Lexical Semantics 2

7/30/2019 Lexical Semantics 2

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The central thesis is that every language is a uniquerelational structure and that the units of the system whichare identified derive both their essence and their

existence from the relationships with other units in thesystem. One cannot first identify the units and then,subsequently, at a later stage inquire what combinatorialor other relations hold between them; we simultaneouslyidentify the units and their inter-relations. Linguistic units

are but points in a system ( a network of relation), theyare terminals of linguistic relations, and have no positionand independent existence.

Structuralism adopts the position ofa semiotic monism,starting from the following postulates:

a. all linguistic units are signs (= are amenable to the samekind of analysis)b. all linguistic levels are homogeneous their units may

be identified by the same method or methods, such asthe commutation test; a central test, since it related thesignifier and the signified.


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a. Homonymy

(1) mi trebuie un tocI need a heel/doorcase/pen

b. Lexical gaps

c. Incongruity of lexical boundaries

(2) The cat is on the mat

Is it a door mat that is being referred to (Fr paillasson) or abedside mat (Fr descente de lit) or a small rug (Fr. tapis).There is a series of lexemes in English: mat, rug, carpetand aseries of lexemes in French, tapis, pailleson, carpette, descentede litand none of the French words has the same denotation as

any one of the English lexemes.


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Bourbaki: We can now clarify what is to be understoodby mathematical structure. The feature common to the

various notions ranged under this generic heading isthat they all apply to sets of elements, the nature ofwhich is not specified; in order to define a structure,one or more relations involving these elements may

be taken into consideration(it may then be postulatedthat this or these relations fulfill certain conditions, tobe enumerated), relations which are the axioms of thestructureenvisaged. To develop the axiomatic theoryof a given structure is to deduce all the logicalconsequences of its axioms, forbidding oneself anyother hypotheses concerning the elements underconsideration, and especially any hypotheses withregard to their particular nature.


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(3)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

structure sovereignty war fertility

mythology Jupiter Mars Quirinus----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

social order oratores bellatores laboratores

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The Substance-Form Dichotomy

(4) Language = Expression

Content

(5)

Substance (conceptual substance)Content

Form (lexical concepts, syntax)

Language Sign

functionForm (phonology)

Expression

Substance (phonetics)


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Motivation of Meaning

Transparent and opaque words

Whats in a name: That which we call a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet.

The distinction between opaque and transparent

words is not absolute. It is customary todistinguish between absolute and relativemotivation


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Absolute motivation

a) Primary onomatopoeiais defined as theimitation of (natural) sound by sound; thereferent itself is or implies an acousticexperience which is more or less closelyimitated by the structure of the word(signifier)

(6) buzz, crack, fizz, hum, flop, flap, plop,roar, squeak, squeal, gong, hoot, clank,coo, mioow


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Absolute motivation

b) Secondary onomatopoeiaThere is a system of initial and final root

forming morphemes, of vague signification which thus endow thewords which they form with particular symbolic connotation:Bloomfield has paid particular attention to the cluster SN- which would

have the following connotations:

(7)breath noise sniff, snuff, snore, snortquick separation or movement snap, snatchcreeping sneak, snail, snoop, snake

The cluster SL- /GL or some vowels (EI) may connote movement orsome rural quality, generally unfavorable(i) slink (a se strecura), slither (aluneca), slouch ( move lazily), squirm

(moving by twisting the body slimy, slattern, slut, slob(ii) glow, glimmer, gleam, glitter, glare

(iii) coon, goofy, loony, drool, moon around, noodle (fig.)


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RemarkSounds are not expressive in themselves.Onomatopoeia will arise only when the expressivepotentialities latent in a given sound are brought to lifeby contact with a congenial meaning. This can best be

seen by contrasting certain pairs of homonyms, one ofwhich is onomatopoeic, while the other is not.

(8)the pealing of a bell the peeling of a potatothe tolling of a bell the toll paid on a road

a ring at the door a ring on ones finger


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Relative Motivation

a. Morphologic motivationA word is morphologicallymotivated when it is not atomic, or it is otherwiseformally related to another word so that it isanalyzable by WFR, illustrating any major or minor

WFR.(See discussion of word formation in futurelectures)

(9) understand under+standundersign under+sign

doc doctor


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b. Semantic motivation One meaning of a word may be relatedto another cognitively basic meaning of the same word.Metaphoric/ metonymic shifts often motivate polysemous words

(10) potatoes cooked in theirjacket (metaphor)a coatof paint

c. Mixed motivationMorphological and semantic motivation moreoften than not occur together, this is mixed motivation (thecompositional analysis of words), but they are in principleindependent.

(11)mixed motivation blackbird, writermorphological motivation alone conceive, confer,

deceive, conception, undergosemantic motivation alone leg of a table


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Motivated words evince different degrees of semantic

transparency, from fully transparent to fully opaque:

(12)fully transparent non-smoker, illegaldegree of opacity

partly transparent blackbird (two semantic indicators)blakboardladybug (buburuz) one semantic indicator

partly opaque cranberry (afina)

gooseberryfully opaque red herringbrown studyundergo


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(13) Its a dormouseIts a mouse hrciogIts a bilberry Its a berry afin

(14) black in black bird. (female blackbirds are brown)blue in blue-bull(antilopa indian)

red in red wine(Compare: red dress)

(15) fish and chips chips and fish


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An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot beinferred from the meaning of its parts: to pulls

someone leg, to cook someones goose, to be offones rocker, round the bend of the creak. An idiom islexically complex but may count as one semantic unit:to kick off the bucket= to die. Idioms may evincesyntactic constraints (they may resist word order

changes, modification, etc), as a consequence ofbeing apprehended as a unit with semantic and formalinternal cohesion. Compare:

(16) Arthurhas a chip on his shoulder, apparently.(figurative, literal)

Arthurhas a chip, apparently, on his shoulder.(literal)


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Degrees of Motivation

(17) Compounds

German English FrenchFinger-hut thimble dWasserleitung aqueduct aquducNilpferd hippopotamus hyppopotameFormenlehre morphology morphologie

Bedeutungslehre semantics smantique

(18) DerivativesUrsache (original matter) cause cause

(19) German English FrenchGezetz gezetzlich law legal loi lgalKirche kirchlich church ecclesiastical glise ecclsiastiqueBischof bischflich bishop episcopal vque piscopaleMund mndlich mouth oral bouche oral


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Value

La valeur du mot rsulte seulement de la coexistence des

diffrents termes. La valeur dun mot ne sera jamaisdtermine que par les concours des termes coexistantsqui le limitent. Ce qui est dans le mot nest jamaisdetermine que par le concours de ce qui existent autoursde lui, associtivement (paradigmatiquement) ou

syntagmatiquement.

Compare: F: cher, G: lieb, teur, E: dear, expensive, R: drag,scump

Reflected meaning

(20) Queen Elizabeth is immensely intellectual, sufferingandtyrannical


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Value

Collocative meaning

(21) a. pretty girl/woman/flower/*boyb. handsome man/boy/car/vessel/woman

(22) fine weather, torrential rain, light drizzle, high winds, rough sea, addledeggs, rancid butter

(23) adverbially used adjectives:

heavy smoker/ drinker/ sleeper/*breather

link verbs: grow dark/ tall/ mad/richgo mad/ *tall/ *rich/??dark

(24) bound collocations foot the billcurry favor withpay heed


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(25) Languages ExpressionContent

(26) the dead man fall horsethe deceased man autumn gee-gee

(27) ExpressionContent denotative contentContent connotative content

/ dji:dji:/HORSE

BABY-TALK


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(39)

HigherLiterary academic technical

central

archaism or neologismNeutral word

lowerSlang colloquialism


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Dialectal Variation(40) American English British English:

fall autumntruck lorrytap faucet/spigot

Sociolectal Variation

(41) U non-Ublack-tie dress tux (tuxedo)curtains draperschildren kids

parents folksmy wife Mrs. Smith(42) Blacks, drug-users, motorcycle groups, prisoners and

police; medical, scientific or chemical personnel, collegestudents, gays and prostitutes, street-gangs


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Slang(43) Who are you swinging with, man?

Why, I am swinging with the Bishops, man Good, man! Were tight with the Bishops How aboutdropping a dime and well get a bottle of sneaky pete.

(standard)

What street club do you belong to? I belong to the Bishops. Good. Were friendly with the Bishops How aboutcontributing a dime and well buy a bottle of wine.(Fadiman, 1986, 176)

(44) Legalesemalicious intentwith malice aforethoughtextenuating circumstances

contempt of court


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The secularization of religious terminology

a. Pride, Wrath, Envy, Lust, Gluttony, Avarice andSloth

b. sanction, sanctuary, doctrine, propaganda,novice, incumbent, conscientious, office, lobby,asylum, cell, anathema, pittance, lesson,passion, mercy, etc.

c. hocus pocus (lat. hoc est corpus, the Eucharist)


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The moralization of status words

High rank terms become positive evaluative(nouns like prince, lady, gentleman, adjectiveslike noble, princely, gentle, frank(not inserfdom), free(not in bondage), liberal (of thearts and sciences, worthy of a free man, asopposed to servile or mechanical).

Low rank terms become negative evaluative(nouns like churl(serf), knave (a male

childpage), villain(low-born, base-minded),blackguard (the lowest menials of a household),vassal , wretch (exile, outcast), slave (Lat.sclavus), etc.

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Lexical Semantics 2