LI 2013 NATHALIE F. MARTIN

PRAGMATICS

So What Are You Saying?

Question: Would you like a burger?

Answer 1: No, thank you.Answer 2: I’m on a diet.Answer 3: My husband thinks I’m fat.Answer 4: I’m a vegan.

The last three answers do not give a direct answer to the questions, but the answer is implied !

Another Utterance

Question: “Would you like to go to the movies?”

Answer 1: No, thank you.Answer 2: I don’t like to watch movies.Answer 3: I have homework.Answer 4: I have to walk my dog.

So much is implied when we speak, right?

SEMANTICS vs PRAGMATICS

• Semantics: – meaning abstractedabstracted away from users

• Pragmatics:– Pragmatics is a systematic way of explaining language use in in

contextcontext. – It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot be found

in the plain sense of words or structures, as explained by semantics.

Ex: “It is cold in here” (Implicature: request to close the window)

Semantics/pragmatics distinction: not always easy to draw

PRESUPPOSITIONS

What is the speaker possibly trying to say when he says: “John’s brother married that linguist.”

What are the speakers PresuppositionsPresuppositions: Speaker assumes that the listener knows that John

has a brother (and hence not mentioned explicitly) that fact is presupposed common ground or old information old information (within discourse)

‘marrying’ and/or ‘whom he married’ is new new informationinformation.

PRESUPPOSITIONS

1. The police ordered the minors to stop drinking.

2. Please take me out to the ball game again.

3. Gisèle wants more popcorn.

4. The captain realized that the ship was in danger.

The minors were drinking.

You have already taken me out to the ball game.

Gisèle has already had popcorn.

It presupposes that it is true that the boat is sinking.

IMPLICATURE

“Have you stopped going to the gym?”

Statements generate inferences beyond the semantic content of the sentences uttered.

Implicature: “Implicature” refers to what is suggestedsuggested in

an utterance, even though not expressed nor strictly implied by the utterance.

Tim Hawkins on Marriage

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iK2OakMoW_c

Tim Hawkins on Marriage

PRESUPPOSITIONS: I really like that dress. It reminds me of my old girlfriend’s.

o Presuppositions? He had an old girlfriend. He like one of the dresses she used to wear.

IMPLICATURES: Hey honey, have you gained some weight in your rear end?

Implicature? Where did you get those shoes?

Implicature: I think they’re pretty lame! I’m trying to watch the game!

Implicature?

DEICTICS [daɪktɪks]

Deictic: understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information

Examples: as we, you, here, there, now, then, this, that, the former,  or the latter, etc.

Highly context sensitive; make direct reference to the context.

1. Personal deictic (Ex: Personal pronouns, )2. Spatial deictic (Ex: )3. Temporal deictic (Ex: )

DEICTICS

The use of deictics requires knowledge of the settingsetting of the utteranceutterance:

“Do you like this book?” To answer, the addressee has to know where

the speaker is or points/refers to

“John is here.” To know where exactly John is, we have to know

where the speaker is.

DEICTICS

The Son is on the right hand.

I saw him standing there.

Yesterday, all my troubles seemed so far away.

These are the days that are of the harvest.

After that time, I went to bed.

JOHN L. AUSTIN

Speech Act Theory

Speech Act Theory

Speech act theory (John L. Austin) broadly explains that utterancesutterances (or speech acts) have three parts or aspects:

Locutionary act /loʊkyuʃənɛri/ Illocutionary act /ɪləkyuʃənɛri/ Perlocutionary act /pɜrləkyuʃənɛri/

The key word here is act! We do “things” when we speak!This theory seeks to break down the act of speaking !

John L. Austin's

Speech Act Theory

Locutionary acts: simply the speechspeech that has taken place

Illocutionary force: are the real actions real actions which are performedperformed by the utterance In other words : where saying equals doing. Ex: betting, pleading, declaration, welcoming, warning,

etc.

Perlocutionary force: are the effectseffects of the utterance on the listener.

John L. Austin's

Performative Verbs

a. I bet you five dollars that the Canadians win.

b. I challenge you to a match.

c. A dare you to step over this line.

d. I move that we adjourn.

e. I nominate John for president.

f. I promise to improve.

g. I resign!

Exercise: Performance Sentences?

a. I testify that she met the agent.b. I know that she met the agent.c. I suppose the Yankees will will.d. I bet her $2500 that Clinton would lose the election. e. I dismiss the class. f. I teach the class.g. We promise to leave early. h. We owe Revenue Canada 1, 000, 000.i. I bequeath $ 100, 000 to ABU. j. I swore I didn’t do it.k. I swear I didn’t didn’t do it.

H. PAUL GRICE

CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS

CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS

• Philosopher H. Paul GriceGrice• Cooperative principle Cooperative principle in communication:

agreement by speaker and listener to cooperate in communication

• Listener assumes (unless there is evidence to the contrary) that a speaker will have calculated his/her utterance along a number of principlesprinciples (maximsmaxims): Ex: speaker tells the truth, tries to estimate what the audience knows, etc.

CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURES

• Conversational Maxims: not rules like phonological or syntactic rules, but rather conventionsconventions, initial assumptions the speaker starts out with

• Maxims can be violated (intentionally or unintentionally) to convey certain implicatures

– Speaker A: Why are you in such a bad mood? Aren’t you happy that we’ll all go see the movie about fish? I am sure you’ll like it.

– Speaker B: Sure, I’ll love it.– Implicature: I am sure I will hate it.

The Cooperative Principles: Maxims of Conversations (Grice, 1989)

Name of MaximName of Maxim Description of MaximDescription of Maxim

QUANTITYQUANTITY Say neither more nor less than the discourse requires

RELEVANCERELEVANCE Be relevant

MANNERMANNER Be brief and orderly; avoid ambiguity and obscurity

QUALITYQUALITY Do not lie; do not make unsupported claims

OBEYED, VIOLATED or FLOUTED

• Violating maxims (Grice’s term): speaker secretlysecretly breaks them (e.g., intentionally lying)

• Flouting (flaʊt): overtlyovertly breaking the maxims for some linguistic effect linguistic effect (e.g., sarcasm, irony, entertainment…) To flout is to show disdain, scorn, or contempt; scoff

or mock.

Distinguishing factor: we must look at a speaker’s intention!

Implicature

Implicature “Implicature” refers to what is suggestedsuggested

in an utterance, even though not expressed nor strictly implied by the utterance.

“Have you stopped going to the gym?”

MAXIM OF QUALITY

• Try to make your contribution one that is truetrue.– Do not say what you believe is false– Do not say that for which you lack adequate

evidence.

• Example:– “My children are so well-behaved”–Truth: I am aware (and embarrassed) that they are

not well-behavedWe would know that it is :

- Flouting (certain intonation)- Violating (if a secret lie)

MAXIM OF QUANTITY

• Make your contribution as informativeinformative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange (i.e., no more no more or lessless informative).

• Example:

– Speaker A: What did you have for lunch today?

– Speaker B: I had cottage cheese.

Flouted or Violated: if the speaker also had pizza and banana split.

…Quantity continued

• Example:– Situation: Child is allowed only 2 cookies per day.– Parent: Did you eat three cookies today?– Child: No. Flouted or violated: if the child had 4!

• Example:– Speaker A: Is your daughter studying at university

now?– Speaker B: She is going to classes and buying the

books. Implicature: She is not studying much.

MAXIM OF RELEVANCE

• Make your contributions relevantrelevant.

Examples:– Question: Are you … ?– In response to anything: Is the Pope Catholic?– Implicature: Your question is so obvious…

– Speaker A: Can you tell me the time?– Speaker B: Yes.

MAXIM OF RELEVANCE

• Examples:– Speaker A: When can you hand your paper in?– Speaker B: It’s a beautiful day.– Implicature: I don’t want to answer your

question.– Flouted: answer is not relevant, but hearer will

catch the irrelevance; – Or speaker hopes that listener does not catch

the irrelevance = violation.

MAXIM OF MANNER

• ConstraintsConstraints on language use :– Avoid ambiguity– Avoid obscurity– Be brief– Be orderly

• Example:– Parent: Who broke the vase?– Son: It was one of your two children.– Implicature: I don’t want to answer this.

…Manner continued

• Examples:

– This is my mother’s husband.– Respected: mother’s husband is not speaker’s father.– Implicature: Person is speaker’s father, but speaker is

mad at him

– Speaker A: Does your daughter play the piano?– Speaker B: She sits at the piano and pushes

the keys and the keys make noise…– Implicature: She doesn’t play well.– This also violates the Maxim of Quantity

PRACTIC PROBLEMS

Violation of flouting? Secretly or overtly?Which maxim? Quality, quantity, relevance or

manner?

Example 1:– Question: How long did you watch TV today?– Answer: I watched for three hours.(When in fact it had been 5 hours.)

Example 2:– I love it when you make me wait for you outside

in the cold weather.

Violated Maxim of Quality

FloutingMaxim of Quality

PRACTIC PROBLEMS

Violation of flouting? Secretly or overtly?Which maxim? Quality, quantity, relevance or manner?

Example 3:– Question: When can you pay me back what you owe me?– Answer: I wonder how the Canadians will do this year.

Example 4:– Question: Can you pick the kids up at school this

afternoon?– Answer: I have piano lessons at 3pm.

Example 5:– Not all students came to the party– (When in fact none of the students came)

Flouting/violation Maxim of Relevance

Flouting Maxim of Manner

Violated Maxim of Quantity

The Art of Not « Really » Telling Lies

What did you get me for Christmas? Truth: I got you a « Jars of Clay » CD.

Possible answers: Implicature and conversational maxim: Violated or flouted?

Did you get me a guitar case? Truth: No

Possible answers: Implicature and conversational maxim: Violated or flouted?

Silence Can Be Dangerous

Context: Nathalie trying to open her heart / David trying to be attentive.

Nathalie: I don’t think I pray nearly enough.

David: …

Nathalie: As a pastor’s wife, I should pray for you more.

David: …

Nathalie : Maybe I’m not spiritual enough for you.

David: …

Nathalie (almost in tears) : Do you really think that of me?

IMPLICATURE and CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS

Hey honey, have you gained some weight in your rear end? Implicature: You should loose weight. Conversational maxim? Obeyed, violated or flouted:?

Where did you get those shoes? Implicature: I think they’re pretty lame! Conversational maxim? Obeyed, violated or flouted?

I’m trying to watch the game! Implicature: Please shut up! Conversational maxim? Obeyed, violated or flouted?

CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS

Now that you have learned about conversational maxims, what would you say is behind these statements?

- What’s up? How’ve you been?- I’m fine. You?

Pragmatics Practice exercises

Examples:

1. I’m a multimillionaire (Actually, I’m penniless.)Violated maxim: QualityExplanation: The speaker has failed to tell the truth.2. A: When am I going to get back the money I lent you? B: Boy, it’s hot in here!Violated maxim: RelevanceExplanation: B’s answer is not related to A’s question.3. A: What should I do to get rid of this headache, Doctor? B: Take some medicine.Violated maxim: QuantityExplanation: B has not provided enough information.

Exercises

1. Don’t be silly. I love working 80 hours a week with no vacation. Quality

2. A: Excuse me–how much is this screwdriver?

B: $9.95. The saw is $39.50, and the power drill there on the table is $89.00.

Relevance

3. A: What’s playing at the Rialto tonight?

B: A film you haven’t seen.

Quantity

4. Dr. Smith received his Ph.D in 1986, his B.A. in 1980, and his M.A. in 1982. Manner

Speakers sometimes deliberatelydeliberately violate the rules of ordinary conversation to achieve certain

ends

Example:A: Would you like to go out with Andrea?B: Is the Pope Catholic?Violated maxim: RelevanceMotivation: B is being humorous. By

replying with a question whose answer is obvious, he is implying that the answer to A’s question is equally obvious: Yes!

Exercises:

1. A: I’ll pay you back in full next week, I promise. B: Sure, and pigs will fly and fish will sing.

Violated maxim: RelevanceImplicature: B’s response implies sarcastically that he

does not believe A.

2. A: What are the three most important things in real estate?

B: Location, location, and location.Violated maxim: QuantityImplicature: To emphasize the overwhelming

importance of location

3. A: So tell me, do you like what I did to my hair?

B: Er…what’s on TV tonight?Violated maxim: RelevanceImplicature: B does not like A’s hairstyle, so he

changed the subject.

4. A: How can I develop a great body like yours?

B: Choose your parents carefully.Violated maxim: QualityImplicature: Indirectly saying that it is impossible,

because it’s all in the genes