Literacy: A Developmental Perspective for Educators

The stages of development and components of intervention

Question #1

Timothy is in the 2nd grade. It is January. He is identified as “yellow” in DIBELS. Which statement best fits:

a.Reading fluency is 42 words per minute.b.He is unable to decode.c.Comprehension of written text is 40%.d.No way to tell from the data.e.I have no idea.f.Where are the snacks?

Question #2

Bernice is in the 7th grade. She is given grade level materials to read but it takes her a long time to read them. She then answers verbal questions on the material with 20 – 30% accuracy. What do you think is the “problem”?

a.The reading problem may be decoding but more likely it is fluency or comprehension.b.She is in the 7th grade! The problem is comprehension.c.If the problem is not comprehension then it could be vocabulary or motivation.

Question #3

Mr. Thompson is reading to his kindergarten class. The book is great; it has large words and pictures. At the end of the reading he asks students verbal questions.

a.He is working on reading comprehension.b.This is a vocabulary exercise.c.The major objective is print awareness.d.The best answer is not listed.

Basic points

• There are distinct but overlapping stages in reading development.

• Reading instruction must take into account these stages!

• Instruction must proceed hierarchically and developmentally regardless of the age of the student (even adults).

What are these stages?

Literacy Development

Saying First Word

Putting 2 Words

Together

Phono-logical

AwarenessPhonemic Awareness

Decoding (Phonics) Fluency

Compre-hension

Functionally Literate

12 months 24 months 2 – 4 years 6 years 6- 7 yearsEnd of 2nd

Grade 3rd Grade 4th to 5th grade

Words are taking the place of pictures in the mind. Thinking symbolically

Children want to express meaning using early sentences

Understands that spoken words are made up of individual sounds

Understands that letters represent sounds

The child is well on the way towards knowing the relationship between letters and sounds

Reading fluency at the start of 2nd grade is ~42 wpm. By the end of 2nd it is ~90 wpm

Student is learning comprehension strategies

The student has transitioned from “learning to read” to “reading to learn”

The Essential Components of Literacy

1. Phonological Awareness2. Decoding3. Fluency4. Comprehension5. Vocabulary

Phonological Awareness

Decoding (Phonics)

Fluency

Comprehension

Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary ------- Reading Vocabulary/Written Vocabulary

K 1st 2nd 3rd

Vocabulary Development

Birth 12 months 4-5 years

Receptive Vocabulary

Expressive Vocabulary

Reading Vocabulary

Written Vocabulary

Phonological Awareness

Phonological Awareness: Different skills are included in phonological awareness. (AKA: emergent literacy)

Phonological awareness (basic): The understanding that words are made up of different sounds. (3-4 years of age).

Phonemic awareness (a type of phonological awareness): The understanding that sounds (phonemes) link to letters (graphemes). (5 years of age)

Also included: blending, segmenting, early rhyming and others

Decoding and Encoding

Encoding: The rules that govern how graphemes are linked to create words.

Decoding: The rules that govern how words can be translated to phonemes.

Phonics: The training of encoding and decoding.

Each language has a code. English has a rather complicated code compared to many other languages (e.g., Japanese).

Fluency

Fluency: Reading speech and agility. Includes:

• Speed• Accuracy• Prosody (following the rules of intonation)

Norms: Fluency has well-established norms.

We will look at the norms more closely in a

moment.

Comprehension

Comprehension: Assigning meaning to text. It is influenced by:

• Ability to decode unknown words• Vocabulary knowledge• Background knowledge• Reading fluency• Motivation and reading self-efficacy

Questions

1. Are you working on reading comprehension in Kindergarten?

2. What happens if you provide a comprehension intervention for a student “stuck” in a decoding stage?

3. What is the point of doing a reading/literacy screening?

Norms

• Norms exist for each reading skill.

• Norms for reading show what skill is expected at what age and how adept the child should be at that age.

• Norms take into account the developmental range often in units of standard deviation.

• Here are some examples:

5th Grades Skills: Norms and Growth

Weekly Growth Rates

SKILLFall to Winter

Winter to Spring

Identify Sight Words (See to Say) 1.1 1Identify Words in a Passage (See to Say) 0.17 1.2Spelling (Hear to Write) 0.16 0.14

Norms

SKILLFall to Winter

Winter to Spring

Identify Sight Words (See to Say) 97 107.6Identify Words in a Passage (See to Say) 134.3 152Spelling (Hear to Write) 9.2 10.8All items are based on correct responses per minute.

Fluency: Hasbrouck and Tindal Norms

Grade PercentileRate (CWPM)Time Growth

Where would a 7th grader be at the 50th percentile in

the Spring?

Why Norms?

• Norms reflect normal development.• The curriculum should be based on norms.• Norms provide a measure of status and growth.

• Establish interventions based on norms.• Determine effectiveness of instruction.

Questions: 1.If a child is one standard deviation behind at the

start of 4th grade and she makes a year’s growth, what will her status be at the end of the school year?

2.How much growth is needed in one year to close this gap?

Growth Patterns

Phonological Decoding Fluency ComprehensionAwareness

Note the steep growth curve

especially through age 9

years.

3-5 years 5-6 years 6-7 years 7-9 yearsAge

Skill

Typical Child Development

Current (National) Status for Children 1 Year Below Age Level

Phonological Decoding Fluency ComprehensionAwareness

3-5 years 5-6 years 6-7 years 7-9 yearsAge

Skill

>1 year below

Typical Child Development

NAEP•34% below basic at 4th grade•32% below basic at 8th grade•78% graduation rate

Cohort of poor performers

Student C

Phonological Decoding Fluency ComprehensionAwareness

3-5 years 5-6 years 6-7 years 7-9 yearsAge

Skill

>1 year below

Typical Child Development

Student C

What can we say about Student C?

1. Growth trajectory is steeper than normal.

2. Gap is closed by 50%.

3. It will take two years to close gap.

Student C: What it takes!

Kindergarten 1st Grade

Step 1: Screen

Step 2: Intervene

Step 3: Progress Monitor

Step 4: Modify Plan as Needed

Keys to Success:

•Screen early•Link data to development•Identify proven intervention(s)•Progress monitor frequently

Let’s Reflect

• 28% of American students enter school more than 1 year below age level.

• Skills (e.g., literacy, numeracy, behavior) are developmental in nature

• Curriculum not in line with development is a problem! (NAEP scores)

• Interventions must be linked to skill developmental level and be effective.

Interventions: Are they any good?

Student C: - 1 SD

Question: In units of standard deviation, how much gain does this student need to be at average by the end of the year?

Effect Size: A measure of effectiveness in units of SD.

Example: Read 180

Researched through http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Topic.aspx?sid=8(Search for “What Works Clearinghouse”)

Analysis:Effect Size and Percentile GainsFluency Comprehension0.0* .4 (average 4%ile points)

Questions:1.Would you use Read 180 for fluency intervention?2.How long would it take a student to close a gap?

Key Points on Interventions

• Research-based vs. Proven Practices: • The mandate is to use research-based practices.

• Research-based means that there exists some evidence that the practice has worked.

• Effect Size: • Look for a reported effect size or percentile growth before investing (funds or energy).

• Effect size = .4 or greater, Percentile = 7 points or greater

Use the right medicine!

Progress-Monitoring: Example

9/1 9/10 9/17 9/24 10/2 10/10

Reading Fluency: 3rd grade

71

42

65

Questions:

What is the Aim Line?

Did the intervention work?

Would you continue with the intervention?

Ultimate goal for this student, re: 3rd grade?

Let’s review two slides!

The Essential Components of Literacy1. Phonological Awareness2. Decoding3. Fluency4. Comprehension5. Vocabulary

Phonological Awareness

Decoding (Phonics)

Fluency

Comprehension

Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary ------- Reading Vocabulary/Written Vocabulary

K 1st 2nd 3rd

Summary Points

• Interventions:• Effect size• Progress monitored• Linked to developmental stage

• School needs:• Knowledge about skill development• Deliberate plan to use interventions (PEP as documentation)

• Schedule to support interventions

Just to whet your appetite!

Go to: www.alamancesertoma.com on the School Materials page for this PowerPoint and associated materials.

Middle School Issues

• Curricular Expectation: Students know how to read.

• The curriculum does not include teaching students to read.

• Most middle school teachers do not understand reading development.

• The schedule may not be set up to provide interventions AND who would do it?

• OPTIONS:1. Do nothing2. Create a plan for meeting the needs

What is involved in MS?

• Training on literacy and literacy interventions

• Screening tool • Identify student’s specific needs• Create a plan for meeting those needs

1. 7% decoding2. 72% fluency3. 11% comprehension4. 1% other