Life Course Markers, Independence from Parents and Locus of Control

among Young Adults in Greater Jakarta, Indonesia

Peter McDonald, Iwu Utomo and Anna Reimondos

Australian Demographic and Social Research Institute

The Australian National University

Concepts of adulthood

• 1. Biological

– Puberty

• 2. Legal

– Age at majority, voting age, signing contracts, driving a car, drinking alcohol, etc.

• 3. Socio-demographic markers

– Finishing education, leaving home, commencing employment, marriage, first birth

• 4. Psycho-social

– Sense of independence from parents, control over one’s life, ‘standing alone’.

Literature

• Extensive literature on socio-demographic markers and psycho-social measures as indicators of adulthood. Eg: – Shanahan, M. Porfeli, E, and J. Mortimer. 2005. Subjective age identity and the transition to

adulthood: when does one become an adult? In Settersten, R., Furstenberg, F. and Rumbaut, R. (eds). On the Frontier of Adulthood: Theory, Research, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp.225-255.

– Arnett, J. 2001. ‘Conceptions of the transition to adulthood: perspectives from adolescence through midlife’, Journal of Adult Development, 8(2): 133-143.

– Lewis, S., Ross, C. And Mirowsky, J. 1999. “Establishing a sense of personal control in the

transition to adulthood’, Social Forces, 77(4): 1573-1599.

• Debate about the salience of markers V independence for parents V sense of control.

• Literature relates primarily to the United States.

Our research objective

• Can or how should ‘adulthood’ be defined for young Indonesians: markers, independence from parents or sense of control?

• Data Source: The 2010 Greater Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey.

• Representative sample survey of young adults aged 20-34 living in the city of Jakarta and the contiguous cities of Bekasi and Tangerang.

Why young adults in Jakarta?

• Subject to a wide range of socio-political influences: – Western individualism – Eastern Islamic fundamentalism – Modern Indonesian nationalism – The traditions of the many Indonesian ethnic groups from which

these young people are descendent.

Young Jakartans are: – not isolated in a traditional culture – live in a very dynamic environment where the pace of

change is considerable – are relatively highly educated:

• almost 70 per cent had completed or will soon complete senior high school (Year 12)

• 28 per cent have or will soon have a tertiary qualification.

Socio-demographic markers: Males

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Pro

po

rtio

n s

urv

ivin

g

Age

Figure 1: Survival analysis of life course markers (Males)

Enter labour force

Leave home

Marriage

1st birth

Socio-demographic markers: Females

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Pro

po

rtio

n s

urv

ivin

g

Age

Figure 2: Survival analysis of life course markers (Females)

Enter labour force

Leave home

Marriage

1st birth

Arnett’s scale of individualism

1. Accept responsibility for the consequences of your actions

2. Decide on personal beliefs and values independently of parents or other influences

3. Establish a relationship with parents as an equal adult

4. Financially independent from parents

5. No longer living in parents’ household.

• Item 5 is a marker. Measured, but probably the least best of all of the markers for our context.

• Items 2, 3 and 4 (relationship with parents) all considered to be problematic in this cultural context.

Our scale: degree of dependence on parents

1. I am still emotionally dependent on my parents

2. My parents treat me as if I was still a child

3. If I have a problem, I turn to my parents for help

4. I consider myself to be an independent person.

Scale items: dependence on parents

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

I am still dependent on my parents

My parents treat me as if I was still a child

If I have a problem, turn to my parents for help

I consider myself to be a fully independent person

Level of agreement to statements about dependence upon parents

Strongly disagree

Disagee

Mixed feelings

Agree

Strongly agree

Legend reversed

Sense of control

• Transition to adulthood in terms of the establishment of a sense of personal control (Lewis et al. 1999).

• Adulthood is associated with the development of a sense of control over one’s life and one’s destiny.

• Use is made of Rotter’s (1966) scale of the internal locus of control.

• Those with a greater sense of control are more adult.

Scale: sense of control

1. I have little control over the things that happen to me

2. What happens to be in the future mostly depends on me

3. I can do just about anything if I really set my mind to it

4. There is really no way I can solve the problems I have

5. Sometimes I feel that I continue to be directed by the environment around me.

• The sense of control scale and the dependence on parents scale are not correlated (0.23)

Scale items: sense of control

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

I have little control over the things that happen

to me

What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me *

I can do just about anything if I really set

my mind to it*

There is really no way I can solve some of the

problems I have

Sometimes I feel that I am being pushed around

in life

Level of agreement to statements about control over life

Strongly disagree

Disagee

Mixed feelings

Agree

Strongly agree

Legend reversed

Parental dependence Locus of control

Variable Males Females Males Females

Age group

20-24 -0.09** -0.11*** -0.09** 0.03

25-29 (ref) -- -- -- --

30-34 0.06 0.10*** -0.05 0.10***

Highest education

Primary school or less -0.13** 0.07* -0.27*** -0.23***

Junior high school -0.03 0.05 -0.10** -0.13***

Senior high school (ref) -- -- -- --

Certificate 0.11* 0 0.16*** 0.14***

University 0 0.07 0.06 0.23***

Religiosity

Not religious (ref)

Somewhat religious -0.02 0.02 -0.05 0.08**

Religious/Very religious 0.03 0.09* 0.06 0.09**

Migrated since 17

No -- -- -- --

Yes 0.12*** 0.10*** 0.01 0.00

Objective markers

Ever worked

No (ref) -- -- -- --

Yes 0.35*** 0.11*** 0.06 0.00

Left home

No (ref) -- -- -- --

Yes 0.31*** 0.15*** 0.09** -0.03

Married

No (ref) -- -- -- --

Yes 0.05 0.15*** 0.05 -0.07

Had a child

No (ref) -- -- -- --

Yes 0.00 0.04 -0.12* -0.02

Constant -0.48*** -0.41*** 0.03 0.01

Number of observations 1236 1743 1236 1743

Prob>F <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001

Adjusted R squared 0.19 0.13 0.04 0.09

OLS regression with scales as dependent variables

Observations from regressions • The dependence on parents scale is associated with

three of the four markers especially having ‘ever worked’ or ‘left home’.

• The sense of control measure is not associated with the markers.

• Sense of control is strongly associated with education but dependence on parents is not.

• More religious women have a stronger sense of control.

• Migrants are less dependent upon parents.

• Men are less dependent upon parents and have a higher sense of control than women (not shown in table).

Conclusions

• The association between entering the work force and a lower level of dependence upon parents may be the best way to define ‘adulthood’ in this cultural context.

• Adulthood seems more likely to be explained in terms of a person’s dependence on his or her parents than by sense of control over his or her life.

Education and Employment Outcomes of Young Migrants to Greater Jakarta

Peter McDonald, Iwu Dwisetyani Utomo, Anna

Reimondos, Ariane Utomo, Terry Hull and Gavin Jones

Greater Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey

Policy Background Paper No. 1

Origins of sample

Origin of respondent aged 20-34 %

Lived in DKI Jakarta, whole of life 38.6

Lived in Bekasi, whole of life 6.5

Lived in Tanggerang, whole of life 4.3

Moved only between Jakarta, Bekasi and Tanggerang 9.7

Origin in Greater Jakarta 59.1

Moved from Central Java to Greater Jakarta 12.6

Moved from West Java to Greater Jakarta 9.5

Moved from Another Province to Greater Jakarta 10.5

Had multiple lifetime moves, ending in Greater Jakarta 8.3

Migrants to Greater Jakarta 40.9

Those migrating at ages 10 and over are much more likely to have only

primary school education.

The 10 and over group

• With very few economic opportunities available in the village of origin, these early school leavers set out for Greater Jakarta on their own, that is, not with their parents.

• Men worked often as street sellers and women often as domestic servants.

• In general, they remain self employed or as casual workers, working very long hours at low wage rates.

• They had little or no opportunity to continue their education after they moved to the city.

Females migrating after age 10 married very early and

had their children very early

A low level occupation was defined as a process worker, an operator

or machinery assembly worker, or those in other elementary occupations.

Education is the key but evidence of discrimination against women migrating after age 10

The vulnerability of women migrating to Greater Jakarta from age 10 onwards

• Women who migrated to Jakarta from age 10 onwards are disadvantaged in multiple ways:

– Among all 20-34 year-olds in Greater Jakarta, both men and women, they had

by far the lowest levels of education and the lowest levels of employment.

– They were much more likely than other women to have married and had their children at early ages.

– Finally they were much more likely to be working in low level occupations than other women even after taking their low education level into account.

•

• More than 50% of employed women in this category were employed as domestic workers or as self-employed petty traders. Another 20% worked in factories.

Males migrating to Greater Jakarta at ages 10+

• Men who migrated to Greater Jakarta from age 10 onwards

were more likely to be employed than other men and also

worked much longer hours than other men.

• This is consistent with their need for income in order to

survive and remain in the city.

• However, after taking their level of education into account

and the type of work that they did, the hourly wage rate of

men who migrated from age 10 onwards was actually

higher than that of other men (positive discrimination).

Why is hourly income higher for migrants?

• Migrants may be prepared to work harder and this may be

recognized by employers.

• Migrants may work harder because they are:

– selective of persons wanting to get ahead

– they may be forced to work harder because of their lack of family

support in Jakarta

– they have demands upon them to provide remittances to family

members still in the village

– their wives are not earning

Future implications

• As education levels increase across Indonesia and young

people in villages do not drop out of school at an early age,

this pool of low-skilled migrants may start to diminish.

• There is increased competition for this segment of the

Indonesian labour force from international sources.

• This will have implications for the future of the low level

occupations in Jakarta that low-skilled migrants have filled

in the past.

Indicators of Poverty Among Young

Adults in Greater Jakarta

Peter McDonald, Anna Reimondos and Iwu Utomo Australian Demographic and Social Research Institute

The Australian National University

Three concepts of poverty

• 1. Wellbeing, including health and psychological

wellbeing

• 2. Capability, opportunity structure, human capital

• 3. Material standard of living

• We define poverty as a very low material living

standard. This is the standard convention.

Poverty at the household or individual level?

• Usually poverty is measured at the household level using household income or household expenditure adjusted for household composition.

• The 2010 Greater Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey is a survey of individuals and household income or expenditure were not collected.

• Is it possible to define material poverty using individual level variables? Use measures of ‘deprivation’.

Indicator Cut-off or category to be

considered deprived

Percentage

deprived

Valid

cases

Dwelling 1. Type of dwelling Tenement (rumah petak) 22.0 3,005

2. Metres2 per person Metres2 per person is less

than or equal to 7.5m2

25.2 2,817

3. Persons per bedroom Number of persons per

bedroom is greater than or

equal to 3

31.9 2,786

4. Floor material Soil, bamboo, wood, or

cement/brick.

12.5 2,983

5. Source of drinking water Tap or well outside of

house, or other

11.9 2,975

6. Ownership of house Rented or house built on

illegal land

24.5 2,805

Education and work 7. Number of years not working or

studying (from age 12-19)

3+ more years 15.7 2,944

8. Highest education level Never went to school, or

only completed primary

school

13.6 3,001

9. Unemployed Respondent is

unemployed

7.9 2,996

Table 1. Potential Indicators of Poverty and Percentages Deprived

2010 Greater Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey

Indicator Cut-off or category to be

considered deprived

Percentage

deprived

Valid cases

Finances and

assets 10. Satisfaction with finances Dissatisfied or very dissatisfied 30.1 2,986

11. Satisfaction with amount of

savings

Dissatisfied or very dissatisfied 42.3 2,981

12. Self-assessment of financial

situation

Inadequate or very inadequate 24.1 2,976

13. Mobile phone ownership Does not own a mobile 14.8 2,987

14. Car/motorbike ownership Does not own either a car or a

motorbike

46.4 2,980

15. Bill payment Unable to pay on time 15.9 2,995

16. Rent/mortgage payment Unable to pay on time 10.0 2,995

17. Sold or pawned something Sold or pawned something 15.6 2,992

18. Purchasing food Has gone without food 3.7 2,993

19. New clothes purchasing Unable to buy new clothes 10.9 2,993

Health 20. BMI Underweight (BMI<18.5) 21.3 2,991

21. Self-rated health Fair or poor 12.8 2,994

22. Chronic illness Has a chronic illness 6.1 2,988

23. Emotional support Has only two types of people or less

to provide them with emotional

support (of max 11)

16.4 2,959

24. Life satisfaction Dissatisfied or very dissatisfied 12.6 2,986

Table 1 cont’d. Potential Indicators of Poverty and Percentages Deprived

2010 Greater Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey

Tests of reliability

• A reliable indicator of poverty should:

– Not be associated with age and sex

– Should be associated with ‘economic status when

growing up, based on the theory of the intergenerational

transfer of disadvantage.

• The indicators in Table 1 were tested against these

reliability tests (in a multivariate model containing all three

variables).

Domain Indicator Economic situation when growing up: odds ratios

Good (reference) Fair Poor

Dwelling Type of dwelling 1.00 1.68*** 2.47***

Metres2 per person 1.00 2.03*** 2.76***

Persons per bedroom 1.00 1.93*** 2.94***

Floor material 1.00 1.70*** 2.69***

Source of drinking water 1.00 1.41** 2.41***

Ownership of house 1.00 1.63*** 2.12***

Finances and assets Satisfaction with finances 1.00 1.95*** 6.93***

Satisfaction with amount of

savings

1.00 2.14*** 5.82***

Self-assessment of financial

situation

1.00 1.76*** 4.45***

Mobile phone ownership 1.00 2.07*** 4.12***

Car/motorbike ownership 1.00 1.42*** 1.77***

Bill payment 1.00 1.46*** 4.13***

Rent/mortgage payment 1.00 1.82*** 3.15***

Sold or pawned something 1.00 1.60*** 3.15***

Purchasing food 1.00 1.43 5.20***

New clothes purchasing 1.00 1.74*** 4.47***

Table 2. Odds ratios for ‘economic situation while growing up’ as

a predictor of each indicator of disadvantage

Domain Indicator Economic situation when growing up: odds ratios

Good (reference) Fair Poor

Education and

employment Number of years not working

or studying (from age

12-19)

1.00 2.65*** 5.14***

Highest education level 1.00 2.62*** 9.43***

Unemployed 1.00 1.04 1.09

Health BMI 1.00 1.34*** 1.37*

Self-rated health 1.00 1.14 2.08***

Chronic illness 1.00 0.72* 1.23

Emotional support 1.00 1.35** 1.59**

Table 2 cont’d. Odds ratios for ‘economic situation while growing up’ as a

predictor of each indicator of disadvantage

Summary

• Being unemployed failed the indicator test.

• The health indicators failed the indicator test and they are

measures of wellbeing rather than material living standard.

• The education measures are measures of capability rather

than material living standard.

• Finally, two indicators, owning a motor vehicle and having

difficulty paying rent were related to age, so they also were

considered unacceptable.

• This leaves 14 indicators that are reliable.

Domain Indicator

Dwelling Type of dwelling

Metres2 per person

Persons per bedroom

Floor material

Source of drinking water

Ownership of house

Finances and assets Satisfaction with finances

Satisfaction with amount of

savings

Self-assessment of financial

situation

Mobile phone ownership

Bill payment

Sold or pawned something

Purchasing food

New clothes purchasing

14 reliable indicators

Distribution of number of indicators of disadvantage

Three groups

0-3: not disadvantaged (66.5%) 4-5: disadvantaged (19.0%) 6+: very disadvantaged (14.5%)

Percentage disadvantaged for each item, those with 4+ and 6+ deprivations

Desirable 1. Each red line is longer than each blue line Outcomes: 2. The rank orders of the blue and the red are very similar 3. The four lowest percentages relate to access to the most basic commodities: food, water, clothing and housing

Reliability: relationship of poverty categories

with education

31

47

71

90 93 30

26

19

9 6

39

27

10

1 1

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Primary school or below

Junior high school Senior high school Certificate Bachelors+

Highest level of education

6+ Very disadvantaged

4-5 Disadvantaged

0-3 Not disadvantaged

Reliability: relationship of poverty categories with economic situation when growing up

80

64

35

15

21

24

5

15

41

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Good Fair Poor

Economic situation growing up

6+ Very disadvantaged

4-5 Disadvantaged

0-3 Not disadvantaged

Reliability

• The three categories of disadvantage are independent of age and sex with the exception of mobile phone ownership which is somewhat related to sex.

• The disadvantage measure can be sub-divided into four factors or domains (dwelling, satisfaction with finances, access to basic necessities and ownership of basic amenities) each of which has the desirable characteristics of association with education and economic situation when growing up but little association with age and sex.

Applications of the measure

• 1. We shall use it in future analysis of the 2010 Greater

Jakarta Transition to Adulthood Survey. For example, we

can study the histories of those who came from a poor

economic background but are not disadvantaged today.

How did they achieve this?

• 2. When we collect our second round data in 2013, we can

determine the causes of remaining in poverty or escaping

poverty using longitudinal methods.

• 3. The measure might be replicated in surveys done by

others.