weapons (SALW) on a global scale" (2007, p. 2). Small arms are considered the number one tool

used to kill and injure civilians (OXFAM, 2006), which represent between "80-90% of casualties in

conflicts" (ICRC, 1999, p.3). Today, approximately "one thousand, one hundred and thirty five

companies, in more than 98 countries, are manufacturing SALW, ammunition or components, a

number that has doubled in the past 40 years" (Cross, Flew, McLean, 2004, p. 14). Had there been

another SARS epidemic or an equally life-threatening disease, the international community would

have actively sought out effective techniques to prevent its spread. However, why is there a lack of

attention on the issue of small arms and light weapons when clearly it is affecting lives on an

international scale? Further, why aren’t effective programs being implemented to educate our youth

on small arms and light weapons? What must be done to address this issue?

As Carl Triplehorn, from Save the Children states, this problem of small arms spread is not a

result of mass production, but one of illegal trafficking (Triplehorn, Telephone Interview, 2007).

Trafficking of small arms is not localized in one region, but contaminates the entire international

community. For example, 390 million guns that are produced in Italy (IANSA, 2007) find

themselves in fragile and failed states in continents such as Africa where conflict is a daily

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occurrence. Those that are most vulnerable and susceptible to the disastrous effects of small arms

are children, especially those in conflict or post-conflict situations who have witnessed the atrocities

of war first hand. "In Colombia, for example, gun deaths rose 195.6 percent for the general

population between 1979 and 2002, but increased 300 percent for children under 18 during the

same period. In Chicago, gun deaths decreased 69 percent for the general population between 1979

and 2001, but increased 131 percent for minors"(SAWG, 2006, p. 6). The younger people are when

they experience some sort of gun violence, the easier it is for it to be embedded in their minds and

see weapons as a mean to resolve conflicts (SAWG, 2006). This literature review will discuss the

issue of small arms in the global context, potential reasons for the lack of attention to them, and

some recommendations on effective ways to address this issue with those that are most vulnerable -

the children - based on existing literature in this topic. Small arms and light weapons, in this

literature review, are defined as "weapons an individual can carry. Light weapons are those operated

by two or three people. The weapons in question range from revolvers to grenade launchers”

(Machel, 2000, p.6). As quoted by Bourne, Anthony Sampson states,

"it is the small arms which have been the instruments of most of the hundred wars since the Second World War, from Lebanon to Biafra from the Yemen to Katanga; and which have been the cause of most loss of life. And it is the trade in rifles, machine guns or mortars which reveals the cold heart of a business in which diplomacy and wars are translated into orders, balance-sheets, and profits. It is here that the juxtaposition of death and commerce seem most casual and the sale of guns looks as banal as any other business” (2007, p.16).

Framing the Problem

Pamela Baxter and researchers on this topic, trace the beginning of the proliferation of small

arms and light weapons to the end of the Cold War. During that period, many of these weapons

belonged to the Soviet Union, including AK-47s and its ammunition. They were supplied in

millions to various regimes, which made them accessible to those involved in conflict (OXFAM,

2006). When the Cold War ended, all these weapons found themselves being trafficked into many

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different areas of the world, such as Africa and the Balkans. Soon after, they became accountable

for the deaths of millions of lives. Sadly, it has remained "the preferred weapon for many armed

forces, rebel groups and armed gangs because of it's proven reliability and widespread availability"

(OXFAM, 2006, p.2). Small arms are becoming more and more popular in countries throughout the

world since they are easy to obtain, operate, and cheap to acquire (OXFAM, 2006). Today, there are

approximately 50 to 70 million AK47's that are available for distribution (IANSA, 2007).

According to a research done by the Small Arms Working Group (SAWG) the estimated

legal global market for small arms is $4 billion and the illegal market is approximately $1 billion

(2006). In addition, “at least one million small arms and light weapons are stolen or lost annually

worldwide" (SAWG, 2006, p.5). Currently, guns, such as the AK-47 can be acquired for as low as

$12 in some African countries (IANSA, 2007). During the early 1990s, many states such as

Czechoslovakia decided to cease arm exports for political reasons. Unfortunately they decided to re-

enter the business a couple of years later due to economic and other reasons (ICRC, 1999).

According to research carried out by OXFAM, IANSA and Saferworld, between 1990 and 2005, the

cost of conflict in African development was approximately $300 billion dollars (2007). According

to Irungu Houghton, Oxfam’s African Policy Advisor: “The costs are shocking. Our figures are

almost certainly an under-estimate but they show conflicts are costing African economies an

average of $18bn a year. This money could solve the HIV/AIDS crisis, prevent TB and malaria, or

provide clean water, sanitation and education” (OXFAM, 2007, n/p). In addition, the UN

Commission stated that those culpable for the Rwandan genocide had continued to engage in illicit

arms sales through a variety of sources within the country even after UN sanctions on the

trafficking of illegal arms were formed (ICRC, 1999). Sadly, this portrays a very harrowing reality

that the international community is either “unwilling or unable to enforce United Nations

embargoes, blockades, and other legal sanctions that seek to prevent the flow of arms” (ICRC,

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1999, p.7).

When looking at the enormous income incurred through small arms trade, it is an enticing

and lucrative business especially for countries that benefit the most from the continued sale of small

arms. Interestingly, the International Action Network on Small Arms reports that US exports the

highest amount of small arms in the world, followed by Russia, Italy, and Germany according to

their study in 2007 (IANSA) (See Fig. 1). The consequences of this, as shown in the same study, is

that countries, such as "Colombia report the highest gun homicide rates, 49.52 per 100,000 people

each year" (IANSA, 2007, p3) (See Fig. 2). Even more surprising is the fact that "74% of the

approximate 875 million guns that circulate in the world today are in the hands of civilians,

followed by 22.9% in government armed forces and only 0.1% in armed opposition groups" (Ibid).

This indicates that civilians are responsible for causing the most deaths by guns (IANSA, 2007).

Even with the involvement of the government, small arms pose a management issue because

governments lose control of its sales once they have been dispersed to the public. The main problem

that governments encounter when trying to reduce illicit trafficking or even maintaining control of

small arms sales, is that most of it takes place at an individual level and not at the government level.

As Pamela Baxter states, "generally, such individual trades occur in countries where governments

are also weak, further increasing the complexity and making it extremely hard for them to

implement effective reduction policies" (Baxter, Phone Conversation, 2008). Even in countries with

strong governments, it is hard to manage and control the sales of small arms, which is why many

arms legitimately sold in one part of the world will be found in the arms of a child in region that is

on the opposite side of its original location.

In addition, the weight and size of small arms makes them easy for children to use and in

turn encourages the use of children as combatants. In some areas of the world children as young

as eight years old have been taught how to fire an assault rifle. Not surprisingly, "hundreds of

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thousands of children are currently serving as child soldiers in over twenty conflicts around the

world" (SAWG, 2006, p. 7). Even more startling than the amount of children that have access to

small arms are the negative emotional and psychosocial impact that it has on both the individual

child and their community.

The widespread availability and access to small arms often results in massive population displacement, uprooting millions of children and their families from their homes and making children more susceptible to disease, violence, military recruitment, and sexual assault. Approximately 20 million children have been displaced due to armed conflicts or sustained human rights violations. An estimated two thirds of these children are displaced within their own countries (SAWG, 2006, p.7).

For these reasons, it is imperative for the international community to emphasize the

importance that must be placed on implementing policies that reduce and eliminate illicit trafficking

of weapons, while actualizing gun safety programs for children. Some governments and

organizations have taken the initiative to carry out their own disarmament processes even though

they have not always proven to be completely successful.

Reducing Availability and Accessibility

According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the issue of the

international small arms trade was first placed on the United Nations agenda in 1962 (1999).

However, attention to this matter has remained proscribed and nebulous at best. As stated in the

International Committee of the Red Cross’ report on the availability of arms, the UN Security

Council pointed out the “deleterious impact of the proliferation of arms, in particular small arms, on

the security of civilians” (p.7) on February 12, 1999 at a presidential speech. However, the

implementation and enforcement of small arms prevention programs have been slow moving. In

order to address this issue, some organizations and countries have attempted to develop and

implement programs aimed at recalling the small arms in circulation and raising awareness with the

communities involved in disarmament. In most countries where small arms and light weapons have

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been used in conflicts, such as the those in the Balkans and the African continent, the processes

implemented to reduce SALW has been what is typically known as Disarmament, Demobilization

and Reintegration (DDR). The purpose of these programs are to raise awareness on the harmful

effects of small arms in hopes of encouraging communities to turn in their weapons. Many times,

these disarmament programs provide families and individuals who turn in their guns with some sort

of incentive, such as education, work, money, and other benefits. These guns are then collected,

demobilized, and destroyed to ensure that they have been removed from circulation. The last part

of the process is to reintegrate civilians that were part of these conflicts or that used a weapon

during these conflicts, such as child soldiers, back into the society.

Raising Awareness: Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Programs

Disarmament Programs have varied greatly by region and the cultural context in which the

small arms issue exists. For example, in Kosovo, the disarmament process was very context-specific

and unique from other programs used in other countries, especially in comparison to the process

used in Africa. After the peace agreements were signed in Africa, the disarmament process was

fully incorporated into the communities. The process was very organized and incorporated

incentives, such as education, books, and the like, to encourage children to bring in their arms

(Haxhikadrija, Telephone Interview, 2008). According to Amir Haxhikadrija (Ibid), the situation in

Kosovo was much more unique. First, the Kosovo Liberation Army did not recruit youth into the

armed forces. Therefore, not many young people had access to guns. Additionally, the issue of

small arms was raised about two to three years after the conflict and did not include an organized

process. Instead, the issue was basically ignored for both the youth and adults after the war (Ibid).

During the interim, many civilians- mostly adults- had access to the small arms circulating around

the region due to the conflict. Also, the presence of the NATO troops to maintain peace influenced

the disarmament process in Kosovo (Ibid). Therefore the DDR program necessitated a very

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different approach. At the onset of the awareness of the small arms issue, many local non-

governmental organizations were involved in creating activities and programs that raised the

awareness of small arms in Kosovo, such as the Kosovo Youth Council (Ibid). This council

coordinated their programs with the United Nations agencies, such as UNICEF and UNDP.

Together, they created after school workshops to train teachers and members of the student council

at the schools on how to help increase awareness on the issue of small arms. The curriculum, which

was designed by education specialists at UNICEF, incorporated the use of postcards with messages

about the dangers of small arms (Ibid). The children and teachers were encouraged to send the

postcards to others to help raise awareness. In addition, they were encouraged to use the postcards

to begin dialoguing with their parents and other community members about the issue of small arms

(Ibid). According to Haxhikadrija (Ibid), workshops incorporated the use of statistics and other data

that represented realistic figures on the effect of small arms, especially in terms of the numbers of

children killed and the negative impact on women. Part of the campaign included competitions and

sport tournaments to recruit more student participation. Also, students wrote essays and participated

in small quizzes. The class with the greatest knowledge on the topic was provided prizes such as

books to generate greater interest and receptivity. The idea was that they were giving out literature

that incorporated a small message on small arms and that this would generate awareness (Ibid).

Besides the DDR programs carried out in post-conflict areas, other countries have tried to

take action in the process of reducing illicit trafficking. For example, the US State Department has

done extensive work with regards to reducing illegal trafficking of SALW which can be found on

their website (http://www.state.gov/t/pm/wra/). The US State Department addresses illicit small

arms trades in a realistic manner that recognizes the “ legitimacy of legal trade, manufacture, and

ownership of arms (US State Department, website) while working to prevent illicit SALW trades,

especially in conflict areas.” The US State Department and the Office of Conventional Arms Threat

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Reduction in the US Department of State’s Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation

work together to prevent small arms spread by “providing stricter sanctions on violators of

embargoes, training personnel on export controls and customs practices, destroying excess of at risk

weapons, enhancing security, and destroying SALW’s at the invitation of foreign governments (US

State Department, website).” They focus primarily on reducing illegal arms trades at the political,

governmental, and military level. The problem is that there are few agencies that focus on creating

awareness campaigns and educational programs for children about living safely in a society filled

with guns. During our limited research, we found that besides the UN organization and it's

divisions, the World Health Organization, World Vision Canada, Oxfam, Amnesty International and

IANSA focus on the issue of small arms. The last three organizations mentioned have worked

together since 2003 to reduce the proliferation of arms, misuse, and to introduce an international

Arms Trade Treaty to stop the sale of arms to those that can misuse them. This treaty would allow

the transfer of arms to occur for the purposes of policing, peacekeeping, and defense. More

information on this program can be found in all three agencies websites.

Besides these international organizations, two agencies in the US focus on gun safety

programs for children. The first one is the Brady Center, which has a program entitled STAR. This

stands for Straight Talk About Risks. Its curriculum focuses on providing teachers, guidance

counselors, youth service workers, and probation officers with the information to teach kids skills

that will prevent them from becoming victims or perpetrators of gun violence. It was successfully

implemented in 1400 schools in 107 cities, reaching more than 1.7 million kids. Unfortunately the

program was suspended due to lack of funding after a few years (Brady Center, website). Ironically,

the National Riffle Association (NRA) designs the second program. It is the Eddie Eagle Gun Safe

Program, which focuses on teaching pre-kindergarten through third grade children what to do if

they encounter a gun. The program mascot, Eddie Eagle, attends schools for a certain fee, for which

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grant funding exists. Each gun safety session progresses without ever showing an actual firearm to

the children. While it is unnecessary to exhibit an actual firearm at school, it is unsuitable for the

organization to assume that all children know what a gun looks like. Many children around the

world experience guns through TV and the toys that they play with on day-to-day basis. Therefore,

their image of guns is linked to their limited interaction with firearms. While the principal message

transmitted to the children when they encounter a gun is: Stop!; Don’t Touch; Leave the Area; Tell

an Adult through the Eddie Eagle Program, more must be done to heighten children's awareness on

the seriousness and danger that guns pose. The solely purpose of the program is to promote child

safety, not to teach about whether guns are good or bad or promote the NRA in any way. This is a

very neutral approach to an educational program

The rest of the agencies reviewed, Mercy Corp, World Vision US, and other development

organizations do not have any semblance of programs that focuses on raising small arms awareness,

demobilizing civilians, or reintegrating citizens into society.

Challenges To Eliminating Small Arms and Light Weapons

While small arms awareness programs - such as Eddie Eagle, DDR, and the Kosovo Youth

Council - have slowly raised awareness within the countries, many were insufficient or unable to

garner the response needed to facilitate widespread disarmament. One of the main issues for any of

these programs lies in altering the perception and dependence that an individual or a community has

on their small arms. In some countries such as Kosovo, where the state’s condition is currently

fragile and unstable, many citizens are unsure about their future wellbeing and protection.

Therefore, they are unwilling to give up their guns (Haxhikadrija, Telephone Interview, 2008). In

addition, in protracted conflict situations in regions such as Africa, many individuals will choose to

retain their small arms to ensure their protection from recurring conflicts. DDR programs generally

do not address this fear of safety and protection. Furthermore, it is difficult to create a program that

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requests a state or community to disarm when they cannot ensure the reoccurrence of potential

future conflicts. Therefore, many programs, such as the one in Kosovo, can only function to raise

awareness in hopes of mobilizing individuals to disarm.

Related to the issue of small arms and protection is the matter of familiarity and comfort.

For many child soldiers, the small arms assigned to them become a source of comfort and security.

They have witnessed death in the most atrocious manner; some have even witnessed the deaths and

assault of their loved ones. After experiencing such devastation and with no sense of security, their

gun becomes family to them. For example, Ishmael Beah describes his experience as a child soldier

in his book, "This gun is your source of power in these times. It will protect you and provide you all

you need, if you know how to use it well" (Beah, 2007, p.124).

In addition, small arms, especially guns, are becoming embedded into culture. For example,

the United States encompasses the greatest number of small arms in households. This is mainly due

to the fact that "the right to bear arms" is entwined in the foundation and legal frameworks of the

American constitution. In other cultures, some small arms are considered an accessory. For

example, in Yemen, "where there are eight guns for every person in the country, men generally

wear their weapons similar to the ways in which women wear jewelry or carry handbags"

(Triplehorn, Telephone Interview, 2007). Therefore, many individuals choose to retain their

weapons and continue add to their small arms collection, as a fashion statement. In contexts such as

these, it is difficult to convince communities about the necessity to disarm since it is generally

accepted as part of the culture.

Other difficulties in disarming communities emerged as a result of programs focused on

disarmament and demobilization. For example, in countries where DDR (Disarmament,

Demobilization and Reintegration) has taken place, citizens usually trade in their old

weapons, receive the incentive or benefits of returning their weapon, but generally keep their newly

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purchased weapons (Triplehorn, Telephone Interview, 2007). This means, citizens will generally

buy newer small arms that are on the market, and trade in their older weapons that are no longer

needed. According to Pamela Baxter,

There is a bigger ethical problem that is taking place in these situations of demobilization, which is making people believe that weapons are a source of income. Consequently, this creates the idea that perpetrators are rewarded and victims are further punished for not having guns as a means to acquire their prize, whether it be education, jobs, money, etc. This has created a lot of anger among the victims and further conflicts have risen. Agencies need to have a parallel program to reward in some way those that were victimized and don’t have guns to trade in. The main problem in this case goes back to funding. Donors will fund for a specific program like demobilization, but there is no money to support a parallel program for victims, creating further inequity (Baxter, Phone conversation, 2008).

The situation is then further complicated. On one hand, agencies have limited resources to

carry out the DDR, which clearly tends to benefit only one side of the conflict. On the other hand,

those agencies that do have resources to also implement educational programs are confronted with

the problem of creating programs that go beyond basic awareness. Instead what is needed in an

effective program is for the agency to have the capacity to incorporate the rest of the community in

a holistic process. In a paper that examines SALW misuse and proliferation in post-conflict

societies, Adedeji Ebo eloquently states that small arms “are merely instruments for redressing

governance deficits”...and that it is vital to secure the “involvement of the community in small arms

governance beyond DDR processes. Civil education and school curricula should be used to build a

culture of peace” (Adedeji, 2005, p.8). This area is where more development work needs to be

conducted.

The Issue of Land Mines

Even with data such as this, the international community has expended more of their energy

in studying land mines. According to Pamela Baxter, the world has given a higher focus on

reducing land mines than light weapons because “land mines are passive aggressive, which means

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they can kill you even if you are not involved with them. Small weapons instead have to be operated

for them to kill you and therefore they are less dangerous to the general population" (Telephone

interview, 2008). In addition, the issue of land mines can be addressed globally in very general and

similar ways. Small arms, however, constitute very different meanings that are highly dependent on

the region or country they are inculcated in. For example, in certain countries such as the United

States, the right to bear arms is imbedded in the legal frameworks of what constitutes an

individual’s right. While this may not be true in many other countries, the unwillingness to turn in

ones’ arms is a result of similar cultural, social, and emotional factors that tie an individual to their

weapons.

Therefore, each country context requires specific programs tailored to their particular

quandary of how to manage the spread of small arms in their region. This is difficult because many

donors are unwilling to fund programs that will last for more than one year. Also, many donors

expect to witness expeditious returns on their one-year investments. However, educational programs

in general take longer than a year to implement and need to be in place for a longer period of time in

order to actually work. Donors are not usually willing to fund long-term projects, but rather

something short and sexy that they can be accounted for (Ibid). Generally, agencies do not focus on

their specific mission, but rather rely on the donor's guidance in order to secure funding for their

project and organization. Priorities become established according to the people behind them pushing

for it. As Pamela Baxter states, “Land mines are a sexy topic, small arms aren’t. Land mines had

Princess Diana very involved, small arms don’t have a big celebrity behind them” (Ibid). The

difficult balance between fulfilling an organizations specific mission and interests while securing

the funds to actually apply them to real life situations creates circumstances where many times

focus is allocated to topics that are less controversial, more appealing, and less of a threat.

Policy Recommendations and Concluding Remarks

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As we can see, there is still a long road ahead to prevent the daily deaths of one thousand

people, the injuries of 3,000 more, and to preserve the livelihood of 40 million displaced people

throughout the world. It is very sad to see that international agencies are slowly withdrawing on

their efforts to do so in this controversial topic. Nevertheless, there is only one way for actual

changes to occur. This is to move forward on the complicated mission of reducing the availability

and accessibility of small arms and light weapons from finding repose in the homes of those that

can potentially inflict harm on others. Also, it is continuing to create awareness and gun safety

educational programs for the most vulnerable populations affected in this struggle, children. There

are various strategies that can be employed to address these concerns effectively. However, only

three will be discussed in this paper.

First, organizations must design programs that connect with entire communities instead of

specific target populations. Current programs are limited in the sense that they prioritize certain

groups in terms of education or incentives. This alienates other populations who would equally

benefit from them. As stated by the International Committee of the Red Cross (1999), "increased

efforts are needed to ensure that all segments of society are aware of the limits- grounded in their

own culture as well as in international law- on the use of weapons even during armed conflicts" (p.

23). Kosovo provides an example of a state that has incorporated the international law on small

arms in their community. According to Haxhikadrija, those recruited as part of the Kosovo

Liberation Army were transitioned into the Kosovo Protection Cause whose main purpose was to

help collect weapons from ex-combatants with NATO and other peace keeping forces while at the

same time reintegrating them into the community by providing them with a formal occupation.

Most importantly, this transition provides an opportunity for those once involved in a conflict to

relieve the psychosocial baggage commonly present in these situations (Telephone Interview,

2008). While many more weapons remained in the hands of civilians, Kosovo found a strategic

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method of using the human resources that were employed during the conflict to proactively engage

in disarmament (Ibid.) In addition, legislation was implemented that fined individuals 35K Euros if

they were caught with an illegal weapon and prison sentence of seven to eight years (Ibid.)

Second, existing programs and strategies used to raise small arms awareness should be

supported. As stated in SEESAC, "existing programs on child protection, education for peace,

conflict resolution, human rights education, schools without violence, should be funded and

supported so that these approaches become integral to curricula and the functioning of the school

system" (p. iii). These programs provide a solid foundation on which to build on. The inadequacies

of current programs should not encourage their removal. Instead the international community and

organizations that create small arms awareness programs should focus on providing support and

facilitating their development into more effective programs that can be used worldwide. In order to

accomplish this, future programs should be broadened in nature so that they can be adapted to the

specific context of the country in need. As a component of this, educational programs for adults -

especially those that own weapons- should be created to coincide with gun safety lessons that their

children learn.

Finally, current programs should incorporate elements of psychological, emotional, and

cultural support that are specific to the context or region in order to address some of the main

underlying motivations that keep individuals dependent on their arms.

As stated in the International Committee of the Red Cross (1999), the vicious cycle of

insecurity which fuels a demand for arms, which in turn creates a demand for yet more weapons,

needs to be broken. The trend towards the privatization of security and the failure of States to

assume their responsibility to provide secure living conditions for all citizens is an issue that needs

to be urgently addressed. Clearly this will require resources not only for police and criminal justice

systems but also for economic and social development. It also implies renewed determination

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among political and social leaders to resolve conflicts without resorting to force and the support of

the international community for efforts to that end (ICRC, 1999, p.23).

In order to break the demand for weapons, the root causes of their need must be address

through small arms awareness educational programs. However, this should not only address

security and protection. This is only one of the underlying causes that keep individuals attached to

their weapons. All other components such as cultural factors should be addressed as well.

The wide distribution of illegal small arms and light weapons is both highly complex and

organized. In order to effectively and efficiently thwart the continued spread of illegal arms to

communities, programs structured to reach affected populations must be equally organized and

dynamic in nature. Without widespread support and attention given to this issue, the future of the

international community lies in balance. Children, especially, will continue to remain unsuspecting

victims. In addition, entire communities will continually face displacement and a diminishing sense

of livelihood without immediate attention. States, governments, and organizations must work

together to assist in the effort to eliminate the flow of small arms and light weapons transfers

globally.

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South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Arms and Light Weapons (SEESAC). (2006). Review of Key Literature on Children, Youth and Small Arms. UNDP.

South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Arms and Light Weapons (SEESAC). (2007). Weblinks on Small Arms, Education and Children. UNDP.

South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Arms and Light Weapons (SEESAC). (2007). SASP 3. SALW Awareness Support Pack. UNDP.

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South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Arms and Light Weapons (SEESAC). (2007). SEESAC ACTIVITY REPORT – AR/095. LITERATURE REVIEWS RELATING TO CHILDREN, EDUCATION AND SMALL ARMS. UNDP.

Stohl, R., Myerscouogh, R. (2007). Sub-Saharan Small Arms: The Damage Continues. Available online at: www.cdi.org

The Brady Center. (n.d.). Small Arms Brochure The Quaker United Nations Office. (2007). Peace and Disarmament. Setting a New Agenda for

Demand Work: Next Steps in the Comprehensive Approach to Small Arms Control. Geneva.

The United Nations General Assembly. (2006). Report of the United Nations Conference to Review Progress Made in the Implementation of the Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects. A/CONF.192/2006/RC/9.

Phone Interviews Conducted:

Baxter, Pamela. (2008). Phone interview by authors. January 19, 2008. Cambridge, MA/Sudan Haxhikadrija, Amir (2008). Phone interview by authors. February 2, 2008. Cambridge, MA/Kosovo Triplehorn, Carl. (2007). Phone interview by authors. November 17, 2007. Cambridge, MA/Chad Triplehorn, Carl. (2007). Phone interview by authors. November 18, 2007. Cambridge, MA/Chad Triplehorn, Carl. (2007). Phone interview by authors. December 4, 2007. Cambridge,

MA/Washington, D.C. Other sources that provided information via email:

Sommers, Marc. Associate Research Professor of Humanitarian Studies Institute of Human Security. The Fletcher School. Tufts University.

Stevens, John E. III. Foreign Affairs Officer. Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement (PM/WRA). Bureau pf Political-Military Affairs. U.S. Department of State.

Websites Visited:

Amnesty International: http://www.amnesty.org/en/campaigns/control-arms BBC News: www.bbc.com CDI: www.cdi.org IANSA: http://www.iansa.org OXFAM: http://www.oxfam.org/en/programs/campaigns/controlarms/) The Brady Center: www.bradycenter.org The U.S. Department of State: http://www.state.gov/t/pm/wra/ http://www.fas.org/asmp/campaigns/smallarms/primer.html Images:

Front page: pissedandpetty.blogspot.com Figures 1 & 2: IANSA. (2007). Gun Violence: The Global Crisis

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Fig. 1: Guns Facts and Figures: Map showing importers and exporters 2004 small arms transfers

Note: Imports are presented first in dark bold and Exports are in lighter shade afterwards Source: IANSA: Global Crisis 2007

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Fig. 2: Gun homicide rates by country

Source: IANSA: Global Crisis 2007