Lecture 2 individual differences & behaviors

Copyright © 2003 by The Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin

Individual Behavior and Individual Behavior and DifferencesDifferences

4 - 4 - 22McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Study ofThe Study of

OrganizationalOrganizational

BehaviorBehavior

PsychologyPsychology

SociologySociology

Social PsychologySocial Psychology

AnthropologyAnthropology

Political SciencePolitical Science


Individual Behavior FrameworkIndividual Behavior Framework

The Environment

The Individual Behaviors Outcomes


To understand individual differences, To understand individual differences, managers must:managers must:

Observe and recognize the differencesObserve and recognize the differences

Study variables that influence individual Study variables that influence individual behaviorbehavior

Discover relationships among the variablesDiscover relationships among the variables


Key questions to help managers focus on Key questions to help managers focus on performance problems:performance problems: Does the employee have the skills and abilities to Does the employee have the skills and abilities to

perform the job?perform the job? Does the employee have the necessary Does the employee have the necessary

resources to perform the job?resources to perform the job? Is the employee aware of the performance Is the employee aware of the performance

problem?problem? When did the performance problem surface?When did the performance problem surface? How do the employee’s co-workers react to the How do the employee’s co-workers react to the

performance problem?performance problem? What can I do as a manager to alleviate the What can I do as a manager to alleviate the

performance problem?performance problem?


Individual Differences: Abilities and SkillsIndividual Differences: Abilities and Skills

AbilityAbility A biological or learned trait that permits a A biological or learned trait that permits a

person to do something mental or physical.person to do something mental or physical. SkillsSkills

Task-related competencies.Task-related competencies. Job AnalysisJob Analysis

Process of defining and studying a job in Process of defining and studying a job in terms of behavior and specifying education terms of behavior and specifying education and training needed to perform the job.and training needed to perform the job.

4 - 4 - 77McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin

Ability and IntellectAbility and Intellect

AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.


• Number aptitude

• Verbal comprehension

• Perceptual speed

• Inductive reasoning

• Deductive reasoning

• Spatial (occupying space) visualization

• Memory

• Number aptitude

• Verbal comprehension

• Perceptual speed

• Inductive reasoning

• Deductive reasoning

• Spatial (occupying space) visualization

• Memory

Dimensions of Intellectual AbilityDimensions of Intellectual Ability

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Physical AbilitiesPhysical Abilities

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity (good physical coordination ), strength, and similar characteristics.


Other Factors

7. Body coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Other Factors

7. Body coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic strength

2. Trunk strength

3. Static strength

4. Explosive strength

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic strength

2. Trunk strength

3. Static strength

4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic flexibility

Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic flexibility

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Ability-JobFit

The Ability-The Ability-Job FitJob Fit

Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities

Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements


Individual Differences: DemographicsIndividual Differences: Demographics

Gender Gender DifferencesDifferences

Racial and Racial and Cultural Cultural DiversityDiversity


Individual Psychological VariablesIndividual Psychological Variables

PerceptionPerception

AttributionAttribution

AttitudesAttitudesPersonalityPersonality

Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence


Perception –Perception – The process by The process by which an individual gives which an individual gives meaning to the environment.meaning to the environment.

It involves organizing and It involves organizing and interpreting various stimuli into a interpreting various stimuli into a psychological experience.psychological experience.


Examples of how perception influences Examples of how perception influences behavior:behavior: A manager believes that an employee is given A manager believes that an employee is given

opportunities to use his judgment about how to do opportunities to use his judgment about how to do the job, while the employee feels that he has the job, while the employee feels that he has absolutely no freedom to make judgments.absolutely no freedom to make judgments.

A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request is based on what she thought she heard the is based on what she thought she heard the supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.

The manager considers the product sold to be of The manager considers the product sold to be of high quality, but the customer making a complaint high quality, but the customer making a complaint feels that it’s poorly made.feels that it’s poorly made.


Examples of how perception influences Examples of how perception influences behavior: behavior: (continued)(continued)

An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard worker who gives good effort and by another worker who gives good effort and by another colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.

The salesperson regards his pay increase as totally The salesperson regards his pay increase as totally inequitable, while the sales manager considers it a inequitable, while the sales manager considers it a fair raise.fair raise.

One line operator views working conditions as One line operator views working conditions as miserable; a co-worker right across the line regards miserable; a co-worker right across the line regards working conditions as pleasant.working conditions as pleasant.


AttributionAttribution

AttributionAttribution The process of perceiving the causes of The process of perceiving the causes of

behavior and outcomes.behavior and outcomes. Dispositional AttributionsDispositional Attributions

Emphasize some aspect of the individual, Emphasize some aspect of the individual, such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.

Situational AttributionsSituational Attributions Attributions that emphasize the environment’s Attributions that emphasize the environment’s

effect on behavior.effect on behavior.


AttitudesAttitudes

AttitudeAttitude – – a positive or negative feeling or a positive or negative feeling or mental state of willingness, learned and mental state of willingness, learned and organized through experience, that exerts organized through experience, that exerts specific influence on a person’s response to specific influence on a person’s response to people, objects, and situations.people, objects, and situations. AffectAffect – – the emotional segment of an attitude. the emotional segment of an attitude. CognitionCognition – – the perception, opinion, or belief the perception, opinion, or belief

segment of an attitude.segment of an attitude. BehaviorBehavior – – the behavior segment of an attitude. the behavior segment of an attitude.


The Three Components of AttitudesThe Three Components of Attitudes

Work factorsWork factors ComponentsComponents ResponsesResponses

Job designJob design

Manager styleManager style

Company policiesCompany policies

TechnologyTechnology

SalarySalary

Employee benefitsEmployee benefits

AffectAffect

CognitionCognition

BehaviorBehavior

Emotional:Emotional:Statement about likingStatement about liking

Perceptual:Perceptual:Statement about beliefStatement about belief

Action:Action:

Statement about Statement about behaviorbehavior

StimuliStimuli AttitudesAttitudes OutcomesOutcomes


Attitudes and ValuesAttitudes and Values

ValuesValues – –

The guidelines and The guidelines and beliefs that a person beliefs that a person uses when confronted uses when confronted with a situation in which with a situation in which a choice must be made.a choice must be made.


Basic convictions that a specific mode of Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence ( a way conduct or end-state of existence ( a way of living) is personally or socially of living) is personally or socially preferable (i.e., what is right & good)preferable (i.e., what is right & good)

ValuesValues


Types of ValuesTypes of Values

Terminal ValuesTerminal ValuesDesirable end-state of existence; the goals that a Desirable end-state of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.((Desirable End States)Desirable End States)

Instrumental ValuesInstrumental ValuesPreferable modes of behavior or means of achieving Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one`s terminal values. (one`s terminal values. (The ways/means for achieving The ways/means for achieving one’s terminal values)one’s terminal values)


Importance of ValuesImportance of Values Values are important to the study of OB because Values are important to the study of OB because

they lay the foundation for the understanding of they lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes & motivation & they influence our attitudes & motivation & they influence our perceptions.perceptions.

Individuals enter an org. with preconceived Individuals enter an org. with preconceived notions of what “notions of what “oughtought” & what “” & what “ought notought not” to be.” to be.

Of course, these notions are not “Of course, these notions are not “value-freevalue-free”. ”. They contain interpretations of “They contain interpretations of “right & wrongright & wrong”.”.

Furthermore, they imply that certain behaviors are Furthermore, they imply that certain behaviors are preferred over others. As a result, preferred over others. As a result, values cloud values cloud objectivity & rationalityobjectivity & rationality. .


Importance of ValuesImportance of Values

Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.

Suppose that you enter an org. with the view that Suppose that you enter an org. with the view that ““allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrongallocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong”. ”.

How are you going to react if you find that “How are you going to react if you find that “the org. you the org. you have just joined rewards seniority & not performancehave just joined rewards seniority & not performance”?”?

You are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead to You are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead to job dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a high job dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a high level of effort since “ level of effort since “ it is probably not going to lead to it is probably not going to lead to more money, anywaymore money, anyway”.”.

Would your attitudes & behavior be different if your Would your attitudes & behavior be different if your values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?




Power DistancePower Distance Individualism vs. CollectivismIndividualism vs. Collectivism Masculinity vs. FemininityMasculinity vs. Femininity Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance Long-term and Short-term Long-term and Short-term

orientation orientation

Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework


The Power DistanceThe Power Distance

Extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.

Low distance: relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth

High distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth


Individualism Vs CollectivismIndividualism Vs Collectivism

Collectivism

A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.

Individualism

The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.

Vs.


Masculinity Vs FaminityMasculinity Vs Faminity

Masculinity

The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued.

Femininity

The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women.


Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance

The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and have created beliefs & institutions that try to avoid these. Countries who do not like uncertainty tend to have high need for security & a strong belief in experts & their knowledge.


Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance

High Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not like ambiguous situations & tries to avoid them. Countries with this dimension have a great deal of structuring of org. activities, more written rules, less risk taking by managers, lower labor turnover, & less ambitious employees.

Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind ambiguous situations & embraces them. Such societies have orgs. With less structuring of activities, fewer written rules, more risk taking by managers, higher labor turnover, & more ambitious employees. Orgs. Encourages personnel to use their own initiative & assume responsibility for their actions


Long-term Vs Short- Term OrientationLong-term Vs Short- Term Orientation

Long-term Orientation

A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.

Short-term Orientation

A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and the here and now.


Attitudes and Job Attitudes and Job SatisfactionSatisfaction

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction – The – The attitude that workers attitude that workers have about their jobs.have about their jobs.

It results from their It results from their perception of the jobs.perception of the jobs.


Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions

1.1. Pay.Pay. The amount received and perceived The amount received and perceived equity of pay.equity of pay.

2.2. Job.Job. The extent to which job tasks are The extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provide considered interesting and provide opportunities for learning and for accepting opportunities for learning and for accepting responsibility.responsibility.

3.3. Promotion Opportunities.Promotion Opportunities. The availability The availability of opportunities for advancement.of opportunities for advancement.


Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions (continued)(continued)

4.4. Supervisor.Supervisor. The supervisor’s abilities to The supervisor’s abilities to demonstrate interest in and concern about demonstrate interest in and concern about employees.employees.

5.5. Co-workers.Co-workers. The extent to which co- The extent to which co-workers are friendly, competent, and workers are friendly, competent, and supportive.supportive.


Satisfaction-Performance Relationships:Satisfaction-Performance Relationships:Three ViewsThree Views

2. Job satisfaction2. Job satisfaction



Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance



causescauses

is caused byis caused by

““The satisfied worker is more The satisfied worker is more productive.”productive.”

““The more productive worker is The more productive worker is satisfied.”satisfied.”

““There is no specific direction or There is no specific direction or relationship.”relationship.”


PersonalityPersonality

PersonalityPersonality – – a stable set of characteristics a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine and tendencies that determine commonalities and differences in people’s commonalities and differences in people’s behavior.behavior.

Personality is influenced by:Personality is influenced by: Hereditary factorsHereditary factors Cultural factorsCultural factors Social factorsSocial factors


The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorThe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Personality Types• Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)

• Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)

• Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)

• Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)

Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ)

Personality Types• Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)

• Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)

• Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)

• Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)

Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types.

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Some Major Forces Influencing PersonalitySome Major Forces Influencing Personality

The The Individual’s Individual’s PersonalityPersonality

Cultural forcesCultural forces

Hereditary forcesHereditary forces

Family relationship Family relationship forcesforces

Social class / group Social class / group membership forcesmembership forces


Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by:

1.1. Buffering.Buffering. Managers can look for ways to Managers can look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions made absorb the risks of creative decisions made by their employees.by their employees.

2.2. Organizational time-outs.Organizational time-outs. Give people Give people time off to work on a problem and allow time off to work on a problem and allow them to think things through.them to think things through.

3.3. Intuition.Intuition. Give half-baked or Give half-baked or unsophisticated ideas a chance.unsophisticated ideas a chance.


Organizations can develop creativity by: Organizations can develop creativity by: (continued)(continued)

4.4. Innovative attitudes.Innovative attitudes. Encourage everyone Encourage everyone to think of ways to solve problems.to think of ways to solve problems.

5.5. Innovative organizational structures.Innovative organizational structures. Let Let employees see and interact with many employees see and interact with many managers and mentors.managers and mentors.


The Psychological ContractThe Psychological Contract

An implied understanding of An implied understanding of mutual contributions between a mutual contributions between a person and his or her person and his or her organization.organization.


Psychological Contract Violations from Psychological Contract Violations from Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees Job securityJob security

No such thing as security with good chance of No such thing as security with good chance of layoff or downsizing.layoff or downsizing.

Child-care benefitsChild-care benefits Failing to provide adequate care and services Failing to provide adequate care and services

for child care during working hours on- or off-for child care during working hours on- or off-site.site.

Job feedbackJob feedback Poor attention and little effort to provide Poor attention and little effort to provide

meaningful job feedback.meaningful job feedback.


Psychological Contract Violations from Psychological Contract Violations from Perceptions of Employees Perceptions of Employees (continued)(continued)

Merit-based pay raisesMerit-based pay raises No relationship between pay and actual No relationship between pay and actual

performance.performance. Job autonomyJob autonomy

Failure to permit the employee to have the Failure to permit the employee to have the freedom to make job-related decisions about freedom to make job-related decisions about how to perform the job.how to perform the job.

PromotionPromotion Reneging on a specific promise to provide a Reneging on a specific promise to provide a

promotion for excellent performance.promotion for excellent performance.

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Lecture 2 individual differences & behaviors