EXHIBIT4 Whatisa safe distance tolive or work near
highautoemission roads?..http://sandiego.urbdezine.coml20
15/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-... SanDiegoUrbDeZine Urban
Planning + Design + Architecture + Historic Preservation
HOMERESOURCESFORUMURB MAINLOGIN Whatisasafedistanceto
liveorworknearhigh autoemissionroads?May 28, 2015 by Bill Adams1
(omment A nearby roadway may beputting your household's health at
risk.The same istrue of workplaces,schools,andother places where
people spendsignificant time.This healthriskisfrom the elevated
auto emissions near high traffic roadways.It's a
healthriskseparateandin addition to the regionalair pollution from
auto emissions. Wehave come to draw a false sense of security from
our collective sharing of regional air pollution and, perhaps, the
belief that regulatory agenciesprotect us.However,
researchcontinues to show that air pollution, particularly from
auto emissions,hasprofound effects onhealth.Moreover, suchimpacts
are unequally distributed among localpopulations,largely
basedonnearness to major roadways. Discussions about whether or not
to build or expand roadways are dominated by the topicsof traffic
congestionrelief,urban planning, andgreenhouse gasses.Theimpact of
roadwayson Americans' health andmorbidity isoften lost in the
discussions.53,000U.S.deaths annually are attributable to
automObile emission air pollution. (Caiazzo,et aI.,2013)Many more
are ill or incapacitatedfrom auto emissions.Ninety percent of
thecancer risk from air pollution in Southern
Californiaisattributable to auto emissions. (Hulsey,et
aI.,2004,par.10)Forcomparison, there are 35,000 U.s.deaths a year
from auto collisions (NHTSA,2012), which is the top cause of death
for U.S. males between the ageof 15and 24,andin the top ten
causesof deathof all Americans through the ageof 54. Theimpact
onlife and safety generally from roadexpansionreceiveslittle
attention.However, auto emission pollution basedonproximity to
source, i.e.line-source pollution,isoneof the most overlookedhealth
threats in the U.S.Current U.s.policies andregulations do little to
protect susceptible populations, including children, from the
dangers of nearnessto autoemission sources.Undoubtedly, the
disproportionate lack of urgency concerning the health impacts of
air pollutionisattributable to its hidden anddelayed
impact.Althoughthehealth impacts of air pollution on general
populations are certain,individual diagnoses of diseaserarely
identify air pollution asthe cause.Asa result, thehealth threat
fails to takeonthe personal dimension of other health
threats.Thesame wastrue with smoking for many decades.Additionally,
awareness of line-source pollution isfurther hinderedby confusion
with regionalI ambient air pollution, whichtypically manifests
inmore noticeable high ozonelevels,i.e.,smog. Air
pollutionmonitored by various agencies includesparticulate matter
(PM),ozone,nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
andlead.However,two of these causethe most concern due to their
prevalence andhealth significance:1) Ozone,which causesthebrown
smog commonly seenover cities and2)Particulate matter
(PM),alsoreferredtoasultrafine particulates (UFP). Unlike
ozone,PMexposure isdirectly related toproximity tosource -
primarily areasnear toor downwind from high traffic areas.Moreover,
for health impacts,PMpollutionmay be the worst of thelot.Heart
disease,lung functionimpairment, leukemia, asthma, andlung
cancer,are someof the conditions that havebeenassociated with
PMexposure resulting from proximity tohightraffic sources.
(Hulsey,et aI.,2004,par.6;Fuller,et aI.,2012, pp.257 - 265)Asstated
in a 2002 study about exposuretohighway PMs: lof7 lWlTTER PETITION
TOSTOP DEMOLITIONS INSANDIEGO FOR PARKING LOTS. Click the photo to
signor learn more about the Petition. 5/29/20 159:52 AM What isa
safe distance tolive or work near high auto emission
roads?...http://sandiego.urbdezine.coml20
15/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-... Throughout the past
decade,epidemiological studies have reported a consistent
relationship between increases in particulate matter (PM) exposure
and contemporary increases inmortality and morbidity. (Zhu,et al.,
2002) AmbientUFP - DeposItIon In the respiratory tract
1'TranslOcation tlir(IUiJli drcutali(m ~ ' * - Y T __ I -Heart
BraIn~'TyaltSfocalion via ollwory JUrve to olfactoryDun;
'_naL,Figure
17.HypothesizedpathwaysviawhichInhalationofUFPsmayleadtoeffectsoncardiovascular
and respiratorysystemsandonthe
brain.ReprintedwithpermissionfromtheHealthEffectsInstitute.
BostonMA.
Childrenareespeciallyvulnerabletoauto-emissionhealthimpactsbecause.amongotherreasons.theybreathemoreairrelativetotheirbodyweightthanadults.aremorephysicallyactive.
andspendmoretimesoutdoorsduringtimeswhen
pollutantlevelsareattheirhighest.(Hulsey,etaI.,2004)Additionally.childrenhavemanymoreyearsahead
oftheminwhichthecumulativedamagecaused byautoemissionscan
manifestitselfindiseaseordisability.Womenwho
livenearareasofhighautomobiletrafficduringpregnancyhavea20-
30%higherchanceofhavingchildrenwithlungimpairment.(Morales.etaI.,2014)AutoemissionPMexposurefromnearnesstohightrafficduringthethethirdtrimesterofpregnancydoublestheriskforautism.(Raz,
etal..2014).11% ofU.S.
residents,over30millionpeople,livewithin100metersof4laneorgreaterhighways.
(Brugge,etal..2007;Howard,2011)
Addinginworkplaces,schools,andcommuting.itIs reasonable
toextrapolatethatroughly1/3
ofpeoplespendasubstantialportionoftheirday
exposedtounhealthylevelsofautoemission PMs.
Sohowcanyoudetermineyourownexposurelevelorthatofyourchildren?
Belowaresomekey distancesandotherfactors: Ground Zero:
Curbsideandin-trafficaircontainshighlevelsofallpollutantsassociatedwithautoemissions-bothPMsandgaseoussubstanceslikebenzeneandcarbon
monoxide.(Hulsey,etal..2004.par.7) PM
exposureatintersectionsisasmuchas29timeshigherthanotherportionsofthe
road.(Goel &Kumar.2015)
Cyclists.autooccupantswithwindowsdownorventsopen.tollboothoperators,
androadsideresidentsandbusinessesreceiveupto25timesthelevelofPM
exposure. (Zhu.et
aI.,2002)Moreover,theairInsideacartypicallycontainshigherconcentrationsofthesepollutants
thantheairoutsideofthecar- as muchas4timesthebenzeneand
10timesthecarbon monoxide.(laA.2000)
Keepingthewindowsclosedandtheventilationsettorecirculatecan
reducein-carpollutantsto20%thatofairoutsidethecar.(l.A.Times,2013)
High Toxicity Zone -300 -500 feet: Onaverage.PM concentration is
significantlyhigherwithin330feet(100meters)ofmajor
highwaysthanitisfurtheraway.(Zhu,etaI., 2002)
ThesmallestPMs.withapeakconcentrationof 1.6x1
0(5)/cm3,arethemostdangerous.SmallerPMscarrytoxicsubstancesdeeperintothe
lungs andbody,andasaresult.havemoreprofoundhealtheffects.(Cal. EPA,
Aug.2014.p.29)Theyare concentratedinan
areawithin330feetfromhighways.(Zhu, supra) Pregnantwomenwholive
20f75/29/20159:52 AM What isa safe distance tolive or work near
highauto emission roads?...http:
//sandiego.urbdezine.comJ2015/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-...
within 500 feetof hightraffic areas areprone to birth
complications, including premature birth, low birth weight
children, andchildren with medicalproblems. (Wilhelm
&Ritz,2003) A review of a broad range of studies has correlated
early mortality - from a wide range of illnesses - with living
within 330 feet of a hightraffic roadway andrelatedexposure to
various auto emission substances. (Beelen,et aI., 2008) Figure
3.2.6-4: Sensitive ReceptorLocations (Springdale Street to Warner
Avenue)May 2012, 1-405 Improvement Project return tonear normal
beyond that distance. Elevitted Toxicity Zone -1,000 -l,5UO feet:
PMsfrom auto emissions areelevatedwithin 1,000 feet (300 meters) of
a major highway. (yifang, et al ., 2002,pp. 1038-1039)A Denver
study indicated that children living roughly within that
distancewere eight times aslikely todevelop leukemia andsix times
as vulnerable to all types of cancer.(Hulsey,et aI., 2004,- par.
1)[n another study, children under 5 years of ageadmitted
tohospitals with asthma emergencies were significantly more likely
to live within 500meters (1 ,640 feet) of a major highway when
traffic flow exceeded 24,000 vehiclesper hour than those who lived
further away or whentraffic flow wasless. (Edwards&
Walters,1994)Particle levels Other FactorsInfluencing Air
PollutionLevels Near Roadways: Wind: Peopleliving "downwind"
ofhighways with 4 or more lanes (2lanes ineachdirection) are
exposed to higher levelsof fine particulate matter. (Brugge,et al.
2007) However, thiscircumstancedoes not exempt one side of a
highway fromPMdangers.In many regions, wind direction changesnot
only depending on weather conditions, but alsobetween day andnight.
Sun, Rain &Humidity: Areasreceiving higher amounts of rainor
humidity canexperiencereducedauto-emission pollution levels,
especially ultra-fine particulate pollution.Thecleanair yousense
after a rain stormreally iscleaner.Thisfact isregularly
demonstrated inhigh-pollution Bejing. (USA Today,
Aug.11,2008)Atmospheric conditions alter the size,distribution,
andcomposition of freshly-emittedPMthrough condensation,
evaporation, anddilution during transport to downwind locations.
(Brugge,et aI., 2007)Thus, higher humidity levels cantamp down the
distribution of PMs.(HEIReview Panel ,
2013,p.24)Conversely,sun,heat, andlackof humidity generally favor
greater distribution of PM.Additionally, ground levelozone
concentration is unhealthieston sunny and warm days. Topography:
PM,aswellas gaseous air pollutants, tend to concentrate in valleys
due to containment by topographicalfeatures. (HEIReview,
supra)Inversions,in which a layer of cold air is trapped underneath
a layer of warm air, keepPMconcentrated near groundlevel
andaggravate theconcentration of PMin valley andcanyon
floors.Ibid.Fogisoften A temperature inversionina valley - clean
air poster anindicator of aninversion. from a Teacher's Guideto
CleanAir by BC Transit, Nov. 2005- republishedpermissionMinistry of
Environment,BritishColumbiaCanadaTime: Thetime of day caninfluence
PMconcentrations near highways - both in terms of traffic
30f75/29/20159:52 AM What isa safe distance tolive or work near
highauto emission roads?...http://sandiego.urbdezine.com/20
15/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-... concentrations
andintermsofweather.(HEI Review Panel,supra) Ofcourse,
highwaysexperiencemuch highertrafficconcentrationsatcertain
timesoftheday. However,suchconcentration hasbecomelessvaried as
employersstaggerworkshiftstoalleviatecommutingburdensand
ascontinuedhighwayexpansioncreatesInduceddemand(tendencyoffreewayexpansion
tocreatemoredemandand congestion in the
longrunbyfacilitatingsprawl). Additionally, the
heatingandcoolingofdayand
nighteffectpollutionconcentrationsatgroundlevel.AutoEmissionAir
Pollution as aSocial Justice Issue: The unavoidableconclusion from
theresearch isthateach timeamajorhighwayis builtorexpanded,some
ofthe residentslivingnearbywill paywiththeirhealthorlives.
Nevertheless,compared toindustrialusesthatposepotential
healthrisks,
roadwayconstructionprojectsremainrelativelyunregulatedas
adirectairpollutionhealth risk. (Hulsey, et aI.,2004)The same is
trueofthesitingofresidential, employment,senior, oreducational uses
nearhighways.Lowincomeand
minoritypopulationsaredisproportionatelyimpacted
byairpollutionhealthrisks.(Beleen, 2008)Suburban
expansioncreatesademandforroad expansion
throughexistingneighborhoods. Lowerincomeneighborhoodsand
ethnicminoritypopulationsleastoftenwie'ldthepoliticalinfluencenecessarytoresist
road expansionprojects. Additionally,multifamilyand
affordablehousingis morelikelytobe sited nearhigh trafficareasthan
is moreexpensive detached housing,Morerecently,
theconstructionofhigh
density"transitorienteddevelopments"(TODs),whichare
intendedtoreduceauto reliance
andwhichoftenincludeaffordablehousing,are
frequentlysitednearhightrafficareas. There hasbeen
littleacknowledgementin U.S.transportation policyofthesocial
inequalityandtheethicalissues related
tosacrificingthehealthofmembersofonecommunityto facilitate
thegrowthand commutingofanothercommunity,Propertycondemnedforaroad
expansionprojectresults in monetarycompensationto theownerbased on
fairmarketvalue. However,residentsputatrisk bythe
additionaltrafficemissionsas aresultoflivingadjacenttoorneartheroad
projectcannotrecovercompensationorassistance
torelocate.Constructionand
expansionofroadwaysmayinvolvesomepublicdisclosureofhealth
impactsviaenvironmentalreportingdocumentsbutthereportingtendstoassumethat"nobuild"highwayexpansion
optionswillsimplyresultin ever increasingcongestion. However,
morethanahalfcenturyofhighwaybuildinghas demonstratedthatcongestion
relieffrom road expansion tends tobe temporary,and thatthelongterm
impactis increasedautomobileuseand trafficcongestion.Such
"induceddemand" is increasinglyrecognized as
thelongtermeffectofexpandingroadwaysto
relievecurrenttrafficcongestion,Increasingly,
line-sourceproximitytoautoemission pollutionand therefinementand
improvedaccuracyofroadwayairpollutiondispersion modelingisbeingused
in legal and poli ti calchallengestohighwayexpansion
proposals.Given thestakes,itshardtojustifythecontinuedexpansion
ofroadwaysinurbanareas, theslownessofconversion to
non-combustiblefuelautomobiles,orthe proportionatelysmall
investmentinpublictransit. Ifsuch decisionswerebased solelyon
healthcriteria proportionatetootheridentifiedpublicrisks,
highwaysmightbequarantinedasan acutelyelevated healthhazard
tothosewholiveorworknearthem,Ofcourse,suchaction Is impracticalas
itwould resultinvasttractsofexistinghomes,schools, and places
ofemploymentbeingabandoned,.......... ......
..IIIttI.-..I__""""t"'"
.--.....-Cincinnatihighwayproximityhealthhazards.Republished
permission LADCOItisclearthatthepublicisstillnotfullyawareofthe
differencebetweenambi entai rpollutioneffectingthe WARNING: Arc....
,.,ithi ...1nM40f75/29/20159:52 AM What isa safe distance tolive or
work near highauto emission roads? ...http:
//sandiego.urbdezine.com/2015/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-.. .
general populace of a city and line-source air Areas within1,000
pollution impacting health basedonnearness to feet of major
highways.Perhaps,if thepublic wasmore aware of theroadways contain
direct andunequalhealth impacts of high-trafficsubstances known to
roadways,transitioning from roadway expansiontocause respiratory
transportation alternatives would receivemoreillness,heart disease,
urgency.Oneproposalfor an air quality district plan in cancer,and
reproductive harm. California requiredthat builders of homes,
schools,or day carecentersprovide notice to their customers of
toxic emiSsions,including those emanating frombusy roads,within
1,000 feet.(Hulsey,2004,p.13) Without a better understanding of
linesource proximity exposure by the general pub'lic,its hard to
foresee substantial changes.It may take activism andinformation
campaigns, suchasposting warning notices inneighborhoods within
the1,000 foot zone,to catch the public's attention and educate it
onthishealth issue. Notes: While this article cites a number of
scientific articles, some "rounding" isusedfor the purpose of
readability.In other words,this article attempts toorganizeand
summarize current available data into a general conceptualframework
for general public understanding rather than to provide new data.
References: caiazzo,F.,Ashok,A.,Waitz,I.A.,Yim, S.H.L.,Barrett,
S.R.H. (2013) Air pollution and early deaths In the United
States.Part 1:Quantifying the impact of major sectors In 2005,
Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment, Department of
Aeronautics and Astronautics,Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
August 2013. Zhu, Y.,Hinds, W.e.,SeongheonKim,S., andSioutas,
e.(2012) Concentration and SizeDistribution of Ultraflne Particles
Near a Major Highway,journal of the Air & WasteManagement
Association, vol . 52 Fatality Analysis Reporting System (2012)
fars.NHTSA.dot.gov Morales,E.,GarciaEsteban,R. ,Asensiode
laCruz,0.,Basterrechea, M.,Lertxundi, A.,Martinez
LopezdeDicastillo,M.D.,Zabaleta,e., Sunyer, j. (2014) Intrauterine
and early postnatal exposure to outdoor air pollution andlung
function at preschool age. Thorax,2014;See also,BMjBritish Medical
journal; SeealsoExposure to traffic pollutionduring pregnancy
candamage future child's lungs. ScienceDaily,20October 2014.
Howard,E.(2011) Every Breath YouTake, TuftsNow,November 2,2011
Brugge,B.,Durant, j.L., Rioux,e. (2007) Near-highway pollutants
Inmotor vehicle exhaust: A review of epidemiologic evidence of
cardiac andpulmonary health risks, Environmental Health, Autust
9,2007, 6:23 Goel, A.and Kumar,P.(2015) Characterisation of
nanoparticie emissions and exposure at traffic intersections
through fast-response mobile and sequential measurements
Atmospheric Environment, Vol.107, April 2015,pp.374-390 Hulsey,
B.,Hopkins,E.,Olson, E., Burg,E., andCarlson,M. (2004) Highway
HealthHazards:How highways and roads cause health problems In our
communities- and what you cando about it. Sierra Club,2004, 6 Draft
Environmental Impact Report! EnvironmentalConsequences,
andEnvironmentalImpact Statement Avoidance,Minimization, AndlOr
Mitigation Measures. 1405 Improvement Project. May 20123.2.622
Fuller, e.H., Brugge, D. Williams, P.,Mittleman, M.,Durant, j.L.,
and Spenglera, j . D. 50f75/29/20159:52 AM What isa safe distance
toliveor work near highauto emission roads?
...http://sandiego.urbdezine.com/20
15/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-... (2012)Estimation of
ultrafine particle concentrations at near-highway residences using
data from local and central monitors, AtmosphericEnvironment,
Volume 57,September 2012,Pages 257-265 Yifang.Z,Hinds,
W.e.,Seongheon,K.,Shen,S.,Sioutas,e.Concentration and sizedistri
bution of ultrafine particles near a major highway. journal of the
Air and WasteManagement Association. September 2002,pp.1038-1039.
Beelen,R., Hoek,G., A. vandenBrandt,P.,Goldbohm,
R.A.,Fischer,P.,Schouten,L.j., jerrett, M., Hughes,E.,Armstrong,B.,
andBrunekreef,B.,long-TermEffects ofTraffic-Related Air Pollution
on Mortality i n a Dutch Cohort (NLCS-A1R
Study),EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives (vol.116, no. 2, Feb.2008)
Rain,rain; Beijing air pollution washes away, August11, 2008 - USA
Today In-Car Air Pollution: The Hi dden Threat to Automobile
Drivers. International Center for Technology Assessment (lCTA).
july 2000 , page S. Borboza, T.,For cleaner air, set car vents to
'recirculate: study saysSeptember 12,2013,LA Times. Cal i fornia
Communiti esEnvironmental Health Screening Tool , Version2.0
(Calenviroscreen 2.0) Guidance AndScreening Tool , Californi a
EnvironmentalProtection Agency (August 2014),p.29. HEIReview
PanelonUltrafine Particles.2013. Understanding the Health Effects
of Ambient Ultrafine Particles. HEIPerspectives 3. HealthEffects
Institute, Boston,MA,p. 24 Wilhelm, M. andRitz,B., Residential
Proximity to Traffic and Adverse Bi rth Outcomes InLos Angeles
County, EnvironmentalHealth Perspectives(vol.111, No.2, Feb. 2003)
Edwards, j.; S. Walters,et al ., Hospitaladmissions for asthma in
preschool chil dren: relationship to major roads InBirmingham,
United Kingdom. Archives of EnvironmentalHealth. (49(4): 223-71994)
SanDiegoFreeway (140S) SupplementalDraft Environmental Impact
Report IEnvironmental Impact Statement, Figure 3.2.64 Sensitive
Receptor Locations, CaliforniaDept. of Transportation (2013)
(freeway widening project) Raz,R., Roberts, A.L.,Lyall,K., Hart. j
.E., just, A.e.,Laden, F., andWeisskopf,M.G., Auti smSpectrum
Disorder and Part iculateMatter Air Pollutionbefore, during.
andafter Pregnancy: A Nested Case-Control Analysiswithin the
Nurses'Health Study II Cohort, EnvironmentalHealth Perspectives
(2014) FiledUnder:Ecology, environmental health, Fture Posts, San
Diego, Tr.lnSportatlonTagged With: air poll ution, emissions,
particulatematter, PM, UFP, ultra fi ne particulates About Bill
Adams Bill Adamsisthe founder and chief editor of
UrbDeZine.Heisalso a partner in the SanDiegolaw firm of Norton,
Moore, & Adams,LLP.Hehasbeen Involved with landuse andurban
renewalfor nearly 25 years,both asa profeSSional and asa personal
passion. Hecurrently sits on the Boards of SanDiego Histor ic
Streetcars, The San Diego Architectural Foundation, The Food
andBeverage Association of SanDiegoCounty, and The Gaslamp Quarter
AssociationLandUsePlanni ng Committee. Norton, Moore, &
Adams,LLPisa boutique land use firm whichhandles a wide rangeof
land and building relatedmatters, frompermitting to litigation,
including: - Discretionary use applications and appeals,Including
alcoholic beverage sales, entertainment, Industrial, social
services, educational,hospitality,etc. - Zoning variances -
Municipal code andregulatory amendments - Litigation, i ncluding
eminent domain, access andeasements,CEQA.environmental, and
60f75/29/20159:52 AM Whatisa safedistance tolive or work near
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15/05/28/what-is-a-safe-distance-to-...
preservationProfessionalwebsite:www.nmalawfirm.comComments
Saamsays:May 28, 2015 at 8:39 am Thanksforconsolidatingso much
materialand data intooneplace!Thiswas trulyinformative. log into
Reply Speak Your Mind You mustbe loggedintopostacomment.RETURN
TOTOP OF PAGE COPYRIGHT2015NEWSTHEME ON GENESIS FRAMEWORK,WORDPRESS
,lOGINI70f7 5/29120159:52 AM EXHIBIT5
SouthCoastAirQualityManagementDistrict21865
CopleyDrive,DiamondBar,CA 91765-4182(909)396-2000
www.aqmd.govSCAQMDAirQualitySignificanceThresholdsMassDailyThresholdsaPollutant
ConstructionbOperationCNOx 100lbs/day 55lbs/dayVOC 75lbs/day
551bs/dayPMIO 150 Jbslday 1501bsldayPM2.S 55lbs/day 55lbs/daySOx
150lbs/day 1501bsldayCO 550lbs/day 550lbs/dayLead 3lbs/day
3lbs/dayToxicAirContaminants(TACs),Odor,andGHGThresholdsTACs(includingcarcinogensandnon-carcinogens)MaximumIncrementalCancerRisk;:::
10 in I millionCancerBurden>0.5 excesscancercases(inareas;:::
Iin Imillion)Chronic&AcuteHazardIndex;::: 1.0
(projectincrement)F Odor Projectcreatesanodornuisancepursuantto
SCAQMDRule402GHG 10,000MT/yr C02eqfor
industrialfacilitiesAmbientAirQualityStandards(orCriteriaPollutantsd
N02I-houraverageannualarithmeticmeanSCAQMDis in
attainment;projectis significantifitcausesorcontributestoan
exceedanceofthefollowing attainmentstandards:0.18ppm(state)0.03
ppm(state)and0.0534ppm(federal)PMIO24-houraverageannualaverage10.4llg/m3
(construction)e&2.5 Ilg/m3(operation)1.0
f..I.g/m3PM2.S24-houraverage 10.4Ilg/mJ(construction)e&2.5
llg/m3(operation)S02I-houraverage24-houraverage0.25
ppm(state)&0.075 ppm(federal-
99thpercentile)0.04ppm(state)Sulfate24-houraverage 25llg/m3
(state)i COI-houraverage8-houraverageSCAQMDis in
attainment;projectis
significantifitcausesorcontributestoanexceedanceofthefollowing
attainmentstandards:20ppm(state)and35
ppm(federal)9.0ppm(state/federal)Lead30-dayAverageRolling3-monthaverage1.5Ilg/m3
(state)0.15Ilg/m3(federal)aSource: SCAQMDCEQAHandbook(SCAQMD. 1993)
hConstructionthresholds applytoboth the
SouthCoastAirBasinandCoachellaValley(SaltonSeaandMojaveDesertAirBasins).
, ForCoachellaValley, themassdailythresholds for operationare
thesameastheconstructionthresholds. d Ambientairquality thresholds
forcriteriapollutantsbasedon SCAQMDRule 1303,TableA-2 unless
otherwisestated. e Ambientairqualitythresholdbasedon SCAQMDRule403.
KEY: Ibs/day =poundsperday ppm partspermillion j.lg/mJ
microgrampercubic meter ::>: greaterthanorequalto
MT/yrC02eq=metrictons peryearofC02equivalents > =greaterthan
Revision: March 2015EXHIBIT 6 A Section SOB-conformant HTML version
of this article is available at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408565.Research Associationsof
Mortality with Long-TermExposures to Fineand Ultrafine Particles,
Species andSources:Results from the California Teachers Study
Cohort Bart Ostro,1 Jianlin Hu,2 Debbie Goldberg,3 Peggy Reynolds,3
Andrew Hertz,3 Leslie Bernstein,4 and Michael J.Kleeman2 'Air
PollutionEpidemiology Section,CaliforniaOfficeofEnvironmental
HealthHazard Assessment, Oakland,California,USA; 2Department of
CivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,University of
California,Davis,Davis,California,USA;3Cancer PreventionInstitute
of California,Berkeley,Berkeley, California,USA;4City of
HopeNationalMedicalCenter,Duarte, California,USA
BACKGROUND:Although several cohort studiesreport
associationsbetween chronic exposuretofine
particles(PM2.5)andmortality,fewhavestudiedthe effectsof
chronicexposuretoultrafine(UF)
particles.Inaddition,fewstudieshaveestimatedthe effectsof
theconstituents of eitherPM2.5or UF particles.
METHODS:Weusedastatewide cohort
of>100,000womenfromtheCaliforniaTeachersStudy
whowerefollowedfrom200 Ithrough2007.Exposuredata
attheresidentiallevelwereprovided
byachemicaltransportmodelthatcomputedpollutant
concentrationsfrom>900sourcesin
California.Besidesparticlemass,monthly concentrationsof
IIspeciesand8sourcesor primary particles were generatedat4-km
grids.We usedaCox proportional hazardsmodelto estimatethe
associationbetweenthepollutantsand
all-cause,cardiovascular,ischemicheartdisease(IHD),and respiratory
mortality. RESULTS:Weobservedstatistically significant(p1.30.000
curren tandformerfemaleteachersand adm inistratorsiden tifiedth
roughtheState TeachersRetirementSystem.Becauseof
limiteddataonparticlespecies.thisearlier reportreliedonPM2.5
datacollectedand furtheranalyzedbytheU.S.EPAateight
fixed-sitemonitorsa.spartof theSpeciation
TrendsNetwork(U.S.EPA2(08). '[he 24-hr
averagedmeasurementswereusuallyobtained onaneverythird-
orsixth-daybasis.To
minimizeexposuremisclassification.catch-mentbuffer areasof 8and
.30km weredrawn aroundeachmonitor.The.30-kmbufferis
likelytoolargetocaptureexposurecontrasts of many of
thespecies.whilethe8-kmbuffer significantly reducedthe sample
size.resulting inmoreunstable
estimatesandreducedstatis-ticalpower.Althoughthesebufferswerean
improvementoverstudiesusingasingleor
multiplemonitorstorepresentexposureover
largemetropolitanareas.theymaynotsuffi-ciently measure
concentrationsof many of the PMconstituents.suchasc1emenralcarbon
(EC)andtransitionmetalsthatareknown
AddresscorrespondencetoB.Osrro,OEHHA,2008 Tampa
Ave.,Oakland,CA94611USA.Telephone:
(510)339-3379.E-mail:[email protected]
SupplememalMaterialisavailableonline(http://
dx.doLorg/I0.1289/ehp.14085(5).
FundingforthiseffortwasprovidedbygrantRO I
CA77398fromtheNationalCancerInstitute,con-tract97-10';00fromtheCaliforniaBreastCancer
ResearchFund,andSTAR grantR833372fromthe
U.S.EnvironmentalProtection Agency(EPA).
Althoughtheresearchdescribedinthearticlehas
beenpartiallyfundedbytheU.S.EPA,ithasnotbeen
subjecttolheagen(.)"srequiredpeer andpoli(.)'review
andthereforedoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviews of
theagencyandnoofficialendorsement shouldbe inferred.AllP M 2 ~
andultraflnePMexposuredata usedinthepresentstudyisavailablefreeof
chargear http://faculty.engincering.ucdavis.cdu/kleeman/. 11,e
authors declaretheyhaveno actua I or pottntial competing
financialinterests. Received:15April2014:Accepted:22January 20
IS:AdvancePublication:23January2015:Final Publication:1 June 2015.
549 Ostroet al. toexhibithighspatialvariance.Specifically.
Huer,II.(2014a.2014b)reportedsigniH-cantbiasforseveralspeciesof
HneandUF particleswhencomparingthecentral-site
monitorreadingsappliedtotheentiremetro-politanareapopulationversusouresdmated
population-weightedconcentrations.The
latterarederivedastheproduct(bothatthe 4-kmgridscale)of
thepopulationandour modd-based estimatesof the pollutants.
Modelestimatesarehighlycorrelated (r>
0.8)withobservationsatthemonitoring
locations.ButforthesevenmajorCalifornia
MetropolitanStatisticalAreasthathadavail-abledata.theestimatedpopulation-weighted
concentrationsforECweregenerallylower
thancentral-sitemonitorpredicdons.with amaximumbiasof
-50%inLosAngeles. California,andanavcragebiasof -33%.
Althoughmeasurementandmodelpredic-tionswereingoodagreementatthemonitor
locations,thebiaswasintroducedbyspatial variability
aroundthemonitor. Forthepresentstudy,wecombineddata ff()mtheCTS
withnewlydevelopedexposure data generatedfromthe UCD/CIT
(University of CaliforniaDavis/CaliforniaInstituteof
Technology)SourceOrientedChemical Transportmodel.TheUCD/CITchemical
transportmodelusescalculatedmeteorological
.ieldsandemissionsestimatesfordifferent
sourcesropredictairborneparticulatematter
concentrations.Parriculatematteremissions
areassignedasi:teandcompositiondistribu-tionbasedonmeasuremenrsinsource-testing
cxpcrimems.111esource-identity of allparticu-latematter
emissionsisretainedthroughthe
simulatedatmosphere.Inthepresentstudy,
ground-levelmassconcentrationsfor50PM
constituentswereestimatedoverthemajor
populationregionsinCaliforniaata4-km resolutionfortheperiodof
2000-2007.For many speciesof fineandUFparticles,model predictions
arehighly correlated withmeasured
values,particularlyforlongeraveragingtimes
(>2weeks).Forexample,correlationswere > 0,8 for comparisons
betweenannualmodeled andmeasuredconcentrationsof 10different PM2.5
componentsforfiveof the
sevenmetro-politanregionswithavailablemonitoringdata (Hu
ctal.2014b). Below,wereportourfindingsof an
analysisoftheassociationsof long-term
exposuretoJ9constituentsandsourcesof
hothPM2.5andUFparticlesonmortality
fromallnaturalcauses,cardiovascular
disease,ischemicheartdisease(IHD),and pulmonary disease. Methods
Data.TheCTSisaprospectivestudyof
133,479currentandformerfemaleteachers
andadministratorswhocompletedbaseline
questionnairesmailedtothemin1995to investigatetheincidenceof
breastcancerin public schoolreachersandadministrators.as
describedindetailbyBernsteinetal.(2002),
Subsequentquestionnairesweremailedto
CTSparticipantsin1997and2000.The designandongoingfollow-upof theCTS
cohortisamulti-institutionalcollaboration
involvingresearcherswithdiverse and comple-mentaryareasof
expertise.Recordlinkageis
conductedannuallytomortaliryfilesadminis-teredbytheCaliforniaDepartment
of Public Health.Inaddition.residentialaddressesof
eachCTSparticipant wereupdatedannually forthemailingof
newsletters.Themean ageof CTSparticipantsatenrollmenrwas 54
years,with90%between30 and80 years.
Thecohortismulti-ethnicburprimarily
non-Hispanicwhite(86.7%)andborninthe
UnitedStates(93.6%).Forthisstudy,we usedcohort follow-updata
fromJanuary 2001 through July2007.Women
