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UsingSources
Time:Oneclassperiod
RequiredMaterials
● EachstudentshouldhaveacopyofUsingSourcesguidelines(forreference;includedbelow)
● EachstudentshouldhaveacopyofUsingSourcesWorksheet(includedbelow)● 5-6copiesofeachofthearticles(includedbelow).
NOTE:ThearticlescomefromanissueofQCVoicesfocusedonBadWriting.Theyreflectthecoursetopic,butalsoreflectthequalityofwritingthatstudentscanreasonablybeexpectedtoemulate.Anyarticleswilldo,though.Ifpossible,makethearticlesavailabletostudentsaheadofclasssostudentswhomayreadmoreslowlyhavetimetofamiliarizethemselveswiththelanguageandideasinthearticles.Thearticlesareformattedroughlythewaystudentessaysshouldbe,withMLA-stylecitationsandWorksCitedpages.ThisismeantonlytoreinforceMLAstyleratherthanthestyleusedbyQCVoices.
DescriptionofActivity
Thisactivityfocusesstudentsonwaystousesourcesintheiressays,promptingthemtoconsiderthepurposesbehindemployingaspecificmethodincontext.
Thelessonbeginswiththeclassgoingoverthebrief,“UsingSources”referencesheet(15minutes).ThisintroducesthethreeconceptsofParaphrasing,Summarizing,andQuoting.
Afterorganizingintosmallgroups,studentspracticeidentifyingthesedifferentstrategiesinaprofessionalessay(15minutes).Byworkinginsmallgroups,studentscanshareideasandlessconfidentstudentshavesupport.Theinstructorcanvisitthegroupstoanswerquestions,measureprogress,andprovokefurtherdiscussion.
Next,thegroupsworktogethertocreateguidelinestohelpthemdecidehowtouseasource(15minutes).Forexample,ifyou’refocusingonaspecificwordorphrase,aquotewillhighlightthatthebest(obvious,butusefulforstudentstoidentify).Or,paraphrasingretainsyour“voice”andshowsoffyourunderstandingofacomplicatedsubjectinawaythatquotingdoesnot.
Theclassendswithaclassdiscussioninwhichalltheguidelinesareputinaclass-widedocument(worksbestinaclassroomwithacomputer/projector,butyoucanalwayswriteguidelinesontheboardandstudentscantakepicturesortheinstructorcanemailatranscribedcopylater)(remainingclasstime).
Assigningchapter2or3fromGraff’sTheySay,ISayafterwardworkswell.
UsingSources
Thereare(generally)threewaystomakeuseofsourcesinanessay:Quoting,ParaphrasingandSummarizing.Eachmethodhasstrengthsandshouldbeusedpurposefullytoemphasizethereasonyouareusingyoursource.
Belowaregeneralguidelinesregardlessofwhetheryouquote,paraphraseorsummarize:
● Sourcematerialcannotmakeyourargumentsforyou.Sourcematerialcanbackupyourpointsorprovidematerialforyoutoargueagainst;therefore,youwilltypicallyintroducesourcematerialandcommentonhowithelpsyouproveyourpoint.Sourcematerialisuselesswithoutcommentarytoprovidecontextandmeaning.
● Chooseimportantorsignificantinformationthateffectivelyrelatestoorsupportsyourpoints.
● Remainfaithfultothemeaningofthesourcematerialthatyouincludeinyourpaper.● Citeappropriately.
Quoting
Usinganauthor’slanguageword-for-word(verbatim).
● Usequotationmarksaroundtheauthor’swords.● Useasignaloridentifyingphrasearoundtheauthor’swords.● Addanin-text(parenthetical)citationattheendofthequotationandincludethesourceon
theWorksCitedpage.Paraphrasing
Puttinganauthor’sspecificideasinyourownwords.
● Useasignaloridentifyingphrasethattellswhoandwhatyouareparaphrasing● Useyourownwordswhenparaphrasing.Inmostcases,avoidusinganyofthesame
wordingthattheauthorusedunlessyouputakeyterminquotationmarks.● Addanin-text(parenthetical)citationattheendofthequotationandincludethesourceon
theWorksCitedpage.Summarizing
Condensinganauthor’sideastoamoresuccinctstatement.
● Useasignaloridentifyingphrasethattellswhoandwhatyouaresummarizing● Useaquickdescriptionofthemainpointsofthepassage● Useyourownwordsandphrasing.Inmostcases,avoidusinganyofthesamewording.● Addanin-text(parenthetical)citationattheendofthequotationandincludethesourceon
theWorksCitedpage.Name:___________________________Date:_______________Onyourown
1. SelectandreadoneoftheRevisionsarticles.Circleallthecitationsinthepiecesothatyouwillbeabletoquicklyrefertothem.
2. Foreachcitation,indicateinthemarginwhethertheauthorquoted,paraphrased,orsummarizedthesource.Ifsentence(s)blendmethods,indicateallthemethodsused.Remember,ifaquotationorparaphrasecontainstheinformationintheintroduction,itmaynotincludeacitation.
Inyourgroup
1. Discussthecitationsyouidentified.Cometoagroupconsensusregardingwhatstrategyisusedforeachcitation.
2. Identifythestrengthsofeachmethodofusingsources.Whatisemphasizedineachmethod?(itmayhelptodoboththisstepandthenextstepintandem).
3. Createguidelinesforwhenyoushouldquote,paraphrase,orsummarize.
Method Strengths Whentouse
Quoting
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
*Youmayusethethespacebelowforadditionalspace*
BreeZuckerman
Badvocacy:WhenAttemptstoChangetheWorldGoAwry
“SaveDarfur”…“OutofIraqandintoDarfur”…“BloodDiamonds”…“Conflict
Minerals.”
Theseareslogansandcatchphrasesfamiliartothoseofusconcernedwithhuman
rightsandsocialjustice,coinedbyadvocacyorganizationsthattrytoachievepolitical
changebyraisingpublicawarenessaboutandmotivatingconcreteactionsonparticular
issues.Duetothenatureoftheirproject—whichistoreachaswideanaudienceas
possible—thewritingtendstobehyperbolic,imbuedwithasenseofurgencyand
impendingdisaster,favoringtheuseofpithyrefrainsandsnappyphrasing.Afterall,the
catchierthemessage,themorelikelyitisthatpeoplewilltakenotice.Theproblemisthat
intryingtobecaptivating,theyoftenprivilegetaglinesoveranalysisandtendto
oversimplifycomplexandmessyissues.Suchstrategiesriskactuallymakingsituations
worseratherthanbetter,leadingtothemonikerbadvocacy,orbadadvocacy—thekind
thatmaybeginwithgoodintentionsbutcanleadtodamagingoutcomes.
AprimeexampleistheSaveDarfurCoalition,anetworkofreligiousorganizations
andothernon-profitsthattriestoraiseawarenessabouttheconflict(genocide,astheysee
it)inDarfur.Itfeaturesastoreonitswebsitewherevisitorscanpurchaseadvocacyattire
orotherparaphernalia,andithashelpedtoinspireacottageindustryofSaveDarfur
products,fromt-shirtsandbraceletstopet-fooddishesandanunfortunatethong.This
emphasisonraisingawarenesstendstoresultinafocusoneffortssuchasboycotts,
divestmentcampaigns,hungerstrikes,eventsoncollegecampuses,andralliesin
Washington,D.C.
TheNewYorkTimescolumnistNicholasKristof,thoughnotaffiliatedwithan
advocacyorganization,isnonethelessengagedinasimilarkindofawareness-raising
project.Hiscolumnstellstoriesofsufferingindividualsinfarawayplacesinordertostirup
compassionamongaudiencesathome;heviewsthisstrategyasthemostlikelywayto
propelpeopletoaction.InaninterviewwithOutsideMagazine,Kristofdiscussestheneed
forhumanrightsadvocatestoengageinbettermarketingtactics,arguingthat“women
havebeenrapedwhenitcouldhavebeenavoidedandchildrenhavediedofpneumonia
unnecessarily—becausethosestorieshaven’tresonatedwiththepublic”(Kristof,“Nicholas
Kristof’sAdvice”).Inacolumninwhichhelamentswhatheperceivestobeapublic
insufficientlymovedbytheconflictinDarfur,hesuggeststhatinfacttoomuchcontextmay
beharmfultotheadvocacyeffort.Hecitesanexperimentinwhichparticipantswereless
likelytodonatemoneytoastarvingchildinMaliwhenherplightwascontextualized
withinthelargerstructuralproblemofpovertyratherthanwhenherstorywastoldasan
individualtaleofsuffering(“SavetheDarfurPuppy”).Kristof’sparticularkindofwritingis
motivatedbyadrivetoraiseawarenessastheprimaryobjective—andatallcosts—which
heusesasajustificationforhyperboleandoversimplification.
Sowhatistheproblemwithbadvocacy?Howmuchharmcananti-genocide
underweardo?Inthebestcasescenario,notmuch.Examplessuchasthethongorthe
recentFastforDarfurcampaign,settobeginonEid—thedayonwhichMuslimsbreaktheir
Ramadanfast—mightrevealasurprisinglevelofinsensitivity,oratleastnaiveté,but
neitherarelikelytobringaboutanydirectpolicychange.However,atitsworse,badvocacy
canleadtoharmfulpolicyorunintendedconsequences,whichisacritiquethatcanbe
leveledatSaveDarfurandKristof’sefforts.Militaryinterventionwasakeydemandofthe
SaveDarfurmovementfromitsinception(hencetheslogan,“OutofIraqandintoDarfur”),
puttingthemovement’sorganizersatoddswithmanyofthehumanitarianorganizations
onthegroundinDarfur.AsDavidRieffpointsoutinaLosAngelesTimescolumn,the
establishmentofaNATO-enforcedno-flyzoneoverDarfur,advocatedbybothSaveDarfur
andKristof,wouldhaveendangeredtheoperationsoftheaidorganizationsthatflyfood,
personnel,andsuppliesaroundDarfur(whereroadsareoftenimpassable),usingplanes
thatcanappearnearlyidenticaltothoseusedbytheSudanesegovernment(“Goodvs.
Good”).Moreover,coerciveinterventionwouldhavelikelyintensifiedviolence,whichhad
alreadybeguntodeclineafteritspeakduring2003-2004,andwouldhaveseverely
restrictedthehumanitarianoperationthathasbeenvitaltothelivesofthousandsof
Darfuricivilians.
TheshrillcriesoftheSaveDarfurlobbypromptedtheUSHouseofRepresentatives
topassaresolutionstatingthatgenocidewasunderwayinDarfur,whiletheUN,after
carefulresearchbytheCommissionofInquiryonDarfur,concludedthattheSudanese
government“hasnotpursuedapolicyofgenocide.”Thisassessmentissupportedbya
numberofacademicswhohavearguedthat,ratherthangenocide,thewarinDarfurisbest
explainedasasetofconflictsoverlandtenurerelations,regionalpolitics,andlocal
governmentreformsthatdisenfranchisedsomegroupswhileprivilegingothers(seede
Waal,Mamdani,Marchal,andTubiana).Moreover,thecategoriesofArabandAfricandid
nothistoricallyexistinDarfuraspoliticallysalient,fixedracialidentities(deWaaland
Mamdani).Thedebateaboutgenocidealsohadunintendedandnegativeconsequences
withinSudan.AsoneseniorUNofficialtoldme,itgalvanizedhardlinersandsidelined
moderateswithintheSudanesegovernment,jeopardizingrelationshipsthatUNofficials
workinginKhartoumhadcarefullycultivatedovertime.
Inaddition,accordingtoSudanexpertAlexdeWaal,theurgencywithwhichthe
SaveDarfuradvocacymovementcalledforimmediateactionhamperedthesuccessofthe
2006peacenegotiations,ofwhichhewasanobserver.AsdeWaalrecountsinProspect
magazine:
AbdelWahidal-Nur,foundingchairmanofthelargest[rebel]group,theSudan
LiberationMovement,isapoliticalingenue,catapultedintotheinternationalspotlightand
flatteredbyhisinstantcelebritystatus….InthefinalsessionofthepeacetalksinMay2006,
AbdelWahiddemandedthattheUSprovideguarantees“likeinBosnia.”Hewantedan
interventionandwouldn’tsignwithoutone.Iwasthere,andmyheartsankasIrealised
thatinternationalDarfuractivistswerenotonlyrefusingtomakethecaseforthepeace
dealthatwasonthetable,butsomewereactuallyphoningtotellAbdelWahidandhis
colleaguesnottosign—becauseofthosemissing“guarantees.”Itwasanimperfect
agreement,butwithAbdelWahid’ssignatureitrepresentedthebeginningofasolution.
WhenAbdelWahidrefusedtosign,theagreementwasdoomedandtheconflictresumed.
(“WhyDarfur”)
AftertheconclusionoftheDarfurPeaceAgreement(DPA),theSaveDarfur
movementpushedfortheurgentdeploymentofUNpeacekeepersdespitethefactthat
therewasnoeffectivepeacetokeep.However,asdeWaalargues,thehurriedmission
actuallyledtoanunderpreparedforcethatdidnothaveanadequateunderstandingofthe
waysinwhichtheconflict,violence,andcharacterofthearmedgroupshadevolvedsince
thesigningoftheDPA(“DarfurandtheFailure”).
KristofhasreceivedcriticismforhisDarfurcoveragefordistillingacomplexsetof
conflictsoverland,resources,andpoliticalpowerintoanoversimplifiedmoralnarrativeof
goodversusevil.AsAfricanStudiesprofessorMahmoodMamdanirightlypointsoutinhis
scathingcritiqueofKristofintheLondonReviewofBooks,theeffectofjournalisticwriting
hasbeen“bothtoobscurethepoliticsoftheviolenceandpositionthereaderasavirtuous,
notjustaconcernedobserver…whereagroupofperpetratorsfaceagroupofvictims,but
whereneitherhistorynormotivationisthinkablebecausebothareoutsidehistoryand
context.”
ReturningtoKristof’sexampleofthehungrychildinMali,onemight(thoughKristof
doesnot)gofurthertosuggestthatthestoryofindividualsufferinginAfricaresonates
withWesternersbecausetheyhavebeenexposedmostlytorepresentationsofsuffering
andpovertyinAfricathataredisconnectedfromacriticalunderstandingofpovertyinthe
contextofglobaleconomicinequalitiesandthelegacyofcolonialexploitation;reproducing
stereotypesofsufferingAfricansallowsthemtofeelgoodabouttheirowncharity.Thus,by
feedingintothesestereotypes,badvocacymightbepreventingtheverykindsofsolutions
thatcouldbegintoaddressthestructuralcausesofconflictandpoverty.MakingDarfura
householdnameaccomplishesnothingifthenewfoundawarenesssimplyreproduces
narrativesthatportrayAfricansashelplessvictimsinneedofbeing“saved”bytheWest
ratherthanasagentscapableofpoliticalactionwithclearandcreativeideasabouthowto
solvesocialandpoliticalproblemsintheirowncountries.Theproblem,itseems,isnotone
ofawarenessintheheartsandmindsofcompassionateWesternpublics,butthechallenge
thathasbedeviledpoliticians,humanitarians,andacademicsalike:themessyandhighly
politicalquestionofhowtoendacivilwarandaddresstheoftenintensepost-warviolence
thatfollows.
Therearecountlessexamplesofhowwritingcanhelptoachievepositivesocialand
politicalchange.However,writingthattriestochangetheworldforthebettermight
actuallybedoingmoreharmthangoodif,inaquesttoraiseawarenessaboveallelse,
contextandcomplexityfallbythewayside.Inwritingtomarketorselltheircausethough
snappytaglinesthatobscuremessypowerrelationsandcomplicatedhistories,some
advocacyorganizationsare,ineffect,creatinguninformedconsumerswhomightthenpush
fordisastrous,orattheveryleastineffective,policies,sincecivilwarshaverarely,ifever,
successfullyendedthroughpolicymakinginWashington,D.C.Overlysimplistic
conceptualizationsofcomplexproblems,whiletheymaysellt-shirtsandmotivatepeople
toattendrallies,mayalsoleadtodetrimental“solutions.”
WorksCited
DeWaal,Alex.“WhyDarfurInterventionisaMistake.”BBCNews,May21,2008.
_________.“DarfurandtheFailureoftheResponsibilitytoProtect.”InternationalAffairs83,
no.6(2007).
Kristof,Nicholas.“NicholasKristof’sAdviceforSavingtheWorld.”OutsideMagazine,
December(2009).
_________.“SavetheDarfurPuppy.”NewYorkTimes,May10,2007.
Mamdani,Mahmood.“ThePoliticsofNaming:Genocide,CivilWar,Insurgency.”London
ReviewofBooks,March8,2007.
ReportoftheInternationalCommissionofInquiryonDarfurtotheUnitedNations
Secretary-General,January25,2005.
Rieff,David.“Goodvs.good.”LosAngelesTimes,June24,2007.
EvaM.Fernández
DidwritingpropelhumanstobecomethedominantspeciesonEarth?
Thinkingabout(beneficentormalevolent)humanplanetarydominationbringsto
mindtheanthropocentricdoctrineoftheancientGreeks.AchorusinAntigonedescribesit
memorably:“Wondersaremany,andnoneismorewonderfulthanman”(Sophocles)So
greatisanthropos,thechoruscontinues,thathe’sgotthepowertocrossthesea,toplow
theearth,andtotamethewildbeasts,amongotherthings.“Speech,andwind-swift
thought,andallthemoodsthatmouldastate”areidentifiedasimportantqualitiesdriving
greatness.(Writingisconspicuouslyabsentfromthatlist.)
Morerecently,philosopherDanielDennetthasdiscussedwhylanguageis“oneof
thegreatcranesofevolution”keytohumandominationoftheplanet.Dennettcitesan
incrediblestatistic:humans(plustheirlivestockandpets)takeupabout98%ofthetotal
vertebratebiomass—comparedto0.1%whenagriculturebegantodevelop,some10,000
yearsago(MacCready5).AccordingtoDennett,languageprovidesthebaseforour
spectacularsuccessinplanetarytake-over:languagepermits“thereliabletransmissionof
semiunderstoodformulas,recipes,admonitions,techniques.”Essentially,whatmakes
anthropossogreatisourphenomenalabilitytouselanguagetotransmitideasovervast
spansofspaceandtime,withunparalleledprecision.(Noteagaintheabsenceofwriting.)
Howdoesthistransmissionofideasactuallywork?SinceIalreadybroughtherup,
considerAntigone’sstory.Byburyingherdeadbrother,shechallengesadecreebyKing
Creon,butnotwithouttriggeringtragicconsequences(Sophocles).Creonsentences
Antigonetodeathbyentombmentinacave,whereshecommitssuicide;Antigone’ssuicide
drivesherboyfriendHaemontodeathbyhisownsword,andHaemon’ssuicideprovokes
Eurydice—Creon’swife,Haemon’smother—tokillherself.WecanlearnaboutAntigoneby
goingtoaperformance,readingtheplay,orwatchingthefilm,andthemessagesaboutcivil
disobedienceandtheconsequencesoftheabuseofpowercomeacrossascrisplynowas
theymighthaveduringSophocles’lifetime.Inthiscase,writingensuredthepersistenceof
thestorythroughtime.Butinformationtransmittedovertimeneednotbewrittenor
widelyknownorevenimportant:youmightknowagreatdealaboutthatrelativeyouhave
nevermetwhoplayeddrumsforanElvisimpersonatingband,oraboutthatfriendofyour
sister’swhomarriedrichandbecameayoungwidowundermysteriouscircumstances.
Informationuptake(frombooks,websites,liveexperts)alsoempowersordinarypersons
tolearnaboutextraordinarythings:photosynthesis,acousticphonetics,planetarytakeover
tactics.Theinvolvementofwriting,thoughfrequent(andhighlyadvisable,especiallyfor
themorecomplicatedtopics),issomewhatoptional.
Infact,transmittingknowledgeispossible(andswift,andhighlyefficient)because
ofthespecificityaffordedusbyourlinguisticcompetence.Thevisualartsandmusiccome
closetohelpingustransmitinformation,butworksofartinviteinterpretationsthatare
sometimesnottruetotheoriginalintent(soinformationuptakeisnotreliable),and
encodingthoughtsusingartormusicrequiresexpertisebeyondthecompetenceof
ordinarypeople.Admittedly,someworksofartconveyveryspecificnarratives.Oneofmy
favoritesisBotticelli’sdepictionofthestoryofNastagiodegliOnesti,fromthetalesofThe
Decameron.Gazingatthehair-raisingimagesonthethreepanelshanginginElPrado,I
havecomeupwithmanystoriesaboutthephantasmagoricalchase,storiesthatdon’tcome
closetoBoccaccio’sdelightfullygrotesquenarrative.Thesamelackofspecificityappliesto
musicalcompositions.Evenriffsevocativeofexactideasresistuniqueinterpretations,as,
forexample,thefirstfewbarsofBeethoven’sFifthSymphony,“da-da-da-dum,da-da-da-
dum”:“Deathisknockingatyourdoor”?“You’vegotanotherthingcoming”?“Vfor
Victory”?
Ihavehintedthatlanguage—andnotwriting—isbehindhumanplanetary
domination,butwhynotwriting?Becausewritingissubsumedunderlanguage;to
understandthis,weneedmorespecificityaboutwhatwemeanbywriting(andwhatwe
meanbylanguage).Writingturnsouttobeahighlyambiguousword;itcouldrefertoa
profession,artisticcomposition,writtenlettering,ortext.Forourpurposes,writingisthe
systematicrepresentationoflanguageusingvisualmarks;thereaderisencouragedto
ponderwhetheranyofthoseothersensesofwritingmakeforamorecompellingwayto
thinkaboutplanetarydomination(Coulmas115).
Andwhatislanguage?Languageistheabstractmentalsystemwehumansuseto
connectideaswithsignals.Assuch,languagefacilitatescommunication,eventhough
languageisnotcommunicationitself(thinkhowmanytimesyouhavesaidsomethingthat
failstogetyourmessageacross,orhowmanytimesyouhaveconveyedamessagewithout
utteringaword;thinkalsoBotticelliorBeethoven).Norislanguagethoughtitself(think
aboutcoffee,forexample,andyouwillinvokenon-linguisticthoughtsaboutitsaroma,
texture,andtaste),thoughlanguageisaterrificwaytogetone’sthoughtsexpressedinthe
realworld—andtomanipulatethoughtsconsciously.Twopartsofthisdefinitionof
languagemightbeunfamiliar:noticetheclaimofspecies-specificity(nootheranimalshave
alanguagequitelikeours),andnoticethatlanguageisdescribedasapropertyofthemind
(thebrain,really).
Givensuchawaytothinkaboutlanguage,writingisbutonetypeofsignalor
encodingmediumforlanguage;anothersuchsignalisspeech.Despitetheircommon
source,writingandspeakingdifferinsomeimportantrespects(Crystal5).Speechhas
temporallimitations,soitpermitslittleconsciousplanningorrevision;notsoforwriting,
whichcanbepremeditated,carefullycrafted,andheavilyedited.Speechprompts
spontaneousresponsesfromthehearer,whilewritingdoesnotallowthereader
comprehensionchecks,clarificationqueries,orexpressionsofdisbelief(notinanyway
thatthewriterwillnotice).Anotherdifferencebetweenspeechandwritingliesintheir
origins.Speech,thedefaultencodingmediumforlanguage,isdeterminedbyourspecies-
specificbiology(ourhighlyspecializedvocaltract),evidenceofwhichbeginstoappearin
thefossilrecordofarchaicHomosapiens,around500,000yearsago(Fitch789).Writing,
incomparison,hasexistedforonly5,000years,inventedbytheSumeriansforthevery
unexcitingpurposeofkeepingagriculturalrecords(Sampson,1985).Themechanicsof
speechhavenotchangedformillennia,andareidenticalforallspokenlanguages.Writing,
incontrast,hasundergonesignificanttransformationsasithasbeenrefinedbyscribes,and
variessubstantiallybetweenlanguages.
Bothspeechandwritingencodethoughtsvialanguage,buttheirphysicalproperties
bearlittleresemblancetoeitherthethoughtsorthelinguisticunitstheyrepresent.Let’s
illustratethiswithanexampleofasentence(anditsaccompanyingthought),writtenand
spoken:2
Creonhaditcoming.
Yourmentallanguageprocessingmechanismsdecodeeachsignalalmost
instantaneously,lettingyouinonwhatIthinkaboutCreon’sloss.Bothsignalscontain
enoughinformation(visualoracoustic-phonetic)tohelpyourecoverthelinguisticunits
thatmakeupmysentence:thecontentwords,thefunctionwords,theinflectional
morphology,andthesyntacticrelationsbetweenthem.
Bothsignalsarefar-removedfromthethoughttheycarry,andfromthelinguistic
unitstheybear.Thewritingconsistsof16letters(plusaperiod),takingupabout96square
millimetersofspaceonthepage.Thespeechconsistsofsome1280millisecondsof
continuousphonationinterruptedbysilenceorhigh-frequencynoiseinacoupleofplaces,
withafundamentalfrequencystartingoutat220Hzgraduallydecliningto85Hzatthe
creakyendoftheutterance.Bothsignalsindirectlyreflectthephonologicalformofthe
sentence,butonlythewrittensignalindicateswordboundaries,andneithersignalshows
syntacticrelations.(Andyetthesyntaxiscrucial:ComingithadCreonmakesnosense,
becauseyoucan’tcomputethesyntacticrelationsbetweenthewords.)
Thedigitalrevolutionpromises(orthreatens)advancedflexibilityforinformation
transmissionoverspaceandtime,comparedtoregularspeechorwriting.Innovationslike
videomashupsblurstandarddistinctionsbetweenwritingandspeech,andremindusthat
language(andnotjustspeech,ornotjustwriting)underliesourpowerfulabilitytoencode
anddecodethoughts,passonourexpertise,andcomfort—ordestroy—oneanother.Asfor
thepersonwhousesthisamazingskillforevilpurposes,thechorusinAntigonerightly
proclaims:“Nevermayhesharemyhearth,neverthinkmythoughts!”
WorksCited
Coulmas,F.,Writingsystems:anintroductiontotheirlinguisticanalysis(Cambridge,UK:
CambridgeUniversityPress,2003).
Crystal,D.,Speakingofwritingandwritingofspeaking.LongmanLanguageReview
(1995):5-8.
Dennett,Daniel.“Darwin’s‘strangeinversionofreasoning,’”ProceedingsoftheNational
AcademyofSciences106(2009):10063.
MacCready,P.B.“AnambivalentLudditeatatechnologicalfeast,”Designfax(August1999.)
Sophocles,Antigone,trans.R.C.Jebb,translator,ed.D.C.Stevenson.
W.T.Fitch,“Theevolutionoflanguage:acomparativeperspective.”InM.G.Gaskell,Ed.,
TheOxfordHandbookofPsycholinguistics(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress
2005),787-804.
BreeZuckerman
YourDataIsNotYourOwn
I’msorrytosay,butnoneofthestatusupdatesorcommentsornotesorchatsor
emailsyou’veeverwrittenonFacebookareyours.Youmighthavetheabilitytodelete
themfromyourwallorinbox,butthatdoesn’tmeanthey’regone.Rather,Facebook—and
byextensionanynumberofthird-party“partners”—ownthem,foreternity,iftheyso
choose.There’sareasonwhyFacebook,acompanythatdoesnotturnaprofit,wasvalued
atamind-boggling50billiondollars.It’sworthisinitsnetwork,anditsnetworkis
comprisedofourinformation,whichisreallybitsofourlives.
ColumbiaUniversitylawprofessorandFreeSoftwareFoundationlawyerEben
Moglenexplainsatarecenttalk,“[Zuckerberg]hastoaremarkableextentsucceededwitha
verypoordeal:namely,IwillgiveyoufreewebhostingandsomePHPdoodadsandyouget
spyingforfree,allthetime….It’saterrariumforwhatitfeelsliketoliveinapanopticon
builtoutofwebparts”(“FreedomintheCloud”).Thesamegoesforotherfreeservices,
suchasGmail,Googlecalendar,oranyother“cloud”computingservice(thatis,thosein
whichusers’dataisstoredonserversandisaccessiblefromanycomputerwithanInternet
connection).AndasMoglenpointsout,theprivacyweshouldbeconcernedwithisnotjust
theoneortwothingsyoudon’twantotherpeopletofindout;itisthebitsandpiecesof
datacollectedfromfreeemailclients,socialnetworkingsites,Internetsearchengines,
wirelessservices,togetherwithourcreditordebitcardpurchases,whichwhencombined,
provideanunsettlinglydetailedpictureofourhabitsandlives.
Thedatathatisculledfromthesesourcesissoldtodatawarehouseswhereitis
aggregatedandthenresoldtoanyonewhowantstobuyit.Oftenthismeansmarketers,
whichresultsinmorejunkmail,inbothyourinboxandmailbox.Butifthisdoesn’t
concernyou,therearemoreseriousimplications,suchashowemployersandinsurersare
increasinglyusingthisdatatomakeimportantdecisionsaboutprospectiveandcurrent
employeesandcustomers.Employerscanpurchasedataaspartofabackgroundcheckand
insurancecompaniesareincreasinglyusingittoratecustomers’healthandlikelylongevity
inordertomakedecisionsaboutpolicycostsandoffers.
Inaddition,notonlydobanksselldata,buttheybuyit,too.Those“specialoffers”
thatfindtheirwaytopeopleinfinancialtroubledon’thittheirtargetsbyaccident;they’re
theproductofcarefuldataminingandcustomerprofilingtodeterminewhoismostlikely
totakeonnewdebt.CreditbureaussuchasEquifaxhavebeensellingpersonalfinancial
profilesthatincludename,address,socialsecuritynumber,education,maritalstatus,and
consumerhabitstobanksforyears.Manysub-primemortgageofferscamefrombanks
marketingtheseloanstopeoplewhowereprofiledthroughdataminingandthentargeted
forthepredatoryloans.
Whilepersonalprivacyandfreedomfromunwantedspyingisonesideofthisissue,
anotherispoliticalfreedom.ConsidertheroleofsocialmediaintherevolutionsinTunisia
andEgypt.Whetherornottheuprisingswouldhavehappenedwithoutsocialmedia,itis
nonethelessindisputablethattheywerewidelyusedbyprotestorganizers.However,
whileTwitterandFacebookwereusedasakindofvirtualpublicsquare,theyaremost
definitelynotpublicspaces,whichwouldrequirethattheirinfrastructureisnotownedand
controlledbyaprivatecompanythatalsoownsthecentralizedserversthatstoreallthe
information(Tufeki22).UniversityofMaryland,BaltimoreCountyprofessorandsocial
mediascholarZeynepTufekcilikensittoashoppingmall,wherethebuildingsand
walkwaysareownedbyaprivatecorporation.Eventhoughitmayfeellikeapublicspace,
itisinfactentirelyprivate,andasaresultfreespeechisonlyasfreeasthemallowner
decidesitis.Likewise,governmentscanblockInternetaccessbypressuringthe
corporationswhoprovideit,andactivistsmusthopetheironlinedataisnotbeingshared
bygovernmentswithmoresinistermotivesthanmarketing.AsMoglenputsit,“therearea
lotofEgyptianswhosefreedomnowdependsupontheirabilitytocommunicatewithone
anotherthroughadatabaseownedforprofitbyaguyinCaliforniawhoobeysordersfrom
governmentswhosendorderstodisclosetoFacebook.”(“WhyPoliticalLiberty”).So,
beyondtheprivacyimplicationsdiscussedearlier,therearequestionsnotjustabout
freedomofspeech,butabouthowthevastrepositoriesofinformationonsocialnetworking
servicesmightbeusefultoaninterestedgovernment.AndhereI’mnotjusttalkingabout
thegovernmentsofEgyptorTunisia,butourown.EvenastheObamaadministrationhas
praisedtheroleoftheInternetintheEgyptianuprisinginJanuaryofthisyear,theUnited
StatesDepartmentofJusticesubpoenaedTwitterforinformationonWikiLeaksfounder
JulianAssangeandfourotherindividuals,includingIcelandicMPBirgittaJónsdóttir.We
onlyknowaboutthiscasebecauseTwitternotifieditsusersofthesubpoena,whichimplies
thatothersocialmediasiteslikeFacebookcouldhavealsobeensubpoenaedbutsimply
chosenottonotifytheirusers.
OneofthemanythingsthatthisbacklashagainstWikiLeaksdemonstratesisthat
theInternetisinfactnotasfreeandopenasweoftenassume.Itdidnottakelongfor
corporationstorespondtotheoutrageoverWikiLeaksbydenyinghostingservices
(Amazon)andpayments(PayPal,Visa,andMasterCard)totheorganization.Whilethe
architectureoftheInternetnonethelessallowedWikiLeakstocontinueoperatingthrough
mirrorsitesandalternativepaymentarrangements,thisopennessissomethingthatwe
cannottakeforgrantedandneedtodefend.Thismeansclearlyunderstandingwhich
technologiesaregenuinelydesignedtoencouragecreativity,freedom,andcontroloverour
owninformationandwhichonesallowfortheirrestrictionbasedonthewhimsof
corporationsandgovernments.
WhileIarguedearlierthatwe,asindividuals,shouldbeconcernedaboutprivacy,
thesamemightbearguedregardingstates,whichwasindeedthewaytheuproarabout
WikiLeakswasframed.However,asTufekciandothershaveargued,democratic
governmentsdon’thavethesamerightstoapublicandprivateselfasindividualsdo,and
whentheyarelyingtothepeopletheyaresupposedtorepresent,itisthedutyofafreeand
independentpresstoshinealightintothesedarkcorners.Thisfundamentalfoundationof
democraticgovernmentislaidoutinthe1971SupremeCourtcaseupholdingtherightof
theNewYorkTimestopublishthePentagonPapers.Inhisopinion,JusticeStewarturged
thegovernmenttoavoidsecrecyforitsownsake:“Wheneverythingisclassified,then
nothingisclassified,andthesystembecomesonetobedisregardedbythecynicalorthe
careless,andtobemanipulatedbythoseintentonself-protectionorself-promotion.I
shouldsuppose,inshort,thatthehallmarkofatrulyeffectiveinternalsecuritysystem
wouldbethemaximumpossibledisclosure,recognizingthatsecrecycanbestbepreserved
onlywhencredibilityistrulymaintained.”Stewart’sopinionisworthquotingatlength,in
lightoftheextremerhetoricdemonizingWikiLeaksandcallingforAssange’shead.
Itisironicthatgovernmentsvigorouslydefendtheirprivacy—inmanycases
definedastherighttolietocitizens—whilewearegivingupoursforfree.Whatthis
meansisthatweneedtodefendanInternetwithadecentralizedarchitecturecontrolledby
usersandnotcorporationsorgovernments.SuchanInternetwillallowforanonymityand
privacy;itwillensurethatactivistswholeveragewebtechnologiesforthepurposesof
defendingtheirrights,holdinggovernmentsaccountabletotheirpeople,andstrugglingfor
bettersocietiesareabletodosototheirfullpotentialwithoutdependingonthegood
gracesofcorporationswhointurndependonthegoodgracesofgovernments.However,
evenforthosewhoarenotinterestedintheactivistpotentialoftheInternet,considerthat
weexpectprivacyinmanyaspectsofourlives,fromourintimaterelationshipstoour
consultationsindoctors’offices;whynotdemandthesameonline?
Therearesomealternativetechnologiesunderdevelopment,includinganopen
sourceversionofTwittercalledidenti.cathatdoesnotstoreusers’dataonacentralized
server,andDiaspora,whichisanalternativetoFacebook,currentlyinAlphaversion.
Finally,MoglenrecentlyannouncedtheFreedomBoxproject,whichaimstoleveragethe
originalpeer-to-peerarchitectureoftheInternetsothatinformationisnotstoredona
centralizedserverownedbyathirdparty.Rather,theFreedomBoxisa“plugserver,”or
smallpersonalserveronlyafewsquareinchesinsizethatrunsafree,opensource
operatingsystem.Itallowsforanonymityandprivacybecauseanydataisstoredonthe
user’sowncomputer,whichshecanstore,encrypt,ordeleteatherownchoosing.
IwanttoendbysayingthatI’mnotarguingfromthepositionofaprivacypurist.I
haveGmail,Facebook,Twitter,Dropbox,andEvernoteaccounts.Iuseappsonmysmart
phonethatIknowaregatheringdataaboutme,andwhileIoftenusethesearchengine
Scroogle,whichstripsawaytheidentifyinginformationthatGooglesaves,Isometimesget
lazyandusetheconvenientGooglesearchboxinmybrowser’stoolbar.However,themore
Ilearn,andthemoreIbegintoconsiderjusthowmuchvaluableinformationIamgiving
away,themoreIamslowlychangingmyhabits.AsMoglenpointsout,conveniencecomes
atacost—acostwhichIamincreasinglyunwillingtopay.
WorksCited
Moglen,Eben“FreedomintheCloud:SoftwareFreedom,PrivacyandSecurityforWeb2.0
andCloudComputing.”TalkgivenattheInternetSociety,NewYork,NewYork,
February5,2010.AccessedJanuary19,2011,
Moglen,Eben“WhyPoliticalLibertyDependsonSoftwareFreedomMoreThanEver.”Talk
givenatthe2011FOSDEMConference,Brussels,Belgium,February5,2011.
AccessedFebruary23,2011,
NewYorkTimesCo.v.UnitedStates,403U.S.713,44F.2d544.AccessedFebruary13,
2011,
Tufekci,Zeynep“WikileaksExposesInternet’sDissentTax,notNerdSupremacy,”The
Atlantic,22December,2010,(accessed19January,2011)
RaymondPun
TheRiseofCyberfeminism2.0inIran?
Asthedigitalrevolutionpervadestheworld,theexchangeoffeministthoughtand
genderpoliticsamongcultureshasincreasedexponentially.Thetermcyberfeminismis
ambiguousandoftendifficulttodefineasa“singletheoryorfeministmovement”butit
couldbeviewedasa“rangeoftheories,debates,andpracticesabouttherelationship
betweengenderanddigitalculture”(Daniels101).Here,IexaminehowtheInternethas
incubatedcyberfeministthoughtandinspiredinternalfeministmovementsinIran.Idraw
ontwocases—blogsandInternetdatingservicesites—toaddresshowthecyberworldis
emergingasanimportantvehicleforIranianwomentopursueamoreactiverolein
expressingtheirchoices,rights,andfreedoms.
Accordingtosome,therightsofIranianwomenarerestrictedinvariousaspectsof
thepublicsphere;manywomenfeelunabletopubliclychallengeandaddresssocial
barriersforfearofostracismorpunishmentbytheirgovernment.Aftertherevolutionof
1979,theIraniangovernmentreintroducedandreinforcedstricttheocraticlawsand
regulations.Althoughthegovernmentencouragesyoungwomenandmentoobtainhigher
education,somewomenstillfeelthattheircivicrightsareundermined(Raghavan).
However,withtheexpansionoftheInternetandsocialnetworkingtechnologies,
Iranianwomenincreasinglyuseonlinedevices,accessedintheprivatesphere,toexpress
theirfeelingsmoreopenlyandtochallengenotionsofpatriarchy.Inthisway,theInternet
couldbesaidtoallowparticipantstoexpresstheirconcernsmorefreely;the“absenceof
thephysicalbodyinelectronicspaceandtheanonymitythisoffershavealiberatingeffect
onrepressedsocialidentitiesas‘electronictechnology’becomes‘atoolfordesignoffreely
chosenidentities”(Nouraie-Simone61).ForFereshtehNouraie-Simone,theInternetcan
revealaglimpseoftheworldby“openinganewhorizonfordialogue,self-expression,and
dissidentvoices”forthosewhoareunabletoexpresstheirconcernsina“controlledsociety
undertheocraticrule”(62).Withtheadventofweb2.0technologies,morepeopleare
recreating,reinforcing,andsharingtheirsocialidentitiesandinterestswithothers,as“the
Internetisamediumofempowermentthatbypassestraditionallyimposedgenderidentity,
roles,andimagesofsubordination”(62).Asblogscontinuetogrowinnumber,some
womenusethisnewforumtodiscussdomesticaffairs,male-femalerelations,gender
boundaries,andother“taboo”topics(70).
WithintheIranianblogosphere—or“Weblogistan”asitissometimescalled—
womencanusepseudonymstowritesocial,political,cultural,andliterarycritiquesand
discoursesinFarsi.“Throughboldnarrationintheirblogs,[women]unveiled‘thehidden
woman,’suppressedbythetraditionsofIraniansociety,andrevealfirst-handinformation
aboutthemselveswhichhadneverbeentoldpublicly”(Amir-Ebrahimi91).Withthis
exchangeofideas,accordingtoNouraie-Simone,“agrowingnumberofyoungwomen[are]
choosingtheirownspousesratherthanacceptingtheirparents’choice.Morewomenare
notmarrying,andamajoritylooksatworkorcareerasthewaytofurtherindependence”
(Nouraie-Simone75).Someanonymousfemalebloggersalsoexpresstheirpersonal
discontentregardingtheirmarriagesanddresscodes(Nazila).Bloggingisacommon
activityamongmanysocietalgroupsandcontinuestoserveasamediumforself-
expressionandexchangeofresourcesandideasforwomen.
InternetdatingsitesmayalsocreateacomfortzoneforsomeIranianwomen.In
Iran,menandwomenarephysicallysegregated;interactionbetweenthesexessuchas
casualdatingishighlyrestricted.Withtheriseofcyberdatingservices,womencanmeet
menonline,overstepconstructedboundaries,andfindpotentialsuitors.Membersofthe
IslamicRepublicalsogivetheirapprovalforcyberdatingservicesbecauseitservesasa
matchmakingsite(Collins51)Theseservicesincludemuslimmatch.com,shaadi.com,and
salaamlove.comandsubscriptionssubstantiallyincreaseeachyearonthesesites(51).
AccordingtoCharlotteCollins,“[Internetagenciessuchascyberdatingservices]empower
Muslimwomentoputforwardcandidatesforparentalapprovalinsteadofrelyingwholly
ontheirfamiliestoselecttheirfuturehusbands”(51).
TheInternetcanhelpgenerateopportunitiesforIranianwomentoshareideason
socialbehaviorsandtheirexperiences.Somewomenusetheseopportunitiestoaddress
andcounteraspectsofgenderinequalityorsocialbarrierstheyfeelhaveobstructedtheir
rights.TheInternetandsocialmediatoolshavehadaprofoundimpactontheexchangeof
discoursesandideas,andthecyberworldmaycontinuetoinspireandgalvanizenewdigital
movementsforwomentoconfrontandaddressgenderboundaries.
WorksCited
Amir-Ebrahimi,Masserat“TransgressionintheNarration:TheLivesofIranianWomenin
Cyberspace.”JournalofMiddleEastWomen’sStudies.4,no.3(2008)91.
Collins,Charolette.“ModemLove:HowtheInternetHasRevolutionisedRomance.”Art&
Thought:FikurunWaFann.No.86(2007).51.
Daniels,Jesse.“RethinkingCyberfeminism(s):Race,GenderandEmbodiment.”Women’s
StudiesQuarterly.37,no.1/2(2009):101.
Nazila,Fathi.“TabooSurfing:ClickHereforIran…”TheNewYorkTimes.4Aug.2002,4.
Nouraie-Simone,Fereshteh.“WingsofFreedom:IranianWomen,IdentityandCyberspace.”
OnShiftingGround:MuslimWomenintheGlobalEra.Ed.FereshtehNouraie-Simone.
(NewYork:FeministPress,2005)61
Raghavan,Sudarsan.“RoleofWomeninIranProtestsKindlesHope;FemaleMuslims
AbroadSayTheyDrawInspirationforOwnStruggleAtHome.”WashingtonPost.28,
Jun.2009:A1.
CarolinaBarrera-Tobón
LanguageVariationandChange:WhyWeShouldn’tFeartheInevitable
Inthewell-knownCingularcommercialabout“myBFFJill”amothercomplainsto
hertween-agedaughteraboutherexcessivetexting.Thedaughterrespondstothemother
inwhatwecall“textspeak”whilesubtitles,correspondingtotheseriesofacronymsand
abbreviationsthedaughterisusing,appearatthebottomofthescreen.Wittyand
successful,thiscommercialrepresentshowmanypeopleperceivetheyoungergeneration
ofEnglishspeakers(andwriters)inthiscountryandpokesfunataveryrealfear:justhow
muchcantechnologyaffectthelanguagewespeakandwrite?Theseconcernsoften
manifestasintoleranceandrejectionofmodernlanguageforms.Peopleconcernedabout
theeffectoftechnologyonlanguageappealtoargumentsinvolvingmisspellingsandthe
lackofpropergrammar,andtheyadvocatetheprotectionoftheEnglishlanguagefrom
impuritiesthatwilltarnishitanddumbitdown.Theseargumentsusuallyreceivealotof
attentionandsupport,andstrangely,theseconcernstranscendanyandalleducational
boundaries.Manypeople,itseems,areconcernedaboutthemodernstateandfluctuation
oflanguage.Manypeople,thatis,exceptforlinguists(oratleastthislinguist).Those
whoseveryjobitistostudylanguagearenotlosingsleepoverthefateofEnglishandits
portendeddemise.Why?Becauselinguistsrecognizethatlanguagechangeiscompletely
normal.InmylastRevisionspieceIwrotethatRamónMenéndezPidal,afamousSpanish
philologist,describedlanguageasariverwhosecurrentweconstantlyattempttosuppress
(5).Inotherwords,languagechange,likeariver’scurrent,isnormalandunavoidable.
Thestandardizationofmodernlanguageshassuppressedalotoflanguagechange.
Ifwelookbackattextswrittenbeforethestandardizationofmodernlanguages(circa
1500)wefindhugedifferencesinthespelling,grammar,andlexiconofdifferentwritersof
thesameera.Regardlessoftheperceivedthreattotheintegrityoflanguage,thelinguistic
changesthatwearewitnessingarenodifferentfromthechangesthattheso-calledpure
Englishlanguagehasundergoneinthepast.Englishhasborrowedmanywordsand
expressionsfrommanylanguagesthroughouthistory;sometimeslargenumbersofwords
wereborrowedfromaspecificlanguageasaresultofperiodsofculturalcontactwith
speakersofotherlanguages.Forexample,theNormanConquestofEnglandin1066
broughtaninundationofNormanFrenchwordsandexpressions.Thisisjustoneofmany
historicalperiodsduringwhichtheEnglishlanguagewasshapedbytheculturalneedsof
itsspeakers.Infact,it’sironic,inmyopinion,tothinkthatwearetryingtopreservethe
“purity”oftheEnglishlanguagewhenitisbynomeanspuretobeginwith:theamountof
borrowedwordsinEnglishindicatethatitwashistoricallyalinguisticCasanova.
Thesemodificationsandadditions,however,arenotuniquetoEnglish;they
exemplifydiachronicandsynchroniclinguisticprocessesthatarecommonamongmanyof
theworld’slanguages.Thesechangeshavebeendocumentedforcenturies,andthey
representtheculturalandcommunicativeneedsofasociety.Itwouldbeunrealistic,then,
toexpectthatnewtechnologicaladvancesandtheneedtocommunicateaboutnew
technologywouldyielddifferentlinguisticresultstoday.Technologyhasalwaysinfluenced
language,andtoday’slanguageisricherbecauseofthisinfluence.Forexample,the
inventionoftheautomobilenotonlybroughtwithittheneedfornumerousnewlexical
entries,italsogaveusmanyidiomaticexpressionswestillusetodaysuchas“drivingme
crazy”and“aroundthebend.”
ManypeoplewhoadvocatefortheprotectionoftheEnglishlanguageappealtothe
factthattheincreasedrateandspeedoftechnologicaldevelopmentspresentsacompletely
differentlinguisticlandscapeandanunknownthreatthatwehavenothingtocompareto
historically.Indeed,thetechnologicalinnovationsandtheconsequentadditionoflexical
entriesaremuchmorenoticeabletodaythantheyeverhavebeen.AccordingtoWebster’s
NewWorldDictionary’slanguagemonitoringprogramthereareapproximately2,000
examplesamonthofnewwordsandphrasessuchasgoogle,friend(anewverbthathas
virtuallythesamesenseastheexisting,oldverbtobefriend,whichisn’tusedinthe
Facebookcontext,perhapsbecauseit’ssoold)andunfriend,whichwastheNewOxford
AmericanDictionary’s2009WordoftheYear.
Mostimportantly,puristargumentsfortheprotectionoflanguagefromthe
perceivedmassacrebytoday’syoutharemostlybasedonanecdotalevidenceandarenot
empiricallysound.Theyareoftenmotivatedbypersonalandbiasedintentionsandare
groundedinapuristmentalitythatisexclusionaryandhistoricallyinaccurate.Itdoesn’t
takelong,forexample,tofindthehundredsofblogswhereconcernedparentstryto
deciphertheirchildren’stextmessagesandcomplainabouttheimminentdecayofwritten
English.Butit’snotjustparents;it’salsoacademics.InItaly,scholarsattheUniversityof
BariwarnagainstthepossibilityofthedevelopmentofahybridSMSlanguagespokenby
today’syouth.Todate,Ihavenotfoundanypeer-reviewedlinguisticstudythat
demonstratesevidenceofanythinglikethishappeningsoon.Similarly,inFrance,
politiciansarguethat40,000studentsfailedtheirBaccalaureateexam(theexamtheyhave
topasstograduatefromhighschool)duetospellingerrorsattributedtoFrench“text
speak.”Iftheycoulddemonstratethattextingaffectsgrammar,thenmaybetheirargument
wouldcarrymoreweight,butinordertocometosuchconclusionsonewouldhavetoat
leastdoalongitudinalstudycomparingthepass-failratestodaytothosebefore1992when
thefirsttextmessagewassent.Theseissuesarealsonotuniquetotoday’syouth.Didthe
babyboomersforgetthattheytoohadalingo?Doesn’teverygenerationhaveitsjargon
andslang?
Oneofthefewempirically-soundlinguisticstudiesconductedontheeffectoftexting
andlanguageamongtoday’syouthsuggeststhatwehavenothingtobeworriedabout.At
the2006LinguisticsSocietyofCanadaandUnitedStatesAnnualMeeting,sociolinguistics
professorSaliTagliamontepresentedherfindingsfromastudyonthewritingof70
Canadianadolescents.Shearguesthattheadolescentsinherstudydemonstrateanability
tomanipulatedifferentregistersintheirwriting.Inotherwords,althoughthesekidsmay
writetextmessageslike“idkIwntd2gohmASAP,2CmyM8sagain,”theywouldn’tusethe
samewrittenlanguageinanessayoraclassassignment.Tagliamonte’sfindingremindsme
ofananalogyIonceheardduringatalkbyUniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego(andformer
Hunter)professorAnaCeliaZentella.ProfessorZentellaequatesregisterstoclothing.She
explainsthatwehavemanydifferenttypesofclothesformanydifferentsocialcontexts,
andourdecisionofwhichoutfittowearisdependentonthatcontext.Forexample,we
wouldn’twearaweddingdresstothebeachinthesamewaywewouldn’twearabikinitoa
wedding.Inasmuchasthereareappropriateandinappropriatesettingsforabikinianda
weddingdress,weusedifferentregistersinouroralandwrittenlanguagedependingona
varietyofsocialandcontextualfactors.Thecontext,includingthetopic,theinterlocutors,
thesetting,etc.,shapesthewaywespeakandwrite.Idon’tusethesamelanguagewhenI
writemyTwitterorFacebookupdatesaswhenIwritemydissertation.Inthesameway,
thewordchoiceandpunctuationinmytextmessagesdependsonmanyfactors:didI
alreadyreach160characters?TowhomamIwriting?WillthismessagebeambiguousifI
abbreviate?
Theabilitytomanipulateandeffectivelyusedifferentregistersisnotevidenceof
linguisticerosion;itisquitetheopposite.Alwaysspeakingorwritingasthoughonewere
inanacademicsettingallthetimeisjustasinfelicitousasspeakingorwritinginformallyin
formalcontexts.Havingcommandofdifferentregistersisevidenceofacomplexrepertoire
oflinguisticskills.Don’tgetmewrong—I’mnotadvocatinglinguisticanarchy.I’mallabout
compartmentalization,andIbelieveweshouldnotcondonethecategoricaluseofeither
formalorinformalregisters.
Why,youask,amIsoadamantaboutdefendingtheselinguisticimpuritiesandbad-
speak?IknewthemomentIsawthecallforpapersforRevisionsthattherewouldbea
handfulofsubmissions“uncriticallychampioning”theprotectionoflanguageand/or
“absolutelyrejecting”technologyduetoitspurportedlinguisticrepercussions.Asa
linguist,Ifeelthatitismydutytoprovideanotherperspectivetothisdebate.Iwas
especiallymotivatedbyFerdinanddeSaussure’sseminal(andposthumouslypublished)
bookongenerallinguistics.InhisCoursdeLinguistiqueGénéral,Saussure,consideredthe
fatherofmodernlinguistics,warnsthat“noothersubjecthasfosteredmoreabsurd
notions,moreprejudices,moreillusions,ormorefantasies”thanlinguistics,andthat“itis
theprimarytaskofthelinguisttodenouncethemandtoeradicatethemascompletelyas
possible”(15).
AsafunctionalistlinguistIbelievethatthesocial,cultural,andcommunicative
needsofthespeakersshapethelanguagetheyspeak.However,Ialsobelievethatinthe
samewaythatweshapelanguage,thelanguagewespeakshapesus;itisafundamental
partofouridentity.Asaresult,weneedtoacknowledge,accept,andmaybeevenembrace
thefactthatlanguagechanges.That’sthenorm.Tryingtostopitfromchangingisboth
futileandill-founded.
ThereisasmallcaveatthatIhavefailedtoaddressuptothispoint.AlthoughI’m
paintingasomewhatidealisticvisionoflanguagechange,therearelinguisticchangesthat
are,inmyopinion,unfortunate.Oftheworld’sapproximate6,000languages,everytwo
weeksoneoftheselanguagesvanishes(Kenneally101).Atthisratesomeoftheworld’s
languagesfaceagreaterriskofextinctionthananycurrentlyendangeredbirdormammal.
Theextinctionofalanguageisahugeloss;whenalanguageisnolongerspoken,the
culturalandlinguisticknowledgeencodedinthatlanguagearelostforever4.Languages
likeEnglish,however,arenotatallindangerofbecomingextinct.Infact,itisestimated
thattherearemorenon-nativespeakersthannativespeakersofEnglish,makingEnglish
thesecondmostwidelyspokenlanguageintheworld(behindMandarin).Ironically,
althoughmanyoftheconcernsaboutlanguagemaintenanceanddecayareaboutsomeof
themoststandardizedandcodifiedlanguagesintheworld(e.g.French,Spanish,English,
etc.),itisoftenattheexpenseoftheselanguagesthatmanyendangeredlanguageshave
beenlost.Inotherwords,itisbecauselanguageslikeEnglisharebecomingmoreandmore
widespreadthatlanguageslikeAka-Bo,Gaagudju,andEyak—lastspokeninAlaskain
2008—arelost.Theparadox,thus,isthatthelanguagesthatmanypeoplearemost
concernedaboutprotectingare,infact,thosethatneedtheleastprotection.
WorksCited
ChristineKenneally,TheFirstWord:TheSearchfortheOriginsofLanguage(NewYork:
Viking,2007).
deSaussure,Ferdinand.CourseInGeneralLinguistics(Chicago:OpenCourtPublishing,
reprint1998).
RamonMenéndezPidal,Orígenesdelespañol:EstadolingüísticodelaPenínsulaIbérica
hastaelsigloXI(Madrid:Espasa-Calpe,1950).
Tagliamont,Sali.“Presentationat2006LinguisticsSociety”.
Zaentella,Celia.“RoleofWomeninIranProtestsKindlesHope;FemaleMuslimsAbroadSay
TheyDrawInspirationforOwnStruggleAtHome.”WashingtonPost.28,Jun.2009:
A1.