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Disaster Management By: Andrew Fox
A 1hr lecture for EAR318 module, delivered on 27th January 2014
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Aim
The aim of this lecture is review systems for managing disasters and draw on the
personal experience of the lecturer working as an engineer in the field of disaster
management to help highlight important lessons.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture students will be able to:
Start to address the question: What is a disaster?
Describe some practical approaches to pre-disaster planning, the emergency
response, disaster relief and long-term disaster recovery
Consider some of the challenges faced by those wishing to engage in disaster
management research
Key references for this lecture:
1. HMG (2005a) Emergency Preparedness, Emergency Planning College,
York
2. HMG (2005b) Emergency Response and Recovery, Emergency Planning
College, York
3. Quarantelli E (ed) (1998) What is a disaster? Perspectives on the
question, Routledge, New York
4. Stallings RA (ed) (2002) Methods of Disaster Research, Xlibris, USA
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Some background
Before we delve into the topic of Disaster Management, let me tell you something
about myself. I am a chartered civil engineer, possibly the first civil engineer you may
have encountered on this programme. As a civil engineer I have been deeply
involved in development programmes, both in the UK an in a range of international
locations. But my understanding and involvement in development issues is not why I
am standing in front of you today. I am here because for the past 15yrs, I have taken
an active interest in how disasters are managed.
Very briefly, my awareness of disasters (or the potential for disasters) began in early
childhood experiencing hurricanes and earthquakes in the Caribbean and USA,
volcanoes in the Far East, social conflict in the Middle East and Africa, and floods in
the UK. It was while working in one of these areas (Africa - Seychelles), that I first
became professionally involved in post-disaster recovery operations. The experience
led me to seek out further work in post-disaster situations, and I was successful in
securing a job in Montserrat. There I helped to rebuild settlement areas after the
eruption of a local volcano. Paul Cole and others contributing to this module may
have talked to you about their own experiences on Montserrat.
In Seychelles and Montserrat my job was engineering based - designing and
implementing engineering solutions to local problems. But, I subsequently split away
from mainstream engineering to join the NGO sector. I was employed in Turkey,
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following an earthquake in the Marmara region. There I helped to deliver a
programme of disaster relief projects. These projects were largely logistical in nature,
but also addressed the social impacts of the disaster (help for newly disabled,
training for trauma counsellors and equipping local neighbourhood emergency
response teams). Engineering projects included immediate water supply and
sanitation systems, medium-term improvements to emergency shelters, provision of
transitional shelters and advising on long-term improvements to building safety.
The field experience of disaster management led me to want to learn more about the
subject area. So, I joined the Disaster Management team at Coventry University. The
department was very multidisciplinary, with experts in natural hazards, engineering,
sociology, physical and mental health as well as politics and international relations.
Interestingly (and unexpectedly for me), it also included teaching staff from the
emergency services (fire, police, ambulance and health services). At Coventry my
narrow perspective of disaster management was shattered, as I learned that disaster
management is a truly multi-disciplinary field and I became convinced that anybody
who holds to the belief that it is wrong to think that a single discipline can take
ownership of the field of disaster management.
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What is a disaster?
It may seem like an odd question, but it is one that is fundamental to the study of
disaster management. If we cannot define what a disaster is, then we cannot define
a management strategy to address future disaster events. Enrico L Quarantelli is a
leading author in the field of Disaster Management, and is held-up by some to be
one of the founding fathers of the subject area.
Dr. Quarantelli is widely known as one of the founding scholars of the social
science of disasters. His first involvement in the area dates back to 1949
when he participated in the first systematic disaster field studies as a
researcher in the National Opinion Research Centre (NORC) team at
University of Chicago. Among his many accomplishments ELQ was one of the
founding directors Disaster Research Centre, Ohio State University, 1963.
Was First President, ISA International Research Committee on Disasters,
1982-1986. Was the founder and first editor of the International Journal of
Mass Emergencies and Disasters.
(Source: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Centre, website: www.udel.edu)
Notable amongst his many publications is one that directly addresses the question
posed above. Quarantelli felt compelled to put together his text because of what he
saw as a lack of consensus on the answer to the question. To some extent, the
problem seemed to stem from the multi-disciplinary nature of the subject area, as
each subject discipline had a different way of defining a disaster. Broadly speaking,
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different disciplines focussed on either the social, biological, technical, economic or
environmental impact of a disaster. These sub-divisions are largely accepted in
contemporary studies, but it is interesting to note that these aspects of disaster were
still being questioned as late as the end of the 1990s.
Quarantelli never intended to answer the question. Rather, he sought to generate
some cross-disciplinary debate and to highlight areas of consensus and areas where
opinions differ. The deliberations of Quarantelli and his co-authors raised a number
of ancillary questions, questions like:
Are disasters social constructs or natural events?
Does our definition of disaster contain a gender bias or a bias towards
a Western/Developed World perspective?
Is disaster research changing how we define disasters?
Are disasters systemic events or social catalysts?
Why do disasters keep happening?
Some progress has been made in addressing these questions over the last 15yrs,
but they are questions that you may wish to explore in more depth yourselves.
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Disaster Management Planning, Response and Recovery
One thing that became clear to me when I joined Coventry University was that
planning for disasters is not a field devoid of history. My experience had led me think
that disasters were unanticipated events, but at Coventry I was able to explore the
subject beyond the boundaries of my engineering discipline. I quickly learned that
social anthropologists have known for a long time that humans have always lived
with exposure to events that threaten our survival. All my social science colleagues
stressed that the fact that we humans have survived many crises is a clear indicator
that we have developed systems for managing them. What they considered is that,
as our societies have become more complex the articulation of our crisis
management system has become lost in the milieu of the media that surrounds us.
My psychology colleagues claimed that disaster management is an innate human
characteristic. To them, all mentally sound individuals have an in-built ability to
manage crises at the personal level. However, at the collective level, the
management systems require formalisation.
Let me explain this a little bit more before we go further:
If we accept the view that disasters are social constructs. Then, at the heart of
every disaster are human individuals and all disasters will include at least one
personal, human, tragedy.
As stated above, we humans all have an innate ability to survive tragedy. We
do this by mobilising reserves of a wide diversity of capital resources: human,
social, economic, physical and cultural capitals.
Humans rarely live in isolation and many of their capital resources are derived
from or accessed through other humans in a complex array of social relations.
Put another way, our coping mechanisms may be described as being founded on the
premise that:
While I accept that I need to rely on my own capital reserves to survive the
initial effects of the disaster, for my long-term survival I will expect to receive
(or give) support from (or to) other human beings.
Quarantelli and his associated have worked hard to explain the issues inherent to
the first bullet point. Psychologists have largely led the work to understand
mechanisms underpinning the second bullet point. As an engineer, my work has
largely been undertaken to address the third bullet point, and in that field I have been
supported by Political Scientists, Sociologists, Human Geographers and Social
Anthropologists (amongst others).
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At this point, I must acknowledge that what I have described is just the human
aspects of disasters. You may well be aware that, within a disaster management
system, there is a need also to understand the mechanisms causing disasters. To
achieve that, disaster managers need the input of a different set of specialists the
physical and environmental scientists. These specialists are needed to provide
explanations of the processes that trigger disaster events (e.g. floods, tsunamis,
earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.) and their input is vital when developing plans to
maximise the effectiveness of limited resources.
If you look closely at the systems for managing disasters, you will find that are
generally divided into a number of areas that span pre-planning and post-event
management. This is often described as the Disaster Cycle. Pre-event planning
focusses on disaster preparedness and mitigation. Post-event planning is split into
three main phases: first is the short-term or emergency phase. Second is the
medium-term or disaster relief phase, and third is the long-term recovery or
reconstruction phase. Depending on the nature and scale of the event, the post-
event phases may last hours, days, weeks, years or even decades. Similarly, and
because disasters are infrequent events, pre-event planning may have to be
maintained for equally long periods of time.
Extended periods of time stuck in the pre-planning cycle of disaster management
can have a detrimental effect on the post-event response, as people forget details of
the plan. In addition, the larger the disaster the greater is the delay in mobilising a
response. Specifically, before a disaster plan is enacted, all other crisis management
systems must first be deployed and found wanting (or fail) before a disaster is
declared. For very large disasters and in areas with robust systems to deal with crisis
events, scaling up to a disaster response can take an extended period of time. The
paradox here is that, in disasters, the needs of victims are most acute, but helps is
often slower to arrive than in less acute circumstances. This scenario reinforces the
claims made above, that: in disasters victims need to rely on self-help and/or the
helps of local survivors in the immediate aftermath of an event.
I do not intent to delve any more deeply into the subject of disaster management at
the individual level. Instead I will focus on disaster management at the collective
level. As I stated above, long-term disaster survival is directly related to the ability of
the collective system to recover from the shock of the disaster and for pre-prepared
plans to be put into practice. It is towards the development of those collective plans
that we now turn our attention.
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Developments in disaster planning
In 2002 I set out on my own personal quest to make a contribution to the general
improvement of disaster planning. I presented a paper based on my experience in
Montserrat to a meeting of some like-minded engineers and architects (called the i-
Rec group). After that meeting I worked with some of the organisers to formulate a
planning process designed to capture much of the thinking at that time relating to
disaster planning. We built on our original concepts by organising a series of
international conferences that brought together a broader pool of theorists and
practitioners and debate continues to evolve...
Being engineers and architects, our initial plan focussed on hazards that pose the
greatest risk of damage to the infrastructure that developed societies rely on for their
well-being (thus we immediately fell foul of the bias identified by Quarantelli, and
mentioned above).
Historically, we (architects and engineers) had focussed on the physical impact of
hazards on the urban environment. We knew that that any planning system needed
to quantify the risk of potential disaster occurrences. But new research was
suggesting that our traditional focus on large events with statistically low frequency
obscured the fact that much damage is caused by smaller but more frequent events.
We were also aware that during the 1980s and early 1990s the concept of
vulnerability had become a big issue and efforts were being made to incorporate its
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principles into the planning process. We felt therefore, that our disaster planning
proposals should harness the strengths of vulnerability analysis.
At the time, we were also aware that the media was becoming increasing able to
report up-to-the-minute news on a global scale. Disasters were becoming widely
reported and as people became more aware of the consequences of disasters, the
public perception to disaster risk was changing. This growth in globally connected
media and the changes in public perception placed new pressures on disaster
managers, requiring some re-education and modification to traditional ways of
working.
By the end of the millennium, studies in vulnerability had evolved to include
environmental issues. That blending led to emergence of sustainable development
as a strong point of focus for development planners. Governments across the world
adopted the aims of sustainable development and placed duties on planners to
produce strategies designed to secure a long-term sustainable future of local
communities.
All these things were incorporated into our disaster planning framework
The i-Rec framework for disaster planning:
1. Vulnerability assessment and risk mapping
2. Survey of traditional systems to deal with risk and vulnerability
3. Evaluation of traditional system performance in the face of disasters
4. Consideration of modern techniques to reduce vulnerability
5. Development of disaster response plans to include emergency and long term
redevelopment
6. Education of industry practitioners
7. Strengthening of inter-agency arrangements
8. Development of community participation schemes
9. Instigation of environmental monitoring systems
10. Performance evaluation
11. Dissemination of evaluation results
Within the framework it is possible to identify areas where expertise from different
sectors may play a more prominent role.
1 & 2 rely heavily on local planners and architects
3 & 4 benefit from academic and international input
5 & 6 utilise skills of emergency planners
7 & 8 are multi-sectoral based
9, 10 & 11 benefit from independent and specialist observers
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The amalgamation of all the above historic developments in the disaster planning
process has given rise to the concept of resilience. This concept has a focus on
disaster and addresses the ability of the community to recover following the impact
of a disaster. It is possible to translate this more specifically in terms of a planning
process designed to achieve resilience:
For a community to improve its resilience to a disaster impact, it must first
undergo a process of hazard identification:
All risks associated with hazards need to be quantified in order to assess
priorities for further investigation and dedication of resources:
Examining socio-economic factors allows vulnerability to be mapped in
relation to the risks and hazards faced by the community. This is a particularly
important process, because vulnerability can be considered the root cause of
disaster.
Incorporating environmental considerations ensures that sustainability factors
are fully evaluated.
All of the above can be done prior to the disaster impact.
Actions to improve resilience following the disaster impact include:
Develop procedures to assist the community in meeting all its immediate
survivability needs:
Implement long term plans which will allow recovery to happen as quickly and
as efficiently as possible:
Incorporate any lessons learned as a result of the disaster
My interest in recent years has focussed on resilience planning, but I will not develop
that concept further now, because I understand that Prof Geoff Wilson will be
delivering a lecture next week, specifically about Resilience.
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Civil contingency planning in the UK
In parallel to my work with the i-Rec group, I have been studying the UK system for
managing disasters.
The UK government does not use the term disaster management. Instead it has
traditionally talked about emergency planning or civil contingency planning. There
is also a perception within the planning authorities that, unlike other parts of the
world, the UK is not prone to disasters. That perception is representative of the
somewhat closed and institutionalised system for dealing with disaster planning in
the UK. However, following the events of 11th September 2001 (9/11) the British
Government began to think seriously about its arrangements for civil contingencies.
This facet of governance had suffered a long slow decline in importance from the
end of the Second World War, through the demise of the Soviet Union and after the
cessation of violence in Northern Ireland. Ultimately this manifest itself in the repeal
of Civil Protection laws and the blurring of direct responsibility for Civil Protection in
the Government structure.
By 2001 the situation in the UK had reached what may be described as a low point.
No statutory duties existed to plan for civil contingencies at the local level and the
roles and responsibilities of those agencies involved in the response to any civil
emergency had become unclear. 9/11 provided a sharp reminder of the vulnerability
of all nations to the threat of terrorism but it also came on top of a series of other civil
crises in the UK including the BSE crisis in the early 1990s, the Foot and Mouth
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outbreak of 2000, the Paddington and Hatfield train crashes in 1995 and 2000 and
repeated flooding events across the country during the 1990s and into the new
millennium. In 2003 the British Government resolved to take action and remedy the
situation by setting out a new agenda for dealing with Civil Contingencies. The
centrepiece for this agenda was the Civil Contingency Act 2004.
The 2004 Act created new duties for responder organisations and provided a
framework within which these duties were to be enacted. The essence of this
agenda was one of multi-disciplinary and multi-hazard planning; engaging the full
range of structural and non-structural measures to mitigate potential hazards.
After the Act came into force two important guidance documents were published.
The first part (HMG 2005a) relates to Preparedness Planning and is intended to be
viewed as statutory Guidance (with a capital G), the second part (HMG 2005b)
relates to Response and Recovery and the guidance is viewed as discretionary (with
a small g).
The Act created what it termed: a duty to assess, plan and advise. It also
established a two-tier grouping of responder organizations who are obliged to
cooperate with each other in order to implement this new duty:
Category 1 responders
Local authorities
Emergency services
Category 2 responders
Utility companies
Transport companies
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Health services
The Environment Agency
The Health and Safety Executive
The civil contingencies agenda in the UK is well summarised by the eight principles
of effective response and recovery (HMG 2005b: 6):
1. Continuity of service before, during and after critical incidents
2. Preparedness for all hazards and degrees of complexity in crisis
situations
3. Subsidiarity ensuring that decisions are taken at the lowest
appropriate level
4. Direction by clarity in understanding response and recovery
objectives
5. Integration of planning and response by a collective of responder
groups
6. Cooperation between all relevant individuals and organisations at all
levels
7. Communication without delay to those that need to know, including the
public
8. Anticipation of ongoing risks and indirect consequences following
incidents and actions
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The 2004 Act also introduced the concept of a risk register, stressing that the
development of such a register requires multi-agency cooperation, achieved using
Local Resilience Forums working in Local Resilience Areas. Category 1
responders must participate in the forums and Category 2 responders may be
involved as appropriate.
Both the guidance documents (HMG 2005a, 2005b) recognise that not every
organisation involved in a response is identified or covered by the Act and they
emphasise that it is not intended that such organisations are to be excluded, stating
that Category 1 responders should encourage organisations which are not covered
by Part 1 of the Act to co-operate in planning arrangements (HMG 2005a: 160).
For example: the voluntary sector is identified as playing a potentially important role,
and Category 1 responders are required include these organisations in the planning
process. How such collaborations work in practice is not made clear, so voluntary
organisations are required to set out exactly what kind of service they can provide
and ensure that they train their staff to fulfil any emergency planning or response
role.
Information sharing and providing advice is also required by the 2004 Act.
Responders have a duty to share information with each other and this information
sharing is seen as an important part in developing the culture of cooperation
intended by the Act. But the Act stops short of full participation and disclosure by
admitting some information should be controlled if its release would be
counterproductive or damaging in some other way (HMG 2005a: 25). In this regard,
emphasis is placed on categorising types of information and obtaining consent for its
disclosure.
The Act also places a duty on responders to communicate with the public. This duty
is split into two distinct forms. First is warning and informing the public and applies
before, during and after an emergency event. Second is providing business
continuity planning advice to local businesses (HMG 2005a).
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Pre-event planning
A major proportion of the Guidance (HMG 2005a) is dedicated to planning and it
states clearly that emergency planning is at the heart of the new duties placed on
responders. The plans in question are required to address the prevention, reduction,
control and mitigation of emergencies and their effects.
Plans must enable the determination of when an emergency has occurred, provide
for the training of key staff and involve exercising and review of the plan. What risks
to plan for are the responsibility of the local responders to decide and in this they are
encouraged to work collectively. The risks may be dealt with using generic plans or
by specific plans.
Emergency and Business Continuity plans are developed in a six-step process:
1. Contextualisation consider the social community, the environment,
infrastructure and hazardous sites
2. Hazard review and allocation for assessment identify hazards of a
generic and site-specific nature and assign the people and processes to
be used for the review
3. Risk analysis assess likelihood and impact of risks within a five-year time
frame
4. Risk evaluation combine likelihood and impact assessments in order to
rate the significance of risks
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5. Risk treatment prioritise risk-reduction measures in accordance with the
rating of risks
6. Monitoring and review undertake a full and formal review at appropriate
intervals to suit the level of the risk.
At the regional level, both local and central level representatives were obliged to
work together to address larger scale civil protection issues. However, in 2010 the
new Conservative party Government abolished all regional governance bodies and
with that went the regional tier of emergency planning.
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Post-event planning
The range of agencies involved in response and recovery activities is recognised as
being more extensive than for planning and preparedness. As such, the tight duties
in relation to Category 1 and 2 responders are not so evident. The guidance
(HMG2005b) reinforces the established system of response coordination using the
Bronze, Silver and Gold command and control structure but is enhanced with
additional guidance for localised, wide-area, terror and maritime incidents.
The focus for response and recovery activities is listed as:
saving and protecting life
relieving suffering
containing the emergency
providing warnings, advice and
information
protecting personnel
safeguarding the environment
protecting property
restoring critical services
maintaining services
promoting and facilitating self-help
facilitating investigations
facilitating socio-economic recovery
evaluating response.
The guidance (HMG 2005b) explains that Civil Contingency Committees will be
convened when they can provide added value to a response. Their role will be to
collate and maintain a strategic picture, assess what issues can be resolved at local
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level, facilitate mutual aid and ensure an effective flow of information between central
and local level.
When central government support is required in a response, a Lead Government
Department (LGD) will be designated to head the Government response (HMG
2005b). The LGD can decide on the use of emergency powers, mobilise military or
other national assets, enact counter security measures and manage international
relations and any public information strategy.
The response and recovery guidance (HMG 2005b) also includes advice on the
focus for humanitarian assistance, by identifying what such programmes should
cater for, namely:
injured and uninjured survivors,
families and friends,
the deceased,
rescuers and response workers,
children and young people,
religious and cultural minority groups,
the elderly
the disabled
It is my belief that the enactment of the Civil Contingency Act 2004, and the
publication of the two associated sets of guidance has created a robust system for
disaster management in the UK. This system correlates well with academic theory
for the effective management of disasters and, although crisis event continue to
occur, the organisational system for dealing with the consequences of disasters
continues to perform reasonably well. Of course, you may have other views on this.
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Challenges in disaster management research
Before I finish I just want to say a few words about disaster management research.
It is possible that, like me, some of you may be considering pursuing a line of work
that will engage you in disaster research.
Throughout this lecture I have continually referred to the very human nature of the
subject area, and you may not be surprised to learn that social science
methodologies dominate this aspect of disaster research.
Robert Stallings said:
The types of methods used in social science research on disasters are not unique.
Yet, people well-trained and with experience in survey research or qualitative
methods will find that the study of disasters is different.
(Source: Stallings 2002, p21)
Stallings dedicated an entire book to explaining how and why disaster research is
different, so I will just share a few of his insights here.
I believe it would be fair to say that when Stallings is describing the differences
between normal research and disaster research he is describing the differences
that relates to research conducted just before, during and immediately after an
event. Research conducted in the pre-event planning and medium to long-term post-
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event phases is less likely to suffer the challenges he describes. But, what I believe
he is emphasising is that, due to its unique challenges, the event phase is the least
understood aspect of a disaster and most in need of further research.
For Stallings, human behaviours during the course of, and immediately after, a
disaster event present special challenges. He describes late arriving researchers as
being faced by growing problems, as agency officials become more wary of negative
public reactions to their actions, and concerns grow about possible litigation and the
like. What Quarantellis group at the DRC did to address this, was embed
researchers in responder agencies in advance of a disaster. While embedded they
were able to build trust agency personnel and become familiar with systems and
process that would be used to manage the disaster response.
Stallings also stressed that in the midst of a crisis people are often unwilling to talk
about unfolding events. This situation may be reversed in later life, but memories of
events can sometimes be unreliable. For Stallings, the issue here is that disaster
data are perishable, and the lack of time between the disaster occurrence and the
fielding of research teams, means that important information can easily be missed.
Here again Quarantelli and his team at the DRC tried to address this by not just
training their researchers in relevant methods and techniques, but also in how to
cope with the specific disaster context. They maintained teams of researchers, ready
to deploy at short notice, and when mobilised they tried to flood a disaster area with
researchers in an effort to collect as much data as quickly as possible.
Field based disaster research in such a context can be exciting. And, to paraphrase
Stallings: some people are good at mucking about in the world of real human
beings.others are better at analysing data on a computer. When I was at Coventry
we were approached by the University of Christchurch in New Zealand who had
been working with the UN in disaster zones across the globe. The University had
collected vast amounts of data in manner similar to how the DRC collected its data.
Just like the DRC they were then left with a problem lots of data, but too few
researchers to process it. Clearly there is no shortage of researchers willing to
engage in the exciting world of field-based disaster research there is more of a
problem finding resources to spend on processing the data.
Stallings also pointed to a global imbalance in the bulk of disaster research data
collected. Specifically, most of it related to disasters in the developed world and
there is little known about the great majority of disasters that happen in the
developing world. Related to that was his judgement that researchers are not
ethnically balanced, which has an impact in the ability of researchers to collect and
interpret data in alien counties and cultures.
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Conclusion
At the start of this lecture I stated that my aim was to review systems for managing
disasters and draw on my personal experience to help highlight important lessons in
the subject.
I presented a short synopsis of the work Enrico Quarantelli had undertaken to help
define what is a disaster? The question was not effectively answered, and a number
of ancillary questions were presented. The lesson here is that, as a truly multi-
disciplinary field the definition of disaster varies depending on your disciplinary
perspective. What is important is to try and learn where your discipline shares some
common understanding with other disciplines and where differences remain.
I went on to describe some practical approaches to pre-disaster planning, the
emergency response, disaster relief and long-term disaster recovery. In so doing I
presented you with some of the work I and a number of colleagues in the i-Rec
group developed and I outlined the UK civil contingency planning system. I describe
the UK system as fitting well with the academic theory and providing a robust
framework for managing disasters in the UK.
In the last part of my lecture I presented some of the challenges faced by those
wishing to engage in disaster management research. Drawing heavily on the work of
Robert Stallings I explained some of the unique challenges faced when trying to do
research just before, during and immediately after an event.
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I hope that my talk has given you some insight into the subject area of disaster
management and that some of you may even be inspired (despite the challenges) to
engage with this field of study at some future point in your careers.
Thank you for listening.
Andrew Fox
January 2014