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Lectures 7, 8: Word Classes

5.1 Open and closed classes

Word classes such as noun, verb, adjective, etc., are traditionally called parts of speech. There is not a fixed

number of ord classes. We can set up as many classes and subclasses as e need for our analysis. The moredetailed our analysis, the more classes and subclasses e need.

Word classes can be divided into open classes and closed classes. !pen classes are readily open to neords" closed classes are limited classes that rarely admit ne ords. #or example, it is easy to create nenouns, but not ne pronouns. Listed belo, ith examples, are the classes that ill be examined further on.

Open classesnoun Paul, paper, speech, play adjective young, cheerful, dark, round

main verb talk, become, like, play

adverb carefully, firmly, confidentially

Closed classes

pronoun she, somebody, one, who, that

determiner a, the, that, each, someauxiliary $verb% can, may, will, have, be, do

conjunction and, that, in order that, if, though

preposition of, at, to, in spite of

There are also some more minor classes, such as the numerals $one, twenty-three,first% and the interjections

$oh, ah, ouch%. &nd there are some ords that do not fit anyhere and should be treated individually, such as

the ne'ative not and the infinitive mar(er to $as in to say%. The conjunction in order that and the prepositionin spite of are complex ords even thou'h each is ritten as three separate ords.

5.2 Word classes and word uses)n *.+ some ords are listed in more than one class. #or instance, play is both a noun and a verb" that is a

pronoun, a determiner, and a conjunction. any more examples could be 'iven of multiple membership of

ord classes. We can identify the class of some ords by their form, but very often e can tell the class of a

ord only from its use in a con-text.

Reply is a noun in:

+/ ) expect a replybefore the end of the month.)t is a verb in:

0/ 1ou should replybefore the end of the month.

)t is particularly easy to convert nouns to verbs and to convert verbs to nouns. Reply in +/ and 0/ representsto different ords that share the same form. They are to different ords, thou'h related in meanin'" they

are entered as separate ords in dictionaries $2lexicons3%.

)f ords happen to share the same form and are not related in meanin' at all, they are homonyms" examples

arepeer $2person belon'in' to the same 'roup in a'e and status3% and peer $2loo( searchin'ly3%, or peep

$2ma(e a feeble shrill sound3% andpeep $2loo( cautiously3%. We can ma(e further distinctions if e ish to

emphasi4e identity in pronunciation or identity in spellin'. )f homonyms share the same sound but perhapsdiffer in spellin', they are homophones;examples are weigh and way or none and nun. !n the other hand, if

they share the same spellin' but perhaps differ in pronunciation, they are homographs;examples are row

$2line of objects3% and row $25uarrel3%.

& ord may have more than one 'rammatical form. The noun play has the sin'ular play and the plural

plays; the verb play has the base form play and the past played. )t is common to use word for the

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'rammatical form, so e can say that the past of the ord see issaw and e can also say that the ordsaw

is spelled ith a final w.

6ometimes there is neutralization in form: rather than havin' the distinctions found in most ords, some

ords have only one neutral form. #or example, the verb cut represents at least three 'rammatical ords:

present tense ) alays cut my stea( ith this (ind of (nife.

past tense ) cut my fin'er earlier today.

past participle ) have cut my fin'er.The examples of ord classes in *.+ are 2lexical3 ords $listed as main entries in dictionaries%, but theyinclude any associated 'rammatical forms.

We reco'ni4e the class of a ord by its use in context. 6ome ords have suffixes $endin's added to ords toform ne ords% that help to si'nal the class they belon' to. These suffixes are not necessarily sufficient.

#or example, -ly is a typical suffix for adverbs $slowly,proudly%, but e also find this suffix in adjectives:

cowardly, homely, manly. &nd e can sometimes convert ords from one class to another even thou'h theyhave suffixes that are typical of their ori'inal class: an engineer, to engineer" a hopeful candidate, a hopeful.

5.3. NOUN

Noun su!!i"es& noun is a ord that can be the only or main ord in a noun phrase. We cannot identify all

nouns merely by their form, but certain suffixes can be added to verbs or adjectives to ma(e nouns. ere are

a fe typical noun suffixes ith ords that exemplify them:

-tion $and variants% education, relation, invasion, revision-er, -or camper, speaker, actor, supervisor

-ism optimism, socialism, terrorism

-ity mentality, normality, reality, sanity-ment environment, equipment, government

-ness happiness, compactness, darkness

6ome suffixes ere part of the ords hen they ere borroed from other lan'ua'es: doctor, eternity,courage.

5.# Noun classes

ouns are commonor proper. 9roper nouns are the names of specific people, places, or occasions, and theyusually be'in ith a capital letter: Shakespeare, hicago, !anuary, hristmas, Ramadan.ames may consist

of more than one ord: "he #ague, "he $ew %ork "imes, #eathrow &irport, Captain &ndrews, 'ount

(verest.9roper nouns are sometimes converted into common nouns: the "hompsons) know" the proper nounThompson cannot ordinarily be made plural, but here the "hompsonsmeans 2the people in the family ith

the name Thompson3.

Common nouns are nouns that are not names, such as capitalin:

The capitalof the etherlands is The a'ue.

Common nouns can be subclassified in to ays:+. type of referent: concrete or abstract

0. 'rammatical form: count or non-count

Concretenouns refer to people, places, or thin's: girl, kitchen, car.

$%stractnouns refer to 5ualities, states, or actions: humour, belief, honesty.

6ome nouns may be either concrete or abstract, dependin' on their meanin':

Concrete Thomas can (ic( afootball* yards.

$%stract Thomas often playsfootballon 6aturdays.

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Countnouns refer to entities that are vieed as countable. Count nouns therefore have both a sin'ular and a

plural form and they can be accompanied by determiners that refer to distinctions in number:a*one; everystudent

ten*many; thosestudents

Non&countnouns refer to entities that are vieed as an indivisible mass that cannot be counted" for example,

information, furniture,software. on-count nouns are treated as sin'ular and can be accompanied only by

determiners that do not refer to distinctions in number: much*your*thatinformation.

There is a 'eneral tendency for abstract nouns to be non-count.

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With some nouns, both re'ular plurals in ?s and ?vesplurals are possible:

scarf + scarfs* scarves

hoof + hoofs* hooves

Nouns ending ino have the plural forms if the noun ends in 'owel (o:

radio + radios, or in nouns of forei'n ori'in:

kilo + kilos, photo + photos

oever, if the sin'ular noun ends in consonant (o, the plural is+es:

hero + heroes, potato + potatoes, tomato + tomatoes$%%re'iations ta(e the re'ular+splural endin':Ps, s, s.

& fe irre'ular plurals reflect older An'lish forms:

man? menmouse? mice

woman? women

louse? lice

foot? feetbrother? brethren $in special

senses%

goose? geese

child? childrentooth? teeth

o ? oen

*.*.+. )n some of the nouns in the list above $goose + geese man + men mouse + mice etc/, there is a chan'e

of voel sound and spellin' $2mutation plurals3% ithout an endin', hich distin'uishes the sin'ular form

from the plural one:

5.5.2. ,ero plural & 6ome nouns have the same form in the sin'ular and in the plural. They fall into three

main cate'ories: names of animals, 5uantifyin' nouns and nationality names.a% ouns namin' animals.Sheep, deer, andcod thou'h countable have the same form for the sin'ular and

the plural. These nouns ta(e a verb either in the sin'ular or in the plural:

"his sheep has 0ust had a lamb."hese sheep have 0ust had lambs.

!ther animals, birds and fishes can have 4ero plurals, especially hen vieed as prey:

"hey shot two reindeer, though this is strictly forbidden.

"he woodcock/ pheasant/ herring/ trout/ salmon/ fish are not very plentiful this year.

When these animals are not seen as a prey, they have the re'ular ?s plural:&ren1t those pheasants beautiful2

b% ouns of 5uantity. There is a stron' tendency for units of number, len'th, value and ei'ht to have a 4ero

plural hen premodified by another 5uantitative ord:

three do3en * hundred peoplemany thousand * million insects

eight ton of coal

ten head * yoke of oen

three pound/stone of potatoesoever, hen not preceded by numerals, these nouns have normal plural forms:

Dozens 4and dozens/ of people crowded into the room.Thousands of people had lived in the flooded area.

c% ationality names endin' in ?ese4Portuguese, hinese, !apanese/ also have 4ero plurals:

"he Chinese are friendly, honest, and terribly proud of their country.

5.5.3. -oreign plurals & umerous nouns adopted from forei'n lan'ua'es, especially Latin, and Bree(,

retain the forei'n inflection for plural. )n some cases, there are to plurals: an An'lish re'ular form used ineveryday lan'ua'e and the forei'n plural preferred in technical discourse:

a% ouns in+us ; s; ith plurali ;ai;:

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bacillus - bacilli

stimulus - stimulib% ouns inus ; s; ith plurala ; ; $only in technical use%:

corpus - corpora

genus - generac% ouns ina ; ; ith pluralae ;i:; or ;ai;:

regular plural !oreign plural

formula - formulas formulaevertebra - vertebras vertebraed% ouns inum ;m; ith plurala ;: ;:

curriculum - curricula

stratum - stratae% ouns inex, -ix ith pluralices ;isi:4;:

inde - indices

matri - matricesf% ouns inis ;is; ith plurales ;i:4;:

analysis - analyses

ais - aes

basis - bases

crisis - crises

hypothesis - hypotheses

parenthesis - parentheses

thesis - theses

'% ouns inon ; n; ith plurala ;;:

criterion - criteria

phenomenon - phenomena

6ome nouns from #rench sometimes retain a #rench plural in ritin', ith the #rench 4ero endin' in speech

or, more usually, a re'ular An'lish plural:

regular plural !oreign plural

bureau - bureaus *-5 u3 * bureau *-5 u*

plateau + plateaus plateau

Compound nouns form the plural in different ays:a% plural in the first element:

attorney general attorneysgeneral

notary public notariespublic

passer-by passers-by

mother-in-law mothers-in-law

grant-in-aid grants-in-aid

b% plural in both first and last element:

gentleman farmer gentlemenfarmers

manservant menservants

woman doctor women doctorsc% plural in the last element:

grown-up grown-ups

stand-by stand-bys

forget-me-not forget-me-nots

sit-in sit-ins

5. /ender

Delatively fe nouns are distin'uished in 'ender, but there are some male nouns and female nouns" forexample:

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father? mother

widower? widowboy? girl

bridegroom? bride

host? hostessbull? cow

hero? heroine

lion? lioness

)n compound nouns either the first constituent or the second one is lexically mar(ed for the masculine ?feminine distinction:

a% the first constituent

male nurse 4female/ nurse4male/ student 4female/ student

boy-friend girl-friend

!ack ass !enny ass

he-goat she-goat

cock sparrow hen sparrow

tom cat tabby cat

#e was in the police you know, and he was a male nurse.

"hey ordered the drinks from a female bartender.

"hese were female prisoners convicted of violent crimes.

!udy told a story about a 6ritish female reporter.b% the second constituent:

chairman chairwoman

spokesman spokeswoman

businessman businesswoman

congressman congresswoman

& spokeswomanfor the company announced the decision.

& State epartment spokesman eplained the situation.

Compounds endin' in -person$s% and -people are sometimes used to express reference to both males and

females and to avoid sex-bias associated ith the use of the correspondin' masculine forms:

'rs. 'oon, their Chairperson, was interviewed yesterday.7e have a vacancy for an eperienced salesperson.

!ane was the spokespersonfor the delegation.

5..1. 0orphological e"pression o! gender

& fe An'lish nouns have 'ender-specific derivational suffixes. ost of the personal nouns refer topositions and jobs. )n most cases the feminine noun is derived from the masculine one:

masculine & !eminine

actor 8 actressgod 8 goddess

governor 8 governess

hero 8 heroine

mayor 8 mayoressmister 8 mistress

waiter8 waitress

The arro E shos the direction of derivation $from the masculine to the feminine%. evertheless, there are

a fe exceptions to this rule:

masculine & !eminine

widower 9: widow

bride 9: bridegroom

ual gender nouns

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Within personal nouns, there are several nouns in An'lish here the distinction male;female is neutrali4ed,

the same noun namin' both. 6ome 'rammarians call them dual gender nouns:0ournalist, friend, teacher, child, baby, pupil, doctor, student, etc.

fo, deer, sheep, pig, horse, fowl, etc.

When referrin' to nouns of dual 'ender and pronouns such as anybody or nobody, special problems arise,hoever, here the sex of the referent is unidentified or irrelevant. Traditionally, masculine pronouns have

been used:

"he individual can deal directly with his employer if he chooses so.o!ody in his right mind punishes a quarter-century-old dereliction.

oadays, a plural form pronoun is preferred as a ay of purposely not specifyin' the sex of the person

referred to $althou'h the expressions he or she, him or her may also be used%:$obody came, did they2

(veryone thinks they are in the centre of the universe.

nce you have let any!ody in they

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=ut the independent 'enitive is also used to refer to places:The party is at &lan1s toni'ht.

6he3s 'one to the hairdresser1s .

#inally, the independent 'enitive may combine ith the of -structure:

a friend of 'artha1s

a su''estion of $orman1s

The independent 'enitive in the of-structure differs from the normal 'enitive in its meanin': 'artha1s

friendmeans 2the friend that artha has3 $the spea(er assumes that the hearer (nos the identity of the

friend%, hereas a friend of 'artha1smeans 2one of the friends that artha has3.

The 'enitive is mainly used to express possession. That is hy it is sometimes called the 2possessive3 case.

oever, besides shoin' possession the 'enitive has other meanin's related to some basic sentencestructure:

/eniti'es $nalogues

a% possessi'e geniti'e

'ary1s passport Fary ons a passport.G

the car1s wheel FThe car has a heel.G

b% su%4ecti'e geniti'e

the parents1 consent FThe parents consented.Gc% geniti'e o! originthe girl1s story FThe 'irl told ; rote a story.G

(ngland1s cheeses Fthe cheeses produced in An'land.Gd% o%4ecti'e geniti'ethe family1s support Fsomebody supports the familyG

the boy1s release Fsomebody released the boyGe% descripti'e geniti'ea women1s college Fa colle'e for omenG

a doctor1s degree Fa doctoral de'ree ; a doctorateG

5..1. Choice o! the s geniti'e

The choice of the 3s-'enitive depends on the 'ender of the noun in the 'enitive case. Benerally spea(in', the

3s 'enitive is favored by the animate nouns, that is persons and animals ith personal 'ender characteristic.The folloin' four animate noun classes ta(e the 3s 'enitive, but the of-'enitive is also possible in most

cases:

personal names =eorge 7ashington1s statue

personal nouns the boy1s new shirt

collecti'e nouns the government1s decision

higher animals the horse1s neck

The 3s 'enitive is also used ith certain (inds of inanimate nouns:

a% 'eo'raphical names:

continents> Aurope3s future

countries> 6pain3s immi'rants

cities6towns> ?ondon1s water supply

uni'ersities> arvard3s Lin'uistics department

b% 2locative nouns3 denote re'ions, institutions, etc., can be very similar to 'eo'raphical names and are often

ritten ith initial capital letter:

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the world1s economic organi3ation

the hurch1s missionthe country1s population

c% temporal nouns:the decade1s events this year1s sales

a day1s work a week1s holiday

d% nouns of 2special interest to human activity3the body1s needs the car1s performance

The of-'enitive is chiefly used ith nouns denotin' loer animals and ith inanimate nouns. )nanimatenouns re'ularly ta(e of 'enitive, but many inanimate nouns occur ith the 3s 'enitive. The folloin' nouns,

for example, ill e5ually ell admit both 'enitive constructions:

the car1s engine the engine of the carthe book1s title the title of the book

the town1s population the population of the town

5.7. 0$8N 9:. &ingparticiple: laughing, hearing, cutting, speaking

H. past!orm: laughed, heard, cut, spoke*. &edparticiple: laughed, heard, cut, spoken

The hi'hly irre'ular verb behas ei'ht forms.

5.11 Classes o! irregular 'er%s

There are over 0* irre'ular verbs in An'lish. &part from the verb be , the -s form and the -ing participle

can be predicted for all verbs from the base form. We therefore need list only three forms to shoirre'ularities: the base, past, and -ed participle. These three forms are (non as the principal parts of the

verb. )f e leave aside the verb be , e can 'roup the irre'ular verbs into seven classes accordin' to

hether or not three features apply to their principal parts:

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$a% the past and -ed participles are identical"

$b% the base voel is the same in the other to principal parts"$c% the past and -ed participle have inflectional endin's. )f an irre'ular verb has inflectional endin's, these

may be irre'ular" for example, kept from keep or spoken from speak .

Class 8

bend bent bent

earn earnt earntbuild built built

learn learnt learnt

have had hadsmell smelt smelt

make made made

spoil spoilt spoilt

Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: earn , earned , earned .

Class 88mow mowed mown

shear sheared shorn

show showed shown

swell swelled swollen

The past is formed re'ularly, but the participle has an -n inflection. Those in the second column have a

different voel in the participle. &ll the verbs have re'ular variants for the participle: mow , mowed ,

mowed .

Class 888

buy bought boughtdream dreamt dreamt

hear heard heard

kneel knelt kneltlose lost lost

lean leant leant

say said saidleap leapt leapt

Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: dream , dreamed , dreamed .

Class 89

blow blew blownsee saw seen

break broke broken

take took takenhide hid hidden

tear tore torn

lie lay lainwrite wrote written

The participle has an inflection, but not the past. )n some verbs $e.' . blow% the participle has the same voel

as the base" in some $ e.g.break % the past and participle have the same voel" in some $ e.g. write % all thevoels are different. The verb beat has the same voel in all parts $ beat , beat , beaten %, but it may

be included in this class rather than in class )) because it is not inflected in the past.

Class 9

burst

hit

hurt

let

fit

rid

sweat

wet

&ll three principal parts are identical. Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: fit , fitted ,

fitted , as ell as fit , fit , fit .

Class 98

bleed bled bled

get got gotdig dug dug

hold held held

find found foundstrike struck struck

fight fought fought

win won won

The past and participle are identical, but there is a chan'e from the base voel and there are no inflections. &fe verbs in this class have re'ular variants: light , lighted , lighted , as ell as light , lit , lit .

Class 988

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begin began begun

come came come

sing sang sung

run ran run

Those in the second column have the same form for the base and the participle. 6ome verbs also havevariants in hich the past and participle are identical: sing , sung , sung , as ell as sing , sang ,

sung .

5.12. $>:C?89:

$d4ecti'e su!!i"es

&n ad4ecti'eis a ord that can be the only or main ord in an adjective phrase. & lar'e number of suffixes

are added to nouns and verbs to ma(e adjectives. ere are the most common suffixes and ords thatexemplify them:

-able, -ible disposable, suitable, fashionable, audible

-al, -ial normal, cynical, racial, editorial-ed wooded, boarded, wretched, crooked

-ful hopeful, playful, careful, forgetful

-ic romantic, atmospheric, heroic, atomic

-ical historical, political, paradoical, economical

-ish amateurish, darkish, foolish, childish

-ive, -ative defective, communicative, attractive, affirmative

-less tactless, hopeless, harmless, restless-ous, -eous, -ious famous, virtuous, erroneous, spacious

-y tasty, handy, wealthy, windy

The suffix -ed is often used to form adjectives from noun phrases: blue-eyed , long-haired , good-

natured , open-minded .

Li(e nouns and verbs, many adjectives have no suffixes: sad , young , happy , true . 6ome suffixes ere

part of the ords hen they ere borroed into An'lish: sensitive , virtuous .

5.13 $d4ecti'e classesWe can divide adjectives into three classes accordin' to their function. Ised alone orith one or more modifiers, an adjective can be:

+. pre-modifier of a noun

0. subject complement>. object complement

&djectives are attri%uti'e$attributin' a 5uality to hat is denoted by a noun% hen they are bein' used aspre-modifiers. They are predicati'e$part of the predicate% hen they are bein' used as complements.

Central ad4ecti'escan be used in all three functions:+. )t as a comfortable ride. attri%uti'e

0. The ride as comfortable . predicati'e

>. ) made the bed comfortable . predicati'e

!ther examples of central adjectives include: clever , brave , calm , hungry , noisy .

6ome adjectives are attributive only:

That is utter nonsense.1ou are the very person ) as loo(in' for.

!ther examples include: chief , main , sheer .

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a%solute comparati'e superlati'e

in!lection polite politer politest

pre&modi!ier polite more polite most polite

6ome very common adjectives have irre'ular inflections:

a%solute comparati'e superlati'e

good better best

bad worse worstfar farther*further farthest*furthest

Words of one syllable 'enerally ta(e inflections: older, oldest, purer, purest.

any ords of to syllables can usually ta(e either form: politer , politest or more polite , most

polite , noisier , noisiest or more noisy , most noisy .

Words ith more than to syllables ta(e the pre-modifiers: more important, most important " more

epensive , most epensive .

5.15 $9:

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0. possessive pronouns my , mine, your, yours

>. reflexive pronouns myself, yourselfH. demonstrative pronouns this, these, that, those

*. reciprocal pronouns each other, one another

J. interro'ative pronouns who, what, which7. relative pronouns which , who, that

8. indefinite pronouns some, none

The first three classes are related in that they ma(e distinctions in person $first, second, third%, 'ender$masculine, feminine, and non-personal%, and number $sin'ular and plural%. ost of them also share at least

some resemblance in their sound and in their appearance $you, yours, yourself%.

9ronouns 'enerally substitute for a noun phrase:

) went around the hospital with r "homas. "ewas highly intelligent, austere, and warm all at the same

time."ecould perceive almost instantaneously whether a problem was a serious oneor not.

The to instances of herefer bac( to an antecedent, in this instancer "homas.

The pronouns are used to avoid repeatin' the noun phrase r "homas. ne, hoever, replaces the noun head

problem$and therefore is literally a pronoun rather than a substitute for a noun phrase%.

ere is another example of pronoun substitution:

& property development company has been found guilty of racial discrimination because it attempted to

prevent blacks from buying its homes.

)n this case, the pronoun itreplaces a noun phrase that is not identical ith the antecedent noun phrase &

property development company. )f e did not substitute it, e ould have to rite the property developmentcompany$ith the definite article the% or $more economically% the company.

The pronoun occasionally comes before its antecedent:

7hen shemoved into her own at, #elen seemed much more relaed.

)f e assume that the pronounsheand#elenrefer to the same person,sheand the possessive determiner her

both refer forard to#elen.

9ronouns can also refer directly to somethin' that is present in the situation:

?ook at that@)1ll pick itup.

*.+8 @ersonal pronouns&ll the personal pronouns have distinctions in person $first, second, third%. ost also have distinctions in

number $sin'ular, plural% and in case $subjective, objective, 'enitive%.

su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case

!irst person singular ) me

plural e us

second person singular6plural you you

third person singular + masculine he him

? !eminine she her

? non&personal it it

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plural they them

The subjective case applies hen the pronouns are the subject of a finite clause:

# know that shelives in oventry and that helives in 6irmingham.

)n all other instances except the one that ) am about to mention, the objective case is used:

She knows mewell.

#e has told herabout me.%ou must go with him.

The exception is that the subjective case is also used for the subject complement. )n these examples the

complement follos the lin(in' verb be:"his is he.

)t was#who issued the order.

)n non-formal style, hoever, the objective case is common here too:)t1s him.

The masculine and feminine 'enders apply to human bein's and also to other bein's that are treated aspersons, such as pets or perhaps some farm animals. The distinction beteen the to 'enders is made on the

basis of natural distinctions in sex. 6ome other objects $such as ships or cars% or even personified

abstractions $such as

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? non&personal its

? plural their theirs

5.2= e!le"i'e pronouns

The reflexive pronouns parallel the personal and possessive pronouns in person and number, but have nodistinctions in case. There are separate forms for the second person sin'ular $yourself% and plural

$yourselves%, hereas there is only one form of the second person for the personal pronoun $you% and the

possessive pronoun $yours%.!irstpersonsin'ular myself

plural ourselves

secondperson

sin'ular yourself

plural yourselves

third person

sin'ular ? masculine himself- feminine herself

- non-personal itself

plural themselves

The reflexive pronouns have to main uses:

+. They refer to the same person or thin' as the subject does:

"hey behaved themselvesfor a change.%ou1ll hurtyourself.

0. They 'ive emphasis to a noun phrase:She herselfspoke to me.

#e wrote to me himself.

) appealed to the captain himself.

5.21 emonstrati'e pronouns

There are four demonstrative pronouns:

singular this that

plural these those

Thisis for you.Thatdoesn1t make sense.

Theseare tasty.

%ou may take those.

The demonstratives may also be determiners:Thisletter is for you.Thatsign doesn1t make sense.Thesebiscuits are tasty.

%ou may take thoseboes.

5.22 eciprocal pronouns

There are to reciprocal pronouns, and they have 'enitives:

each other one another

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each other3s one another3s

"he partners trusted each othercompletely.

'y brother and ) borrow one another$sclothes.

5.23 8nterrogati'e pronouns

!ne set of the interro'ative pronouns has distinctions in 'ender and case:

su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case geniti'e casepersonal ho hom hose

)t is normal to use whofor both the subjective and objective cases, and to reserve whomfor formal style. The

other interro'ative pronouns, which and what, have only one form. 7hich, what, and whosemay also bedeterminers.

7e use who and whom when we refer to persons>%hois your favourite pop singer2

%ho$or whom/ have they appointed2%hoseis that towel2

7hichcan be either personal or non-personal:%hichis your sister2%hich4of the drinks/ do you prefer2

7hatis normally only non-personal:%hatdo you want2

5.2# elati'e pronouns

Delative pronouns introduce relative clauses. They also have distinctions in 'ender and case:

su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case geniti'e case

personal ho hom hose

non&personal hich hich hose

that that

&s ith the interro'ative pronouns, whois the normal form for the subjective and objective cases, hereas

whomis used only in formal style.

The relative pronoun that, hich is 'ender-neutral, may be omitted in certain circumstances. The omitted

pronoun is sometimes called the zero relati'e pronoun.the teacher who4or that/ taught me hemistry

the house which4or thatorzero/ we bought

the person whom4or, less formally, who & that & orzero/ they appointed t

he student to whomyou gave it 4formal/the student who4or that or 3ero/ you gave it to

Benitive whoseis a determiner, li(e hisor her.

There is another set of relative pronouns that introduce nominal relative clauses" these are the nominal

relati'e pronouns. )n addition to who, whom, and which, they include whoever, whomever$in formal style%,whichever, what, and whatever.

%ou may take what/whatever/whicheveryou wish%hat) need is a long holiday.

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)1ll speak to whoeveris in charge.

ominal relative pronouns correspond to a combination of a relative pronoun ith a precedin' antecedent:

What ) need . . . $2the thin' that ) need3%

...to hoever is in char'e $2to the person ho is in char'e3%

5.25 8nde!inite pronouns and numerals

)ndefinite pronouns are the lar'est 'roup of pronouns. They refer to the presence $or absence% of a 5uantity.ere are some examples of indefinite pronouns:'anyhave replied to the advertisement and severalhave been interviewed.

%ou take oneand )1ll take theother.oonewas absent today.'orewill be arriving later.

%ou can have !oth.(itherwill do for me."here arefewerhere today.

(very!odywas pleased with the speech.

Thesome-set of indefinite pronouns contrasts ith the any-set:

some any

someone anyone

somebody anybodysomething anything

The any-set is normal in ne'ative contexts. Contrast:She has someclose friends.

She doesn1t have anyclose friends.

Someimplies a 5uantity, thou'h the 5uantity is not specified. &nydoes not imply a specific 5uantity" the

5uantity is ithout limit.

The any-set is also normal in 5uestions unless a positive reply is expected:id anyonecall for me2

id someonecall for me2

To uses of indefinite onedeserve special mention:

+. Beneric onehas the meanin' 2people in 'eneral3:

)f oneis concerned about the increasing deterioration of the environment, onemust be prepared to accept alower standard of living.

0. 6ubstitute oneis used as a substitute for a noun:

&> o you want an ice cream26> )1ll have a small one.

Inli(e most pronouns, onein the response by = substitutes for a noun, not a noun phrase. )t is the main ordin the noun phrase a small one.

any of the indefinite pronouns may be post-modified. !f-phrases are particularly common:some!odyelse

neitherof usseveralin our group

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noneof the peoplesomethingquite funnya fewof my friends

umerals may be used as pronouns. ere are to examples of cardinal numerals as pronouns:Twenty-twowere rescued from the sinking ship.

Threeof the children wandered off on their own.

The ordinal numerals $first, second, third, . . .% combine ith the in this function:"hefirstof my children is still at school.

5.2. :?:08N:

Classes o! determiners

. post-determiners

ere is an example ith determiners from each class:all$+% those$0% other$>%people

any ords may be either determiners or pronouns:

pronoun Some have left.

determiner Some people have left.

pronoun ) need more .

determiner ) need more money.

pronoun &ll are forgiven.

determiner &ll faults are forgiven.

pronouns %ou may borrow this.

determiner %ou may borrow this pencil.

5.2 Central determiners

The central determiners fall into several subclasses.

+. definite article the0. indefinite article aor $before a voel sound% an

>. demonstratives this, that , these , those

H. possessives my , our , your , his , her , its , their*. interro'atives what , which , whose

%hatday is it2%hosecoat are you wearing2

J. relatives which , whose , whatever , whichever

... at whichpoint ) interrupted him . . .

... whosestudent ) used to be.

%ou can use it for whateverpurpose you wish.7. indefinites some , any , no , enough , every , each , either , neither

We cannot combine to or more central determiners to introduce the same noun phrase.

5.2 ?he articles and re!erence

We can apply three sets of contrast in the reference of noun phrases:

+. 'eneric and non - 'eneric

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0. specific and non - specific

>. definite and non-definite

Beneric;non-'eneric reference oun phrases are 'eneric hen they refer to a class as a hole:Dogsmake good pets.

They are non-'eneric hen they refer to individual members of the class:

6ring in the dogs.

#or 'eneric reference, the distinction beteen sin'ular and plural is neutrali4ed, and so is the distinction

beteen the definite and indefinite articles. )n their 'eneric use, all of the folloin' are rou'hly similar in

meanin':ABC)n )mericanworks hard.

ADC)mericanswork hard.

AEC The )mericanworks hard.AFC The )mericanswork hard.

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0. The phrase may refer to somethin' mentioned previously:$ancy introduced me to a young man and his wife at the reception. The young manwas her nephew.

&t the first mention of the young man, the sentence refers to him by the indefinite phrase a youn' man .

>. The information may be identified by modifiers in the noun phrase:

) wonder whether you would mind getting for me the !lue !ook on the top shelf

oun phrases may be definite even thou'h they are not introduced by the definite article. #or example, ina particular situation, personal pronouns $), you, etc.% and names are uni5uely identifiable and so are the

demonstrative pronouns. !ther determiners, such as the demonstrative determiners, may also si'nal that

the noun phrase is definite.

5.27 @re&determiners

There can also be pre-determiners before the central determiners. These include the multipliers $double ,twice , three times , . . .% and the fractions $half , one-third,...%: dou!leher fee

halfa loaf

They also include the ords all , both , such , andwhat:

allthe stations!othour childrensucha 0okewhata good idea

These can also occur ithout a central determiner:allstations

!othchildrensuch0okes

Suchis exceptional in that it can combine ith other pre-determiners $all such0okes% and can come after

a central determiner $no such0okes% and even a post- determiner $many such0okes%.

5.3= @ost&determiners

9ost-determiners can come after the central determiners. They include the cardinal numerals and the

ordinal numerals:the threerooms

ourfirstapartment

They also include many, few, andlittle:

my manygood friends

thefewpossessions that he owned

the littlemoney that ) have

The ordinal and cardinal numerals can co-occur:

thefirsttwoweeks

The post-determiners can occur ithout other determiners:

#e hasfewvices.7e saw twoaccidents on our way here.

5.31 $UA8B8$8:

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Classes o! au"iliaries

&uxiliaries come before the main verb in a verb phrase. The primary auxiliaries are be, have, anddo.They are different from each other and from the other auxiliaries. Their uses are:

+. be for $a% the pro'ressive : was playing

$b% the passive : was played

0. have for the perfect : has played

>. do as the dummy operator : did play

The remainin' auxiliaries are the modal au"iliariesor, more simply, the modals. The central modals

are:

present can may ill shall must

past could mi'ht ould should

Li(e other verbs, most of the modals have a tense distinction beteen presentand past$the exception

bein' must%, but the past forms are often used for present or future time:

7e may/mightcome along after dinner.

) can/couldhelp you later.

5.32 0eanings o! the modals

The modals express to main types of meanin':+. human control over events, such as is involved in permission, intention, ability, or obli'ation:

%ou mayleave now.$2) 'ive you permission to . . .3%

) couldspeak =reek when ) was young.$2) (ne ho to . . .3%%ou mustgo to bed at once. $2) re5uire you to . . .3%

0. jud'ment hether an event as, is, or ill be li(ely to happen:"hey maybe away for the weekend. $2)t is possible that they are . . .3%

"hat couldbe your mother.$2)t is possible that it is . . .3%

)t mustbe past midnight.$2)t is certainly the case that it is . . .3%

5.33 Con4unctions

There are to classes of conjunctions:

+. coordinatin' conjunctions , or coordinators0. subordinatin' conjunctions , or subordinators

The central coordinators are and, or, andbut. They are used to lin( units of e5ual status:) en0oy novels andshort stories best of all ) can and will speak@

"he device seals a plastic shopping bag andequips it with a handle.

%ou may pay by cash orcredit card.

#e was apologetic !uthe refused to intervene.

The coordinators may be reinforced by correlative expressions: both ... and ; either ... or ; not only ... but

also >!othSusan andher brother

eithertea orcoffeeot onlywas the speech uninspiring, !utit was also full of illogical statements.

The mar'inal coordinator nor may be reinforced by the correlative neither:

) have neitherseen the movie norread the book.

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6ubordinators introduce subordinate clauses:"he negotiations succeeded !ecauseboth sides bargained in good faith.

#fyou like the service, tell the manager.

ere are some common subordinators:

after

beforetillwhere

although

if unlesswhileas

since

untilbecausethat

when

6ome subordinators consist of more than one ord:ecept that andas long as, for example.

6ome ords are both subordinators and prepositions. )f the ord introduces a finite clause, it is a

subordinator" if it introduces a phrase, it is a preposition:

su%ordinator ) saw her after) had my interview.

preposition ) saw her afterthe interview.

5.3# @repositions

@repositions introduce a prepositional phrase, and are folloed by a prepositional complement. The

preposition lin(s the complement to some other expression. )f it lin(s the complement to the rest of thesentence or clause, the prepositional phrase may be placed in any of various positions:

7e had an argument inthe supermarket.

&ll the members of the team, inmy view, contributed equally to the victory.+ythat time ) was feeling sleepy.

)t may also lin( the complement to a phrase:#e became personal assistant tothe managing director of the company.

"he government suppressed all information a!outthe epidemic.

ere are some common prepositions:about

before

durin'over

until

abovebehind

for

pastup

across

belo

fromsince

ith

afterbeside

in

thanithout

a'ainst

beteen

insidethrou'h

amon'$st%

butinto

till

aroundby

off

to

asdespite

on

toard$s%at

don

outunder

any of the ords listed here may also be used as adverbs or conjunctions.

6ome prepositions consist of more than one ord" for example, because of , in spite of , in addition to .

She looks nice to me.

She looks nicely at me.

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:A:C8:

Axercise *.+ oun suffixes

Convert the folloin' ords into nouns by addin' noun suffixes and ma(in' any other conse5uentchan'es. 6ome ords may ta(e more than one noun suffix.

+. perform

0. able

>. conceive

H. spea(

*. construct

Axercise *.0 oun classes

Construct to sentences for each of the folloin' nouns. Ise the noun in the $a% sentence as a count

noun and the noun in the $b% sentence as a non-count noun.+. beer

0. beauty

>. sound

H. su'ar

*. paper

Axercise *.> umber

6upply the plural form for each of the sin'ular nouns listed belo.

+. analysis0. thief

>. criterionH. deer

*. stimulus

Axercise *.H . ripe

H. mar'in

Axercise *.7 Classes of irre'ular verbs

Bive the three principal parts for each of these irre'ular verbs.

+. 'ro0. put

>. driveH. send

*. brea(

Axercise *.8 &djective suffixes

Convert the folloin' ords into adjectives by addin' adjective suffixes and ma(in' any conse5uentchan'es. 6ome ords may have more than one adjective suffix.

+. style

0. cycle

>. ish

H. aller'y

*. care

Axercise *.K &djective classes

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Construct three sentences for each of the folloin' central adjectives. Ise the adjective in the $a%

sentence as a pre-modifier of a noun, in the $b% sentence as a subject complement, and in the $c% sentenceas an object complement.

+. useful 0. foolish >. difficult

Axercise *.+ Bradability and comparison

Bive the inflected comparative and superlative of each of these adjectives.

+. pure0. cruel >. easyH. narro *. happy

*.+> &dverb suffixes

Convert the folloin' ords into adverbs by addin' - ly or - ically and ma(in' any conse5uent chan'es.+. 'enetic

0. realistic

>. la4y

H. specific

Axercise *.+H 9ronoun classes

Circle the antecedents of the underlined pronouns and possessive determiners.

+. 6cientists have discovered that pets have a therapeutic effect on their oners.0. & do', for instance, can improve the health of the people it comes in contact ith.

>. )n a recent study, the blood pressure of subjects as measured hile they ere pettin' their pets.

H. )n 'eneral, an individual3s blood pressure decreased hile he as in the act of pettin' his pet.

Axercise *.+* 9ersonal pronouns

6pecify the person $first, second, or third%, number $sin'ular or plural%, and case $subjective or objective% of

the underlined personal pronouns. )f the pronoun has a form that neutrali4es the distinction in number orcase, state the alternatives, and if only one of the alternatives fits the context underline that alternative.

+. ost of us don3t have the time to exercise for an hour each day.

0. We have our hearts in the ri'ht place, thou'h.>. ) thin( 2diet3 is a sinister ord.

H. )t sounds li(e deprivation.

*. =ut people ho need to lose ei'ht find that they need to lose only half the ei'ht if they exercise

re'ularly.

Axercise *.+J 9ossessives

)ndicate hether the underlined ords are possessive determiners or possessive pronouns.+. Can you tell me your addressP

0. 1ou3ve made a mista(e. The phone number is not his.

>. This is

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>. That is not the ay to do it.

H. 1ou3ll have to mana'e ith these for the time bein'.

Axercise *.+K Delative pronouns

)ndicate hether the underlined clause is a relative clause or a nominal relative clause.+. We could see hoever e anted.

0. They spo(e to the official ho as or(in' on their case.

>. This is the ban( )3m hopin' to borro some money from.H. 1ou can pay hat you thin( is appropriate.

Axercise *.0 9ronouns

)ndicate hether the underlined pronouns are personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, reciprocal,interro'ative, relative, or indefinite.

+. obody has ever seen a unicorn.

0. ) intend to collect beetles.>. What do you ant me to doP

H. e can resist everythin' except temptation.

*. 6he did it all by herself.

Axercise *.0+ )ndefinite pronouns

)ndicate hether the underlined determiners are definite articles, indefinite articles, demonstratives,

possessives, interro'atives, relatives, or indefinites.+. is parents ould not let him see the video.

0. any applicants ere 'iven an intervie.

>. Whose shoes are thosePH. What plans have you made for the ee(endP

Axercise *.00 The articles and reference)ndicate hether the underlined phrases are 'eneric or non-'eneric.

+. There is no such beast as a unicorn.

0. The train is late a'ain.

>. The dinosaur has lon' been extinct.H. Teachers are poorly paid in this country.

*. e came on a small mar(et here omen ere sellin' dried beans.

Axercise *.0> The articles and reference

)ndicate hether the underlined phrases are specific or non-specific.

+. Can you find me a boo( on An'lish 'rammarP0. ere is a boo( on An'lish 'rammar.

>. )3d li(e a straberry ice cream.

H. e says he hasn3t any stamps.*. Who is the oman you ere tal(in' to at lunchP

Axercise *.0H eanin's of the modals

9araphrase the meanin's of the underlined modals in the sentences belo.+. )f you hit volleys li(e this you ill have lots of success.

0. )n addition to the basic volley, you may have to play half-volleys.

>. )f played badly, a half-volley can have drastic conse5uences.H. The 'rip must be firm on impact.

*. &lthou'h you can use a to-handed volley, the major disadvanta'e is one of reach.

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Axercise *.0* eanin's of the modals

Axplain the ambi'uity of the underlined modals in the folloin' sentences by paraphrasin' the differentmeanin's.

+. They may not smo(e durin' the meal.

0. Could you explain these fi'ures to the tax inspectorP

Axercise *.0J ConjunctionsAxamine the sentences belo. Then explain the differences in the uses of the coordinators $andand or% andthe subordinator hen

+. The election as held last month, and the 'overnment as decisively defeated.

0. The election ill be held in Mune or in Muly.>. ) intend to travel here ) li(e and hen ) li(e.

Axercise *.0J 9repositions)ndicate hether the underlined ords are subordinators or prepositions by puttin' 263 or 293 in the brac(ets

that follo each ord.

While $ % he developed the theory of special relativity in $ % about +K*, &lbert Ainstein lived ith $ % afello student of physics ho became his first ife. 6ome researchers believe that $ % his ife ileva should

'et at least some of the credit for $ % the theory, since $ % there are letters from $ % Ainstein to her that refer to

2our or(3 and 2our theory3.

Axercise *.07 Word classes

&t the end of each sentence you ill find a label for a ord class. Inderline all the ords in the sentence that

belon' to that ord class.+. )t is remar(ably difficult to define hat literature is. ? main verb

0. 6ome definitions of literature say that it is lan'ua'e used for ma(in' fiction. ? noun

>. !ther definitions say that it is lan'ua'e used for the purpose of pleasin' aesthetically. ? prepositionH. oever, some critics have shon convincin'ly that the to definitions are necessarily connected. ?

adverbs