Library Research Paper by Hasna Muti

8/12/2019 Library Research Paper by Hasna Muti

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RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AGAINST MUSLIMS AND ITS EFFECTS

A Library Research Paper

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor ENG 2 – College Writing in English (F1-2R)

Submitted by:

HASNAH L. MUTIBA in Philosophy

Submitted to:

ERIC P. PALIGATFaculty-in-Charge

UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOSSecond Semester, School Year 2013-2014



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Thesis Statement: Before seeing Muslims through the socially constructed stereotypes, we

must take initiative in learning right information about their religion,knowing and understanding the roots of Islamophobia, and combating its

negative effects not only to Muslims on a personal level, but also for ourunification on a global level.

I. For a fair initial judgment on the topic, one must try to understand Muslims with

relativity to the Muslim cultural and moral context; thus, a brief general knowledge onthe Islamic faith and the Muslim society is necessary.

A. Islam is a religion of peace that is not simply about faith but a “complete and totalway of life” and devotion to Allah.

B. Muslims have their basic essential beliefs according to their Holy Book whichshapes their way of life.

1. They worship no creator other than Allah and associate none with Him.2. They believe in Prophet Muhammad as the messenger of Allah, and other

prophets as well.3. They believe in the existence of angels as unseen heavenly beings.

4. They believe in Allah’s revealed books such as the Holy Qur’an which arewords of Allah revealed to Prophet Muhammad.

5. They believe in the Day of Judgment.6. They believe in the Divine Predestination.

C. Like any other religion, the Muslim population is a heterogeneous one and shouldnot be generalized.

II. In understanding the roots of discrimination in human nature and society, terms such as

prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination are clarified and differentiated.

A. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are interlocking phenomena.B. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination can be explained by two factors—relative

status and competition.

III. Islamophobia is the prejudice against Muslims and hatred or fear of Islam which causes

prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination against its followers.A. Islamophobia is evident when Muslims are perceived as something that does not

belong to us rather something that has connotations as the other .B. Misrepresentation characterized by anti-Muslim sentiment and biased reporting in

mainstream media have greatly contributed to the increasing levels of hatred against

Muslims.

IV. The negative effects of Islamophobia in the society can be examined through the personal and global level.

A. On a Global Level: The wake of discrimination against Muslims in the world traces back to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York

City as well as what is known as the Orientalist View.



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1.Innocent Muslim minorities in the U.S. have experienced violations oneconomic liberties, as well as an ongoing institutional, political, and social

discrimination.2.Other countries in the West have also demonstrated a backlash against

Muslims and Muslim countries due to the Orientalist View.

B.

On a Personal Level: The prevalence of discrimination, social rejection, and violenceagainst Muslims effectively oppresses Muslims of different ages personally, withtheir voices not being heard, instead silenced.

1.Muslims experience the absence of a sense of belonging and identificationresulting to a low socio-economic status and opportunities that keep them

from future they want, need, and deserve.2.While education is supposed to be one of the most effective means to counter

the effects of Islamophobia among youth, Muslim youth have their first tasteof intolerance and social rejection at school for their religion.

3.Anti-Muslim hate crimes are continually being experienced by Muslims indifferent parts of the world.

V. There have been many efforts by Muslims as well as non-Muslims to cope up with the

negative effects of racial discrimination against Muslims.A. In order to combat the Islamophobia, there are strategies to prevent anti-Muslim

behavior and eliminate existing misconceptions about Islam.1. Common misconceptions and mistruths about Islam spread by media are be

objectively explained and clarified in detail.2.Several organizations on Civil Human Rights are being established and are

taking action to combat the prevailing discrimination.3.An improved educational curriculum can assure an enrichness of

understanding the human diversity, cross-cultural communication, and thus,stray the youth away from the influential path of Islamophobia.

4.Media globally and nationally, being one of the most influential forces,should avoid exaggeration and analyze thoroughly the information they will

show to the public.B. Cooperation in order to achieve unification must start with the individual at the

society-level.



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Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world, yet contradictorily it seems to be the

most misconstrued one. As years go by, the world has experienced multiple social and political

challenges involving Muslims such as terrorist attacks. Due to these, some parts of the West have

unfairly stereotyped Muslims and the religion of Islam. Many non-Muslims are starting to doubt

if Islam truly is a religion of peace, and not a religion of hatred and violence. This is because it is

a religion divided into two—first, the radical Islamic extremists who engages in violence, "holy

war”, and promoting the wrong concept of Jihad ; and second, the majority of Muslims in the

world, who follow a religion of peace, mercy, forgiveness, and have nothing to do with the ill

acts of the extremists. Non-Muslims fear what they do not understand; therefore, it is important

to educate them about the views and beliefs of Muslims. Hence, the aim of this research project

is to provide the reader with the right information about Islam, to shine light on the roots of

Islamophobia and consequences associated with it, and to develop an understanding of the other

side of the story—the side of the Muslims—misrepresented by the Western media in order to put

an end to the socially constructed stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination they experience.

It is man’s easiest recourse to take a side on a position where he can most associate

himself with when presented with two contrasting perspectives to choose from. However, there

is no better way to understand a strikingly unfamiliar and negative side than viewing its beliefs in

its own context or standpoint. We should at least know the basic facts about the religion of Islam

in order to have a brief background about Muslims. Through making use of the concept of

cultural relativism in seeing through their outlook, we can deviate a little from the negative social

constructs attached to them and understand the truth behind their religion.



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The term Islam means "submission" and "peace”; and its followers are called “Muslims”

(Haneef, 2007). A Muslim is a believer of Islam who submits himself to the One True God or

"Allah" (the equivalent Arabic term for ‘God’), the single divine deity being worshipped in Islam

(Ibrahim, 1997). All Muslims are required to have the essential right towards Allah which is

worshipping and obeying Him alone in an absolute sense—in this sense, not attributing partners

or rivals and sons or daughters to Him (Al Sheha, 2007). The religion of Islam is said to be the

“acceptance of and obedience to Allah which He revealed to His last prophet, Muhammad”

(Ibrahim, 1997). Lastly, it is of great importance to know that in the Muslim point of view, Islam

is not simply considered as a religion that requires a set of beliefs, rituals, and an ideology to be

adhered to by its followers. Rather, it is practiced as a “complete and total way of life” that aims

to make man "truly human” by providing him guidance on every sphere of his existence and

freeing him from the earthly desires that dominate him (Haneef, 2007). Perhaps, this is one of the

reasons why Muslims are criticized as a group of followers who go “too far” or “too extreme” in

practicing their faith.

There are different basic essential beliefs in Islam as prescribed in the Qur’an (Holy

Book). First is the belief in one unique God or Allah who was neither born nor has a child. Under

strict conditions, there must be none believed to be like Him. He is called the Sustainer, the All-

Knowing, the Most Gracious, and Most Merciful. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is not

Messiah (Jesus) and Messiah is not God. Second, Muslims believe on several prophets and

messengers of God. However, Allah’s final message was revealed only to Prophet Muhammad

who is His Messenger. The third one is the belief in angels—unseen holy creatures close to Allah

and mentioned many times in the Qur’an. One of them is Angel Gabriel who was sent down by

God to reveal the verses of Qur'an to Prophet Muhammad. The fourth basic belief of Muslims is



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the belief on God's revealed books as a proof and guidance for the mankind such as the Qur'an.

Fifth, Muslims believe on the Day of Judgment—the day that mankind will be resurrected for

God's judgment according to man’s beliefs and deeds during life—the beginning of afterlife.

Lastly, Muslims believe in the “Divine Predestination” or simply destiny. This is the belief that

God knows and has recorded everything before the creation of the universe; whatever He wills

will happen and whatever He wills not to happen, will not happen (Ibrahim, 1997). These

essential beliefs are what shape a Muslim’s way of life.

First off, to clear notions of partiality that prevents a fair and objective consideration of

the issue posed in this paper, it is justifiable to acknowledge that many “Muslims” have indeed

committed deadly crimes around the world. There have been a lot of non-Muslims victimized by

the radical Muslim extremists which now backfire to the whole Muslim population. Far too little

attention has been paid to the distress inflicted upon innocent Muslims who are peacefully living

their life and practicing their right to religion. This is because people fail to understand that

Islam, like other religions, is composed of heterogeneous followers—the extremists and the

majority of the Muslims who know how to "interpret" what they are following (Ouis and Roald,

2003). As stated by The Runnymede Trust (1997), discrimination prevails because people base

their judgment upon a perspective where "religious interpretations by some terrorists are

consequently seen as a generalization for the whole Muslim community and Islam". Not all

Muslims are good role models of Islam; the actions of faulty Muslim fundamentalists with wrong

religious interpretations should not be reflected on the religion itself (Al Sheha, 2007).

Therefore, before seeing Muslims as one (religious or cultural) identity, we must take into

consideration that they are of a multitude of identities and do not deserve one punishment as a

whole.



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In order to understand the roots of discrimination in human nature, terms to be tackled

throughout the paper are defined. To further understand the concept of discrimination,

Baumeister and Finkel (2010) explains a detailed interrelation and differentiation between the

terms prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. First off, a stereotype is defined as “a

generalized belief about the characteristics of a group; it represents the process of attributing

characteristics to particular individuals only because of their membership in the group".

Stereotyping is the first step to discrimination which triggers humans to attach labels to a subject

particularly for being a part of a group. Prejudice on the otherhand according to Allport (1954)

as cited by Baumeister and Finkel, is "an antipathy based on a faulty and inflexible

generalization; it may be felt or expressed; it may be directed toward a group as a whole or

toward an individual because he is a group member". He also cited Brewer (1999) who stressed

one quality of prejudice which is being biased towards people of your own group while feeling

neutral or apathetic towards other groups. Lastly, discrimination is defined as “the differential

treatment of individuals, based on their membership in a particular group”.

Prejudice is somewhat similar to stereotyping; however, it comes with a feeling of apathy

towards the “other”. Stereotyping as compared to prejudice is more on specifically

characterizing or attaching descriptions to a particular group, unlike prejudice which is used in a

much broader universal sense. When people stereotype a group based on its characteristics,

people consciously avert from this group leading to prejudice or a sense of “us” and the “other”.

Because of this aversion to the group as a whole, people treat them differently due to disapproval

and discrimination occurs. Discrimination is an application of the social rejection resulting from

stereotyping and prejudice. Therefore, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination are

interlocking phenomena (Baumeister and Finkel, 2010).



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There have been questions regarding why different groups couldn't coexist in harmony

without feelings of negativity towards each other. Research has shown that this might be due to

the existence of adaptive xenophibia that produces a feeling of dislike or antipathy to a group

other than yours (Baumeister and Finkel, 2010). According to Cuddy, Fiske, and Glick (2008) as

cited by Baumeister and Finkel (2010), stereotyping and prejudice among intergroup relations

can be explained by two factors—relative status and competition. If one group has a lower status

than the other, it will be viewed as incompetent or if higher, the opposite. If it poses competition

to one's own group, there will be a competitive reaction and thus, disapproval. These analyses on

relationships are applicable in studying the issue of discrimination against Muslims. The

particular social constructs mentioned can be linked to this paper’s main concept of study—

Islamophobia.

Now that technical terms have been clarified, we now move on to examine the history,

features, and expressions of Islamophobia. The term "Islamophobia" was first introduced by The

Runnymede Trust Report (1997) as an "unfounded hostility towards Muslims, and therefore fear

or dislike of all or most Muslims". Although this is believed to be a new concept in the public

arena, it was said to be initially formulated and used during the late 1980s. This term was coined

in the context of Muslims in the UK in particular and Europe in general, and formulated based on

the usual "xenophobia" framework (Gottschalk and Greenberg, 2007). For Ouis and and Roald

(2003) however, Islamophobia can be understood as the strain between non-Muslims and

Muslims intensified by the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center. Moreover, Islamophobia is

also viewed as an expression of anti-semitism, racism, and orientalism according to Otterbeck

and Bevelander (2006). Despite the concept of Islamophobia's usefulness in labeling previously

mentioned specific traits present in the anti-Muslim societies, it still has its critics such Halliday



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(2002) who argued that the real concept behind Islamophobia is to protect Muslims against

criticism.

According to Ouis and Roald (2003):

The term [Islamophobia] refers partly to a fear or a phobia against thereligion "Islam" and of its supporters, Muslims, and also on acampaign against Islam and Muslims that originate from this

fear....Expressions of Islamophobia are built upon the majority’svision about the minority….We consider that the problem with

Islamophobia and Westophobia is that it usually not originates fromone’s experience, rather on a creation of myths about the other. In

this process we have observed that global political conflicts and howthese actually are presented in media, is of greater significance than

what oneself have been experienced in the meeting with the other.

Ouis and Roald (2003) suggest that the expressions of Islamophobia are mainly built upon

how the majority views minority as inferior. In this sense, Western hegemony creates the other

and separates the us or the West from the other or the Muslims. This foundation of understanding

by the West causes the prejudice and discrimination against those excluded from us for some

reasons namely— they do not apply our norms and they are a threat to our traditional values,

political and economic motives. Here, we can notice that Islamophobia not only arises from the

creation of the myths about the other but it also concerns power relations which involves

political and economic motives to demonstrate the West's own greatness. Roald (2004) added

what then comes to surface is how "groups of people need to physically or mentally oppress

contrasting groups or individuals in order to build up group sentiment and adhesion".

One of the strongest factors that is a vital element in spreading Islamophobia is the

misrepresentation of Muslims and manifestations of anti-Muslim propaganda within the media.

According to a report by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) at

2006, media coverage had promoted an unbalanced, one-dimensional and monolithic image of

Muslims ever since the events of the 9/11. Mesic (2010) also stated that misrepresented facts are



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shown by the biased Western media campaigns to pose Muslims as “terrorists” and evoke more

hatred towards them in the non-Muslim communities. Factors such as media stereotypes and

government legislation contributed to the misconceptions about Islam and discrimination.

In some movie portrayals, Muslim stereotypes are exposed through the filmmaker’s

perceptions of Muslims. Muslim characters, in science fiction novels or Hollywood movies have

typically been portrayed as villains, extremists, as sinister, ruthless and double-dealing (OSCE,

2006). For instance, in Jack Shaheen's book “Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a

People”, numerous Arab characters in 900 American movies were depicted as racist characters

(Mesic, 2010). The Runnymede Trust (1997) also highlights how cartoon imageries showing

distinctive traits of Muslims are used to create prejudices which creators say are their right to

freedom of expression. With the dominance and power of the West in controlling media globally,

they can always picture Muslims as fundamentalists, extremists, radicals, and most of all

terrorists as a part of their political scheme. Muslim groups' efforts to reach the world and clear

their names and religion are nothing compared to the western influence in global media (Mesic,

2010). As a result, in a 2003 Pew poll, 45 percent of Americans showed a negative opinion about

Islam (Moore, 2007).

In the current global affairs, Islamophobia is an issue evidently taking place in countries in

the West. The prevailing Islamophobia in the United States of America is rooted in the

September 11, 2001 bombings (9/11 attacks) on the World Trade Center in New York. As the

aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the American-Muslim minority in the United States suffered from

social discrimination; economic and political liberties were also violated. Consequently, the

terms "Muslim" and "Terrorist" have been interwoven to each other. A population of six million

Muslims living in America as of 2010 had been subjected to Islamophobia. They were socially



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excluded in the American community as stereotypes and misconceptions about Islam were

popularized by media and even literature (Moore, 2007). Certain religious leaders in the U.S.

have made efforts to instill in the minds of members of the American society to see Muslims as

responsible for the 9/11 attack and condition them to regard Muslims as inferior. Until now, the

Muslim community in the U.S. has been targeted by the national security for surveillance and

interrogation as potential terrorists. Now Muslims, Arabs, and Middle Easterners have been

stigmatized by the mainstream America as masterminds of the 9/11 incident and perpetuators of

on-going terrorist attacks (Elver, 2012).

According to Mesic (2010), scholars arrive at hypothetical reasons that concerns issues

political as well as economic to answer the question of why the West is coming up with its

particular courses of act ion against the Muslim world, Their studies propose that terrorism is an

"indirect psychological strategy of the U.S. which avoids direct contact with opponents"— a

wise move by the West to win international sympathy against Muslims without directly engaging

in a war with them. They use the 9/11 attacks and manipulate media to raise negative campaigns

on Islam through generally representing Muslims as extremistis and justify wars against weak

and innocent Islamic countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. It cannot therefore be denied that

Islamophobia is tinted with a political interest aside from the reason of America gratifying its

superiority over Muslim civilizations.

Racial and discriminatory motives against Muslims are not only bound to the U.S. Other

countries and global organizations also have Islamophobic tendencies such as France, Sweden,

Germany, European Union, and so forth. Otterbeck and Bevelander (2006) stress that the

Occident (West) sees the Orient (Muslim civilizations) as followers of a religion of fanaticism,

terrorism, and patriarchy. Rather than a religion of peace, Islam is seen as the different, violent,



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oppresive and scheming (The Runnymede Trust, 1997). This implies once again the notion of the

superior us versus them resulting to the exclusion of Muslim or Islamic affiliations from the

dominant global discourse. This is based upon what is called the "Orientalist View".

Said (1997) explains this relationship:The general basis of Orientalist thought is an imaginative and yet

drastically polarized geography dividing the world into two unequal parts, the larger, “different” one called the Orient, the other, also

known as “our” world, called the Occident or the West…There are,of course, many religious, psychological, and political reasons for

this, but all of these reasons derive from a sense that so far as theWest is concerned, Islam represents not only a formidable competitor

but also a latecoming challenge to Christianity.

Muslims in Europe are at a disadvantage when compared with other religious groups.

First off, there have been political debates on whether Turkey, a Muslim country, must be a

member of the European Union since major leaders have resisted its entry due to their

Islamophobia (Bunzl, 2007). In 2004, the French governement ban headscarves as it does not

correlate with the accepted norm and can be considered a threat to national integrity (Scott,

2007). 10 of the 16 towns in Germany also banned headscarves leading to discrimination of

young Muslim women with headscarves (OSCE, 2006). Instead of a human right, the veil or the

headscarf is seen as a national enemy. In Sweden, however, Islamophobia is mainly expressed

through newspapers, television, and literature (Ouis and Roald, 2006). Furthermore, according to

the report by OSCE (2006), Muslims in the UK, the Netherlands, Germany and France have the

highest unemployment rate. These are just few of the different manifestations of Islamophobic

expressions in Western countries.

Previously discussed are the global effects of Islamophobia. Now, the personal effects of

Islamophobia on the micro level of the society will be examined. Muslims personally experience

social rejection or violence based on their religion such as being mentally and physically



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harassed, molested, abused, and so forth (The Runnymede Trust, 1997). Contrary the

antagonistic and barbaric images shown by media, few of the existing attacks and unfair

treatment on Muslims due to Islamophobic motives to be mentioned later will disclose the

unbroadcasted discrimination and oppression against Muslims in the media.

As human beings, we need to feel a sense of belonging. The absence of the feeling of

identification in a group can create a large deficit in the performance and creativity of an

individual (Hagerty, B. M. K. et al., 1992). This concept on the sense of belonging is threatened

by acts of racism and discrimination. According to Bulatao and Anderson (2004), discrimination

can influence a particular group's living conditions and life chances in areas such as education

and employment. A low socioeconomic status is one of the effects of racial discrimination that

limits economic and social opportunities of discriminated individuals that need to be fully

accounted. Inequality in access and differences in quality of services offered by the society are

experienced by discriminated individuals. From this, we can infer that exclusion in the public

discourse may pose psychological and physical risks to affected individuals. These consequences

of discrimination or racism are currently experienced by some Muslims in the world.

Intolerance against the Muslim youth is also evident in today’s Western societies. In one

conference of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) (2008)

regarding intolerance against the Muslim youth in Europe, it was stressed that young Muslims

were becoming more and more alienated from the societies in which they lived especially young

men who are facing suspicion about their reliability as citizens of European states in the

aftermath of 9/11. Moreover, negative stereotypes and low expectations vis-à-vis Muslim youth

on the part of some educators have also hindered the upward mobility of Muslim students, in



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young women this time. Small children at school, however, are being socially rejected, excluded,

and attacked to the point that they do not want to be Muslims anymore.

Anti-Muslim hate crimes have also been reported to increase in different countries

exemplifying the prevailing intolerance against Muslims. According to Jivanda (2013), several

offences were carried upon in the U.S. against the Muslim community in 2013. In Britain, the

Metropolitan police, Britain's largest force, have recorded 500 Islamophobic crimes, which

obviously increased compared with 336 incidents in 2012 and 318 in 2011. An increasing

number of anti-Muslim hate crimes in London were also reported by a large number of forces

following the murder of soldier Lee Rigby by two Islamic extremists in Woolwich. At Scotland

in May, the month in which Fusilier Rigby was killed, Scotland Yard recorded 104 anti-Muslim

hate crimes, with another 108 in June. Moreover, according to ODIHR’s 2007 Hate Crime

Report as cited by OSCE (2006), anti-Muslim attitudes also manifest themselves as violent

attacks, including bullying of Muslim students and vandalism of Muslim schools (OSCE, 2008).

Now, clueless Westerners blinded by misrepresentation and misinformation have

different questions about the reasons why Muslims hate America, the women's status in Islam,

and Islam's compatibility with democracy (Mesic, 2010). The growing confusion about the truth

of Islam perpetuated by Islamophobes makes it harder for them to understand the truth of Islam

without the biased viewpoints of Islamophobes. Hence, it is the responsibility of Muslims to

supply the world with the right answers and facts to the exaggerated opinions of the

misinformation-spreaders circulating around the globe. These misconceptions and mistruths will

be objectively explained and clarified in detail through the work of Al Sheha (2007) to shed light

to the open-minded in order to cut the roots of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.



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One of the most common Muslim stereotypes include the male Muslim having the image

of a terrorist often of Arab descent and the female Muslim, an image of a veiled and oppressed

woman. To non-Muslims, Muslim women are believed to be oppressed for they have to cover

themselves up with Islamic garments (Moore, 2007). As if it is a given assumption that Muslim

mothers and families routinely oppress their daughters into adopting a style of religious dress,

when it is not a piece of cloth that oppresses women, but discrimination, exploitation, inequality,

domestic violence, and religiously justified misogyny. But when demonized images of Muslim

women and mothers are conflated with negative media stereotypes and politicized symbols

associated with the veil, it further encourages a climate of “gendered Islamophobia” where

because women in headscarves are immediately identifiable as representing Islam, they may

experience deliberate gender-based violence, harassment or prejudice.

Contrary to popular belief, inequality between men and women is not advised in Islam.

Men and women share equal worth and privileges as the same creations of God that are unequal

only in physical capabilities due to biological differences. Both are made to "complete and

complement" each other (Al Sheha, 2007). Women in Islam are not oppressed, not always beaten

or stoned to death by their husbands, not deprived of the life most women enjoy. Media has been

exaggerating a lot lately what was only the worst case scenarios in the historical past. In addition

to this, because of their commitment to Islam, Muslim women only follow what the Qur’an says

and they do not find the activities of liberated non-Muslim women as rightful and justifiable.

Many of the activities non-Muslim women engage into may drag them to sinful acts which must

be avoided to protect their modesty which is very important in Islam.

One of the most widely spread misconception is about the “Jihad”. Jihad is a widely

misunderstood term that means much more than its negative connotation. This term's Arabic root



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meaning is "to endeavor" which translates to the obligation to encourage the good and end the

bad through fighting for a purpose. To fight for protection against aggression and harm, to

remove injustices and oppression, and to spread the ultimate truth about the goodness Islam is

what "Jihad" truly means (Al Sheha, 2007). Jihad is the right to preservation of the religion,

which the wrong-doers in Islam use as an excuse for killing innocent non-Muslim victims.

However, after the videos spread by terrorist groups claiming to be “Islamic” shout the word

“Jihad” and “Allahuakbar” before beheading their innocent captives with swords “in the name of

Allah”, the true concept of Jihad and the truth of Islam have both been drastically stained. In

reality, these people are the extremists who continuously spread the wrong information about

Islam and Muslims as a whole.

As mentioned on the many verses of the Qur’an, there are many specified strict rules of

conduct in warfare and in the sensitive subject killing. Islam truly values the concept of peace;

therefore, it puts strict boundaries and limits on acts of violence and discourages it as much as

possible in accordance to the circumstances given. Islam prohibits killing randomly, except those

armed for the war. It prohibits the killing of the aged, children, women, under medical treatment,

etc. It forbids mutilation of deceased enemies' bodies, destruction of people's homes, and

pollution of drinking water resources (Al Sheha, 2007).

Some claim that the Islamic Law or the Shari'ah is not very suitable to the contemporary

world's concept of human rights due to its restrictiveness that excessively limits modern man's

liberty. This is not true. Shari'ah only ensures that man is not totally liberated to do whatever he

desires no matter for the purpose keeping his worldly commandments to God and for self-

preservation. Muslims have accepted Shari'ah as it is (Al Sheha, 2007).



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Some who do not know basic truths about Islam; whether, pseudo scholars, Orientalists

or enemies of Islam, claim that Islam does not respect the legal rights of non-Muslims in the

Islamic State. It is false that Islam disrespects non-Mulisms in an Islamic State. There is a ruling

in Islamic jurisprudence that states that non-Muslims are entitled and obligated for that which

Muslims are. A non-Muslim is entitled rights to security, private property, and freedom of

religion in an Islamic State under Shari'ah. However, they must also adjust to the Islamic systems

and avoid violation of laws (Al Sheha, 2007).

Some claim that the Islamic punishments (Hudood) are cruel and barbaric, and transgress

human rights. Islamic punishments or Hudood have stirred controversies claiming that its ways

of sentencing criminals are very savage, unjust, and violating human rights as well. This is false.

Social scientists have studied the ineffectiveness of jailing criminals for very serious offences

and Islam believes likewise. There are different crime categories and it is of the most serious

violations that the definite and deserved punishment is given (Al Sheha, 2007).

Another misconception is that the punishment for apostasy after accepting Islam violates

the modern concept of human rights which includes freedom to choose one's religion. A Muslim

who converts to another religion publicly encourages propaganda and rejection towards Islam. It

indicates that a person did not have an intention to commit to Islam in the first place and

dishonored his commitment to God which is serious offence (Al Sheha, 2007).

Last is the misconception about why some marriages are prohibited in Islam. The

prohibition of a female Muslim to marry a non-Muslim as well as a male Muslim to marry a

polytheist is not an infringement of personal freedom. A Muslim male cannot marry a polytheist

because Islam does not accept polytheism, hence, prohibits marriage that will show

inconsideration to the wife's beliefs. A Muslim female cannot marry a non-Muslim because the



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husbands being the dominant may take advantage of their wives' weakness, disrespect her

religion privately, and maltreat her due to disputes. The Islamic rationale behind this is that these

marriages will only lead to confusion, problems, and divorce (Al Sheha, 2007).

According to Constance Rice, civil rights activist, as cited by Moore (2007):Muslims have their work cut out. Just like African-Americans during

the Civil Rights Era had to join together to address the issues ofdiscrimination and hatred toward them, so too will Muslims and it

will not be without challenges.

Little does the world know that several other faultless Muslims are affected by the

inaccurate information and generalization inflicted on them. What the media does not air, are

unspoken violated human rights of Muslims, helpless ones who are of no match to the Western

foot stomping on their beliefs, blaming them for things they did not do, and depriving them of

the respect they deserve (Mesic, 2010). As one of the solutions to the problem of the non-ceasing

human rights abuses to Muslims, Islamic organizations are now moving to control the problem.

With the help of Islamic organizations, discrimination against Muslims can be stopped

and misconceptions can be cleared through methods such as—setting Islamic talks and

conventions with non-Muslims invited to promote better understanding, and making a narrative

of Islam. In this organizations have two different focuses: improvement of education and

awareness on Islamic spirituality, and involvement on issues on human rights and civil liberties

(Moore, 2007). Moreover, they also performed several tasks to protect Muslim civil liberties

such as—educating American-Muslims on civil rights to raise awareness about the abuses,

dealing with law enforcement groups to fix conflicts, supporting the Muslim community in

coping up with their culture without losing their religion, and clearing Islam misconceptions to

non-Muslims (Moore, 2007).



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In a world where media can depict almost everything manipulatively, it is very easy to

show biased images and twisted stories of realities, and censor the unspoken side of those which

it does not favor (Mesic, 2010). The vital role of journalists: who have a great responsibility to

not print discriminating images must therefore be recognized. Instead of destructive and

manipulative news about Muslims broadcasted, positive portrayals of Muslims, proportionate

and accurate coverage on issues such as extremism that does not encourage Islamophobia, and

two-dimensional reporting on the Islamic faith will reinforce a more positive impression towards

Muslims, and contribute to a general climate of trust, openness, and unity in the world (Scott,

2007). Media globally and nationally, being one of the most influential forces, should avoid

exaggeration and analyze thoroughly the information they will show to the public (Elver, 2012).

As intolerant attitudes tend to develop at a young age, educational institutions have a

special role to play, and teaching inspired by core human rights principles as well as principles of

mutual respect and understanding can have positive consequences. Enhanced knowledge about

one’s own religious beliefs as well other religions creates higher awareness, combined with,

textbooks that do not reinforce or perpetuate Islamic myths (OSCE, 2008). For instance,

Otterbeck and Bevelander (2006) propose that attitudes towards Muslims and Muslim student’s

religious exposure might be useful as a source when dealing with higher awareness about

Islamophobia. Education and awareness-raising not only for the youth but also for media

professionals can address unbalanced, partial and misleading reporting as well as the need to

avoid terms that are not appropriately elaborated and that reinforce pre-existing stereotypes

(OSCE, 2008). Further strategies to combat Islamophobia in through education should be more

dealt with.



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Lastly, all religions must respect one another for unification in the society-level. We

should have the initiative to put an end to Islamophobia starting within ourselves. With racial

discrimination and stereotyping of Muslims, this cannot be achieved. It is quite a Utopian idea,

but in this simple way we can avoid misunderstandings and disputes. We can start in our selves,

homes, communities, and then societies. Through this we can reduce our tendency to stereotype

Muslims. Additionally, according to Baumeister and Finkel (2010) there are two routes to self-

regulate the activation of our biases. One is to reduce the extent to which we stigmatize lower

social groups negatively; and two, to increase the mental motivation control and the extent of

biased mental associations. If we can learn to keep negative judgments in, be more open towards

Muslim culture, and seek the right information about their religion, we can make a little change

starting within our self . As responsible citizens, we must learn to foster mutual respect and

understanding of the human condition in all its diversity and complexity; and we must resist the

trend in modern mainstream stereotypes and inspect the issue on both sides first. Like us, they

too are entitled to their rights as individuals. Inflicting pain in mental, psychological, or physical

form and violating the liberties of a group which we have differences with is not the answer. It

will only lead to an unending suffering in both sides. The clash between civilizations will remain

as racism and discrimination intensifies if we do not take action. Confronting Islamophobia and

challenging it is an essential precondition for the rebirth of a strong antiwar and peace

movement. Our future, quite literally, depends on building such a movement.

Look up, and not down; Out and not in; Forward and not back; And lend a hand.

Edward Everett Hale.



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LIST OF REFERENCES

Books

Al Sheha, A. R. (2007). Human rights in Islam and common misconceptions. Boulter, A. A.,Murad, B. (Eds.) Illinois: Library of Islam.

Baumeister, R. F. & Finkel, E. J. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Advanced

social psychology: The state of the science. New York: Oxford Press.

Bulatao, R. A. & Anderson N. B. (2004). Understanding racial and ethnic differences in health

in late life: A research agenda. Washington D.C.: National Academies Press.

Bunzl, M. (2007). Anti-semitism and Islamophobia: Hatreds old and new in Europe. Chicago:Prickly Paradigm Press.

Halliday, F. (2002). Two hours that shook the world - September 11: Causes and consequences.

Furulund: Alhambra.

Haneef, S. (1996). What everyone should know about Islam and Muslims. Illinois: Library ofIslam.

Ibrahim, I. A. (1997). A brief illustrated guide to understanding Islam. Texas: Darussalam

Publishers and Distributors

Larsson, G. (2006). The Muslims are coming – Thoughts on Islamophobia. Gothenburg:Macadam Publisher.

Naik, Z. A., (2011). Answers to non-Muslims common questions about Islam. Maharashtra:

Islamic Research Foundation.

Otterbeck, J. & Bevelander, P. (2006). Islamophobia: A study of the concept, attitudes of young

people and young Muslims' vulnerability. Stockholm: Living History Forum.

Ouis, P. & Roald, A. S. (2003). Muslim in Sweden. Stockholm: Wahlstrom & Wikstrand.

Roald, A. S. (2004). New Muslims in the European context – The experience of

Scandinavian converts. Leiden: Brill.

Said, W. E. (1997). Covering Islam – How the media and the experts determine how we see the

rest of the world. London: Vintage Books.

Scott, W. J. (2007). The politics of the veil. Princeton: Princeton University Press.



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Journals and Articles

Elver, H. (2012). Racializing Islam before and after 9/11: From melting pot to Islamophobia.Translational law and contemporary politics. 21, 137-130, 143-145.

Hagerty, B. M. K., Sauer, J. L., Patusky, K. L., Bouwsema, M., Collier, P. (1992). Sense of belonging: A vital mental health concept. Archives of psychiatric nursing, 6, 172-177

Moore, A. (2007). Human rights & human welfare. American Muslim minorities: The new

human rights struggle, 13, 91-94

Sides, K. & Gross, K. (2009). Stereotypes of Muslims and support for the war on terror. Journal

of Politics, 53, 604-606

WebsitesJivanda, T. (2013, December 27). Islamophobia: Surge revealed in anti-Muslim hate crimes.

Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/islamophobia-surge-

revealed-in-antimuslim-hate-crimes-9026873.html

Mesic, M. (2010). The perception of Islam and Muslims in the media and the responsibility

of European Muslims towards the media. Retrieved from

http://www.culturelink.org/conf/dialogue/mesic.pdf

The Runnymede Trust (Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia). (1997).

Islamophobia: A challenge for us all. Retrieved fromhttp://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/17/32.html

Reports

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). (2008). Addressing intolerance

and discrimination against Muslims: Youth and education. Vienna: Maroevic, F.

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). (2006). The representation of

Muslims in public discourse. Warsaw: Orhun, O.

Documents

Library Research Paper by Hasna Muti