Simona BUCŞA

2008 – 2009

REPROGRAFIA UNIVERSITĂŢII “TRANSILVANIA” DIN BRAŞOV

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1 WRITING GUIDELINES FOR ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE STUDENTS

(guidelines taken from http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/index.html)

Before you commit words to paper in an engineering or scientific document, you should understand the subject matter that you are trying to communicate. In other words, you should not begin filling pages with sentences unless you have a general idea where those sentences are headed. Even after you have a general understanding of your subject matter, you still should not begin writing until you analyze your writing constraints, which are those aspects of the writing that you do not control. Constraints include your audience for the document and the format of the document--both of these constraints are discussed in this section. Another constraint, not discussed here, is mechanics, which comprises grammar, punctuation, and usage.

1.1 ASSESSING THE AUDIENCE

In assessing your writing situation, audience is your most important constraint. To understand this constraint, you must first decide who your readers are. Are they professors, managers, engineers, scientists, or technicians? You also assess what your audience knows about the subject. What terms will you have to define? What background information will you have to include? Another consideration for audience is why your audience is reading the document. This consideration is often referred to as the purpose of the document. Is the document supposed to inform or to convince? Finally, in assessing the audience, you assess how your audience will read your document. Will they read it straight through like a story or will they turn to specific sections? Consider the example of the Sandia engineer [Carlson, 1982] who designed an implantable electronics device that delivered insulin to the human body. In documenting his design, the engineer had two distinct audiences. One audience consisted of electrical engineers familiar with the electronics, but not with diabetes. Another audience consisted of medical doctors familiar with diabetes, but not with the electronics of this device. Given the different backgrounds of these two audiences, the engineer had to define different terms for each audience. The engineer also had to provide different background information for each audience. Not only were the audiences different in what they knew about the subject, but they also had different purposes for reading about the design. The electronics engineers were, for

PREVIEW

The English Practical Course is conceived for students following the Faculty of

Computer Science Year II, Distance Learning.

Students will be introduced to scientific writing and to ways of improving the capacity to

produce technical writings in a multilingual environment.

The course provides a deep study of words’ handling and contexts (related words; what

words to use and in what context)

The applications are related to both texts and grammar studies. These applications

encourage the individual study.

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the most part, curious about the electronics design. The medical doctors, on the other hand, were interested in whether they could safely use this device to treat diabetic patients. Notice that this second audience had much at stake as far as whether they would actually implant this device into patients. For that reason, the engineer's report documenting the design had to be not only informative, but also convincing. Finally, the engineer had to consider how his audience would read the report that documented his design. Because the engineers and doctors wanted to read different background information and were interested in different aspects about the design, the engineer realized that neither audience would likely read the report straight through from front to back. Rather, the audiences would move from section to section. For that reason, the engineer parceled the information into sections with descriptive headings so that the audiences could quickly find specific information.

1.2 SELECTING THE FORMAT

Besides audience, another important constraint is format, which is the arrangement of type upon the page. The choice of typeface, the placement of headings, the method of citing references--these are aspects of format. For longer documents such as reports, format also encompasses the arrangement of information into sections. In engineering and science, there is no universal format. Rather, companies, journals, and courses select formats to serve their particular audiences, purposes, and occasions. When your grade school teachers asked you to write something, the format was often simple: double spaced and front side of the paper only. However, in engineering and science, the formats are much more detailed. Why is that so? One reason is to make the reading process efficient. For instance, in a laboratory report, having all the information follow a specific sequence makes it easier for readers to locate specific information such as the results. In another instance, having all information in proposals placed under specified headings helps reviewers compare information fairly. In your laboratory, design, or communication course, your instructor will select a format that helps emphasize the important information, that allows readers to find key information, and that allows evaluators to assess your work. Why are formats in engineering and science so varied? One reason is identity. A journal such as Scientific American formats its articles in the same way to distinguish the look of its journal from other scientific journals. The Palatino typeface, the descriptive summary in italics on the article's first page, the four columns for the article's text --those aspects give Scientific American a signature that helps readers identify the magazine even when they don't see the masthead. To a lesser extent, companies and laboratories often want their own "look" as well. Given the wide variety of format issues and the even wider variety of options for those issues, these format guidelines cannot possibly present every format option that you will encounter in engineering and science. Such a collection would be cumbersome and, in the end, not particularly helpful. What's important is not that you learn every format which exists, but that you realize a specified format will often exist and that you follow that format. For those situations in which no specified format exists, you should choose a professional format to follow that is appropriate for your situation.

1.3 CRAFTING THE STYLE

An important, but sometimes hazy, distinction in scientific writing is between format (the way you place the type upon the page) and style (the way that you express a thought in words and images). Style comprises structure, language, and illustration. These guidelines do not attempt to discuss the many questions of style; rather, these

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guidelines focus on stylistic points particular to writing a few technical documents, such as laboratory reports, that you are likely to encounter. Writing is an essential skill for the successful engineer and scientist. As an engineer or scientist, you cannot treat your writing in the same way that you treat fluid mechanics or organic chemistry. Scientific writing is not a science; rather, it is a craft. The game of golf provides a good analogy to the way you should view your writing. Think of your technical problems as your drives and iron shots. In your drives and iron shots, you want loft, accuracy, and distance. Now, think of your writing problems the same as you would a putt. Notice that the clubs, swings, and mental approach of driving differ dramatically from those of putting. The same is true for the differences between the solution or technical problems and the communication of those solutions.

1.4 PRESENTATIONS

DESIGN OF PRESENTATION SLIDES

DESIGN OF SCIENTIFIC POSTERS

Presentations are integral to engineering and science. Engineers and scientists make presentations to secure funding, update progress of projects, and state results. Every time you make a presentation, you place your professional reputation on the line. In other words, you go "on stage" before your colleagues and critics. Much writing goes into a presentation, particularly in the creation of slides (often called "visuals"), which can be computer projections or overhead transparencies. Posters are a special type of presentation. When well designed, they are not simply journal papers pasted onto boards. Nor are they mounted sets of presentation visuals. Rather, posters, when effectively designed, are something in between. The purpose of scientific posters is to present work to an audience who is walking through a hallway or exhibit. In poster presentations at conferences, the presenter usually stands next to the poster, thus allowing for passers-by to engage in one-on-one discussions with the presenter. In other situations such as the hallways of laboratories, universities, and corporations, posters are stand-alone presentations for passers-by. For a poster to communicate the work, the poster first has orient an audience that is not seated, but that is standing. Often the audience has distractions of noise and movement from other people. Given those distractions, a journal article tacked onto a board fails as an effective poster because the audience cannot concentrate for a time long enough to read through the paper. In fact, given the distractions that the audience faces, many in the audience will not even bother trying to read a journal article tacked onto a board. So what then makes for an effective poster? First, because the audience is passing by, an effective poster should quickly orient the audience as to what the work is [Alley, 2003]. Usually, a poster accomplishes this goal with a prominent title and with supporting images. These images might be located near the title or reside as the background of the poster. Once readers recognize what the work is, they decide how much energy to invest into the poster. For instance, many passers-by will read the motivation for the work, the objectives (or goals) of the work, and then the final results of the work. Others, who have a deep interest in the topic, will try to read the poster from beginning to end. Given these different approaches to reading posters, another characteristic of an effective poster is that specific sections are easy to locate. In other words, if the audience wants to find the conclusions, those should be easy to find. Given the distractions that occur while reading posters, a third characteristic of an effective

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poster is that the individual sections of a poster can be quickly read. In other words, the poster should not contain large blocks of text. Neither should the poster contain long sentences.

1.5 CORRESPONDENCE

Correspondence consists of memos, letters, and electronic mail. In engineering and science, correspondence is an effective way to make requests, submit changes to a job, and deliver specific information. Unlike telephone conversations, correspondence presents the audience with a legal contract that is dated and can support a claim in court. In your correspondence, you should concentrate on being clear and precise. Because audiences tend to read letters and memos quickly, opt for shorter sentences and paragraphs than you would use in a formal report or journal article. Also, in correspondence, you should consider carefully the tone. Tone is difficult to control in correspondence. For instance, in a job application letter, how do you talk about your accomplishments without sounding boastful? Or in a letter complaining about faulty workmanship, how do you motivate the reader to repair the damage without alienating the reader? The answers are not simple. Often, engineers and scientists lose control of tone by avoiding simple straightforward wording. When some people sit down to write a business letter or memo, they change their entire personality. Instead of using plain English, they use convoluted phrases such as "per your request" or "enclosed please find." Because these phrases are not natural or straightforward, they inject an undesired attitude, usually arrogance, into the writing. Memos Typically, you write memos to people within your place of work, and you write letters to people outside your place of work. One major difference between memos and letters is the title line found in memos. Because readers often decide whether to read the memo solely on the basis of this title line, the line is important. Another difference between letters and memos is that you sometimes write memos that serve as short reports. In such cases, the format for the memo changes somewhat. For instance, in a memo serving as a progress report for a project, you might include subheadings and sub -subheadings. Notice that people who are mentioned in a memo or are directly affected by the memo should receive a copy. Letters Formats for letters vary from company to company. For instance, some formats call for paragraph indents; others don't. Electronic Mail Electronic mail is a less formal version of memos and letters. Electronic mail is relatively new and is changing in terms of sophistication in format and expectation by audience. The principal advantages of electronic mail over other types of correspondence are its speed and ease of use. For instance, in minutes, you can send out information to many recipients around the world.

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One disadvantage of electronic mail is the crudeness of the format. Many electronic mail systems do not allow such things as tabs or italics. For that reason, the look of the message is not as attractive as a memo or letter that has been printed on letterhead paper. Because the message does not look formal, many people mistakenly adopt a style that lacks the "appropriate formality" [Markel, 1996]. For instance, these people include needless abbreviations (such as "BTW" rather than "by the way"). Another disadvantage of electronic mail is also one of its advantages: its ease of use. With letters and memos, you must print out the correspondence before you send it. That printing out allows you to view the writing on paper--a step that makes it easier for you to proof for mechanical mistakes in spelling, usage, and punctuation. With electronic mail, though, you are not forced to print out on paper before you send. For that reason, electronic messages often are not as well proofed as regular correspondence. Remember: Because most networks archive electronic mail, you should take the same care with electronic mail as you do with printed correspondence. That means using the appropriate formality in style and carefully proofing your message before you hit the "send" button.

1.6 FORMAL REPORTS

Laboratory Reports Design Reports Progress Reports Theses and Dissertations Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. One reason is to communicate the laboratory work to management. In such situations, management often bases company decisions on the results of the report. Another reason to write laboratory reports is to archive the work so that the work will not have to be done in the future. This web page presents a commonly used organization for laboratory reports: Abstract, Introduction, Procedures, Results and Discussion, Conclusions, and Appendices. You should not assume, though, that this organization will serve all your laboratory reports. In other words, one organization does not "fit" all experiments. Rather, you should pay attention to the organization requested by your instructor who has chosen an organization that best serves your experiments. Design reports are written to introduce and document engineering and scientific designs. In general, these reports have two audiences. One audience includes other engineers and scientists interested in how the design works and how effective the design is. Another audience includes management interested in the application and effectiveness of the design. This web page presents a commonly used organization for design reports: Summary, Introduction, Discussion, Conclusions, and

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Appendices. Although this organization serves a wide variety of design reports, your instructor may very well modify this organization to serve your particular audience and purpose. Progress reports Once you have written a successful proposal and have secured the resources to do a project, you are expected to update the client on the progress of that project. This updating is usually handled by progress reports, which can take many forms: memoranda, letters, short reports, formal reports, or presentations. What information is expected in a progress report? The answer to this question depends, as you might expect, on the situation, but most progress reports have the following similarities in content: Background on the project itself. In many instances, the client (a manager at the National Science Foundation, for instance) is responsible for several projects. Therefore, the client expects to be oriented as to what your project is, what its objectives are, and what the status of the project was at the time of the last reporting. Discussion of achievements since last reporting. This section follows the progress of the tasks presented in the proposal's schedule. Discussion of problems that have arisen. Progress reports are not necessarily for the benefit of only the client. Often, you the engineer or scientists benefit from the reporting because you can share or warn your client about problems that have arisen. In some situations, the client might be able to direct you toward possible solutions. In other situations, you might negotiate a revision of the original objectives, as presented in the proposal. Discussion of work that lies ahead. In this section, you discuss your plan for meeting the objectives of the project. In many ways, this section of a progress report is written in the same manner as the "Plan of Action" section of the proposal, except that now you have a better perspective for the schedule and cost than you did earlier. Assessment of whether you will meet the objectives in the proposed schedule and budget. In many situations, this section is the bottom line for the client. In some situations, such as the construction of a highway, failure to meet the objectives in the proposed schedule and budget can result in the engineers having to forfeit the contract. In other situations, such as a research project, the client expects that the objectives will change somewhat during the project. Theses and dissertations In engineering and science, a thesis or dissertation is the culmination of a master's or Ph.D. degree. A thesis or dissertation presents the research that the student performed for that degree. From the student's perspective, the primary purpose of a thesis or dissertation is to persuade the student's committee that he or she has performed and communicated research worthy of the degree. In other words, the main purpose of the thesis or dissertation is to help the student secure the degree. From the perspective of the engineering and scientific community, the primary purpose is to document the student's research. Although much research from theses and dissertations is also communicated in journal articles, theses and dissertations stand as detailed documents that allow others to see what the work was and how it was performed. For that reason, theses and dissertations are often read by other graduate students, especially those working in the research group of the authoring student.

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1.7 WRITING INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions tell people how to perform a process. Because processes are so common in engineering, engineers often write instructions. For example, you may have to write specifications to technicians on how to machine a drive shaft, or you may have to write a software manual for computer users on how to run a contour-plotting program. You may even have to instruct the public on the safety precautions for using a snow blower that your company manufacturers. Each of these three examples points to the importance of well-written instructions in engineering. If the specifications for the drive shaft are unclear, your company may have to resubmit the job (at your company's expense). If the software manual is disorganized, users of the program may waste valuable time searching for a command. If the safety precautions for your company's snow blower are ambiguous, someone could be injured. Money, time, and health often depend of the quality of the writing in instructions. In engineering, the formats of instructions can vary from single-phrase cautions on clothing to thick handbooks on procedures in nuclear submarines. Instructions have four unusual aspects of style. First, instructions often include numbered steps. Using numbered steps with white space between each step allows readers to perform a step of the process and then quickly find their place in the instructions. Also, instructions include the use of the imperative mood, in which the subject is an understood you (for example, "Learn the basic procedures of first aid"). Note that you do not use the imperative mood in every sentence; however, you often use it for important steps. In the language for instructions, you also use cautions to warn readers of difficult or dangerous steps. Finally, with instructions, you use more illustrations or examples than with other types of documents. In putting together a set of instructions, you might have to write or present as part of a group. Collaboration presents challenges to group members: connecting the different ideas of the group members, making the language read as if it were from "one voice," and choosing a consistent format for the final product. Although collaboration on a document or presentation presents challenges to the group members, it also has advantages. One advantage is that working in a group broadens the range of ideas that the document or presentation can incorporate. Another advantage is that collaborative work allows the group to draw from the various writing and editing strengths of the members. In a successful group effort, you find a strategy that accents the advantages and mitigates the disadvantages.

2 APPLICATIONS

2.1 SCIENTIFIC WRITING — EXAMPLES

Provide examples of laboratory reports, design reports, and progress reports, proposals, instructions, journal articles, and presentations; letters and memos

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2.2 SCIENTIFIC WRITING – STRUCTURES

I. In the exercise below, identify whether each of the highlighted word groups is a sentence (S), fragment (F), or run-on (RO). Note that a run-on is a specific grammatical term referring not to a long sentence, but to a group of words containing two or more independent clauses that are incorrectly joined.

1. Although the shock sphere is still strong at the end of the fireball's life, the

sphere is no longer strong enough to heat the air to incandescence. 2. At that point the shock sphere is no longer strong enough to heat the air to

incandescence, however, the sphere is still very strong. 3. At the end of the fireball's life, the shock sphere no longer being strong

enough to heat the air to incandescence. 4. Both sites produce the same three sources of energy: coal, oil, and natural

gas. Both sites, however, do not produce these sources in the same proportions.

5. The plant shutdown was more than just another company having to close its doors, Bolens was a way of life for hundreds of families in the small town where the company was located.

6. Both designs produce the same three pollutants (nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxides, and hydrocarbons) in roughly the same proportions, therefore, both designs have similar effects on the environment.

7. Because both designs produce the same three pollutants (nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxides, and hydrocarbons) in roughly the same proportions, both designs have similar effects on the environment.

8. An oval shape is necessary in the die cavity, otherwise, the flow of metal from the hammering would be restricted.

9. Not only does fresh ventilation reduce moisture levels in animal pens, but it also improves the health and longevity of livestock.

10. Primary bodies are those that are outside the zone of protection, thus, they are susceptible to the effects of a direct lightning stroke.

II. Each of the following may have one of the following errors: faulty parallelism, unclear pronoun reference, or misplaced modifier

1. Although design flaws in the Titanic were realized soon after its sinking in 1912, the reasons for the severe damage inflicted by the iceberg remained a mystery until its discovery in 1985.

2. Once the earthquake has subsided, you are not yet out of danger. Often the electricity has gone out and it is dark. However, striking a match or any open flame may cause a gas explosion.

3. At this time, the Department of Energy is only considering Yucca Mountain as a possible storage site for nuclear waste. For that reason, this report will not consider other sites.

4. Scientists have problems assuring that the viral vectors apply themselves to the correct cells. When implanted, they tend to migrate throughout the body and miss targeted cells more often than not.

5. Reductions of up to 80 percent in heat and mass transfer coefficients were measured due to outgassing.

6. The objectives of the Viking mission were to obtain high-resolution images of the Martian surface, characterize the structure and composition of the atmosphere and surface, and to search for evidence of life.

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7. The decoder was either faster than the worst case specified by the manufacturer, or the HC11 held the data longer than the minimum time specified by Motorola.

III. Each of the following paragraphs has four mistakes in grammar, punctuation, or usage. Possible mistakes are as follows: run-on, fragment, subject-verb disagreement, wrong word, missing comma, undesired comma, colon error, unclear pronoun reference, and possessive error. In order of mistakes through the paragraph, click on the word(s) or punctuation that causes the mistake. 1. A greenhouse is a glass building used to grow plants. A greenhouse has transparent glass that allows the sunlight to pass through, but does not allow the heat inside to escape. The same affect occurs on the earth. The suns radiation passes through the atmosphere to heat the earth's surface. When heated, the earth's surface produces infrared radiation, which has a longer wavelength than that of sunlight. This infrared radiation rises into the atmosphere where gases, such as carbon dioxide, prevents the infrared radiation from escaping into space. The concentrations of these gases which are called greenhouse gases, control how much infrared radiation escapes. The retained radiation heats the earth's atmosphere, thus keeping the planet warm. 2. During the last century, the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased substantially [Holman, 1985]. Scientists believe that further increases could cause excess warming of the earth's climate. Moreover, many scientists believe this warming could produce side effects. For example, the changing of the earth's wind patterns. These wind patterns control the amount of rain received in a particular area. If the greenhouse gases warm the earth's climate too much, areas that now receive plenty of rainfall could become deserts, moreover, some scientists speculate that additional increases in warming could cause another effect, a rise in the ocean levels ["Greenhouse," 1990]. How would this rise occur? An increase in global temperature would melt the polar ice caps, thus emptying more water into the oceans. They also predict that this ocean rise, which may be as high as 1 meter could flood port cities and coastal lands. 3. The gas that contributes most to the greenhouse effect, is carbon dioxide [Houghton, 1990]. Carbon dioxide cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted. In fact, its not even considered a pollutant. Plants use carbon dioxide in combination with chlorophyll, water, and sunshine for photosynthesis, which is a process essential to life. Besides aiding in photosynthesis, it also absorbs the earth's radiation. This gas occurs naturally in the atmosphere, however, man has dramatically increased the concentration of carbon dioxide over the last twenty years.

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3 EDUCATING EXPERIENCED IT PROFESSIONALS BY ADDRESSING

INDUSTRY’S NEEDS

As information technology continues its rapid progress, both educators and employers have recognised the importance of educating the professionals that design, develop, and deploy information systems. IT professionals—including software engineers—must know how to address the diverse needs of stakeholders, stay abreast of the latest technologies, and leverage them to maximise strategic advantage over the competition. These professionals must also balance high efficiency with tight timelines, robust feature sets with low cost, and diverse user needs with architectures' functional limitations. Who teaches IT professionals what to do in this dynamic, diverse environment? Should universities instil these skills, or is that industry's responsibility? An innovative graduate speciality in information engineering and management at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) specifically addresses these issues.

3.1 WHO EDUCATES OUR WORKFORCE?

The age-old battle between industry and academia over what constitutes education and what should be left to on-the-job training has become more intense and less defined in the IT field. Despite last year's shrinking economy and subsequent decrease in the number of available jobs, highly skilled IT professionals remain scarce. With the ever-present gap between available jobs and skilled workers to fill them, industry is pressuring educators to provide college graduates who can enter the workforce ready to produce. However, providing advanced IT skills and knowledge requires preliminary courses that provide the fundamentals. With more and more college-bound students interested in business or other nontechnical career paths, colleges and universities are finding it harder to attract students to science-based curricula. Moreover, industry pressure and declining enrolment squeeze science-based programs of their nontechnical coursework to avoid extending graduation by a semester or year. Similarly, management information systems programs at many universities offer students the opportunity to avoid the advanced mathematics, algorithm design, and hardware circuitry classes central to traditional computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering curricula. But MIS programs often fail to provide graduates that can handle the technical challenges of software engineering in their first IT jobs after college. Industry finds training investments the least likely to add to their bottom line. Tight training budgets become political hot potatoes—managers must balance employees' training requests with the probable return the company will realise from their investment. Top-performing employees often receive training at the expense of newer, less skilled employees who have yet to prove their value to their companies. Employees attend company-paid training courses to acquire the latest technical skills, only to leave shortly thereafter for better-paying jobs. Hence, corporations prefer to hire candidates that already possess the skills and knowledge to succeed. For recent college graduates to compete, they must acquire the skills and knowledge during their school years through their curricula, internships, co-ops, or full-time employment balanced with schoolwork.

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3.2 ACADEMIA GUIDED BY INDUSTRY

To address these issues, the UAB Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering asked industry executives what they expected from college graduates. The department asked executives to define fundamental business skills that the IT candidate pool is generally lacking and to compile a list of topics that needed to be taught. These ques-tions yielded some interesting feedback. First, the executives revealed that IT professionals are primarily lacking technology management skills, rather than software programming or hardware skills. They noted a major drought of capable technical managers to perform upper-management duties, specifically at the chief information officer and chief technology officer levels. In general, technology executives with business backgrounds, hired for their business savvy and managerial skill, lack understanding of the information and computer assets they oversee. Because they do not understand IT'S strategic importance in their industry, they set up the company and themselves for failure. To address this problem, many universities offer technical MBA programs to provide future business leaders with some technical awareness. However, these programs typically lack the engineering principles necessary to prepare future ClOs for the technical decisions they will face. On the opposite end of the spectrum. managers with robust technical skills typically lack the business savvy their MBA peers possess. These "techies" often have little appreciation for business imperative such as balancing priorities, managing prof its, and minimising risks. Even worse, technical experts often harbour product and technology biases. To them, every problem can be solved with their favourite technology solutions or vendors. Even experienced technical managers sometimes focus more on IT'S classical engineering aspects than its business aspects. The second major revelation from business executives is that they are not looking to hire software engineers, computer engineers, or even business administrators. Instead, they seek information engineers: people capable of participating in and designing business processes while understanding that information is the most essential element of today's business. Academia has long educated and trained people to engineer auto-mobiles, televisions, aircraft, and computers, but today's industry asks academia to teach people to engineer information and the processes that control it. UAB worked these topics into courses, from which a new program has evolved: the Master of Science in electrical engineering, with emphasis on information engineering and management (IEM).

3.3 BALANCING THEORY AND REALITY

Academia and industry have long debated the balance between theory and reality in engineering curricula. Industry's perception that universities teach outdated methods and use impractical study examples is countered by the universities' need to teach fundamentals before moving on to advanced, industry-relevant material. Hiring managers demand current skills and practical experience of their entry-level employee pool, but universities find little time to squeeze these skills into curricula packed with background courses in mathematics, science, and humanities. MIS programs address this by introducing students to the latest technologies and teaching them to address business problems with IT tools. However, MIS programs don't teach the engineering fundamentals that students need to design efficient, cost-effective information systems from the ground up. Diagnosing problems is difficult (if not impossible) without understanding how information flows through and is used by a system. College graduates with MIS degrees frequently lack the background to succeed in the infor-mation engineering job market, leading many to return to school for graduate degrees.

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But because job candidates with graduate degrees command higher salaries than their undergraduate peers, employer expectations for practical knowledge and skills are higher still. The IEM program's coursework balances theory and reality by featuring frequent guest speakers and realistic problem-solving exercises to augment the theory textbooks present. A seminar course provides a forum for students and faculty to share experi -ences. Guest speakers bring immediate relevance to the discussion by raising problems they are facing in their workplaces. The CIO of a local power company talks about the challenges of the energy business and its effects on IT. A telecommunications executive discusses the implications of the fiberoptic industry's slowdown and how IT solutions could mitigate bottlenecks in the outdated communications infrastructure. Venture capitalists encourage students to take their innovative IT ideas to market. Faculty encourages students to address their own businesses' problems as topics for class projects. Students practice their skills on real-world problems rather than hypothetical ones. They can implement at their workplaces the solutions they develop in class, providing value to their companies while honing their own practical skills.

3.4 SOFTWARE FUNDAMENTALS

For IT professionals to add value, they must understand the fundamental practices involved in the development, deployment, and retirement of information systems. They must be able to identify life-cycle models, understand their differences, and know when to use the myriad tools in their IT toolbox. They must grasp software development concepts such as quality management, requirements analysis, configuration man-agement, information integration, and software metrics. Information engineers should be familiar with computer-aided software engineering tools, code libraries, and automated testing tools. These concepts are not confined solely to software developers— sound software engineering practices are essential in any IT setting. The managers who purchase IT consulting services and those who implement the resulting products must understand the methods, tools, and standards used to develop the products they purchase. They must be able to distinguish sound development practices from ad hoc coding, identify good software from bad, negotiate solid contracts with software engi-neering consultants, and make sound business decisions about IT assets. Teaching software engineering fundamentals has historically fallen to corporate training programs, due to the lack (until recently) of software engineering programs in colleges and universities. Computer science curricula have foundations in science and mathematics rather than engineering, and their emphasis has tended toward computer and algorithm design rather than developing software as a business tool. Although software engineering curricula are becoming more common, long-standing corporate IT fundamentals such as project management, requirements analysis, and the software development lifecycle are new academic topics. But software engineering is part of a larger system that includes computer hardware, communications infrastructure, third-party applications, and the information that these combined elements manage. The true value in business today is information— whether data or human-intensive "intellectual capital." Today's IT systems provide the strategic value of managing the information that makes a corporation succeed. IT managers must understand the technical fundamentals of software, and be able to manage the way information flows through IT systems to add value to the corporation. UAB carefully chose its IEM program's fundamentals to ensure relevant course-work and to provide themes that are reinforced across the curriculum (see the "IEM Course Outline" sidebar). The coursework emphasises recognised standards and standards bodies. Students develop and post Web pages that comply with World Wide Web

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Consortium HTML standards. Students plan, execute, and measure software development projects in accordance with the Capability Maturity Model. Texts and class discussions centre around the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge. Students complete research papers and presentations describing IEEE software standards and certification programs. Faculty reinforce these themes with readings from software engi-neering community leaders such as Frederick Brooks, Richard H. Thayer, Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Steve McConnell, and Grady Booch. IEM program graduates emerge with solid knowledge of software and information engineering fundamentals, able to lead their peers in IT organisation planning, execution, and management.

3.5 NBA VERSUS MS

Most professionals who wish to advance into management must decide whether to obtain an MBA. Regardless of industry, an MBA is the entry ticket for modern business success. Holding an MBA doesn't guarantee admittance to management ranks, but lacking one can inhibit progress. However, an MBA does little to provide the technical skills necessary for managing IT professionals or IT assets. Thus, ClOs without a tech-nical background are at an extreme disadvantage. Gaining staff respect is an essential part of being an effective manager. Without this respect, a manager's best ideas go unheeded and his decisions are second-guessed. Engineers usually value technical education above business savvy, so they are more likely to tolerate a manager with an MS but little business acumen than one with an MBA but no technical understanding. The IEM program provides a graduate degree that addresses the need for IT industry leaders who possess strong technical knowledge rounded out by practical business and management skills. Rather than teaching technical skills to business students, the IEM program teaches business skills to engineers. Students in the IEM program learn to research the IT business environment, monitor the market, write and present business plans, and defend their work to venture capitalists. These experiences prepare IEM graduates for leadership roles in start-ups as well as established firms. By focusing on IT'S technical and business aspects, the IEM program aims to fulfil in-dustry's need for information engineers who can immediately add strategic value to the IT departments of the businesses they enter. These information engineers can tackle management positions from network support to project management to CIO.

3.6 COMPUTER SCIENCE VERSUS INFORMATION ENGINEERING

As information engineering moves toward becoming a distinct engineering discipline, the debate over whether computer science curricula can adequately address the needs of engineering professionals is heating up. Arguments abound in favour of separat ing these two areas into distinct curricula. Some assert that establishing a distinct in -formation engineering curriculum is a fundamental step toward maintaining the field as a legitimate engineering speciality. Others argue that the IT industry is not sufficiently diverse to justify multiple IT education programs. Furthermore, few colleges and uni-versities have sufficient funding for two programs, forcing them to choose which path to pursue, or to attempt to combine the two paths into one program. Although both computer science and software engineering require similar depth of knowledge, they approach that knowledge from distinct points of view. It is this fact that dictates distinct curricula for the two disciplines. Frederick Brooks said, "The scientist builds in order to study; the engineer studies in order to build. As he implies, computer science curricula should attract students who wish to gain advanced understanding of the "hows and whys" of computer operation. Computer science coursework supports algorithm designers, programming-language

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authors, and hardware architects. These people dissect all aspects of a computer's fundamental functions and determine the best ways to make them tick. Engineering curricula, by contrast, teach students to use technology to create solutions and advance our ability to accomplish our goals. Engineers take the building blocks that computer scientists provide and innovate ways of assembling them to solve problems. The IEM program takes a decidedly engineering approach, focusing on using IT systems and assets to solve engineering problems. Software design is an important aspect of engineering because only properly designed applications can solve software-related problems. Information engineers learn to evaluate IT tools and choose the right ones for the job. They learn to design IT systems with information flow in mind from the start to maximise the resulting systems' business and strategic value. They learn to evaluate the IT market and decide which IT tools and solutions to purchase, based not just on the latest technological trends, but on what will bring the best value to the business. As any engineer knows, design is one matter, but the final product is the test of success. The IEM program began with the first group of students in August 2000, and these students graduated in May 2002. Did the program meet its design goals? Feedback from these students and their employers is telling. Surveys of the first class to complete the IEM program indicate that the curriculum strikes dead centre on what stu-dents need to succeed in the job market. Most students indicated that they learned in-formation and skills they never expected to, and all students indicated that their job and career perspectives had broadened. The students were immediately able to apply their coursework on the job. Many completed class projects that were directly related to their companies most pressing problems—problems that were never before addressed properly. One student who worked with a software development company devised new quality metrics and stan-dards for upcoming offshore development plans. A student who worked with IBM de-veloped a framework for creating design specifications; today, IBM's design groups use that framework. Other students have developed new software development models, addressed information integration and data-mining issues, and even started new companies developing software products with industry-leading quality assurance procedures. Although most students' employers responded positively to the students' activities in the IEM program, some students received negative attention from company management. Some managers did not like having their IT operations scrutinised using industry-standard models such as cleanroom software development methodologies. Others did not appreciate suggestions for improvement (from newly educated IEM students), such as using new data integration methods to enhance information collection procedures. However, IEM students successfully handled even these negative experiences. due in part to business and interpersonal skills that the IEM program helped them develop and enhance.

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4 WORD STUDY

4.1 VOCABULARY RELATED TO QUALITY

Quality means meeting the minimum set of requirements in a product's specification and then being delighted that the customer's expectations have been met and exceeded. Therefore, the goal of a business should be to find out customer needs and then fine tune the process to ensure that they are met. Quality improvement concepts have developed over several decades. They began simply as a method for detecting defective products by inspection at the end of the production line. In recent years the emphasis has changed from inspection to prevention. Today sampling methods monitor processes and keep them under control. The ultimate aim, of course, is zero defects. In recent years different approaches to quality improvement have been developed. The overall aim is to prevent defects through: continuous process improvement customer focus Defect prevention error • failure • inspect • prevent process control • repair • rework • scrap Continuous process improvement add value • analysis * cause/effect analysis • check • commitment control • define • facilitate • monitor • prioritize inventory control • system failure analysis • variability Customer focus accurate • comply with • needs • rectify

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5 GRAMMAR STUDY

5.1 PREPOSITIONS

5.1.1 Introduction

Prepositions are words normally placed before nouns or pronouns. Prepositions can also be followed by verbs but, except after but and except, the verb must be in the gerund form: He is talking of emigrating. They succeeded in escaping. The student has two main problems with prepositions. He has to know (a) whether in any construction a preposition is required or not, and (b) which preposition to use when one is required. The first problem can be especially troublesome to a European student, who may find that a certain construction in his own language requires a preposition, whereas a similar one in English does not. and vice versa: e.g. in most European languages purpose is expressed by a preposition + infinitive; in English it is expressed by the infinitive only: I came here to study. The student should note also that many words used mainly as prepositions can also be used as conjunctions and adverbs. Where this is the case it will be pointed out in the following paragraphs. Alternative position of prepositions Prepositions normally precede nouns or pronouns. In two constructions, however, it is possible in informal English to move the preposition to the end of the sentence: In questions beginning with a preposition + whom/which/what/ whose/where: To whom were you talking? (formal) Who were you talking to? (informal) In which drawer does he keep it? (formal) Which drawer does he keep it in? (informal) It used to be thought ungrammatical to end a sentence with a preposition, but it is now accepted as a colloquial form. Similarly in relative clauses, a preposition placed before whom/which can be moved to the end of the clause. The relative pronoun is then often omitted: . the people with whom 1 was travelling (formal) the people I was travelling with (informal) the company from which I hire my TV set (formal) the company I hire my TV set from (informal)

5.1.2 Time and date: at, on, by, before, in

at. on at a time:

at dawn at six at midnight at 4.30 at an age:

at sixteen/at the age of sixteen She got married at seventeen.

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on a day/date: on Monday on 4 June on Christmas Day

Exceptions at night at Christmas, at Easter (the period, not the day only) on the morning/aftemoon/evening/night of a certain date:

We arrived on the morning of the sixth. It is also, of course, possible to say:

this/next Monday etc., any Monday, one Monday by, before by a time/date/period = at that time or before/not later than that date It often implies "before that time/date':

The train starts at 6.10, so you had better be at the station by 6.00. by + a time expression is often used with a perfect tense, particularly the future perfect:

By the end of July I'll have read all those books. before can be preposition, conjunction or adverb: Before signing this . . . (preposition) Before you sign this . . . (conjunction) I've seen him somewhere before, (adverb)

on time, in time, in good time on time = at the time arranged, not before, not after: The 8.15 train started on time. (It started at 8.15.) in time/in time for + noun = not late; in good time (for) = with a comfortable margin: Passengers should be in time for their train. I arrived at the concert hall in good time (for the concert). (Perhaps the concert began at 7.30 and I arrived at 7.15.) on arrival, on arriving, on reaching, on getting to on arrival/on arriving, he . . . = when he arrives/arrived, he . . . on can also be used similarly with the gerund of certain other verbs (chiefly verbs of information): On checking, she found that some of the party didn 't know the way. On hearing/Hearing that the plane had been diverted, they left the airport. The on in the last sentence could be omitted. at the beginning/end, in the beginning/end, at first/at last at the beginning (of/at the end (of) = literally at the beginning/end: At the beginning of a book there is often a table of contents. At the end there may be an index. In the beginning/at first = in the early stages. It implies that lab an there was a change: In the beginning/At first we used hand tools. Later we had machines In the end/at last = eventually/after some time: At first he opposed the marriage, but in the end he gave his consent

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5.1.3 Time: from, since, for, during

from, since and for from is normally used with to or till/until:

Most people work from nine to five. from can also be used of place:

Where do you come from?

since is used for time, never for place, and means ‘from that time to the time referred to'. It is often used with a present perfect or past perfect tense.

He has been here since Monday, (from Monday till now) He wondered where Ann was. He had not seen her since their quarrel.

since can also be an adverb: He left school in 1983. I haven't seen him since.

since can also be a conjunction of time: He has worked for us ever since he left school. If is two years since I last saw Tom = / last saw Tom two years ago/I haven't seen Tom for two years. (For since with

other types of clause, see 338.)

for is used of a period of time: for six years, for two months, for ever: Bake it for two hours. He travelled in the desert for six months.

for + a period of time can be used with a present perfect tense or past perfect tense for an action which extends up to the time of speaking: He has worked here for a year. (He began working here a year ago

and still works here.) for used in this way is replaceable by since with the point in time when the action began: He has worked here since this time last year. during and for during is used with known periods of time, i.e. periods known by name, such as Christmas, Easter or periods which have been already defined: during the Middle Ages during 1941 during the summer (of that year) during his childhood during my holidays The action can either last the whole period or occur at some time within the period: It rained all Monday but stopped raining during the night, (at some point of time) He was ill for a week, and during that week he ate nothing. for (indicating purpose) may be used before known periods: I went there/I hired a car/I rented a house for my holidays/for the summer. for has various other uses: He asked for £5. I paid £1 for it. I bought one for Tom.

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5.1.4 Time: to, till/until, after, afterwards (adverb)

to and till/until to can be used of time and place; till/until of time only. We can use from ... to or from . . . till/until: They worked from five to ten/from five till ten. (at five to ten would mean 'at 9.55'.) But if we have no from we use till/until, not to: Let's start now and work till dark. (to would not be possible here.) till/until is often used with a negative verb to emphasise lateness: We didn 't get home till 2 a.m. He usually pays me on Friday but last week he didn’ t pay me till the following Monday. till/until is very often used as a conjunction of time: He’ll stay here till it stops raining. Go on till you come to the level crossing. But note that if 'you come to’ is omitted, the till must be replaced to by: Go on to the level crossing. after and afterwards (adverb) after (preposition) must be followed by a noun, pronoun or gerund: Don 't bathe immediately after a meal/after eating. Don't have a meal and bathe immediately after it. If we do not wish to use a noun/pronoun or gerund, we cannot use after, but must use afterwards (= after that) or then: Don't have a meal and bathe immediately afterwards. They bathed and afterwards played games/played games afterwards or They bathed and then played games. afterwards can be used at either end of the clause and can be modified by soon, immediately, not long etc.: Soon afterwards we got a letter.

We got a letter not long afterwards. after can also be used as a conjunction: After he had tuned the piano it sounded quite different.

5.1.5 Travel and movement: from, to, at, in, by, on, into, onto,1 off, out, out of

We travel from our starting place to our destination: They flew/drove/cycled/walked from Paris to Rome. When are you coming back to England?

We also send/post letters etc. to people and places. (But see note on home below.) arrive at/in, get to, reach (without preposition) We arrive in a town or country, at or in a village, at any other destination: They arrived in Spain/in Madrid.

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I arrived at the hotel/at the airport/at the bridge/at the crossroads. get to can be used with any destination, and so can reach: He got to the station just m time for his train. I want to get to Berlin before dark. They reached the top of the mountain before sunrise. get in (in = adverb) can mean "arrive at a destination'. It is chiefly used of trains: What time does the train get in? (reach the terminus/our station) Note also get there/back (there, back are adverbs). Home We can use a verb of motion etc. + home without a preposition: It took us an hour to get home. They went home by bus. But if home is immediately preceded by a word or phrase a preposition is necessary: She returned to her parents' home. We can be/live/stay/work etc. at home, at + . . . + home or in + . . . + home. But in cannot be followed directly by home: You can do this sort of work at home or at/in your own home. Transport: by, on, get in/into/on/onto/off/out of We can travel by car (but in the/my/Tom's car), by bus/train/ plane/helicopter/hovercraft etc. and by sea/air. We can also travel by a certain route, or by a certain place (though via is more usual): We went by the M4. We went via Reading. We can walk or go on foot. We can cycle or go on a bicycle or by bicycle. We can ride or go on horseback. We get into a public or private vehicle, or get in (adverb). We get on/onto a public vehicle, or get on (adverb). But we go on board a boat (= embark). We get on/onto a horse/camel/bicycle. We get out of a public or private vehicle, or get out (adverb). We get off a public vehicle, a horse, bicycle, etc., or get off (adverb). get in/into/out/out of can also be used of buildings, institutions and countries instead of go/come/return etc. when there is some difficulty in entering or leaving, in and out here are used as adverbs. I've lost my keys! How are we going to get into the flat/ to get in? (adverb) The house is on fire! We had better get out! (adverb) It’s difficult to get into a university nowadays. Giving directions: at, into, to etc. (prepositions), along, on (prepositions and adverbs) and till (conjunction): Go along the Strand till you see the Savoy on your right. The bus stop is just round the comer. Turn right/left at the Post Office/at the second traffic lights. Go on (adverb) past the post office. Turn right/left into Fleet Street. Take the first/second etc. turning on/to the right or on/to your right. Go on (adverb) to the end of the road. (till could not be used here.) You will find the bank on your left halfway down the street. When you come out of the station you will find the bank opposite

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you/in front of you. Get out (of the bus) at the tube station and walk on (adverb) till you come to a pub. Get off (the bus) and walk back (adverb) till you come to some traffic lights. Be careful not to confuse to and till

5.1.6 at, in; in, into; on, onto

at and in at We can be at home, at work, at the office, at school, at university, at an address, at a certain point e.g. at the bridge, at the crossroads, at the bus-stop. in We can be in a country, a town, a village, a square, a street, a room, a forest, a wood, a field, a desert or any place which has boundaries or is enclosed. But a small area such as a square, a street, a room, a field might be used with at when we mean "at this point' rather than 'inside'. We can be in or at a building, in means inside only; at could mean inside or in the grounds or just outside. If someone is 'at the station' he could be in the street outside, or in the ticket office/waiting room/ restaurant or on the platform. We can be in or at the sea, a river, lake, swimming pool etc. in here means actually in the water:

The children are swimming in the river. at the sea/river/lake etc. means 'near/beside the sea'. But at sea means 'on a ship'. in and into in as shown above normally indicates position. T into indicates movement, entrance: They climbed into the lorry. I poured the beer into a tankard. Thieves broke into my house/My house was broken into. With the verb put, however, either in or into can be used: He put his hands in/info his pockets. in can also be an adverb:

Come in = Enter. Get in (into the car). on and onto on can be used for both position and movement: He was sitting on his case. Snow fell on the hills. His name is on the door. He went on board ship. onto can be used (chiefly of people and animals) when there is movement involving a change of level: People climbed onto their roofs. We lifted him onto the table. The cat jumped onto the mantelpiece. on can also be an adverb:

Go on. Come on.

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5.1.7 above, over, under, below, beneath etc.

above and over above (preposition and adverb) and over (preposition) can both mean "higher than' and sometimes either can be used:

The helicopter hovered above/over us. Flags waved above/over our heads.

But over can also mean 'covering', 'on the other side of, 'across' and 'from one side to the other':

We put a rug over him. He lives over the mountains. There is a bridge over the river.

all over + noun/pronoun can mean 'in every part of: He has friends all over the world.

above can have none of these meanings. over can mean 'more than' or "higher than'. above can mean 'higher than' only. Both can mean 'higher in rank'. But He is over me would normally mean 'He is my immediate superior', 'He supervises my work', above would not necessarily have this meaning. If we have a bridge over a river, above the bridge means 'upstream’. over can be used with meals/food/drink:

They had a chat over a cup of tea. (while drinking tea) In the combination take + a time expression + over + noun/pronoun, over can mean 'to do/finish' etc.:

He doesn't take long over lunch/to eat his lunch. He took ages over the job. (He took ages to finish it.)

above can also be an adjective or adverb meaning 'earlier' (in a book, article etc.): the above address (the previously mentioned address) see B above (the previously mentioned section B)

below and under below (preposition and adverb) and under (preposition) can both mean 'lower than' and sometimes either can be used. But under can indicate contact:

She put the letter under her pillow. The ice crackled under his feet.

With below there is usually a space between the two surfaces: They live below us. (We live on the fourth floor and they live on

the third.) Similarly: We live above them. (See above.) below and under can mean ‘junior in rank'. But He is under me implies that I am his immediate superior, below does not necessarily have this meaning. (Both over and under can be used as adverbs, but with a change of meaning.) beneath can sometimes be used instead of under, but it is safer to keep it for abstract meanings:

He would think it beneath him to tell a lie. (unworthy of him) She married beneath her. (into a lower social class)

beside, between, behind, in front of, opposite Imagine a theatre with rows of seats: A, B, C etc.. Row A being nearest the stage.

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Stage

Row A Tom Ann Bill Row B Mary Bob Jane This means that: Tom is beside Ann; Mary is beside Bob etc. ; Ann is between Tom and Bill; Bob is between Mary and Jane. Mary is behind Tom; Tom is in front of Mary. But if Tom and Mary are having a meal and Tom is sitting at one side of the table and Mary at the other, we do not use in front of, but say: Tom is sitting opposite Mary or Tom is facing Mary. But He stood in front of me could mean either "He stood with his back tg roe* or 'He faced me' People living on one side of a street will talk of the houses on the other side as the houses opposite (us) rather than the houses in front of us. With other things, however, these restrictions do not apply: She put the plate on the table in front of him. She sat with a book in front of her. Where's the bank? - There it is, just in front of you! There's a car-park in front of/at the back of the hotel.

Don't confuse beside with besides. beside = at the side of: We camped beside a lake. besides (preposition) = in addition to/as well as: / do all the cooking and besides that I help Tom. Besides doing the cooking I help Tom. besides (adverb) means (a) 'in addition to that/as well as that': / do the cooking and help Tom besides and (b) "in any case/anyway': We can't afford oysters. Besides, Tom doesn 't like them. between and among between normally relates a person/thing to two other people/things, but it can be used of more when we have a definite number in mind: Luxembourg lies between Belgium, Germany and France. among relates a person/thing to more than two others; normally we have no definite number in mind: He was happy to be among friends again.

a village among the hills

with could also be used instead of among in the last sentence above. Also, of course, with a singular object:

He was with a friend. Examples of other uses: He cut it with a knife. Don't touch it with bare hands. The mountains were covered with snow. I have no money with me/on me. He fought/quarrelled with everyone. In descriptions: the girl with red hair the boy with his hands in his pockets the man with his back to the camera/with his feet on his desk

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but and except (prepositions) These have the same meaning and are interchangeable.

but is more usual when the preposition + object is placed immediately after nobody/none/nothing/nowhere etc: Nobody but Tom knew the way. Nothing but the best is sold in our shops. except is more usual when the preposition phrase comes later in the sentence: Nobody knew the way except Tom and after all/everybody/everyone/everything/everywhere etc. but is more emphatic than except after anybody/anything/ anywhere etc.: You can park anywhere but/except here. (You can't park here.) but and except take the bare infinitive.

6 STRUCTURES: ADJECTIVES WITH PREPOSITIONS/VERBS WITH

PREPOSITIONS

6.1 PREPOSITIONS USED WITH ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES

Certain adjectives and past participles used as adjectives can be followed by a preposition + noun/gerund Usually particular adjectives and participles require particular prepositions. Some of these are given below; others can be found by consulting a good dictionary, which after any adjective will give the prepositons that can be used with it. Absorbed in Involved in According to Keen on Accustomed to Liable for/to Afraid of Nervous of Anxious for/about Owing to Ashamed of Pleased with Aware of Prepared for Bad at/for Proud of Capable of Ready for Confident of Responsible for/to Due to/for Scared of Exposed to Sorry for/about Fit for Successful in Fond of Suspicious of Frightened of/at Terrified of Good at/for Tired of Interested in Used to He was absorbed in his book. She is afraid/frightened/scared of the dark. According to Tom it's 2.30. (Tom says it's 2.30.)

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He is bad/good at chess, (a bad/good player) Running is bad/good for you. (unhealthy/healthy) They are very keen on golf. Drivers exceeding the speed limit are liable to a fine.

The management is not responsible for articles left in customers' cars. I'm sorry for your husband. (I pity him.) I'm sorry for forgetting the tickets. I'm sorry about the tickets.

6.2 VERBS AND PREPOSITIONS

There are a great number of verbs which can be followed by prepositions and some of these are listed below. More can be found in any good dictionary. Accuse sb of Insist on Apologise (to sb) for Live on (food/money) Apply to sb/for sth Long for Ask for/about Object to Attend to Occur to Beg for Persist in Believe in Prefer sb.sth to sb/sth Beware of Prepare for Blame sb for Punish sb for Charge sb with Quarrel with sb about Compare sth with Refer to Comply with Rely on Conform to Remind sb of Consist of Resort to Deal in Succeed in Depend on Suspect sb of Dream of Think of/about Fight with sb for Wait for Fine sb for Warn sb of/about Hope for Wish for Do you believe in ghosts? They were charged with receiving stolen goods. You haven't complied with the regulations. For a week she lived on bananas and milk. It never occurred to me to insure the house. They persisted in defying the law. When arguments failed he resort to threats. feel like + noun/pronoun = feel inclined to have something: Do you feel like a drink/a meal/a, rest? feel like + gerund = feel inclined to do something: I don't feel like walking there. Passive verbs can of course be followed by by + agent; but they can also be followed by other prepositions: The referee was booed by the crowd. The referee was booed for his decision/for awarding a penalty.

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7 APPLICATIONS

7.1 RELATED TO THE TEXT

I. Choose the correct word in the following sentences. 1 We must check/control the temperature regularly to make sure it doesn't rise. 2 To compare the number of defects over the last ten years, it would be best to use a Pareto/bar chart. 3 We try to detect/define faulty products before they are sent to our customers. 4 But it's a better idea to protect/prevent faulty products in the first place. 5 Making sure that materials are stored correctly is part of process/inventory control. 6 We're sending our engineer who will repair/remake the faulty motor. 7 We have had problems with the electronic equipment due to power errors/failures. 8 This process is very inefficient because of the volume of scrap/error left over. 9 Here is a list of things we could do to improve quality, and now we must define/prioritize them. 10 Improving the design quality of these cars will add value/variability. II. Here is a memo from the head of quality control to the managing director. Complete it with words from the box. improvement • sampling • defects • zero • prevent • analysis • monitor continuous • cause/effect • defective • Pareto MEMO From Sue Braun To Alois Vicent Re Quality control As you know we recently carried out a (a)…………………..analysis of the bottle manufacturing plant. Our aim was quality (b)…………….. and to reduce the number of (c) ___________ products. As you can see from the attached (d)…………. chart, raw materials and system failures are the areas we must improve on.

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We will introduce new systems to change our (e)…………….. methods and (f) …………..aw materials more carefully. We carried out a system failure (g)…………..and we are now repairing the moulding machine. This will (h) _________ future failures and reduce (i) _________. With (j) ____________ process improvement, our aim is (k)……………………….defects

7.2 GRAMMAR EXERCISES

I Five of the following sentences contain mistakes. Find the mistakes and correct them. 1 The interim report was completed lo the end of last month. 2 These products have been on the market since nearly ten years. 3 The meeting has been arranged for 1611' April at 10 a.m. 4 The results will be evaluated after the tests have been completed. 5 We intend to continue production during the new machinery is installed. 6 The road will be closed from 7 p.m and 7 a.m. 7 The jacquard loom for weaving cloth was created at 1801. 8 During Ihe 19111 and 2U11' centuries. great advances were made in treating illnesses. II Complete the following telephone conversation by adding the correct prepositions of time. If no preposition is required, leave the space blank. ERIK: I was wondering if we could arrange a meeting (a) ________ next week? MIRJAM; Yes, of course! I'm going to Washington (b) ________ Friday evening so can we arrange something (c) ________ that? ERIK: Eh, Yes. I'm pretty busy (d) ________ the beginning (e) ________ the week but perhaps we could meet some time (f) _______ Wednesday? MIRJAM: Could we meet (g) ________ the morning (h) ________ 9.30? ERIK: That's fine. I should have received the test results we've been waiting for (i) _______ then. MIRJAM: I'm looking forward to seeing the latest results. 1 haven't heard anything (j) ________ we spoke (k) ________ last month. III. Complete the following texts using the correct preposition. You may have to use some prepositions more than once.

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between • from • on • along above • through • to Signals pass (a) _________ a telephone (b) _________ the local exchange (c) _________ copper cables. Most exchanges are linked by optical fiber cables (d) _________ which the signals travel as pulses of laser light. Microwave beams sent (e) _________ dishes (f) _________ tall towers. link some signals. International calls go (g) ______ undersea optical fiber cables or via satellites high (h) _________ the Earth. around • at • of • from • to Refrigerators keep food (a) _________ a temperature (b) _________ about 50C- They work by evaporation. When a liquid changes (c) _________ a vapor, it takes heat(d) _________ its surroundings. In a fridge, the cooling process is done by a refrigerant which circulates (e) _________ a system (f) _________ sealed pipes. Noun/Adjective + Preposition Put in the missing preposition 1. The plan has been changed, but nobody seems to know the reason for this. 2. Don't ask me to decide. I'm not very good ____ making decisions. 3. Some people say that Sue is unfriendly, but she's always very nice ____ me. 4. What do you think is the best solution ____ the problem? 5. There has been a big increase ____ the price of land recently. 6. He lives a pretty lonely life. He doesn't have much contact ____ other people. 7. Paula is a wonderful photographer. She likes taking pictures ____ people. 8. Jim got married ____;_ a woman he met when he was in college. 9. He's very brave. He's not afraid ____ anything. 10. I'm surprised ____ the amount of traffic today. I didn't think it would be so heavy. 11. Thank you for lending me the guidebook. It was full ____ useful information. 12. Please come in and sit down. I'm sorry ____ the mess. Verb + Preposition Put in a preposition where necessary. If the sentence is already complete, leave an empty space 1. She works quite hard. You can't accuse her of____ being lazy. 2. Who's going to look ______ your children while you're at work? 3. The problem is becoming serious. We have to discuss ______ it. 4. The problem is becoming serious. We have to do something ______ it. 5. I prefer this chair ______ the other one. It's more comfortable. 6. Josh asked ______ me ______ money again, but I didn't give him any. 7. The river divides the city ______ two parts. 8. "What do you think ______ the new manager?" "She's all right, I guess." 9. Can somebody please explain ______ me what I have to do? 10. "Do you like staying at hotels?" "It depends ______ the hotel." 11. "Have you ever been to Bosia?" "No, I’ve never heard ______ it. Where is it?" 12. You remind me ______ somebody I knew a long time ago. You look just like her. 13. What's so funny? What are you laughing _____ ? 14. What have you done with all the money you had? What did you spend it ______

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8 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The phrase research and development (also R and D or R&D) has a special commercial significance apart from its conventional coupling of scientific research and technological development. As this process is usually associated with innovation as well, the synonym (R+D+I) can also be applicable. In general, R&D activities are conducted by specialized units or centers belonging to companies, universities and state agencies. In the context of commerce, "research and development" normally refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology, using similar techniques to scientific research without predetermined outcomes and with broad forecasts of commercial yield. Statistics on organisations devoted to "R&D" may express the state of an industry, the degree of competition or the lure of progress. Some common measures include: budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are continuously maintained, public and reflect risk. In the U.S., a typical ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3.5% of revenues. A high technology company such as a computer manufacturer might spend 7%. Although Allergan (a biotech company) tops the spending table 43.4% investment, anything over 15% is remarkable and usually gains a reputation for being a high technology company. Companies in this category include Big Pharma, such as Merck & Co. (14.1%) or Novartis (15.1%), and engineering companies like Ericsson (24.9%).[1] Such companies are often seen as poor credit risks because their spending ratios are so unusual. Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme needs, such as medicine, scientific instruments, safety-critical mechanisms (aircraft) or high technology military armaments. The extreme needs justify the high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to 90% of revenues. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial companies get only 40% revenues. Generally the largest technology companies not only have the largest technical staffs, but also manage them most effectively.[citation needed] On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and repackage advanced technologies as a way of amortising the high overhead. They often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research Research is often described as an active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising facts. This intellectual investigation produces a greater understanding of events, behaviors, or theories, and makes practical applications through laws and theories. The term research is also used to describe a collection of information about a particular subject, and is usually associated with science and the scientific method.

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The word research derives from Middle French (see French language); its literal meaning is 'to investigate thoroughly'. Basic research Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables (see statistics). It is exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s curiosity, interest, or hunch. It is conducted without any practical end in mind, although it may have unexpected results pointing to practical applications. The terms “basic” or “fundamental” indicate that, through theory generation, basic research provides the foundation for further, sometimes applied research. As there is no guarantee of short -term practical gain, researchers often find it difficult to obtain funding for basic research. Research is a subset of invention Examples of questions asked in basic research: Does string theory provide physics with a grand unification theory? Which aspects of genomes explain organismal complexity? Is it possible to prove or disprove Goldbach's conjecture? (i.e. that every even integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two (not necessarily distinct) primes) Applied research Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; its primary aim is not to gain knowledge for its own sake. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program. Common areas of applied research include electronics, informatics, computer science, material science, process engineering, and drug design. Examples of question asked in applied research: How can Canada's wheat crops be protected from grasshoppers? What is the most efficient and effective vaccine against influenza? How can communication among workers in large companies be improved? How can the Great Lakes be protected against the effects of greenhouse gas? How can a policy on time use increase transit services to low-income neighborhoods? There are many instances when the distinction between basic and applied research is not clear. It is not unusual for researchers to present their project in such a light as to 'slot' it into either applied or basic research, depending on the requirements of the funding sources. The question of genetic codes is a good example. Unraveling it for the sake of knowledge alone would be basic research – but what, for example, if knowledge of it also has the benefit of making it possible to alter the code so as to make a plant commercially viable? Some say that the difference between basic and applied research lies in the time span between research and reasonably foreseeable practical applications. Research methods The scope of the research process is to produce some new knowledge. This, in principle, can take three main forms: Exploratory research: a new problem can be structured and identified Constructive research: a (new) solution to a problem can be developed

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Empirical research: empirical evidence on the feasibility of an existing solution to a problem can be provided Research methods used by scholars: Action research Case study Classification Experience and intuition Experiments Eye tracking Interviews Map making Mathematical models and simulations Participant observation Physical traces analysis Semiotics Statistical data analysis Statistical surveys Content or Textual Analysis Research is often conducted using the hourglass model.[1] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Research process Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied: Formation of the topic Hypothesis Conceptual definitions Operational definitions Gathering of data Analysis of data Conclusion, revising of hypothesis A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis can be proven. Instead, by these methods no hypothesis can be proven, rather a hypothesis may only be disproven. A hypothesis can survive several rounds of scientific testing and be widely thought of as true (or better, predictive), but this is not the same as it having been proven. It would be better to say that the hypothesis has yet to be disproven. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, will supplant it. Publishing Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in

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journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields. Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, emerging from the transition from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, was very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

9 WORD STUDY

9.1 VOCABULARY RELATED TO RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Research and development (R and D) is the search for new and improved products and industrial processes. Both industrial firms and governments carry out R and D. Innovations in products or processes normally follow a path from laboratory (lab) idea, through pilot or prototype production and manufacturing start-up, to full-scale production and market introduction. There are two main types of research. Pure or basic research aims to clarify scientific principles without a specific end product in view: applied research uses the findings of pure research in order to achieve a particular commercial objective. Development describes the improvement of a product or process by scientists in conjunction with engineers. Industry spends vast sums to develop new products and the means to produce them cheaply, efficiently. and safely. Research is important in many disciplines and there are different types of research with different research professionals. The type of research reflects the environment and the objectives. In addition, many research words have entered the general language. Types of research academic research, applied research, clinical research development and evaluation research, experimental development, experimentation, innovation, practical application, product development, pure basic research, pure research, strategic basic research Research professionals analyst • engineer • lab technician • research assistant • scientist • technician

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General terms breakthrough • carry out • feasible • feasibility • me-too product patent • file* a patent • pipeline • pilot • prototype • register* a patent technical know-how (TKH) If you want to get feedback on a product or service, you can use qualitative research. Qualitative research uses open-ended interviewing to explore and understand the attitudes, opinions, feelings and behavior of individuals or a group of individuals. Qualitative research has many common uses, including: investigating current product/service/brand positioning identifying strengths and weaknesses exploring alternative communication messages understanding why customers buy and use a product or service evaluating the impact of advertising or public relations campaigns Research is based around a wide range of activities - from detailed analysis to product improvement. Results from research activities need to be scientifically measured and then reported. Research activities analyze • assess • compile • determine • develop • discover • evaluate experiment • explore • find • identify • improve • innovate • investigate modify • record • search for • study • survey • test • trial Measuring the results constant • correlation • deviation • distribution " frequency • mean measurement scale • median • mode • norm • random • reliability sampling • standard • statistics • validity • variable • variance Reporting the results feedback • report • response

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10 GRAMMAR STUDY

10.1 CLAUSES OF REASON, RESULT, CONCESSION, COMPARISON, TIME

10.1.1 Clauses of reason and result/cause

Clauses of reason Introduced by as/because/since: We camped there as/because/since it was too dark to go on. As/Because/Since it was too dark to go on, we camped there. 'in view of the fact that' can be expressed by as/since/seeing that, but not because:

As/Since/Seeing that you are here, you may as well give me a hand. As/Since/Seeing that Tom knows French, he 'd better do the talking. Where as/since/seeing that refers to a statement previously made or understood, it is replaceable by if: As/Since/Seeing that/If you don't like Bill, why did you invite him? Note the use of if so: I hope Bill won't come. ~ If so (= If you hope he won't come), why did you invite him? Clauses of result/cause are introduced by because or as: The fuse blew because we had overloaded the circuit. He was angry because we were late. As it froze hard that night there was ice everywhere next day. As the soup was very salty we were thirsty afterwards. These combinations could also be expressed by two main clauses joined by so: It was too dark to go on, so we camped there. You are here, so you may as well give me a hand.

It froze hard that night, so there was ice everywhere next day. therefore can also be used, but is normal only in fairly formal sentences: The Finnish delegate has not yet arrived. We are therefore postponing/We have therefore decided to postpone/Therefore we are postponing the meeting. (Notice possible positions of therefore.) Clauses of result with such/so . . . that such is an adjective and is used before an adjective + noun: They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house. He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep. so is an adverb and is used before adverbs and with adjectives which are not followed by their nouns: The snow fell so fast that our footsteps were soon covered up. His speech went on for so long that people began to fall asleep. Their dog was so fierce that no one dared come near it.

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But such is never used before much and many, so so is used even when much and many are followed by nouns: There was so much dust that we couldn 't see what was happening. So many people complained that they took the programme off. Note that such '+ a + adjective + noun is replaceable by so + adjective + a + noun, so that 'such a good man' is replaceable by 'so good a man'. This is only possible when a noun is preceded by a/an. It is not a very usual form but may be met in literature. Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence. It is then followed by the inverted form of the verb So terrible was the storm that whole roofs were ripped off.

10.1.2 Clauses of concession

These are introduced by although, though, even though, even if, no matter, however and sometimes by whatever, as is also possible, but only in the adjective + as + be construction. Although/Though/Even though/Even if you don 't like him you can still be polite. No matter what you do, don't touch this switch. However rich people are, they always seem anxious to make more money. However carefully you drive, you will probably have an accident eventually. Whatever you do, don't tell him that I told you this. Patient as he was, he had no intention of waiting for three hours. (though he was patient) may + infinitive can be used in hypothetical cases: However frightened you may be yourself, you must remain outwardly calm.

may can also imply ‘I accept the fact that': But he's your brother! — He may be my brother but I don't trust him! But may used in this way is part of another main clause, not a clause of concession. should + infinitive can be used after even if just as it can after if a conditional sentences, to express the idea that the action expressed t the infinitive is not very likely to take place: Even if he should find out he won't do anything about it.

10.1.3 Clauses of comparison

Comparisons with adjectives and finite verbs It 's darker today than it was yesterday. He doesn 't pay as much tax as we do/as us. He spends more than he earns. Note that + adjective, a colloquial form: Will if cost £100? - No, it won’t cost as much as all that. It won’t be (all} that expensive. (It won't be as expensive as that.) that + adjective is sometimes used colloquially to mean very. Comparisons with adverbs and finite verbs He didn 't play as well as we expected/as well as you (did). He sings more loudly than anyone I've ever heard/than anyone else (does). You work harder than he does/than him/than I did at your age.

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Comparisons with adjectives and infinitives or gerunds Often either can be used, but the infinitive is more usual for a particular action, and gerunds are more usual for general statements It 's sometimes as cheap to buy a new one as (it is) (to) repair the old one. Buying a new one is sometimes as cheap as repairing the old one. He found that lying on the beach was just as boring as sitting in his office or He found lying on the beach just as boring as sitting etc. (The infinitive would be less usual here.) He thinks it (is) safer to drive himself than (to) let me drive. He thinks that driving himself is safer than letting me drive. It will soon be more difficult to get a visa than it is now. Getting a visa will soon be more difficult than it is now.

10.1.4 Time clauses

These are introduced by conjunctions of time such as: after immediately till/until as no sooner . . . than when as soon as since whenever before the sooner while hardly . . . when They can also be introduced by the minute, the moment. For examples with when, as, while, Remember that we do not use a future form, or a conditional tense, in a time clause. Each of the following future forms becomes a present tense when we put it in a time clause. Future simple: You 'II be back soon. I'll stay till then. = I'll stay till you get back. be going to: The parachutist is going to jump. Soon after he jumps his parachute will open. The present continuous, used as a future form, and the future continuous: He's arriving/He 'II be arriving at six but When he arrives he'll tell us all about the match. Before he arrives I'll give the children their tea. But the continuous tense can, of course, be used in time clauses when it indicates a continuous action: Peter and John will be playing/are playing / are going to play tennis tonight. While they are playing (during this time) we 'II go to the beach. The future perfect changes to the present perfect, and the future perfect continuous changes to the present perfect continuous: I’ll have finished in the bathroom in a few minutes. The moment/As soon as I have finished I 'II give you a call. A conditional tense changes to a past tense: We knew that he would arrive/would be arriving about six. We knew that till he arrived nothing would be done.

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But when when introduces a noun clause it can be followed by a future or conditional tense: He said, 'When will the train get in?' He asked when the train would get in.

11 STRUCTURES: ENOUGH, SUFFICIENTLY, TOO / COMMENT ADVERBS

11.1 ENOUGH, SUFFICIENTLY, TOO

We use enough before nouns (e.g. 'Is there enough bread?') and after adjectives (and adverbs):

• The house was comfortable enough but not luxurious, (not ...enough comfortable...) • We are not in a strong enough financial position to cut taxes, (not ...an enough strong...) Compare the position of enough in these sentences with adjective + noun: • I haven't got big enough nails for the job. (= the nails that I've got aren't big enough) and • I haven't got enough big nails for the job. (= I've got some big nails, but not enough)

We use sufficiently before adjectives with a meaning similar to enough. Sufficiently is often preferred in more formal contexts: • The policies of the parties were not sufficiently different, (or ...not different enough.) • Things would be easier if we only had a sufficiently simple system, (or ...a simple enough system.)

i Study these sentences with adjective + enough and too + adjective: • The beams have to be strong enough to support the roof. • She was too ashamed to admit her mistake. • The garage was just about big enough for two cars to fit in. • The suitcase was too small (for him) to get all his clothes in. We talk about an action in the to-infinitive clause. If we need to mention the things or people involved, we do this with for....

In rather formal English we can use too + adjective + a/an + noun: • I hope you haven't had too tiring a day. (not ...a too tiring day.) (In a less formal style we might say 'I hope your day hasn't been too tiring.)

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11.2 COMMENT ADVERBS; VIEWPOINT ADVERBS; FOCUS ADVERBS

Comment adverbs Some comment adverbs...

examples

indicate how likely we think something is.

apparently, certainly, clearly, definitely, in theory, obviously, presumably, probably, undoubtedly indicate our attitude to or

opinion of what is said.

astonishingly, frankly, generally, honestly, to be honest, interestingly (enough), luckily, naturally, in my opinion, personally, sadly, seriously, surprisingly, unbelievably show our judgement of

someone's actions.

bravely, carelessly, foolishly, generously, kindly, rightly, stupidly, wisely, wrongly

Most common comment adverbs can occur at the front, middle or end of a sentence: Personally, I'd be surprised if Synonyms is guilty. He led me to a room that had obviously been built later than the rest of the house. The book was based on his experience in China, apparently. There are other possible positions for each of the comment adverbs in these examples. To show that they apply to the whole sentence, we usually separate them from the rest of the sentence, particularly in front and end positions, by a comma in writing or by intonation in speech. A number of phrases and clauses can be used in a similar way to comment adverbs to indicate our attitude to, or opinion of, what is said. For example: To my disappointment, he didn't ask me why I was wearing a false nose. (Also To my surprise/astonishment, etc.) To be frank, I don't think she's the best person to do the job. (Also To be honest/truthful/fair, etc.) Oddly enough, she didn't mention that she was moving house. (Also Curiously/ Funnily/Strangely enough) To put it simply (or Putting it simply), we need to spend less. (Also To put it (or Putting it) bluntly/briefly/mildly, etc.)

12 APPLICATIONS

12.1 RELATED TO THE TEXT

I. Use the word in brackets to form a word which fits in the sentence. 1 The scientists have presented a detailed ________ of the results. (analyze) 2 They have brought in a food ______ to help in the research. (analyze)

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3 All process materials are tested using highly developed ________ techniques. (analyze) 4 The researchers have come up with an ________ idea for the use of recycled plastics.(innovate) 5 Charles Dyson is the _______ of a vacuum cleaner which works on a new principle.(invent) 6 The advent of the ballpoint pen was a wonderful _______. (invent) 7 They employ a large team of software _____. (develop) 8 A report has been prepared on the _______ tests that have been carried out. (develop) 9 Increasing numbers of people can now work from home thanks to _______ in telecommunications. (develop) 10 These methods of production are still at an _________ stage. (experiment) 11 The _________ is continuing work on the new drug. (experiment) 12 Many people are against animal ________. (experiment) II. The following email has been received by the R and D department. Complete it using words from the list. breakthrough • prototype • developmental • engineers design • patent • innovative • experiment Dear Frank I had a preliminary meeting with Maria Altefors regarding her (a) _______ for a new children's pushchair. It's a simple but (b) ________ invention which will allow two children of different ages to be transported in a single unit. She has already registered a (c) ______ and I'd like us to develop a (d) ________. Could you arrange a meeting with the (e) _________ to discuss this? We will have to carry out (f) __________ tests to assess safety features and (g) __________ with different weight loads. This could be a real (h) _________ in pushchair design! Regards Ruth III. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate verb of Research Activities You will have to put the verb in the correct form. 1 They _________ a report on future energy requirements.

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2 The temperature was measured every hour and carefully ____________. 3 Following the accident. fire experts have to __________ the cause of the fire. 4 These clothes have not worn well so we will have to try and _________ the quality. 5 Scientists continue to _________ for a cure for cancer. 6 They are trying to _______ a solution to the problem of friction.

12.2 GRAMMAR EXERCISES

Choose items from (i) and from (ii) to complete these sentences in an appropriate way. Note the punctuation at the ends of the sentences and phrases already given. (A 6' B) When Though At that time Before Then By contrast Then nevertheless

the acting was superb he was working as a librarian I was still late for work we met each other he began his story the snow began to fall Cuba has increased production by 35%

1 The world output of sugar has been in slow decline since 1984. By contrast, Cuba has increased production by 35%. 2 Redford published his first novel in 1968. 3 The story told in the film was predictable, 4 He was working in the garden 5 We had lived in the same block of flats for 5 years 6 I got up very early. 7 He waited until the audience was silent. Underline the correct alternative. (A, B dr C) 1 Some of his photographs had won prizes in competitions. So that / Consequently, he thought of himself as a professional photographer. 2 She listened while / at the same time Ray read to her in a low voice. 3 The graphics in that new computer game I bought are quite good. Even so, / Even though, I soon got bored with playing it. 4 Mr Townsend was on holiday so / in consequence he wasn't considered. 5 He was refused entry to the country. Though / Instead he was forced to return to Spain. 6 I understand your point of view. However, / Although I don't agree with it. 7 Even so, / Even though I knew the house was empty, I rang the doorbell. 8 It was the best race seen in the stadium before that/since Howe beat Razak in 1989. 9 John had lived in the village for 20 years. Even though / nevertheless the locals still considered him an outsider.

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10 The car skidded to a halt as / meanwhile we were approaching the bridge. 11 He has lived next door to us for years, yet / however we hardly ever see him. 12 They met for tea at a cafe in New Street and afterwards / since they went shopping. 13 I walked up the stairs cautiously. Even so / Even though I nearly fell twice. 14 We all sat there gloomily, meanwhile / while Stuart smiled to himself.

15 I first saw Sam Moroney in Manchester. After / After that, I didn't miss any of his British concerts. Use your own ideas to complete the sentences. Begin However + adjective/adverb/many/much. ' (D; 1 However hard he pushed he just couldn't get the door open. 2 We are unlikely ever to find a cure for the common cold, however ...................... 3 However ...................... it's always possible to improve. 4 I never get tired of listening to Beethoven's 5th Symphony, however.

13 STUDY AND RESEARCH

For this chapter I will ask students to present an article from a Computer Science Journal. Computer Science Journals may be found on the database available on the University Library web page. The database is called SpringerLink and it can be accessed from any computer in the university. SpringerLink database contains on-line titles of journals edited by publishing houses such as Springer Verlang, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Urban and Vogel, Steinkopff and Birkhauser. It contains more than 1250 titles of on-line journals and around 2500 books from the publishing house on-line collection The information may be searched after content, key word, author, journal title. The main fields covered by SpringerLink are Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Computer Science and Economics, Chemical Science, Geosciences, Life sciences, Law, Mathematics, Medicine, Physics and Astronomy. Any other source is welcome. Students will present the article chosen as well as matters of scientific writing. We shall discuss and comment all these matters together in order to find the best way to produce high quality technical and scientific writings.

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14 REFERENCES

1. McCarthy, Michael; O’Dell, Felicity. English Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: University Press, 2002;

2. Brieger, Nick; Pohl, Alison. Technical English. Vocabulary and Grammar. Oxford: Summertown Publishing Limited, 2004

3. Raymond, Murphy. Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge: University Press, 2002; 4. Thomson, A.J; Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1997; 5. Dictionar tehnic englez-roman. Bucuresti: Editura Tehnica, 1997; 6. Alexander, L.G. Right Word Wrong Word. London: Longman, 1998 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development 8. http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/index.html *** Computer magazine, January 2003 *** Computer magazine, May 2003 *** Software Magazine, September/October 2002

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1 WRITING GUIDELINES FOR ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE STUDENTS............................................. 1 1.1 Assessing the Audience ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Selecting the Format ...................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Crafting the Style ........................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 Presentations Design of Presentation Slides Design of Scientific Posters ..................................... 3 1.5 Correspondence ............................................................................................................................. 4 1.6 Formal Reports .............................................................................................................................. 5 1.7 Writing Instructions ....................................................................................................................... 7

2 APPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Scientific writing — examples ................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Scientific writing – structures .................................................................................................... 8

3 EDUCATING EXPERIENCED IT PROFESSIONALS BY ADDRESSING INDUSTRY’S NEEDS........... 10 3.1 Who educates our workforce? ................................................................................................ 10 3.2 Academia guided by industry.................................................................................................. 11 3.3 Balancing theory and reality .................................................................................................... 11 3.4 Software fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 12 3.5 NBA versus MS ......................................................................................................................... 13 3.6 Computer science versus information engineering ............................................................. 13

4 WORD STUDY ...................................................................................................................................................... 15 4.1 Vocabulary related to quality................................................................................................... 15

5 GRAMMAR STUDY............................................................................................................................................. 16 5.1 Prepositions ............................................................................................................................... 16

5.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 16 5.1.2 Time and date: at, on, by, before, in ......................................................................... 16 5.1.3 Time: from, since, for, during ..................................................................................... 18 5.1.4 Time: to, till/until, after, afterwards (adverb) ............................................................ 19 5.1.5 Travel and movement: from, to, at, in, by, on, into, onto, 1 off, out, out of ........... 19 5.1.6 at, in; in, into; on, onto ................................................................................................ 21 5.1.7 above, over, under, below, beneath etc. .................................................................. 22

6 STRUCTURES: ADJECTIVES WITH PREPOSITIONS/VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS ....................... 24 6.1 Prepositions used with adjectives and participles ............................................................... 24 6.2 Verbs and prepositions................................................................................................................. 25

7 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 26 7.1 Related to the text .................................................................................................................... 26 7.2 Grammar exercises .................................................................................................................. 27

8 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT.................................................................................................................. 29 9 WORD STUDY ...................................................................................................................................................... 32

9.1 Vocabulary related to research and development ............................................................... 32 10 GRAMMAR STUDY........................................................................................................................................... 34

10.1 Clauses of reason, result, concession, comparison, time ................................................ 34 10.1.1 Clauses of reason and result/cause ......................................................................... 34 10.1.2 Clauses of concession ................................................................................................ 35 10.1.3 Clauses of comparison ............................................................................................... 35 10.1.4 Time clauses ................................................................................................................ 36

11 STRUCTURES: ENOUGH, SUFFICIENTLY, TOO / COMMENT ADVERBS.......................................... 37 11.1 Enough, sufficiently, too ........................................................................................................ 37 11.2 Comment adverbs; viewpoint adverbs; focus adverbs ..................................................... 38

12 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................................................. 38 12.1 Related to the text .................................................................................................................. 38 12.2 Grammar exercises ................................................................................................................ 40

13 STUDY AND RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................. 41 14 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................... 42