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Management: An Overview
In this chapter we will discuss:
Definitions of Management
The Role of Management
Functions of Managers
Levels of Management
Management Skills and Organizational Hierarchy
Approaches to Management
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important activities in business is the management of the 4Ms men, machines,
material and money. The term management can be interpreted differently in different contexts.
Hence, it is difficult to define. In one context, it may comprise the activities of executives and
administrative personnel in an organization, while in another, it may refer to a system of getting
things done. In a broad perspective, management can be considered as the proper utilization of
people and other resources in an organization to accomplish desired objectives. With increasing
global competition, changes in the world of technology, changing business practices and increasing
social responsibility of organizations, the role of managers has become all the more significant.
In this chapter, we will first examine the definitions of management given by some eminent
management thinkers to understand the essence of management. Secondly, we will discuss the five
basic functions of management i.e., planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. The
chapter also focuses on the managerial skills required at various levels of the organizational
hierarchy and briefly explains the various approaches to management.
DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT
The term management can be interpreted in a variety of ways. To gain a better insight into the
nature of management, let us look at some of the definitions of management:
Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich define management as the process of designing and maintaining
an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected
aims.
Louis E. Boone and David L. Kurtz define management as the use of people and other resources to
accomplish objectives.
Dalton E. McFarland defines management as a process, by which managers create, direct,
maintain, and operate purposive organizations through systematic, coordinated, cooperative human
effort.
Mary Parker Follet termed management as the act of getting things done through people.
Definitions by Follet and Louis E. Boone and Kurtz call attention to the fact that managers achieve
organizational goals by getting others to do the necessary tasks. The other two definitions suggest
that management is much more than just getting the work done and (as shown in Figure 1.1)
suggest the following aspects of management:
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1. Managers carry out the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and
controlling: Henry Fayol was the first management thinker to outline the five basic functions
carried out by managers. Every manager performs these basic functions. These functions are
discussed in detail in the later part of this chapter.
2. Management is essential to any kind of organization: Wherever there are groups of
people working together to achieve some common objectives, it becomes essential to guide,
organize and control them. The term management applies to any organization irrespective
of the size or nature of operations. The prime concern of a CEO of a multinational company,
the General Manager of a hotel, the first-level supervisor, the manager of a cricket team and
the student president in a college is to manage their people and resources effectively.
Figure 1.1: Key Aspects of the Management Process
3. Management is essential at all hierarchical levels: Management is necessary at all
levels. However, the type of skills and the degree to which various skills are required at
different levels of the hierarchy may vary. In order to perform their duties satisfactorily,
managers need technical, human, conceptual and design skills.
4. The goal of all managers is to generate surplus: The aim of all business managers is to
create a surplus. To accomplish this objective, the manager has to create an environmentwhich encourages people to accomplish as much as possible with the least amount of
resources and personal dissatisfaction. Even in non-profit organizations, the aim of managers
is to accomplish their goals with the minimum amount of resources or to make as much
surplus as possible with available resources.
5. The aim of all managers is to improve productivity, efficiency and effectiveness:
Productivity is defined as the output-input ratio within a time period with due consideration
for quality. It can be expressed as:
Productivity = Outputs / Inputs (within a time period, quality considered)
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Productivity can be improved in the following ways:
By producing more output with the same inputs.
By reducing inputs, but maintaining the same level of outputs.
By increasing outputs and reducing inputs, thereby, making the ratio more favorable.
Productivity can be improved by ensuring efficiency and effectiveness in the operations of the firm.
Effectiveness refers to achievement of stated organizational objectives while efficiency denotes the
judicious use of resources to achieve organizational objectives. In the words of Peter Drucker,
efficiency means doing things right, while effectiveness means doing the right things. In his book,
Management Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices, Drucker states that effectiveness is the foundation
of success whereas efficiency is a minimum condition for survival after success has been achieved.
THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT
As mentioned earlier, managers perform five functions planning, organizing, staffing, leading and
controlling. Since these functions are very essential for effective management, they have been used
as the basic framework for this book. They have been briefly explained in the next section of the
chapter.
In order to understand the role of management, in the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg devised a new
approach the managerial roles approach by observing what managers actually do. He did a
careful study of five chief executives at work and found that they were involved in a number of
varied, unpatterned activities of short duration. Using a method called structured observation,
Mintzberg isolated ten roles which he believed were common to all managers. As shown in Table 1.1,
these ten roles were grouped into three categories interpersonal roles, informational roles and
decisional roles.
A manager is required to interact with many people, both within and outside the organization andhence, the need to perform interpersonal roles. The three interpersonal roles of a manager are
figurehead, leader and liaison. In his role as a figurehead, a manager performs all the ceremonial or
symbolic duties. Example, it would be the duty of a college dean to award diplomas at the
convocation ceremony. In the leadership role, a manager is required to motivate the employees to
perform at their best to achieve the companys objectives. In the liaison role, a manager is required
to interact with people both within and outside the organization.
A manager acts as a channel of information within the organization. The three informational roles of amanager are that of a recipient, disseminator and spokesperson. In the role of a recipient, a manager
receives information pertaining to changes, opportunities and problems that the organization may face.As a disseminator, a manager provides information to subordinates that would influence their
performance at work. And finally, a manager performs the role of a spokesperson when he or sherepresents the organization in public.
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Table 1.1: Mintzberg's 10 Managerial Roles
INTERPERSONAL FigureheadPerforms ceremonial and symbolic duties such as greetingvisitors, signing legal documents.
LeaderDirect and motivate subordinates, training, counseling, and
communicating with subordinates.
LiaisonMaintain information links both inside and outsideorganization, use mail, phone calls, meetings
INFORMATIONAL Monitor Seek and receive information, scan periodicals and reports,maintain personal contacts
DisseminatorForward information to other organization members, sendmemos and reports, make phone calls
SpokespersonTransmit information to outsiders through speeches, reports,memos
DECISIONAL EntrepreneurInitiate improvement projects, identify new ideas, delegateidea responsibility to others
DisturbanceHandler
Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolveconflicts among subordinates; adapt to environmental crises
Resource AllocatorDecide who gets resources, scheduling, budgeting, setting
priorities
NegotiatorRepresent department during negotiation of union contracts,
sales, purchases, budgets, represent departmental interests
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGERS
The functions of a manager provide a useful framework for organizing management knowledge
under the various heads of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. Managerial
functions are effective tools for managers to achieve the organizations planned objectives. They
include the general administrative duties that need to be carried out in virtually all organizations.
Figure 1.2 depicts the management process and shows the various functions that managers are
involved in. It is evident from the figure that managers are involved in more than one activity at the
same time.
Figure 1.2: Management Functions
Planning
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Planning can be defined as the process, by which, managers decide the mission and objectives of the
firm and take necessary steps to achieve the desired objectives. At the same time, managers need to
determine the future trends in business and incorporate change and innovation into the organization
from time to time.
There are various types of plans and they may range from planning to define the overall purposes
and objectives of an organization to planning for a specific action. Planning helps a firm decide its
future course of action.
OrganizingOrganizing is the process of assigning tasks and allocating resources to individuals to enable them to
accomplish organizational goals. Organizing is a continuous process of determining (1) which tasks areto be performed, (2) how tasks can best be combined into specific jobs, (3) how jobs can be grouped
into various units, and (4) the authority and reporting relationships within the corporate hierarchy. Theorganizational structure of a firm is a key element in determining its success or failure. If plans are not
organized properly even the best of plans can fail. On the other hand, the pitfalls associated with apoor plan can be eliminated by excellent organization.
Staffing
Today, staffing is better known as human resource management and involves manning or filling the
various positions in the organizational hierarchy. Activities like determining manpower requirements,assessing the number of people presently available in the organization, recruiting and selecting
candidates, training and placing them in the organization come under the purview of staffing. Thisfunction also deals with compensation, performance appraisal, promotion and career planning.
LeadingLeading is defined as the management function of influencing, motivating, and directing people
towards the achievement of organizational goals. It is the management function that involvesinfluencing and inspiring team members to perform well and accomplish corporate objectives. Leading
involves (1) communicating with others, (2) leadership styles and approaches, and (3) motivatingpeople to put forth the effort required to achieve organizational goals. In simple words, it is the act of
making things happen through others.
Controlling
The final step in the management process is to monitor the progress of an organization towards its
goals. Controlling can be defined as the continuous measurement and analysis of actual operations
against the established industry standards developed during the planning process and corrections of
deviations, if any.
The basic control process involves (1) comparing performance with standards, (2) determining where
negative deviations occur, and (3) developing remedial measures to correct deviations.
LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
In many small business enterprises, the owner is the only member of the management team. But,
as the size of an organization increases, a more sophisticated organizational structure is required. It
is a normal practice to categorize management into three basic levels: (1) top-level management,
(2) middle-level management, and (3) supervisory or first-level management. Figure 1.3 illustrates
the levels of management. The duties and responsibilities at these three levels of management vary
from organization to organization, depending upon the size, technology, culture, etc. prevailing in
the organization.
The number of managerial positions at each level varies from organization to organization. In most
of the organizations, there are more positions at the first-level, fewer in the middle, and very few at
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the top. Many describe this kind of an organizational structure as a pyramid, as the managerial
positions gradually decline as one progresses towards the higher levels of management (see Figure
1.4). The various activities performed at each of these levels of management are illustrated in Table
1.2.
Figure 1.3: Levels of Management
Figure 1.4: Managerial Levels and Areas
Top-Level Managers
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Top-level managers are usually appointed, elected or designated by the organizations governing
body. They are few in number, and they include job classifications such as the Chief Executive
Officer (CEO), President, Vice President, Senior Vice President and Executive Director. Top-
level managers are responsible for taking major decisions for the organization as a whole. The top-
level managers are responsible for the overall activities of the business and are accountable for its
impact on the society at large. They work to some extent with the middle-level managers in
implementing the plans, and maintaining overall control over organizational performance.
In public limited companies, top-level managers report to the Board of Directors. Members of the board
are selected by shareholders. Depending on the size of the company, the number of board membersvary from 15 to 25. When a board comprises a majority of individuals who have close ties with themanagement, they essentially act as rubber stamps. But, on the other hand, boards with more
outsiders operate more independently and are more proactive. Though it is a usual practice to elect theCEO as the chairperson of the board, a study has suggested that companies having an outsider as a
board chairperson perform better, as he/she helps the board to monitor the performance of the topmanagement objectively.
Middle-Level Managers
Middle-level managers deal with the actual operation of various departments in an organization. They
are directly responsible for the performance of managers at lower levels. Their typical titles include
manager, director, chief, department head and divisional head. The number of middle-level
managers in complex organizations is far higher than other managers. These managers are
responsible for implementing the plans and strategies developed by top management for the
accomplishment of organizational goals. They look to the top management for direction and guidance
and are answerable to them. In many organizations, middle-level managers serve as a source of
innovation and creativity. Thus, they play a vital role in the success of the organization.
Due to the advent of information technology, online technical assistance has become available to first-level managers. This has resulted in making middle-level managers redundant and has thus reduced
the number of middle-level managers in many organizations
First-Level Managers
First-level managers are directly responsible for the performance of employees involved in
operations. They are usually called supervisors. They may be addressed by different names. In a
manufacturing plant, the first-level manager may be called a foreman, in a research department
the technical supervisor, and in a large office the clerical supervisor. First-level managers
implement the operational plans developed by middle managers and take corrective actions, when
needed. They are responsible for output variables like number of units produced, labor costs,
inventory levels, and quality control. Since first-level managers act as a link between the
management and the rest of the workforce, they often confront conflicting demands. In recent
times, the power of these managers has gradually decreased because of union influence, the
increasing educational level of workers, and the growing use of computers to track many activities
formerly monitored by first-level managers.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS AND ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHY
A managers job is varied and complex. Hence, managers need certain skills to perform the
functions associated with their jobs. During the early 1970s, Robert K. Kalz identified three kinds of
skills for administrators. These are technical, human and conceptual skills. A fourth skill the ability
to design solutions was later added to the above mentioned skills.
Technical Skills
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Technical skills refer to the ability of a person to carry out a specific activity. In order to do so, one
needs to have knowledge of methods, processes and procedures. Engineers, computer specialists,
accountants and employees in manufacturing departments all have the necessary technical skills for
their specialized fields. Technical skills are essential for first-level managers. For example,
employees at the operational level work with tools, and their supervisors must be able to teach
them how to perform the tasks assigned to them using these tools. First-level managers spend
much of their time in training subordinates and clarifying doubts in work-related problems.
Human Skills
Human skills or interpersonal skills refer to the ability of a person to work well with other people in a
group. It is the ability to lead, motivate, and communicate with people to accomplish certain
objectives. Human skills are of paramount importance in the creation of an environment, in which
people feel comfortable and are free to voice their opinions. These skills aid employees during
interaction with their supervisors, peers and people outside the work unit such as suppliers,
customers and the general public. These skills are important for all levels in the organization.
Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skills refer to the ability of a person to think and conceptualize abstract situations. It is
the ability to understand and coordinate the full range of corporate objectives and activities. These
skills are most important at the top management level, as top-level managers have the greatest
need to see the big picture, to understand how the various parts of the organization relate to one
another and associate the organization with the external environment.
Design Skills
Design skills refer to the ability of a person to find solutions to problems in ways that would benefit
the organization. Top managers should not only recognize a problem but also suggest ways to
overcome them. If they only see the problem, they become mere problem watchers, and will
prove ineffective. Managers at upper organizational levels should be able to design a rational and
feasible solution to the problem by considering the various internal and external factors.
The relative significance of these skills varies at different levels in the organizational hierarchy asshown in Figure 1.6. We can briefly summarize them as follows:
Figure 1.6: Relative Need for the Main Categories of Skills
APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT
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1. The empirical or case approach: In this approach, one tries to understand management
principles with the help of cases. It also identifies the situations, wherein organizations have
either succeeded or failed by following this approach.
2. The interpersonal behavior approach: This approach is based on individual psychology
and focuses on interpersonal relationships.
3. The group behavior approach: This approach is based on sociology and social
psychology. It stresses on the behavior of people in groups.
4. The cooperative social systems approach: It advocates a system of cooperation using
both interpersonal and group behavioral aspects.
5. The sociotechnical systems approach: It realizes the impact of technical systems on
personal attitudes and group behavior. This approach focuses on areas involving close
relationships between technical systems and the people involved such as production, office
operations, etc.
6. The decision theory approach: The focus in this approach is on the decision-making
process and people involved in it.
7. The systems approach: It considers organizations to be open systems as they interact
with the external environment. It recognizes the importance of the inter-relationship
between planning, organizing and controlling.
8. The mathematical or management science approach: This approach treats
management as a logical process, which can be expressed in terms of mathematical symbols
and relationships.
9. The contingency or situational approach: In this approach, the main assumption is that
there is no hard and fast rule for all situations. Managerial practice depends upon
circumstances. Different circumstances may necessitate the use of different methods.
10. The managerial roles approach: This approach had been developed by studying the
work methods of five chief executives. The study identified ten managerial roles, which were
grouped into three catsegories interpersonal, informational and decisional roles.
11. The McKinseys 7-S framework: The seven Ss used in this approach are strategy,
structure, systems, style, staff, shared values and skills.
12. The operational approach: This approach attempts to develop the science and theory of
management by drawing upon concepts, principles, techniques and knowledge from other
fields and managerial approaches.
Evolution of Management Thought Classical Approach
Behavioral Approach
Quantitative Approach
Modern Approaches to Management
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INTRODUCTION
According to one school of thought, history has no relevance to the problems faced by managers
today. Some are also of the opinion that management theory is too abstract to be of any practical
use. However, both theory and history are indispensable tools for managing contemporary
organizations.
Like most modern disciplines, contemporary management thought has its foundations in the history
of management and the many significant contributions of theorists and practitioners. A theory is a
conceptual framework for organizing knowledge that provides a blueprint for various courses of
action. Hence, an awareness and understanding of important historical developments and theories
propounded by early thinkers is important for todays managers.
In this chapter, we first take a look at the early approaches to management. We then focus on four
well-established schools of management thought (see Table 2.1): (i) the classical approach; (ii) the
behavioral approach; (iii) the quantitative approach and (iv) the modern approaches to
management. Finally, some emerging approaches in management thought are discussed.
Table 2.1: Major Classification of Management Approaches and their Contributors
Major Classification of Management
Approaches
Major Contributors
Classicalapproach
Scientificmanagement
Frederick W. Taylor, Frankand Lillian Gilbreth and
Henry Gantt
Bureaucratic
management
Max Weber
Administrative
management
Henri Fayol
Behavioral
approach
Group influences Mary Parker Follet
Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo
Maslows needs
theory
Abraham Maslow
Theory X and TheoryY
Douglas McGregor
Model I versus Model
II values
Chris Argyris
Quantitative
approach
Management science -
Operationsmanagement
-
Managementinformation system
-
Modernapproaches
The Systems Theory -
Contingency Theory -
Emerging pproaches:Theory Z and Quality
management
William Ouchi
CLASSICAL APPROACH
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Classical management thought can be divided into three separate schools: scientific management,
administrative theory and bureaucratic management. Classical theorists formulated principles forsetting up and managing organizations. These views are labeled classical because they form the
foundation for the field of management thought. The major contributors to the three schools ofmanagement thought scientific management, administrative theory and bureaucratic management
are Frederick W. Taylor, Henry Fayol and Max Weber respectively.
Scientific Management
Scientific management became increasingly popular in the early 1900s. In the early 19 th century,
scientific management was defined as that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs
by standards established, by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or
reasoning. In other words, it is a classical management approach that emphasizes the scientific
study of work methods to improve the efficiency of the workers. Some of the earliest advocates of
scientific management were Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915), Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924), Lillian
Gilbreth (1878-1972), and Henry Gantt (1861-1919).
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Frederick Winslow Taylor took up Henry Townes challenge to develop principles of scientific
management. Taylor, considered father of scientific management, wrote The Principles of Scientific
Management in 1911. An engineer and inventor, Taylor first began to experiment with new
managerial concepts in 1878 while employed at the Midvale Steel Co. At Midvale, his rise from laborer
to chief engineer within 6 years gave him the opportunity to tackle a grave issue faced by the
organization the soldiering problem. Soldiering refers to the practice of employees deliberately
working at a pace slower than their capabilities. According to Taylor, workers indulge in soldiering for
three main reasons:
1. Workers feared that if they increased their productivity, other workers would lose
their jobs.
2. Faulty wage systems employed by the organization encouraged them to work at a
slow pace.3. Outdated methods of working handed down from generation to generation led to a
great deal of wasted efforts.
Table 2.4: Four Steps in Scientific Management
Step Description
Step 1 Develop a science for each element of the job to replace old rule of
thumb methods.
Step 2 Scientifically select employees and then train them to do the job as
described in Step 1.
Step 3 Supervise employees to make sure they follow the prescribed
methods for performing their jobs.
Step 4 Continue to plan the work but use workers to actually get the work
done.
In essence, scientific management as propounded by Taylor emphasizes:
i. Need for developing a scientific way of performing each job.
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ii. Training and preparing workers to perform that particular job.
iii. Establishing harmonious relations between management and workers so that the job is
performed in the desired way.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
After Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made numerous contributions to the concept of scientific
management. Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924) is considered the father of motion study.Lillian Gilbreth
(1878-1972) was associated with the research pertaining to motion studies. Motion study involves
finding out the best sequence and minimum number of motions needed to complete a task. Frankand Lillian Gilbreth were mainly involved in exploring new ways for eliminating unnecessary motions
and reducing work fatigue.
The Gilbreths devised a classification scheme to label seventeen basic hand motions such as
search, select, position, and hold which they used to study tasks in a number of
industries. These 17 motions, which they called therbligs (Gilbreth spelled backward with thet and
h transposed), allowed them to analyze the exact elements of a workers hand movements. Frank
Gilbreth also developed the micromotion study. A motion picture camera and a clock marked off in
hundredths of seconds was used to study motions made by workers as they performed their tasks.
He is best known for his experiments in reducing the number of motions in bricklaying. By carefully
analyzing the bricklayers job, he was able to reduce the motions involved in bricklaying from 18
to 4. Using his approach, workers increased the number of bricks laid per day from 1000 to 2700
(per hour it went up from 120 to 350 bricks) without exerting themselves.
Lillians doctoral thesis (published in the early 1900s as The Psychology of Management) was one of
the earliest works which applied the findings of psychology to the management of organizations.
She had great interest in the human implications of scientific management and focused her
attention on designing methods for improving the efficiency of workers. She continued her
innovative work even after Franks death in 1924, and became a professor of management at
Purdue University. Lillian was the first woman to gain eminence as a major contributor to the
development of management as a science. In recognition of her contributions to scientific
management, she received twenty-two honorary degrees.
Figure 2.1 Gantt scheduling chart
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Henry Laurence Gantt
Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919) was a close associate of Taylor at Midvale and Bethlehem Steel. Gantt
later became an independent consultant and made several contributions to the field of
management. He is probably best remembered for his work on the task-and-bonus system and the
Gantt chart. Under Gantts incentive plan, if the worker completed the work fast, i.e. in less than the
standard time, he received a bonus. He also introduced an incentive plan for foremen, who would be
paid a bonus for every worker who reached the daily standard. If all the workers under a foreman
reached the daily standard, he would receive an extra bonus. Gantt felt that this system would
motivate foremen to train workers to perform their tasks efficiently.
The Gantt Chart (see Figure 2.1) is still used today by many organizations. It is a simple chart that
compares actual and planned performances. The Gantt chart was the first simple visual device to
maintain production control. The chart indicates the progress of production in terms of time rather
than quantity. Along the horizontal axis of the chart, time, work scheduled and work completed are
shown. The vertical axis identifies the individuals and machines assigned to these work schedules.
The Gantt chart in Figure 2.1 compares a firms scheduled output and expected completion dates towhat was actually produced during the year. Gantts charting procedures were precursors of todays
program evaluation and review techniques.
Limitations of scientific management
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Scientific management has provided many valuable insights in the development of management
thought. In spite of the numerous contributions it made, there are a few limitations of scientific
management. They are:
The principles of scientific management revolve round problems at the operational level
and do not focus on the management of an organization from a managers point of view.
These principles focus on the solutions of problems from an engineering point of view.
The proponents of scientific management were of the opinion that people were
rational and were motivated primarily by the desire for material gain. Taylor and hisfollowers overlooked the social needs of workers and overemphasized their economicand
physicalneeds.
Scientific management theorists also ignored the human desire for job satisfaction.
Since workers are more likely to go on strike over factors like working conditions and job
content (the job itself) rather than salary, principles of scientific management, which were
based on the rational worker model, became increasingly ineffective.
Administrative Theory
While the proponents of scientific management developed principles that could help workers perform
their tasks more efficiently, another classical theory the administrative management theory
focused on principles that could be used by managers to coordinate the internal activities of
organizations. The most prominent of the administrative theorists was Henri Fayol.
French industrialist Henri Fayol (1841-1925), a prominent European management theorist,
developed a general theory of management. Fayol believed that with scientific forecasting and
proper methods of management, satisfactory results were inevitable. Fayol was unknown to
American managers and scholars until his most important work, General and Industrial
Management, was translated into English in 1949. Many of the managerial concepts that we take for
granted today were first articulated by Fayol. According to Fayol, the business operations of an
organization could be divided into six activities (see Figure 2.2)
Figure 2.2: Business Operations of an Organization
Fayol outlined fourteen principles of management:
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1. Division of work: Work specialization results in improving efficiency of operations. The
concept of division of work can be applied to both managerial and technical functions.
2. Authority and responsibility: Authority is defined as the right to give orders and the
power to exact obedience. Authority can be formal or personal. Formal authority is derived
from ones official position and personal authority is derived from factors like intelligence and
experience. Authority and responsibility go hand-in-hand. When a manager exercises
authority, he should be held responsible for getting the work done in the desired manner.
3. Discipline: Discipline is vital for running an organization smoothly. It involves obedience
to authority, adherence to rules, respect for superiors and dedication to ones job.
4. Unity of command: Each employee should receive orders or instructions from one
superior only.
5. Unity of direction: Activities should be organized in such a way that they all come under
one plan and are supervised by only one person.
6. Subordination of the individual interest to the general interest: Individual interests
should not take precedence over the goals of the organization.
7. Remuneration: The compensation paid to employees should be fair and based on
factors like business conditions, cost of living, productivity of employees and the ability of the
firm to pay.
8. Centralization: Depending on the situation, an organization should adopt a centralized
or decentralized approach to make optimum use of its personnel.
9. Scalar chain: This refers to the chain of authority that extends from the top to the
bottom of an organization. The scalar chain defines the communication path in an
organization.
10. Order: This refers to both material and social order in organizations. Material order
indicates that everything is kept in the right place to facilitate the smooth coordination of
work activities. Similarly, social order implies that the right person is placed in the right job
(this is achieved by having a proper selection procedure in the organization).11. Equity: All employees should be treated fairly. A manager should treat all employees in
the same manner without prejudice.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel: A high labor turnover should be prevented and
managers should motivate their employees to do a better job.
13. Initiative: Employees should be encouraged to give suggestions and develop new and
better work practices.
14. Espirit de corps: This means a sense of union. Management must inculcate a team
spirit in its employees.
Bureaucratic ManagementBureaucratic management, one of the schools of classical management, emphasizes the need for
organizations to function on a rational basis. Weber (1864-1920), a contemporary of Fayol, was one
of the major contributors to this school of thought. He observed that nepotism (hiring of relatives
regardless of their competence) was prevalent in most organizations. Weber felt that nepotism was
grossly unjust and hindered the progress of individuals. He therefore identified the characteristics of
an ideal bureaucracy to show how large organizations should be run. The term bureaucracy
(derived from the German buro, meaning office) referred to organizations that operated on a
rational basis. According to Weber, a bureaucracy is a highly structured, formalized, and
impersonal organization. In other words, it is a formal organization structure with a set of rules and
regulations. The characteristics of Webers ideal bureaucratic structure are outlined in Table 2.5.
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These characteristics would exist to a greater degree in ideal organizations and to a lesser degree
in other, less perfect organizations.
Table 2.5: Major Characteristics of Webers Ideal Bureaucracy
Characteristic DescriptionWork specialization and
division of labor
The duties and responsibilities of all the employees are clearly defined.Jobs are divided into tasks and subtasks. Each employee is given a
particular task to perform repeatedly so that he acquires expertise in thattask.
Abstract rules andregulations
The rules and regulations that are to be followed by employees are welldefined to instill discipline in them and to ensure that they work in a co-
coordinated manner to achieve the goals of the organization.
Impersonality of managers
Managers make rational decisions and judgments based purely on facts.
They try to be immune to feelings like affection, enthusiasm, hatred andpassion so as to remain unattached and unbiased towards their
subordinates.
Hierarchy of organization
structure
The activities of employees at each level are monitored by employees at
higher levels. Subordinates do not take any decision on their own andalways look up to their superiors for approval of their ideas and opinions.
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
The behavioral school of management emphasized what the classical theorists ignored the human
element. While classical theorists viewed the organization from a production point of view, the
behavioral theorists viewed it from the individuals point of view. The behavioral approach to
management emphasized individual attitudes and behaviors and group processes, and recognized
the significance of behavioral processes in the workplace. Table 2.6 gives an overview of the key
contributions to management theory by the behavioral management school of thought.
Elton Mayo: Focusing on Human Relations
Elton Mayo (1880-1949), the Father of the Human Relations Approach, led the team whichconducted a study at Western Electrics Hawthorne Plant between 1927 and 1933 to evaluate the
attitudes and psychological reactions of workers in on-the-job situations. The researchers andscholars associated with the Hawthorne experiments were Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, T.N.
Whitehead and William Dickson. The National Research Council sponsored this research in cooperationwith the Western Electric Company. The study was started in 1924 by Western Electrics industrial
engineers to examine the impact of illumination levels on worker productivity. Eventually the study
was extended through the early 1930s.
Exhibit 2.3
Limitations of Human Relations Approach
Human relations theory recognizes the significance of human resources. This theory believes thateach individual is unique and the attitude and behavior of an employee determines the way he or
she works. This theory is against the view that people respond automatically to monetary stimulus.Human relations theory was one of the greatest advances in management, yet, it did not succeed in
establishing new concepts.
The limitations of the Human Relations theory are:
The Human Relations theorists are of the opinion that by removing fear, people would
perform effectively. This view attacked the assumption that workers can be motivated to
work only through fear. The Human Relations approach made a significant contribution at atime when it was generally being assumed that workers have to be coerced to work. Yet, this
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approach has very little to say about positive motivation. The positive motivation aspect has
been generalized by the Human Relations theorists.
Human Relations theory does not provide enough focus on work. It emphasizes more
on interpersonal relations and on the informal group. Consequently, this approach assumesthat a workers attitudes, behavior and effectiveness is predominantly determined by his
relation with his fellow-workers and not by the kind of work he does.
Human Relations does not understand the economic implications of organizational
problems. Therefore, most of the principles advocated cannot be applied in the organizationalcontext. Human Relations theory also tends to be very vague. It stresses on giving the
workers a sense of responsibility but hardly tells what their responsibilities are.
Human Relations theory has made noteworthy contributions to the field of management. It provides
valuable guidance in understanding the employees and managing them. This theory also states theimportance of attitudes and behaviors in managing the workforce effectively. Human Relations is
one of the foundations on which the building of management is to be built. Although this theory hasgiven great insights, it has its limitations also. This theory focuses more on the informal group and
is very vague about the positive motivation aspects.
Table 2.7: Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies
Pre-judgments Findings
Job performance depends on the
individual worker.
The group is the key factor in job
performance.
Fatigue is the main factor affecting
output.
Perceived meaning and importance of
the work determine output.
Management sets production standards.Workplace culture sets its ownproduction standards.
Abraham Maslow: Focusing on Human Needs
In 1943, Abraham H. Maslow (1908-1970), a Brandeis University psychologist, theorized that people
were motivated by a hierarchy of needs. His theory rested on three assumptions. First, all of us haveneeds which are never completely fulfilled. Second, through our actions we try to fulfill our unsatisfied
needs. Third, human needs occur in the following hierarchical manner: (i) physiological needs; (ii)safety or security needs; (iii) belongingness or social needs; (iv) esteem or status needs; (v) self-
actualization, or self-fulfillment needs. According to Maslow, once needs at a specific level have beensatisfied, they no longer act as motivators of behavior. Then the individual strives to fulfill needs at
the next level. Managers who accepted Maslows hierarchy of needs attempted to change theirmanagement practices so that employees needs could be satisfied.
Douglas McGregor: Challenging Traditional Assumptions about Employees
Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) developed two assumptions about human behavior, which he
labeled Theory X and Theory Y. According to McGregor, these two theories reflect the twoextreme sets of belief that different managers have about their workers. Theory X presents an
essentially negative view of people. Theory X managers assume that workers are lazy, have little
ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility and need to be closely directed to make them
work effectively. Theory Y is more positive and presumes that workers can be creative and
innovative, are willing to take responsibility, can exercise self-control and can enjoy their work.
They generally have higher-level needs which have not been satisfied by the job.
Like Maslows theory, McGregors Theory X and Theory Y influenced many practicing managers.
These theories helped managers develop new ways of managing the workers.
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Management Science
The management science approach stresses the use of mathematical models and statistical methods
for decision-making. It visualizes management as a logical entity, the action of which can be
expressed in terms of mathematical symbols, relationships and measurement data. Another name
commonly used for management science is operations research. Recent advances in computers
have made it possible to use complex mathematical and statistical models in the management of
organizations. Management science techniques are widely used in the following areas:
Capital budgeting and cash flow management
Production scheduling
Development of product strategies
Planning for human resource development programs
Maintenance of optimal inventory levels
Aircraft scheduling
Various mathematical tools like the waiting line theory or queuing theory, linear programming, the
program evaluation review technique (PERT), the critical path method (CPM), the decision theory,
the simulation theory, the probability theory, sampling, time series analysis etc. have increased the
effectiveness of managerial decision-making. To apply a quantitative approach to decision-making,
individuals with mathematical, statistical, engineering, economics and business background skillsare required. Since one person cannot have all these skills the quantitative method requires a team
approach to decision-making. This approach has been criticized for its overemphasis of
mathematical tools. Many managerial activities cannot be quantified because they involve human
beings who are governed by many irrational elements.
Operations Management
Operations management is an applied form of management science. It deals with the effective
management of the production process and the timely delivery of an organizations products and
services. Operations management is concerned with: (i) inventory management, (ii) work
scheduling, (iii) production planning, (iv) facilities location and design, and (v) quality assurance.
The tools used by operations managers are forecasting, inventory analysis, materials requirement
planning systems, networking models, statistical quality control methods, and project planning and
control techniques.
MODERN APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT
Besides the classical, behavioral and quantitative approaches to management, there are certain
modern approaches to management. Two of these approaches are the systems theory and thecontingency theory, which have significantly shaped modern management thought.
Systems Theory
Those who advocate a systems view contend that an organization cannot exist in isolation and that
management cannot function effectively without considering external environmental factors. The
systems approach gives managers a new way of looking at an organization as a whole and as a part
of the larger, external environment.
According to this theory, an organizational system has four major components: inputs,
transformation processes, output and feedback (see Figure 2.4). Inputs money, materials, men,
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machines and informational sources are required to produce goods and services. Transformation
processes or throughputs managerial and technical abilities are used to convert inputs into
outputs. Outputs are the products, services, profits and other results produced by the organization.
Feedbackrefers to information about the outcomes and the position of the organization relative to
the environment it operates in.
Figure 2.4: A Systems View of Organizations
Fundamentals of Planning Definitions of Planning
Nature of Planning
Significance of Planning
Types of Plans
Steps in the Planning Process
Prerequisites for Effective Planning
INTRODUCTION
Planning is the process of bridging the gap between where we are and where we want to be in the
future. In other words, planning is looking ahead, relating todays events with tomorrowspossibilities. It is the process of deciding in advance what to do, how to do, when to do it, and who
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does what. Proper planning minimizes risk and ensures that resources are efficiently and effectively
utilized.
Planning and controlling are inseparable. Planning involves determining organizational objectives
and developing strategies to achieve the objectives, while controlling involves establishing standardsof performance and comparing actual results with the planned results. Controlling without planning
is meaningless. Unless one knows where to go, one cannot tell whether one is going in the right
direction or not. Planning gives an organization the required focus and direction. Thus planning is aprerequisite of the control function.
DEFINITIONS OF PLANNING
In simple words, planning is deciding in advance what action to take, how and when to take a
particular action, and who are the people to be involved in it. It involves anticipating the future andconsciously choosing the future course of action.
According to Peter Drucker, Planning is a continuous process of making present entrepreneurial
decisions (risk taking) systematically and with best possible knowledge of their futurity, organizingsystematically the efforts needed to carry out these decisions and measuring the result of those
decisions against the expectations through an organized systematic feedback.
In the words of George R. Terry, Planning is the selecting and relating of facts and the making andusing of assumptions regarding the future in the visualization and formulation of proposed activities
believed necessary to achieve desired results. Thus, while planning, a manager makes use of facts
and reasonable premises and also considers the relevant constraints. The manager then decideswhat activities are needed, how they are to be carried out and how they would contribute to theachievement of the desired results.
Dalton E. McFarlands definition of planning takes into account the dynamic nature of theenvironment. He defines planning as follows:
Planning is a concept of executive function that embodies the skills of anticipating, influencing andcontrolling the nature and direction of change.
According to Heinz Weihrich and Harold Koontz, Planning involves selecting mission and objectivesand the actions to achieve them; it requires decision-making that is, choosing from alternative
future courses of action. Thus, planning involves determining organizational objectives and decidinghow best to achieve them. It involves looking ahead and relating todays events with tomorrows
possibilities.
NATURE OF PLANNING
Planning is Goal-oriented
Planning is an Intellectual or Rational Process
Planning is a Primary Function
Planning is All-pervasive
Planning is Forward-looking
Planning is a Perpetual Process
Planning is an Integrated Process
Planning Involves Choice
SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANNING
In a complex business situation, planning helps managers meet the challenges posed by theenvironment, while at the same time minimizing the risks associated with them. Planning is a
prerequisite not only for achieving success but also for surviving in a complex and competitive world.
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Planning is very important in all types of organizations. It forces organizations to look ahead and
decide their future course of action so as to improve their profitability. Organizations that plan inadvance are more likely to succeed than those which fail to plan for the future.
Planning is the first step in the management process. It ensures that the employees of anorganization carry out their work in a systematic and methodical manner. It also helps coordinate
and control various tasks and makes sure that resources are used optimally.
Focuses Attention on Objectives
Offsets Uncertainty and Risk
Provides Sense of Direction
Provides Guidelines for Decision-making
Increases Organizational Effectiveness
Provides Efficiency in Operations
Ensures Better Coordination
Facilitates Control
Encourages Innovation and Creativity
Facilitates Delegation
Figure 4.1: Planning and Management Levels
Strategic plans
These plans are designed to achieve strategic goals. More precisely, strategic plans are general
plans that indicate the resource allocation, and priorities and actions necessary for achieving
strategic goals. These plans which establish overall objectives for organizations, analyze the variousenvironmental factors that affect organizations. Table 4.1 describes eight major areas for strategic
goals.
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Table 4.1: Eight Major Areas for Strategic Goals
Major Areas Description
Market Standing Desired share of present and new markets, including areas
in which new products are needed, and service goals aimedat building customer loyalty.
Innovation Innovations in products or services as well as innovations
in skills and activities required to supply them.
HumanResources
Supply, development and performance of managers andother organization members; employee attitudes and
development of skills; relations with labor unions, if any.
FinancialResources
Sources of capital supply and how capital will be utilized.
Physical
Resources
Physical facilities and how they will be used in the
production of goods and services.
Productivity Efficient use of resources relative to outcomes.
SocialResponsibility
Responsibilities in such areas as concern for thecommunity and maintenance of ethical behavior.
Profit
Requirements
Level of profitability and other indicators of financial well-
being.
Tactical plans
They aim at achieving tactical or short-term goals. These plans help support the implementation ofstrategic plans. Tactical plans essentially indicate the actions that major departments and sub-units
should take to execute a strategic plan. Such plans are more concerned more with actually getting
things done than with deciding what to do. They are thus essential for the success of strategic
plans.Tactical plans are developed by middle-level managers, who may consult lower-level managersbefore finalizing the plan and communicating it to top-level management. Compared to strategic
plans, tactical plans cover a shorter time frame (usually 1 to 3 years). A middle-level manageracting as a tactical planner deals with much less uncertainty and risk than the strategic planner. The
information that he requires is also less and most of it can be derived from internal sources.
Operational plans
Operational plans are developed to determine the steps necessary for achieving tactical goals. Theyare stated in specific, quantitative terms and serve as the department managers guide to day-to-
day operations. Operational plans are developed by lower-level managers. These plans generally
consider time frames of less than a year, such as a few months, weeks, or even a few days. Theyspell out specifically what must be accomplished over short time periods in order to achieve
operational goals. Lower-level managers who develop operational plans work in an environment of
relative certainty. Hence, the amount of risk involved in making operational plans is lesser than thatinvolved in making tactical plans. The information needed for operational planning can be obtained
almost completely from within the organization. Unless operational goals are achieved, tactical andstrategic goals will not be achieved. Therefore operational plans are necessary for the success of
tactical and strategic plans.
STEPS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS
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Planning is an endless process. The process is constantly modified to suit changes in environmental
conditions and changes in objectives and opportunities for the firm. As organizations differ in terms oftheir size and complexity, no single planning procedure is applicable to all organizations. However, all
planning processes contain some basic steps, which are represented in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: The Basic Steps in the Planning Process
PREREQUISITES FOR EFFECTIVE PLANNING
Planning is an essential managerial function and should be given due emphasis in order to make it
more effective. It forms the basis for other functions in the management process. The followingmeasures help to make the planning exercise more effective.
Establishing the Right Climate for Planning
Clear and Specific Objectives
Planning Premises
Initiative at Top Level
Participation in Planning Process
Communication of Planning Elements
Integration of Long-term and Short-term Plans
Guidelines for Successful Planning and Implementation
Involve the right people in the planning process While planning, it is essential to obtain inputs
from those who will implement the plans and from representatives belonging to groups which will be
affected by the plan. People who are involved in these plans should also be involved in reviewing and
authorizing the plan.
Communicate the plan throughout the organization As plans keep changing, it becomes difficult
to remember who is supposed to do what and according to which version of the plan. Moreover, thekey stakeholders may also request copies of the various plans of the organization. Therefore, it would
be in the best interests of the organization to put its plans in writing and make them known throughoutthe organization.
Goals should be SMARTER A SMARTERgoal or objective is:Specific A goal should be specific, not vague and hard to understand.
Measurable The outcomes of a goal should be measurable.Acceptable The goal should be acceptable to those who are to pursue it.
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Realistic The goals to be achieved should be realistic.
Time frame The goal should specify a time frame for achieving it.Extending The goal should stretch the capabilities of the performer and motivate him to extend his
capabilities beyond the usual limit.Rewarding The goal should be such that those involved in its accomplishment are rewarded.
Making people accountable Plans should specify who is responsible for what results. The
persons responsible should periodically review the status of the plan.
Redesigning the plan Sometimes, it is necessary to deviate from the plan. The persons responsible
for implementing the plan should note such deviations when they occur and make necessaryadjustments to the plan.
Evaluating the plan Feedback should be obtained regularly from the people implementing theplan. The feedback should address aspects such as how the planning process could have been made
better, whether the goals are realistic, and whether sufficient resources are available forimplementing the plan. This will help planners ensure that the plans meet the needs of the
organization.
Acknowledging and Celebrating accomplishments This step is frequently overlooked. It is often
observed that new targets are set once desired results have been achieved. As a result, employeeshave to continually solve one problem after the other. In order to avoid cynicism and fatigue from
creeping into the planning process, one must acknowledge the good work done and have a little
celebration. This would boost the morale of the planners and would ensure their fullest efforts insubsequent plans.
Fundamentals of Organizing Definitions of Organizing
Benefits of Organizing
Formal vs Informal Organization
Span of Management
The Process of Organizing
Prerequisites for Effective Organizing
INTRODUCTION
Organizing is a very important managerial function. If planning focuses on deciding what to do,
organizing focuses on how to do it. Thus, after a manager has set goals and worked out a plan to
accomplish those goals, the next managerial function is to organize people and allocate resources to
carry out the plan.
People who know how to make effective use of their resources can make any organizational design
or pattern work efficiently. A manager has to create the right conditions to enable the employees to
effectively utilize the resources of the organization to achieve organizational goals. He has to make
the employees understand the necessity of cooperation for accomplishing tasks. Employees should
understand their roles and responsibilities and should work together to achieve the organizational
objectives. This applies to any organization business, government, or a football team. For a
subordinate to understand his role, a manager must provide verifiable objectives and a clear picture
of the major duties to be performed. The manager must also specify subordinates authority and
responsibility. This gives the subordinate an idea of what he must do to achieve the goals and
objectives of the organization. In addition, a manager should provide the subordinates with
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necessary information and tools for effectively performing their roles. Organizing is therefore
designing and maintaining a formal structure of roles and positions.
DEFINITIONS OF ORGANIZING
According to Stephen P. Robbins and Mary Coulter, organizing is determining what tasks are to be
done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where
decisions are to be made.
Thus, organizing refers to important dynamic aspects such as what tasks are to be performed, who
has to perform them, on what basis the tasks are to be grouped, who has to report to whom and
who should have the authority to take decisions.
L.A. Allen defined organizing as the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed,
defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for the purpose
of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.1[2]
According to this definition, organizing is a management function involving assigning duties,
grouping tasks, delegating authority and responsibility and allocating resources to carry out aspecific plan in an efficient manner.
In a nutshell, organizing refers to the grouping of activities and resources in a logical fashion.
BENEFITS OF ORGANIZING
Effective organizing provides numerous organizational benefits:
The process of organizing helps an individual develop a clear picture of the tasks he or
she is expected to accomplish.
The process of organizing supports planning and control activities by establishing
accountability and an appropriate line of authority.
Organizing creates channels of communication and thus supports decision-making and control.
The process of organizing helps maintain the logical flow of work activities. By so doing, it
helps individuals and workgroups to easily accomplish their tasks.
Organizing helps an organization make efficient use of its resources and avoid conflict and
duplication of effort.
Organizing coordinates activities that are diverse in nature and helps build harmonious
relationships among members involved in those activities.
The process of organizing helps managers to focus task efforts such that they are logically and
efficiently related to a common goal.
CLOSED SYSTEM VS OPEN SYSTEM
Closed System View of Organizations
The classical management theorists assumed that the primary goal of organizations was economic
efficiency, and that organizations were essentially closed systems. Consequently, they regarded
organizations as rational and economic entities.
1
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According to Louis E. Boone and David L Kurtz, Closed systems are sets of interacting elements
operating without any exchange with the environment in which they exist.2[4] This definition implies
that closed systems require no inputs human, technical, etc. from the external environment in
which they exist. But no organization can be a totally closed system. For instance, even a relatively
closed system, like a wind-up alarm clock, requires outside intervention when it slows down or goes
out of order. Thus, a totally closed system is only a theoretical concept. Different systems differ in
the degree to which they depend on the external environment for information, material and energy
inputs.
The two basic characteristics of a closed system are:
It is perfectly deterministic and predictable.
There is no exchange between the system and the external environment.
If the initial conditions and the stimuli in a closed system are known, the final condition, i.e., the
result can be predicted with certainty. Let us consider the example of a pool table. Prior knowledge
of the following conditions and stimuli make it possible to accurately predict where each ball will
come to rest:
the position of every ball on the table
the elasticity of the bumpers
the coefficient of friction between the balls and the table
the force with which the cue ball is hit
the direction of the cue ball
the type of spin on the cue ball
Classical management theorists borrowed certain ideas from the closed-system concept that was
popular during that period of time. As a result, these theorists emphasized structure and attempted
to eliminate environmental disruptions that could affect their studies of planned systems activities.
Open System View of Organizations
Traditional closed-system views (like scientific management, the universal process approach, and
bureaucracy) ignored the influence of the external environment. This sometimes led to the failure of
plans and inefficient handling of resources. Unlike the closed-system approach, the open-system
concept stressed the need for flexibility and adaptability in organizational structure, and the mutual
interdependence between the organization and its external environment. According to this concept,
organizations should be adaptive and should take into consideration the influence of the external
environment. According to Andy Groove, former CEO of Intel Corp, A corporation is a living
organism, and it has to continue to shed its skin.
The modern open-system model of organizing allows an organization to interact with its
environment and evolve its organizational structure gradually over time. Thus, open systems are
based on a biological model rather than a physical one.
Boone and Kurtz define an open system as a set of elements that interact with each other and the
environment, and whose structure evolves over time as a result of interaction.
The open-system concept is based on the assumption that no system is totally deterministic or
predictable because of the uncertainties in theexternal environment. Here again, let us consider the
example of the pool table. As a player strikes the cue ball, his or her opponent may pick up a ball
2
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from the table. This disturbs the game and it now becomes impossible to predict where the balls will
ultimately come to rest. This is analogous to the influence of the environment on the system.
An organization is a system consisting of several subsystems which interact with one another. The
organization, in turn, is a subsystem of a larger system social, political, economic or legal system.
System-to-system interactions, like the movement of capital (example: corporate borrowings), the
movement of goods and services (example: international trade), and the movement of people in
and out of the labor force, are as important as the systems themselves.
SPAN OF MANAGEMENT
Organizations are growing in terms of size and geographical coverage, thereby increasing the
workload of executives. To cope up with this workload, managers should delegate routine activities
to their subordinates. Delegation of such activities would leave managers free to handle key
strategic issues. The number of subordinates a manager has to supervise has a direct bearing on
the degree to which managers can interact with and supervise subordinates. The span of control
refers to the number of subordinates a superior can supervise efficiently and effectively.
According to Kathryn M. Bartol and David C. Martin, The span of management or span of control is
the number of subordinates who report directly to a specific manager.
The principle of span of management states that there is a limit to the number of subordinates amanager can effectively supervise, but the exact number will depend on the impact of underlying
factors.
One important thing is to be noted in the definition cited above. It is not how many people who
report to a manager that matters. What matters is how many people who have to work with each
other report to a manager. What counts are the number of relationships rather than the number of
men.
The span of control is a very important principle that emphasizes the need for coordination among
the subordinates working under a particular manager. The question therefore arises: how many
people can a manager supervise effectively? Students of management have come to the conclusion
that a manager can effectively manage usually four to eight subordinates at the upper levels, andeight to fifteen subordinates at the lower levels. According to the British consultant, Lyndall Urwick,
the ideal number of subordinates for a higher level executive should be four while the number of
subordinates for an executive at the lower level may be eight or twelve. Others are of the view that
a manager can manage twenty to thirty subordinates.
THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZING
The process of organizing follows a logical sequence. The process of organizing consists of the
following six steps:
The objectives of the organization should be established
The supporting objectives, policies and plans should be formulated
The activities required to achieve the objectives should be identified and classified
The best way of grouping the activities and utilizing the available human and material
resources should be chosen
Authority should be delegated to the head of each group so that they can perform their
activities
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The various groups should be connected to each other, both horizontally as well as
vertically, by means of authority relationships and information flows.
PREREQUISITES FOR EFFECTIVE ORGANIZING
The span of management and the levels of organization are clearly defined
The factors determining the basic framework of departmentation, along with their
strengths and weaknesses, are taken into consideration
The different kinds of authority and responsibility relationships that exist in an
organization are understood
The way authority is delegated throughout the organization structure, along with the
degree of delegation, is taken into consideration
The way the manager implements organization theory is considered
Human Resource Management and Staffing Human Resource Management: An Overview
Staffing
Recruitment
Selection
INTRODUCTION
The most important resource of an organization is its human resources the people who work in theorganization. People are vital for the effective operation of a company. To meet the challenges and
competitive atmosphere of todays business environment, managers must recognize the potential of
human resources, and then acquire, develop and retain these resources. This forms the basis ofhuman resource management (HRM). HRM is the management of various activities that aredesigned to enhance the effectiveness of the manpower in an organization in the achievement of
organizational goals. Acquiring skilled, talented, and motivated employees is an important part ofHRM.
Human resource management forms a crucial function in organizations of all sizes. Larger firmsusually have a separate HRM department. Small organizations, however, cannot always afford to
have a separate HRM department that can continually follow the performance of individuals in theorganization and review their accomplishment of goals. Instead, in such organizations, each
manager is responsible for utilizing the skills and talents of the employees under him, effectively.Traditionally, HRM departments had a relatively small role to play in the organizations overall
mission and plans. They developed staffing plans, handled complaints, determined benefits andcompensation, and conducted performance appraisal programs. These activities were, and still are,
very important in managing an organization. However, today HRM departments are playing a morestrategic role in charting the course of their firms. Changes in the environment, such as increasing
costs, changing demographics and limited skilled labor supply, rapid technological changes and the
need for new skills, have created a strategic need for HRM expertise. These changes have led to theacknowledgment that human resources need careful attention and are vital to the success of any
business.
In this chapter, we will first discuss HR planning. The other steps in the HRM process staffing,training and development, performance appraisal, and compensation will also be discussed. The
later part of the chapter will discuss the two important elements of staffing recruitment andselection. The chapter concludes with a description of the socialization process of new employees.
Human resource management: an overview
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Human Resource Management (HRM) may be defined as the organized function of planning for human
resource needs, and recruitment, selection, development, compensation and evaluation of performanceto fill those needs. The HRM process is an ongoing function that aims to keep the organization supplied
with the right people in the right positions, when they are needed. The HRM process, shown in Figure12.1, includes five basic activities: (1) human resource planning, (2) staffing, (3) training and
development, (4) performance appraisal, and (5) compensation.
Figure 12.1 Human Resource Management Process
Human Resource Planning
Human resource planning is the process of determining future human resource needs relative to anorganizations strategic plan and devising the steps necessary to meet those needs [2]. It involves
estimating the size and composition of the future work force, and helping the organization acquire theright number and the right kind of people when they are needed.
Figure 12.2 Human Resource Planning
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Staffing
Though the term human resource management is frequently used for the managerial function ofstaffing, staffing is just a part of the HRM process and plays an important role. Staffing involves a
set of activities aimed at attracting and selecting individuals for positions in a way that will facilitatethe achievement of organizational goals. The two basic steps of staffing are recruitment and
selection.
The staffing process is a systematic attempt to implement the human resource plan by recruiting,
evaluating and selecting qualified candidates for job positions in the organization. Recruitmentinvolves finding and attempting to attract job candidates who are suitable for filling job vacancies. Job
analysis, job description, and job specification are important tools in the recruitment process. Oncesuitable candidates are attracted to the job position, the management needs to find qualified people
to fill the positions through the selection process. Several methods are used in selecting prospectivecandidates. These include preliminary screening, application blank, selection test, comprehensive
interviews, etc.
Training and Development
Although organizations often recruit fully qualified individuals who require little or no training,training is usually undertaken for new recruits as well as for existing manpower, who require
improved skills in order to advance in the organization. Employees at all levels managerial,technical and operative will require some training at some point of time in their careers. Although
the objectives, methods, and course or program contents often differ, the basic principles ofteaching/learning are the same. Training is formally defined as a planned effort to improve the
performance of the employee in his area of work. In other words, training denotes efforts toincrease employee skills in their jobs. For instance, employees might be instructed in new decision-
making techniques or the capabilities of data processing systems.
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Development programs are designed to educate employees beyond the requirements of their
present positions in order to prepare them for promotions. They also help them get accustomed tothe organizational climate. Development is long-term in nature. It helps the employee fit into the
organization.
Thus, the processes of training and development aim at increasing the ability of individuals and
groups to contribute to organizational effectiveness.
Performance Appraisal
Performance appraisal compares an individuals job performance against standards or objectivesdeveloped for the individuals position. The process of performance appraisal involves defining the
expectations for employee performance, measuring, evaluating and recording employeeperformance against these expectations, and providing the employee with feedback regarding his
performance. The major purpose of performance appraisal is to influence employee performanceand development in a positive way. When the performance is high, the individual is likely to be
rewarded (by a hike in pay or a promotion). If performance is low, some corrective action (such asadditional training and development) might be arranged to make the performance meet the desired
standards.
Thus, effective performance appraisal as a control technique, requires standards, information and
corrective action. Standards in performance evaluation are prior specifications of acceptable levelsof job performance. Information must be available in order to measure the actual job performance
against the standard job performance. Corrective action must be taken by managers to restore anyimbalance between actual and standard job performance.
Compensation
Compensation consists of the wages paid directly to the employees for the amount of time workedor the number of units produced. It also includes the monetary and non-monetary benefits that an
employee receives as part of his employment relationship with the organization. Wages paid fortime worked (or number of units produced) are typically payments made in the form of cash and
reflect direct work-related remuneration such as basic pay, merit increases, or bonuses. Benefits, onthe other hand, are forms of supplementary non-monetary payments over and above the wages
paid. They include various protection plans (such as employee insurance), services (such ascompany cafeteria), pay for time not worked (such as during vacations or sick leave), and income
supplements (such as stock ownership plans).
A sound compensation program enhances the organizations ability to attract and retain employees.
The compensation program affects every member of the organization, and it is one of the mostimportant and time-consuming tasks of the human resources department.
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Motivating Employees for Job Performance
Definitions and Meaning of Motivation
Classification of Motivation Theories
Motivational Techniques
INTRODUCTION
In any type of organization, a manager must know what motivates his workers in order to make
each individual employee perform to the best of his ability. It is not an easy task to motivate
employees because they respond in different ways to their jobs and to organizational practices.
Motivation is a human psychological characteristic that affects a persons degree of commitment. It
is the set of forces that move a person towards a goal. It deals with how behavior is energized,
how it is directed and how it is sustained. The managers challenge, then, is to channel this energy
and direct this behavior toward the organizations ends.
Factors that affect work motivation include individual differences and organizational practices.Individuals differ in their personal needs, values and attitudes, interests and abilities.
Organizational practices that affect motivation include the rules, policies, managerial practices and
reward systems. In order to motivate employees, managers must consider how these factors
influence and affect their job performance.
DEFINITIONS AND MEANING OF MOTIVATION
According to Stephen P. Robbins, motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward
organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need.Fred Luthans views motivation as a process that starts with a physiological or psychological
deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.
The three key elements in the above definitions are needs, drives and goals. Needs set up drives
aimed at goals; this is the basic process of motivation. Figure 16.1 depicts the motivation process.
Need is the origin of any motivated behavior. Need is a felt deprivation of physiological orpsychological well-being. Needs exist in each individual in varying degrees. When an individual
recognizes a need, he is driven by a desire to fulfill the need. Drives are directed at fulfillment ofneeds. Drives are action-oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward reaching a goal.
Incentives or goals are the instruments used to induce people to follow a desired course of action.Once the goal is attained, the physiological or psychological balance is restored and the drive is cut
off.
Figure 16.1: The Basic Motivation Process
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Table 16.1: Approaches to Motivation
Type Characteristics Theories Managerial
Examples
Content Concerned with
factors that arouse,
start or initiatemotivated behavior
1. Needs
hierarchy
theory2.Two-factor
theory
3.ERG theory
Motivation by
satisfying individual
needs for money,status, andachievement.
Process Concerned not only
with factors thatarouse behavior, but
also with theprocess, direction, or
choice of behavioralpatterns
1.Expectancy
theory
2.Equity theory
Motivation by
clarifying theindividuals
perception of workinputs, performance
requirements andrewards.
Maslows needs hierarchy theory
One of the most popular explanations for human motivation was developed by the psychologist,
Abraham Maslow and popularized during the early 1960s. Maslows hierarchy of needs theory
argues that human needs form a five-level hierarchy (see Figure 16.2). Maslow classified these
needs into five groups: physiological needs, need for security, social needs (love and
belongingness), self-esteem needs and self-actualization needs.
Figure 16.2: Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
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Herzbergs two-factor theory
Motivators in the Herzbergs two-factor theory correspond to the higher-level needs of esteem and
self-actualization in Maslows needs hierarchy, while the hygiene factors correspond to Maslows
physiological, safety and social needs. Table 16.2 compares Maslows and Herzbergs theories ofmotivation.
Table 16.2: Comparison of Maslows and HerzbergsTheories of Mot