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Lexical Semantics. An Introduction. Boris Iomdin Russian Language Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences [email protected]. Lecture 2. Plan. Grammatical meaning Grammar and dictionary Criteria of grammatical meanings: Obligatoriness Generality Non-universality - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Boris IomdinRussian Language Institute,
Russian Academy of [email protected]
Lecture 2. PlanGrammatical meaningGrammar and dictionaryCriteria of grammatical meanings:
ObligatorinessGeneralityNon-universalityInability to be expressed independentlyLimited motivation in reality
Integral description of the languageGrammar rules in the dictionary
Jabberwocky'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;All mimsy were the borogoves,And the mome raths outgrabe.
(Lewis Carroll)
Grammatical meaningA generalized meaning common to a
series of words and regularly expressed in the language
A. Zaliznyak: a grammatical meaning is a meaning that for each word of a given class has to be expressed necessarily
O. Jespersen: grammar deals with general facts
Grammatical meaning: criteriaObligatory: Grammatica ars
obligatoriaGeneralNot universalHardly expressed independentlyNot necessarily motivated in reality
Grammar and DictionaryGrammar deals with the general facts of
language, and lexicology with special facts. That cat denotes that particular animal is a special fact which concerns that word alone, but the formation of the plural by adding the sound –s is a general fact because it concerns a great many other words as well: rats, hats, works, books, caps, chiefs, etc.
O. Jespersen, The philosophy of grammar, 1924
Grammatical categoriesA grammatical category is a generalization
of at least two grammatical meanings which are regularly distinguished in their forms.
Nominal grammatical categories: number, gender, case, definiteness, animatedness, possession, …
Verbal grammatical categories: tense, mode, voice, aspect, evidentiality, causation, …
Are they universal?No gender in English / …No case in English / French / …No aspect in English / French / German / …No definiteness in Slavic languages (except
Bulgarian)No number in Pirahã (Brazil)Nothing (?) obligatory in Chinese
GrammaticalizationA process when lexical meanings become
grammaticalSemantic bleaching: my back hurts > back of
the class > back in 1980; Turkish arkamda ‘behind me’, literally ‘on my spine’
Phonetic erosion: going to > gonna, homo > on
Morphological reduction: will, shallObligatorification: articles (Latin ille ‘he’ / illa
‘she’ > Italian il / la, French le / la, ...)
DegrammaticalizationA process when grammatical meanings
become lexical (a rare phenomenon). Many authors claim that grammaticalization is unidirectional and degrammaticalization does not exist at all.
There are several pros and contrasI don’t like communism and other ismsable < -able (drinkable, movable)Bulgarian neshto ‘something’ > ‘thing’
Partial motivation: gendermuzhchina (M) – der Mensch (M) – un homme (M)zhenshchina (F) – die Frau (F) – une femme (M)rebyonok (M) – das Kind (N) – un enfant (M)devochka (M) – das Mädchen (N) – une fille (F)tarelka (F) – der Teller (M) – une assiette (F)blyudce (N) – die Untertasse (F) – une soucoupe (F)ryumka (F) – das Weinglas (N) – un petit verre (M)solntse (N) – die Sonne (F) – le soleil (M)luna (F) – der Mond (M) – la lune (F)shanson (M) – das Chanson (N) – une chanson (F)Euro?
masakit be illmatakot fear
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be illmatakot fear
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakitmatakot fear
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivegalit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit galit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitinmadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak gladinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakininis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused mahiyain
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused mahiyain shy
Example 1. Tagalog
masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid
maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive
mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout
galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable
maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry
mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused mahiyain shy
Example 1. Tagalog
Example 2. Spanish1. El hombre es mortal. The man is mortal. 2. El te esta dulce. The tea is sweet. 3. Pedro es madrileño. Pedro is native of
Madrid.4. El gato es simpatico. The cat is nice. 5. El te "Lipton" es bueno. Lipton tea is
good. 6. El mar esta tranquilo. The sea is calm. 7. Maria esta libre hoy. Maria is free
today.
Example 2. Spanish8. El azucar ... dulce. The sugar is sweet.9. El jersey ... sucio. The sweater is dirty. 10. El pescado ... fresco. The fish is fresh. 11. El jersey ... azul. The sweater is blue. 12. Dolores ... nerviosa, porque el examen
de hoy ... dificil. Dolores is nervous because today’s exam is difficult.
A riddle in Spanish–... roja? Is it red? – No, ... negra. No, it is black. – Y por que ... blanca? And why is it white? – Porque ... verde. Because it is green.
Integral description of languageJuri Apresjan, The unified, or integrated
theory of linguistic descriptionEvery complete linguistic description is
ultimately made up of a grammar and a dictionary.
Grammar and dictionary should be mutually adjusted, i.e. coordinated with regard to the types of information included and the formal devices used to record them.
Disparity example: numeralsAre numerals a part of speech in English?No number marking: five booksDerivation patterns: X+teen, X+ty, X+th, X+foldSyntactic features: five books, five by fiveAdditive construction: twenty-five = ‘20 + 5’
(stone wall ≠ ‘stone + wall’)Classing numerals as nouns or adjectives (as most
dictionaries do) plays havoc with the grammatical rules for genuine nouns or adjectives.
Grammar rules in the dictionaryMany grammar rules may have to be
included in some dictionary entries:Morphological rulesSyntactic rulesCollocation rulesSemantic rulesPragmatic rulesCommunicative rules, etc.
Morphological rules: examplesFriend, pal, buddy, acquaintance:
two meanings of the plural formHis friends / pals / buddies came.The friends / pals / buddies decided to
meet.His acquaintances came.*The acquaintances decided to meet.
Morphological rules: examplesRussian: absence of imperative formsxotet’, zhelat’, zhazhdat’, mechtat’ ‘want,
dream’xotet’ and zhazhdat’ have no imperativefor zhelat’ and mechtat’, negative
imperative is possible:Ne zhelaj nikomu zla ‘Do not wish evil to anyone’,I ne mechtaj ob aetom ‘Don’t even dream about that’.
Syntactic rules: examplesSentences with the expletive itIt tried / tormented / tortured him to think
that…*It afflicted / racked him to think that…
It was hard / difficult to climb up the steep slope.
*It was arduous to climb up the steep slope.
Syntactic rules: examplesGovernment (by prepositions or verbs)come with delight / with joy/ with pleasurejump in delight / *in joy / *in pleasure
My mind is at rest / at ease about it.*My mind is at comfort about it.
Syntactic rules: examplesGovernment (by prepositions or verbs)to spring / to leap over a fenceto leap a fence*to spring a fence
love for somebody / of somethingattachment to somebody / to something
Syntactic rules: examplesAttributive vs. predicative adjectivesan affectionate / devoted / fond / doting motherShe is affectionate / devoted to me / fond of him.*She is doting.
a watchful / vigilant / alert guardThe guard is watchful / vigilant / alert / awake.*an awake guard.
Next lectureLinguistic relativity. The naïve
picture of the world