LINA THATTE Presentation

8/4/2019 LINA THATTE Presentation

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Workshop on ResearchWorkshop on ResearchProcessProcess

Dr.Mrs.Lina R.ThatteDr.Mrs.Lina R.ThatteAssociate Professor & HeadAssociate Professor & Head

Department of EconomicsDepartment of Economics

K.E.T.s V.G.Vaze College of Arts,Sci,&K.E.T.s V.G.Vaze College of Arts,Sci,&COM.COM.

MULUND (East) Mumbai 40081MULUND (East) Mumbai 40081


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Research is a Structured Way ofResearch is a Structured Way of

Learning to Solve ProblemsLearning to Solve Problems Research is a structured way ofResearch is a structured way oflearninglearning.. The structure used is theThe structure used is the scientificscientific

method.method.

The knowledge and understandingThe knowledge and understandingresulting from the learning process is usedresulting from the learning process is used

to solveto solve problems that are relevant toproblems that are relevant tosociety.society.


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What is Scientific Method?What is Scientific Method?

The scientific method consists of followingThe scientific method consists of followingstepssteps::

initial problem analysisinitial problem analysis analysis of a researchable problemanalysis of a researchable problem finding cluesfinding clues Collecting the evidenceCollecting the evidence communicate findingscommunicate findings


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Essential Characteristics of theEssential Characteristics of the

Scientific MethodScientific Method

clear conceptual frameworkclear conceptual framework

clear hypothesesclear hypotheses systematic, objective data collection and analysissystematic, objective data collection and analysis insightful interpretationinsightful interpretation

being criticalbeing critical communicating the results to others for reviewcommunicating the results to others for review


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Research Problem FormulationResearch Problem Formulation

Well begun is half done"Well begun is half done" ---- quoting anquoting anold proverbold proverb


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Where do research topics comeWhere do research topics comefrom?from?

Your experience of practical problems inYour experience of practical problems inyour field.your field.

If you are directly engaged in social,If you are directly engaged in social,health or human service programhealth or human service programimplementation and come up with ideasimplementation and come up with ideas

based on what you see happening aroundbased on what you see happening aroundyou.you.


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literature in your specific fieldliterature in your specific field..Certainly, you get ideas for research byCertainly, you get ideas for research by

reading the literature and thinking of waysreading the literature and thinking of waysto extend or refine previous research.to extend or refine previous research.


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Another type of literature that acts as a source of goodAnother type of literature that acts as a source of goodresearch ideas is theresearch ideas is the Requests For ProposalsRequests For Proposals ((RFPRFPs)s)that are published by government agencies and somethat are published by government agencies and some

companies.companies.These RFPs describe some problem that the agencyThese RFPs describe some problem that the agencywould like researchers to addresswould like researchers to address ---- they arethey are virtuallyvirtuallyhanding over the researcher an idea!handing over the researcher an idea! Typically, the RFPTypically, the RFPdescribes the problem that needs addressing, thedescribes the problem that needs addressing, the

contexts in which it operates, the approach they wouldcontexts in which it operates, the approach they wouldlike you to take to investigate to address the problem,like you to take to investigate to address the problem,and the amount they would be willing to pay for suchand the amount they would be willing to pay for suchresearch.research.


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Think up your researchThink up your research topic on yourtopic on yourown.own. Of course, no one lives in a vacuum,Of course, no one lives in a vacuum,

so we would expect that the ideas youso we would expect that the ideas youcome up with on your own are influencedcome up with on your own are influencedbyby your background, culture, educationyour background, culture, education

and experiencesand experiences..


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Is your study feasible?Is your study feasible?

Very soon after you get an idea for a studyVery soon after you get an idea for a studyreality begins to kick inreality begins to kick in and you begin toand you begin to

think about whether the study is feasiblethink about whether the study is feasibleat all.at all.

There are several major considerationsThere are several major considerations

that come into play. Many of these involvethat come into play. Many of these involvemakingmaking tradeoffs between rigor andtradeoffs between rigor andpracticalitypracticality..


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Is your study feasible?Is your study feasible?

you have to think aboutyou have to think abouthow long thehow long theresearch will takeresearch will take to accomplish.to accomplish.

Second, you have to question whether there areSecond, you have to question whether there areimportantimportantethical constraintsethical constraints that needthat needconsideration.consideration.

Third, can you achieve theThird, can you achieve the neededneededcooperationcooperation to take the project to itsto take the project to itssuccessful conclusion.successful conclusion.

And fourth, how significant are theAnd fourth, how significant are the costscosts ofof

conducting the research.conducting the research.


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The Literature ReviewThe Literature Review

One of theOne of the most important early stepsmost important early steps in ain aresearch project is the conducting of theresearch project is the conducting of the

literature review.literature review. This is also one of the mostThis is also one of the mosthumbling experiences you're likely to have.humbling experiences you're likely to have.

concentrate your efforts on theconcentrate your efforts on the scientificscientificliteratureliterature.. Try to determine what the mostTry to determine what the most

credible research journals are in your topicalcredible research journals are in your topicalarea and start with those.area and start with those. Put the greatestPut the greatestemphasis on research journals that use a blindemphasis on research journals that use a blindreview system.review system.


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The Literature ReviewThe Literature Review

Do the review earlyDo the review early in the researchin the researchprocess. You are likely to learn a lot in theprocess. You are likely to learn a lot in the

literature review thatliterature review thatwill help you inwill help you inmaking the tradeoffs you'll need to facemaking the tradeoffs you'll need to face..After all, previous researchers also had toAfter all, previous researchers also had to

face tradeoff decisions.face tradeoff decisions.


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Why a Literature Review?Why a Literature Review?

First, you might be able to find a study that is quiteFirst, you might be able to find a study that is quitesimilar to the one you are thinking of doing. Since allsimilar to the one you are thinking of doing. Since allcredible research studies have to review the literaturecredible research studies have to review the literature

themselves, you can check their literature reviewthemselves, you can check their literature review to getto geta quicka quick--start on your own.start on your own.

Second, prior research will help assure that youSecond, prior research will help assure that you includeincludeall of the major relevant constructs in your studyall of the major relevant constructs in your study. You. Youmay find that other similar studies routinely look at anmay find that other similar studies routinely look at an

outcome that you might not have included. If you didoutcome that you might not have included. If you didyour study without that construct, it would not beyour study without that construct, it would not be

judged credible if it ignored a major construct.judged credible if it ignored a major construct.


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Why a Literature Review?Why a Literature Review?

Third, the literature review will help you to findThird, the literature review will help you to findand selectand selectappropriate measurementappropriate measurement

instruments.instruments.You will readily see whatYou will readily see whatmeasurement instruments researchers usemeasurement instruments researchers usethemselves in contexts similar to yours.themselves in contexts similar to yours.

Finally, the literature review will help you toFinally, the literature review will help you to

anticipate common problemsanticipate common problems in your researchin your researchcontext. You can use the prior experiences ofcontext. You can use the prior experiences ofothers to avoid common traps and pitfalls.others to avoid common traps and pitfalls.


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Conceptual FrameworkConceptual Framework ::

Descriptive and ExplanatoryDescriptive and Explanatory

Social researchers askSocial researchers ask two fundamentaltwo fundamentaltypes of research questions:types of research questions:

1 What is going on (descriptive research)?1 What is going on (descriptive research)?

2 Why is it going on (explanatory2 Why is it going on (explanatoryresearch)?research)?


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Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

Good description is fundamental to the researchGood description is fundamental to the researchenterprise and it has added immeasurably to ourenterprise and it has added immeasurably to ourknowledge of the shape and nature of ourknowledge of the shape and nature of oursociety.society.

Descriptive research encompasses muchDescriptive research encompasses muchgovernment sponsored research including thegovernment sponsored research including thepopulation census, the collection of a wide rangepopulation census, the collection of a wide rangeof social indicators and economic informationof social indicators and economic information

such as household expenditure patterns, timesuch as household expenditure patterns, timeuse studies, employment and crime statisticsuse studies, employment and crime statisticsand the like.and the like.


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Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research -- ConcreteConcrete

Descriptions can beDescriptions can be concreteconcrete oror abstractabstract..

A relatively concrete description mightA relatively concrete description mightdescribedescribe the ethnic mix of a community,the ethnic mix of a community,the changing age profile of a population orthe changing age profile of a population orthe gender mix of a workplace, exportthe gender mix of a workplace, export

performance of a country.performance of a country.


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Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research -- AbstractAbstract

Alternatively, the description might ask more abstractAlternatively, the description might ask more abstractquestions such asquestions such as `Is the level of social inequality`Is the level of social inequalityincreasing or declining?',increasing or declining?', `How secular is society?' or`How secular is society?' or

`What is the trend in exports of a country?'`What is the trend in exports of a country?'

Accurate descriptionsAccurate descriptions of the level of unemployment orof the level of unemployment orpoverty have historicallypoverty have historically played a key role in social policyplayed a key role in social policyreformsreforms. By demonstrating the existence of social. By demonstrating the existence of socialproblems,problems, competent description can challenge acceptedcompetent description can challenge acceptedassumptions about the way things are and canassumptions about the way things are and can

provoke action.provoke action.


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Descriptive to ExplanatoryDescriptive to Explanatory

Good description provokes the `why' questionsGood description provokes the `why' questionsof explanatory researchof explanatory research. If we detect greater. If we detect greater

social polarization over the last 20 yearssocial polarization over the last 20 years(i.e. the rich are getting richer and the poor are(i.e. the rich are getting richer and the poor aregetting poorer) we are forced to ask `Why isgetting poorer) we are forced to ask `Why isthis happening?'this happening?'

But before asking `why?' we must be sure aboutBut before asking `why?' we must be sure aboutthe fact and dimensions of the phenomenon ofthe fact and dimensions of the phenomenon ofincreasing polarization.increasing polarization.


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Explanatory ResearchExplanatory Research

Why QuestionWhy Question

Explanatory researchExplanatory research focuses on why questionsfocuses on why questions..For example, it is one thing to describe theFor example, it is one thing to describe thecrime rate in a country, to examine trends overcrime rate in a country, to examine trends overtime or to compare the rates in differenttime or to compare the rates in differentcountries.countries.It is quite a different thingIt is quite a different thing to developto develop

explanations about why the crime rate is as highexplanations about why the crime rate is as highas it is, why some types of crime are increasingas it is, why some types of crime are increasingor why the rate is higher in some countries/or why the rate is higher in some countries/regions than in others.regions than in others.


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Many HunchesMany HunchesThe way in which researchers develop researchThe way in which researchers develop researchdesigns is fundamentally affected by whetherdesigns is fundamentally affected by whetherthe research question is descriptive orthe research question is descriptive orexplanatoryexplanatory..It affects what information is collected. ForIt affects what information is collected. Forexample, if we want to explain why some peopleexample, if we want to explain why some peopleare more likely to be apprehended and convictedare more likely to be apprehended and convictedof crimes we need to have hunches about whyof crimes we need to have hunches about whythis is so.this is so. We may have many possiblyWe may have many possiblyincompatible hunches and will need to collectincompatible hunches and will need to collectinformation that enables us to see whichinformation that enables us to see which

hunches work best empirically.hunches work best empirically.


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Simple Causal ModelSimple Causal ModelAnswering the `why' questions involvesAnswering the `why' questions involvesdeveloping causal explanations. Causaldeveloping causal explanations. Causalexplanations argue that phenomenon Y (e.g.explanations argue that phenomenon Y (e.g.income levelincome level) is affected by factor X (e.g.) is affected by factor X (e.g.gendergender).).

Some causal explanations will be simple. ForSome causal explanations will be simple. Forexample, we might argue that there is a directexample, we might argue that there is a directeffect of gender on income (i.e. simple gendereffect of gender on income (i.e. simple genderdiscrimination).discrimination).


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Complex Causal ModelComplex Causal ModelWe might argue for a complex causalWe might argue for a complex causalchain, such as that gender affectschain, such as that gender affects choicechoice

of field of trainingof field of training which in turn affectswhich in turn affectsoccupational optionsoccupational options, which are linked to, which are linked toopportunities for promotionopportunities for promotion which in turnwhich in turn

affectaffectincome levelincome level. Or we could posit a. Or we could posit amore complex model involving a numbermore complex model involving a numberof interrelated causal chains.of interrelated causal chains.


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Explanatory ResearchExplanatory Research--

TheorisingTheorisingAttempts to answer the `why' questions inAttempts to answer the `why' questions insocial science are theoriessocial science are theories. These theories. These theories

vary in their complexity (how manyvary in their complexity (how manyvariables and links), abstraction andvariables and links), abstraction andscope.scope.

To understand the role of theory inTo understand the role of theory in

empirical research it is useful toempirical research it is useful todistinguish between two different styles ofdistinguish between two different styles of

research:research: theory testing and theorytheory testing and theory

buildingbuilding


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Theory BuildingTheory Building

Theory building isTheory building is a process in which researcha process in which researchbegins with observations and uses inductivebegins with observations and uses inductivereasoning to derive a theory from thesereasoning to derive a theory from theseobservations.observations.These theories attempt to make sense ofThese theories attempt to make sense ofobservations. Because the theory is producedobservations. Because the theory is produced

after observations are made it is often calledafter observations are made it is often calledpost factum theory orpost factum theory or ex post facto theorizingex post facto theorizing..


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Theory buildingTheory building

Fitting into a PatternFitting into a PatternThis form of theory building entails asking whether theThis form of theory building entails asking whether theobservation is a particular case of a more general factor,observation is a particular case of a more general factor,oror how the observation fits into a pattern or a story.how the observation fits into a pattern or a story.

For example, Durkheim observed that theFor example, Durkheim observed that the suicide ratesuicide ratewas higher among Protestants than Catholicswas higher among Protestants than Catholics. But is. But isreligious affiliation a particular case of something morereligious affiliation a particular case of something moregeneral? Of what more general phenomenon might it begeneral? Of what more general phenomenon might it bean indicator? Are there other observations that shed lightan indicator? Are there other observations that shed lighton this?on this?

He also observed that men were more suicidal thanHe also observed that men were more suicidal thanwomen, urban dwellers more than rural dwellers and thewomen, urban dwellers more than rural dwellers and thesocially mobile more than the socially stable.socially mobile more than the socially stable.


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Theory Building:Theory Building:

Exhaustive explanationsExhaustive explanationsHe argued that the common factor behind allHe argued that the common factor behind allthese observations was that those groups whothese observations was that those groups whowere most suicidal were also less well sociallywere most suicidal were also less well socially

integrated and experienced greater ambiguityintegrated and experienced greater ambiguityabout how to behave and what is right andabout how to behave and what is right andwrong.wrong.He theorized that one of the explanations forHe theorized that one of the explanations forsuicidal behavior wassuicidal behavior was a sense ofa sense ofnormlessnessnormlessness a disconnectedness ofa disconnectedness ofindividuals from their social worldindividuals from their social world..


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Theory Testing:Theory Testing:General to ParticularGeneral to Particular

In contrast, a theory testing approachIn contrast, a theory testing approach beginsbeginswith a theory and uses theory to guide whichwith a theory and uses theory to guide which

observations to make:observations to make: it moves fromit moves from the generalthe generalto the particular.to the particular.

UsingUsing deductive reasoningdeductive reasoning to derive a set ofto derive a set of

propositions from the theory does this.propositions from the theory does this.


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Theory testing :Theory testing :Accept or Reject or Modify TheoryAccept or Reject or Modify Theory

We then assess whether these predictions areWe then assess whether these predictions arecorrect. If they are correct the theory iscorrect. If they are correct the theory issupported. If they do not hold up then thesupported. If they do not hold up then thetheory needs to be either rejected or modified.theory needs to be either rejected or modified.

For example,For example, we may wish to test the theorywe may wish to test the theorythat it is not divorce itself that affects thethat it is not divorce itself that affects thewellbeing of children but the level of conflictwellbeing of children but the level of conflictbetween parents.between parents.

To test this idea we can make predictions aboutTo test this idea we can make predictions aboutthe wellbeing of children under different familythe wellbeing of children under different familyconditions.conditions.


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Theory TestingTheory Testing


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Theory TestingTheory Testing

Proposition 1: children in situations (a) and (b) would be equally wellProposition 1: children in situations (a) and (b) would be equally welloffoff

Proposition 2: children in situations (c) and (d ) should be equallyProposition 2: children in situations (c) and (d ) should be equallypoorly offpoorly off

Proposition 3: children in situation (c) will do worse than those inProposition 3: children in situation (c) will do worse than those insituation (a) .situation (a) .

Proposition 4: children in situation (d ) will do worse than those inProposition 4: children in situation (d ) will do worse than those insituation (b).situation (b).

Proposition 5: children in situation (b) will do better than those inProposition 5: children in situation (b) will do better than those insituation (c).situation (c).

Proposition 6: children in situation (a) will do better than those inProposition 6: children in situation (a) will do better than those insituation (d )situation (d )


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Theory testingTheory testing

Test a set of propositionsTest a set of propositionsNo single proposition would provide aNo single proposition would provide acompelling test of the original theory.compelling test of the original theory.

Indeed, taken on its own proposition 3,Indeed, taken on its own proposition 3,for example, would reveal nothing aboutfor example, would reveal nothing aboutthe impact of divorce. However,the impact of divorce. However, taken astaken as

a package, the set of propositionsa package, the set of propositionsprovides a stronger test of the theory thanprovides a stronger test of the theory thanany single proposition.any single proposition.


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Theory testing & building :Theory testing & building :

Research ProcessResearch ProcessAlthough theory testing and theoryAlthough theory testing and theorybuilding are often presented as alternativebuilding are often presented as alternative

modes of researchmodes of research they should be part ofthey should be part ofone ongoing process of research.one ongoing process of research.


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What is Research Design?What is Research Design?

Research design can be thoughtResearch design can be thought

of as theof as the structurestructure of researchof research ----it is the "glue" that holds all ofit is the "glue" that holds all ofthe elements in a research projectthe elements in a research project

together.together.


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What is research design?What is research design?

An analogyAn analogyWhen constructing a building there is no pointWhen constructing a building there is no pointordering materials or setting critical dates forordering materials or setting critical dates for

completion of project until we know what sortcompletion of project until we know what sortof building is being constructed. The firstof building is being constructed. The firstdecision is whether we need a high rise officedecision is whether we need a high rise officebuilding, a factory for manufacturing machinery,building, a factory for manufacturing machinery,

a school, a residential home or an apartmenta school, a residential home or an apartmentblock. Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan,block. Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan,obtain permission, work out a work schedule orobtain permission, work out a work schedule ororder materials.order materials.


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Function of Research DesignFunction of Research Design

Social research needs a design or a structureSocial research needs a design or a structurebefore data collection or analysis canbefore data collection or analysis cancommence. A research design is not just a workcommence. A research design is not just a work

plan. Awork plan points out what has to beplan. Awork plan points out what has to bedone to complete the project but the work plandone to complete the project but the work planwill flow from the project's research design.will flow from the project's research design.

The function of a research design isThe function of a research design is to ensureto ensurethat the evidence obtained enables us to answerthat the evidence obtained enables us to answerthe initial question as unambiguously as possiblethe initial question as unambiguously as possible


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Evidence to Answer ResearchEvidence to Answer Research

QuestionsQuestionsObtaining relevant evidence entails specifyingObtaining relevant evidence entails specifyingthe type of evidence needed to answer thethe type of evidence needed to answer the

research question, to test a theory, to evaluate aresearch question, to test a theory, to evaluate aprogramme or to accurately describe someprogramme or to accurately describe somephenomenon.phenomenon.

In other words, when designing research ,weIn other words, when designing research ,we

need to ask: given this research question (orneed to ask: given this research question (ortheory), what type of evidence is needed totheory), what type of evidence is needed toanswer the question (or test the theory) in aanswer the question (or test the theory) in aconvincing way?convincing way?


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Quantitative Research DesignsQuantitative Research Designs

i) Descriptivei) Descriptive Describe phenomena as they exist. DescriptiveDescribe phenomena as they exist. Descriptive

studies generally take raw data and summarizestudies generally take raw data and summarize

it in a useable form.it in a useable form. Can also be qualitative in nature if the sampleCan also be qualitative in nature if the sample

size is small and data are collected fromsize is small and data are collected fromquestionnaires, interviews or observations.questionnaires, interviews or observations.

used by social scientists to describe humanused by social scientists to describe humanbehaviors, by market analysts to look at thebehaviors, by market analysts to look at thehabits of customers, and by corporates seekinghabits of customers, and by corporates seekinginsight about company practices.insight about company practices.


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ii) Experimentalii) Experimental

The art of planning and implementing anThe art of planning and implementing an

experiment in which the researcher hasexperiment in which the researcher hascontrol over some of the conditions wherecontrol over some of the conditions wherethe study takes place and control overthe study takes place and control over

some aspects of the independentsome aspects of the independentvariable(s) (presumed cause or variablevariable(s) (presumed cause or variableused to predict another variable)used to predict another variable)


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iii) Quasiiii) Quasi--experimentalexperimental

A form of experimental research. One in whichA form of experimental research. One in which

the researcher cannot control at least one of thethe researcher cannot control at least one of thethree elements of an experimental design:three elements of an experimental design:

EnvironmentEnvironment Intervention (program or practice)Intervention (program or practice) Assignment to experimental and control groupsAssignment to experimental and control groups


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Qualitative Research DesignsQualitative Research Designs

i) Historicali) Historical

Collection and evaluation of data relatedCollection and evaluation of data relatedto past events that are used to describeto past events that are used to describecauses, effects and trends that maycauses, effects and trends that mayexplain present or future events. Data areexplain present or future events. Data are

often archival.often archival. Data includes interviews.Data includes interviews.


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ii) Ethnographicii) Ethnographic

The collection of extensive narrative data overThe collection of extensive narrative data over

an extended period of time in natural settings toan extended period of time in natural settings togain insights.gain insights.

Data are collected through observations atData are collected through observations atparticular points of time over a sustained period.particular points of time over a sustained period.

Data include observations, records andData include observations, records andinterpretations of what is seen.interpretations of what is seen. Study of social groups.Study of social groups.


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iii) Case Studiesiii) Case Studies

An inAn in--depth study of an individual group,depth study of an individual group,institution, organization or program.institution, organization or program.

Data include interviews, field notes ofData include interviews, field notes ofobservations, archival data andobservations, archival data and

biographical data.biographical data.


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Choice of Research DesignChoice of Research Design

That research design should be selectedThat research design should be selectedwhich collects the evidence to answer thewhich collects the evidence to answer the

research questions convincingly.research questions convincingly.


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Research DesignResearch Design

After selecting the research design, the decisionsAfter selecting the research design, the decisionsas regardsas regards

Sampling,Sampling, Method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire,Method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire,observation, document analysis),observation, document analysis),

Design of questionsDesign of questions Data analysisData analysis

are taken.are taken.


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Resource Conversion TheoryResource Conversion Theory

The theory contends that the resources toThe theory contends that the resources towhich a person has access duringwhich a person has access during

childhood, such as financial and culturalchildhood, such as financial and culturalresources of the family of origin, as wellresources of the family of origin, as wellas status assets and cognitive resourcesas status assets and cognitive resourcesare converted mainly through theare converted mainly through the

educational system into the marketableeducational system into the marketableassets. Adult education adds to thisassets. Adult education adds to thisprocess.process.


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Key variables in RC modelKey variables in RC model

HP : Home processesHP : Home processesSES: SocioSES: Socio--economic backgroundeconomic backgroundCR : Cognitive resourcesCR : Cognitive resourcesSP : School processesSP : School processes

YE : Youth educationYE : Youth educationM : Motivation for further educationM : Motivation for further educationAAE: Acquired adult educationAAE: Acquired adult educationOS : Occupational statusOS : Occupational status

Y : EarningsY : Earnings


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HP M

YE

SES

CR

OS

Y

SPAAE


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Empirical Results : Path CoefficientsEmpirical Results : Path Coefficients

CP FE EX M RE

EARLY 0.7043 0.1096 0.187 0.2034

MID-EARL 0.7834 0.119 0.2214 0.2164

MID-LATE 0.5189 0.2214 0.2017 0.2326LATE 0.3584 0.2164 -0.0444 0.4627


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Total Effect Coefficients

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

EARLY MID-

EARLY

MID-LATE LATE

FE

EX

M

RE

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LINA THATTE Presentation