Law in Times of Crisis - Cambridge University Pressassets.cambridge.org/97805215/41237/frontmatter/9780521541237_frontmatter.pdfLaw in Times of Crisis Emergency powers in theory and

Law in Times of CrisisEmergency powers in theory and practice

The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the ensuing ‘‘war on

terror” have focused attention on issues that have previously lurked in

a dark corner at the edge of the legal universe. This book presents the

first systematic and comprehensive attempt by legal scholars to

conceptualize the theory of emergency powers, combining

post-September 11 developments with more general theoretical,

historical and comparative perspectives. The authors examine the

interface between law and violent crises through history and across

jurisdictions, bringing together insights gleaned from the Roman

republic and Jewish law through to the initial responses to the July

2005 attacks in London. The book examines three unique models of

emergency powers that are used to offer a novel conceptualization of

emergency regimes, giving a coherent insight into law’s interface with

and regulation of crisis and a distinctive means to evaluate the legal

options open to states for dealing with crises. Particular attention is

given to the interface between international law and regulatory

mechanisms and emergency powers, as a key element of the

contemporary political response to violent crises.

f ionnual a ní aolá in Professor of Law and Associate Director of

the Transitional Justice Institute at the University of Ulster and Dorsey

& Whitney Professor of Law at the University of Minnesota Law School.

oren gross Irving Younger Professor of Law and Director,

Minnesota Center for Legal Studies, at the University of Minnesota

Law School.

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-54123-7 - Law in Times of Crisis: Emergency Powers in Theory and PracticeOren Gross and Fionnuala Ni AolainFrontmatterMore information

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cambridge studies in international and comparative law

Established in 1946, this series produces high quality scholarship in the fieldsof public and private international law and comparative law. Although theseare distinct legal sub-disciplines, developments since 1946 confirm theirinterrelation.

Comparative law is increasingly used as a tool in the making of law atnational, regional and international levels. Private international law is nowoften affected by international conventions, and the issues faced by classicalconflicts rules are frequently dealt with by substantive harmonisation of lawunder international auspices. Mixed international arbitrations, especially thoseinvolving state economic activity, raise mixed questions of public and privateinternational law, while in many fields (such as the protection of human rightsand democratic standards, investment guarantees and international criminallaw) international and national systems interact. National constitutionalarrangements relating to ‘‘foreign affairs’’, and to the implementation ofinternational norms, are a focus of attention.

The Board welcomes works of a theoretical or interdisciplinary character,and those focusing on the new approaches to international or comparative lawor conflicts of law. Studies of particular institutions or problems are equallywelcome, as are translations of the best work published in other languages.

General Editors James Crawford SC FBAWhewell Professor of International Law, Faculty of Law, andDirector, Lauterpacht Research Centre for International Law,University of CambridgeJohn S. Bell FBAProfessor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge

Editorial Board Professor Hilary Charlesworth Australian National UniversityProfessor Lori Damrosch Columbia University Law SchoolProfessor John Dugard Universiteit LeidenProfessor Mary-Ann Glendon Harvard Law SchoolProfessor Christopher Greenwood London School of EconomicsProfessor David Johnston University of EdinburghProfessor Hein Kotz Max-Planck-Institut, HamburgProfessor Donald McRae University of OttawaProfessor Onuma Yasuaki University of TokyoProfessor Reinhard Zimmermann Universitat Regensburg

Advisory Committee Professor D. W. Bowett QCJudge Rosalyn Higgins QCProfessor J. A. Jolowicz QCProfessor Sir Elihu Lauterpacht CBE QCProfessor Kurt LipsteinJudge Stephen Schwebel

A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume.






Law in Times of CrisisEmergency Powers in Theory and Practice

Oren Gross

and

Fionnuala Nı Aolain






cambridge university pressCambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo

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C© Oren Gross and Fionnuala Nı Aolain 2006

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For Aodhtan, Noa, and Malachi






Contents

Acknowledgments Page xiiiTable of cases xvTable of treaties xxiTable of legislation xxivTable of international materials xxviii

Introduction 1

Part I 15

1 Models of accommodation 17Classical models of accommodation 17

The Roman dictatorship 17The French ‘‘state of siege’’: origins 26Martial law in the United Kingdom: origins 30

Constitutional accommodation 35Emergency provisions in constitutional documents 35Constitutional necessity 46The authority to declare an emergency 54Legal results of a declaration of a state

of emergency 58Checks and balances 62

Legislative accommodation 66Modifying ordinary laws 66Special emergency legislation 67

Interpretive accommodation 72‘‘‘Each crisis brings its word and deed’’ 79

ix






x contents

2 Law for all seasons 86Ex parte Milligan 89Holding the line 94

A strategy of resistance 98Myths, symbolism, and ideals 101Slippery slopes 103Perceptions and misperceptions 105

3 Models of extra-legality 110Ethic of political responsibility 113

Emergency jurisdiction and temporary measures inJewish law 113

Locke’s theory of the prerogative power 119‘‘Casting behind metaphysical subtleties’’ 123Dicey’s ‘‘spirit of legality’’ 130Searching for ‘‘moral politicians’’ 132

Disobedience and ratification 134Official disobedience 134Ex post ratification 137

No security without law 142The case for rule departures 146

Prospective and uncertain relief 147Courts and legislatures 153Giving reasons 155Ratifying egregious actions? 156Precedents 159

Carl Schmitt’s dark shadow 162Carl Schmitt’s theory of the exception 162Decisionism and the Extra-Legal Measures model 169

4 Five degrees of separation 171Normalcy and emergency: rule and exception 172Sequencing and temporal distinctions: separating the

best and the worst of times 174It’s a bad world out there (I): spatial distinctions 181

Colonies and empire: the origins of DORA 181The curtailment of the right to silence in the

United Kingdom 183Interrogation in depth in Finchley? 188From l’Algerie française to la France algerienne 190






contents xi

The war on terror: Guantanamo and beyond 202It’s a bad world out there (II): domestic and foreign affairs 205The distinct sphere of ‘‘national security’’ 214Communal divisions: us vs. them 220The normalization of the exception 228

Part II 245

5 International human rights and emergencies 247Definitions of emergency 249Application of the models: Business as Usual 252Application of the models: accommodation 255

International accommodation: constitutionaland legislative 256

Models of accommodation: interpretiveaccommodation 263

The gap between the theory and practice ofemergency powers 304

The Questiaux Report 306Paris Minimum Standards 310The Siracusa Principles: an attempt at concrete

rules to limit abuse of emergencies 313Weakness of the ‘‘aberration” hypothesis 315Artificiality of formal emergencies 318The hidden emergency 320Concluding assessment 322

6 Emergencies and humanitarian law 326Self-preservation, necessity, and self-defense in

international law 328Internal armed conflicts and emergencies 339

High-intensity emergencies 341Low-intensity conflict 350

Overlapping regimes: high meets low 359Conclusion 363

7 Terrorism, emergencies, and international responsesto contemporary threats 365General issues of definition and applicable legal regimes 366

Defining terrorism 366






xii contents

Models of emergency powers as applied to terrorism 371The ‘‘terrorism and law” interface 384

The regulation of terrorism by internationalhumanitarian law 385

International legal responses post-September 11 394Suppression conventions 394The UN response to September 11 400Implementing Resolution 1373 402Human rights and other lacunae in operating

Resolution 1373 405Contextualizing the UN response 407The European Framework Decision on Terrorism 409Definitional issues arising from the Framework

Decision 414State responses to Resolution 1373 and the European

Framework Decision 417Conclusion 420

Bibliography 422Index 469






Acknowledgments

This book is the culmination of many years of teaching, researching,thinking about, and writing about international law, human rights, na-tional security, and emergency powers. Both authors wish to expresstheir deepest thanks to all those, both individuals and institutions, whomade this journey possible and who lent their support, intellectual abil-ities, and friendship, as well as academic environment, space, and fi-nancial assistance, to each of us and to this project. Both of us areespecially grateful to Abram Chayes, Richard Fallon, Martha Fineman,Arnon Gutfeld, Louis Henkin, Sanford Levinson, Lance Liebman, UrielProccacia, Kent Roach, William Scheuerman, Leon Sheleff, Tom Sullivan,and David Weissbrodt. We also wish to thank Catherine Turner andAdrienne Reilly (University of Ulster) and David Brice (University ofMinnesota) for their research assistance.

Fionnuala Ní Aolain also wishes to acknowledge her thanks to hertwo friends and colleagues Professors Christine Bell and Colm Camp-bell at the Transitional Justice Institute at the University of Ulster. Bothhave fostered the intellectual space that has facilitated this work overa number of years. The work on this book commenced for Professor NíAolain while she was a Visiting Fellow at the Law and Public Affairs pro-gram at Princeton University in 2001--02. Her thanks go to her collegialfellows in residence that year, and particularly to Professor Chris Eisgru-ber, then Director of the LAPA program. She also acknowledges receiptof a Research Fellowship in the fall of 2003 from the Transitional JusticeInstitute that allowed her to work exclusively on this book. The Univer-sity of Minnesota Law School and Dean Alex Johnson also supported theresearch for this book while Professor Ní Aolain was a Visiting Professorin Fall 2003. Numerous individuals read draft chapters over the yearsincluding Professors Bill Schabas, Colm Campbell, David Kretzmer, and

xiii






xiv acknowledgments

David Wippman. Finally, Professor Ní Aolain gratefully acknowledges theinfluence that her teacher, friend, and colleague Stephen Livingstonehad on the intellectual development that gave birth to the ideas in thiswork. He is greatly missed.

Personal thanks are due to Julie Harrison and Claire Archbold, god-mothers to Aodhtan and Noa. Without the assistance of many friendsand a support network that bails her out on regular occasions, academiclife with its hefty publication and conference schedule would be impossi-ble. This network of friends includes Liz McAleer, Laura Lundy, HeatherRyding, Clodach McGrory, Irene Harrison, Lindsay Phillips, Chivy Sok,Jelena Pajic, Anat Horowitz, Carol Liebman, Susan Wolf, and Fionnuala’swonderful younger sister Neasa and mother Catherine.

Oren Gross wishes to acknowledge, first and foremost, FrederickSchauer who was the best doctoral supervisor anyone could hope andwish for. I thank him for his patience, kindness, good advice, sugges-tions, and critique, and for his ongoing friendship. I owe Phil Heymannand Morton Horwitz a debt greater than I can express in words (and asa result have probably failed to express my thanks to both as often asI should). I gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance that I havereceived from the British Academy, the Fesler Summer Research Grant,and the Vance K. Opperman Research Scholarship (the last two at theUniversity of Minnesota Law School), as well as the space and vibrantacademic community offered by the LAPA program at Princeton Uni-versity and the Transitional Justice Institute at the University of Ulsterin Northern Ireland. Last but not least, my deepest thanks go, with allmy love, to my wonderful family: my parents, Rina and Yehoshua, mybrother Dror and his wife, Tal, and my wife (and co-author), Fionnualaand my kids Aodhtan, Noa, and Malachi. None of this would have beenpossible without them.

Finally, some segments of this book rely to a certain extent on workthat we have already published. As the list of relevant publications is(fortunately) not a short one, we simply wish to incorporate here ourjoint acknowledgment of such publications and the cumulative assis-tance we have received from law review editors, colleagues, and editorsof the collected essays where our work has been published and refer-ence to the relevant works as they appear in the bibliography underour names. We would like to note, however, that even in cases wherewe relied more heavily on such previously published work, we updated,revised, reworked, and rearranged our arguments.






Table of cases

International cases

Bhagat Singh and Others v. The King Emperor, AIR 1931 PC 111, 5In re Krupp and Others (1949) 10 War Crimes Reports 138--39, 334In re von Leeb and Others (1949) 12 War Crimes Reports 1, 334Ningkan v. Government of Malaysia (1970) AC 379, 5United States v. List et al. (1950) 11 Trials of War Criminals before the

Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law 757, 334

International Court of Justice

Nicaragua v. United States (Merits) (1986), International Court of JusticeReports 14, 332, 354, 386

Prosecutor v. Delalic, Mucic, Delic and Landzo, Judgment No. IT-96-21-T(Nov. 16, 1998), 354

Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, Trial Chamber Judgment, May 7, 1997,Case No. IT-94-1-AR72, 355

Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-A (July 15, 1999), 354, 355,386, 390

European Commission Human Rights

Ireland v. United Kingdom (Commission), 1976 YB Eur. Conv. on HR,269, 271, 276, 277, 374

McVeigh et al. v. United Kingdom (1981) 25 Eur. Comm’n HR Dec. &Rep. 15, 375

Purcell v. Ireland (1991) 70 Eur. Comm’n HR Dec. & Rep. 262, 376

xv






xvi table of c ases

European Court of Human Rights

Akdivar v. Turkey (1997) 23 European Human Rights Reports 143, 346Aksoy v. Turkey, 23 Eur. HR Rep. 553 (Dec. 18, 1996), 283--84Al-Nashif v. Bulgaria (50963/99) (2002) ECHR 497 (June 20, 2002), 288Brannigan and McBride v. United Kingdom, 258 Eur. Ct HR (ser. A)

(1993), 263, 282, 285, 321Brogan and Others v. United Kingdom, 145-B Eur. Ct HR (Ser. A) (1988),

278--80, 281, 285, 321, 375Chahal v. United Kingdom (1996) 23 Eur. HR Rep. 413, 375(First) Cyprus case, 271--72Demir and Others v. Turkey (21380/93) (1998) ECHR 88 (Sept. 23, 1988),

286--88Djavit An v. Turkey (20652/92) (2003) ECHR 91, 257Fliz and Kalkan v. Turkey (34481/97) (2002) ECHR 504 (June 20, 2002),

288Fox, Campbell and Hartley v. United Kingdom (1991) 13 Eur. HR Rep.

157, 374Greece v. United Kingdom, 1958--1959 YB Eur. Conv. on HR 174

(Eur. Comm’n on HR), 249, 272, 273--76, 358Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland (2000) Eur. Ct HR 675 (2001) 33 Eur.

HR Rep. 12, 376Incal v. Turkey (1998) 29 Eur. HR Rep. 448 (198-IV) Eur. Ct HR 1547, 375Ireland v. United Kingdom (1978) 25 Eur. Ct HR (ser. A), 277Ireland v. United Kingdom, 23 Eur. Ct. HR (ser. B) (1976), 257, 311--12James v. United Kingdom, 8 Eur. HR Rep. 123 (1986), 262John Murray v. United Kingdom (1996) 22 Eur. HR Rep. 29, 375Klass v. Germany (1978) 28 Eur. Ct HR (ser. A) (1978), 374Lawless v. Ireland, 1 Eur. Ct. HR (ser. B) (1960--61), 6, 249Lawless v. Ireland, 3 Eur. Ct HR (ser. A) (1960--61), 249, 257--58, 269--73,

314, 341, 375, 379McCann and Others v. United Kingdom (1966) 21 Eur. HR Rep. 97, 374McFeeley v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8317/78 (1980) 3 Eur. HR Rep. 161

(1980) 20 D.R. 44, 372Magee v. United Kingdom (2001) 31 Eur. HR Rep. 822 (2000) Eur. Ct HR

215, 376Ocalan v. Turkey (46221/99) (2003) ECHR 125 (Mar. 12, 2003), 288Refah Partisi (Welfare Party) v. Turkey, 37 Eur. HR Rep. 1 (2003), 40, 262Sakik and Others v. Turkey (1977) ECHR 95 (Nov. 26, 1997), 284--86Tinnelly & Sons Ltd and McElduff v. United Kingdom (1999) 27 Eur. HR

Rep. 249, 375






table of c ases xvii

Tomasi v. France (1992) 241 Eur. Ct HR (ser. A), 381Welfare Party v. Turkey, App. Nos. 41340, 42-44/98 (2002), 257

Inter-American Court of Human Rights

Aloeboetoe et al. v. Surinam (1994) Inter-Am. Ct HR (Ser. C) No. 15(Sept. 10, 1993), 346

Castillo Petruzzi et al., Judgment of May 30, 2999, Inter-Am. Ct HR(ser. C) No. 52 (1999), 294--96

Loayza Tamayo v. Peru, Case 33, Inter-Am. CHR 57 (ser. C) (1997), 294Neira Alegria et al. v. Peru, Judgment of Jan. 19, 1995, Inter-Am. Ct HR

(ser. C) No. 20 (1995), 293Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Argentina, Inter-Am. CHR

OEA/ser. L/V./II49, doc. 19 corr. 1 (1980), 250Tablada case, Case No. 11.137, Argentina, OEA/Ser. L/V/II. 97 Doc. 38,

Oct. 30, 1997, 346

United Nations Human Rights Committee

Camarago de Guerro, 300Carmen Amendola Massioti v. Uruguay, Communication No. R6/25, 298Consuelo Salgar de Montejo v. Colombia, Communication No. R/15/64,

298, 299Fals Borda v. Colombia, Case No. 46/1979, 300--01General Comment 29, States of Emergency, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21 Rev.

1/Add. 11 (2001), 250, 328Jorge Landinelli Silva et al. v. Uruguay, Communication No. 34/1978,

298Kavanagh v. Ireland (No. 1) Case No. 818/1998, 298Kavanagh v. Ireland, Communication No. 1114/2000/Rev. 1, UN Doc.

CCPR/C/76D/1114/2002/Rev. 1, 376Maria del Carmen Almeida de Quinteros v. Uruguay, Communication

No. 107/1981, 298Monja Jaona v. Madagascar, Communication No. 132/1982, 298Polay Campos v. Peru, Case No. 577/1994, 300

Germany

The Communist Party Case, 5 BVerGE 85 (1956), 40The Radical Groups Case, 40Socialist Reich Party Case, 2 BVerGE1 (1952), 40






xviii table of c ases

Israel

E.A. 1/65 Yardor v. Chairman of Cent. Elections Comm. for SixthKnesset, 19(3) PD 365, 40

E.A. 2/84, Neiman v. Chairman of Cent. Elections Comm. for EleventhKnesset, 39(2) PD 225, 40

H.C. 428/86, Barzilai v. Gov’t of Israel, 40(3) PD 505 (1986), 95, 137, 143H.C. 5100/94, Pub. Comm. against Torture in Israel v. The State of Israel,

53(4) PD 817, 137, 161

United Kingdom

A. v. Secretary of State (2004) HRLR 38, 205, 395A. and Others v. Secretary of State for the Home Department (No. 2)

(2005) 1 WLR 414 (CA Civ. Div.), 205, 395Egan v. Macready (1921) 1 LR 265, 34In re Art. 26 and the Emergency Powers Bill, 1976 (1977) IR 159, 62Ireland v. United Kingdom, 1976 YB Eur. Conv. on HR (Eur. Comm’n on

HR), 276Murray v. DPP (1994) 1 WLR 1 (HL), 187R. v. Cowan (1995) All ER 939, 188R. v. Kane, Timmons & Kelly (Cr. Ct, N Ir., Mar. 30, 1990), 187R. v. Martin & Others (Cr. Ct, N Ir., May 8 1991), 187R. v. McLernon (1990) NIJB 91, 187R. v. Murray (Cr. Ct, N Ir., Jan. 18, 1991), 187Re McGrath and Harte (1941) IR 68, 62State (Walsh) v. Lennon (1941) IR 112, 120, 62Willcock v. Muckle, 2 KB 844 (1951), 176

United States

Abdah v. Bush (DDC Mar. 12, 2005) (2005 WL 589812), 204Al-Anazi v. Bush, 370 F.Supp.2d 188 (DDC 2005), 204Al Odah v. United States, 321 F.3d 1134 (DC Cir. 2003), 202A.L.A. Schechter, Poultry Corporation v. US, 295 US 495 (1935), 86The Apollon, 22 US (9 Wheat.) 362 (1824), 161Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Federal Bureau of Narcotics,

403 US 388 (1971), 138Block v. Hirsh, 256 US 135 (1921), 75Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 US 444 (1969), 160






table of c ases xix

Carlson v. Green, 446 US 14, 21 (1980), 138Coalition of Clergy v. Bush, 189 F.Supp.2d 1036 (CD Cal. 2002), 202Cook v. United States, 288 US 102 (1933), 209Diggs v. Shultz, 470 F.2d 461 (1972), 209Dow v. Johnson, 100 US 158 (1879), 126Dred Scott case 135Edgar A. Levy Leasing Co. v. Siegel, 258 US 242 (1922), 75Ex parte Merryman, 17 F.Cas. 144 (CCD Md 1861), 96Ex parte Milligan, 71 US (4 Wall.) 2 (1866), 74--75, 76, 77, 86--87, 88,

89--93, 94--101Ex parte Starr, 263 F. 145, 147 (1920), 79Ex parte Vallandigham, 68 US (1 Wall.) 243 (1863), 96Filartiga v. Pena-Irala, 630 F.2d 876 (2nd Cir. 1980), 381Habson v. Wilson, 737 F. 2d 1 (DC Cir. 1984), 213Haig v. Agee, 453 US 280, 7Halkin v. Helms, 690 f. 2d 977 (DC Cir. 1982), 213Halperin v. Kissinger, 807 F.2d 180 (DCC 1986), 214Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 296 F.3d 278 (4th Cir. 2002), 202Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 124 S. Ct 2633 (2004), 180Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 US 507 (2004), 53, 227, 326Highland v. Russell Car and Snow Plow Co., 279 US 253 (1929), 75Home Building & Loan Ass’n v. Blaisdell, 290 US 398 (1934), 76--77Julliard v. Greenman, 110 US 421 (1884), 230Kadic v. Karadzic, 70 F.3d 232 (2nd Cir. 1995), 381Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, 372 US 144, 7Khalid v. Bush, 355 F.Supp.2d 311 (DDC 2005), 202Korematsu v. United States, 323 US 214 (1944), 82, 99, 159, 160Little v. Barreme, 6 US (2 Cranch.) 170 (1804), 127--28, 129Marbury v. Madison, 5 US (1 Cranch.) 137, 176--77 (1803), 141Marcus Brown Holding Co. v. Feldman, 256 US 170 (1921), 75Mitchell v. Clark, 110 US 633 (1884), 130, 150Myers v. United States, 272 US 52 (1926), 211NY Times Co. v. United States, 403 US 713, 214O.K. v. Bush (DDC July 12, 2005) (2005 WL 1621243), 204Olmstead v. United States, 277 US 438 (1928), 143Parker v. Levy, 47 US 733 (1974), 220Rasul v. Bush, 215 F.Supp.2d (DDC 2002), 202Rasul v. Bush, 542 US 466 (2004), 202In re Guantanamo Detainee Cases, 355 F.Supp.2d 443 (DDC 2005), 202Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 US 426 (2004), 227






xx table of c ases

Ruppert v. Caffey, 251 US 264 (1919), 90Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47 (1919), 160Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina, 965 F.2d 699 (9th Cir.

1992), 381Skinner v. Ry. Labor Executives’ Ass’n, 489 US 602, 7Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 US 1, 7United States v. Belmont, 301 US 324 (1937), 208United States v. Cavanagh, 807 F.2d 787 (9th Cir. 1987), 212United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 US 304 (1936), 206--08United States v. Pink, 315 US 203 (1942), 208United States v. Postal, 589 F.2d 862 (5th Cir. 1979), 209United States v. Smith, 27 F. Cas. 1192 (CCDNY 1806), 127United States v. United States Dist. Court, 407 US 297 (1972), 212, 214United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 US 259 (1990), 212Veronia Sch. Dist. 47J v. Acton, 515 US 646, 7Whitney v. California, 274 US 357 (1927), 159Wilson v. New, 243 US 332 (1917), 75--76, 77, 97Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 US 579 (1952), 46, 51, 65,

68, 82, 85, 207Zadvydas v. Davis, 533 US 678 (2001), 214






Table of treaties

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, June 26, 1981, OAUDoc. CAB/LEG/67/3, 248, 252, 253, 381

American Convention on Human Rights, Nov. 22, 1969. OAS OfficialRecords OEA/ser. K/XVI/1.1, doc. 65 rev.1 corr. 1, 248, 250, 256, 289,295, 349, 381

Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose ofDetection, Mar. 1, 1991, 2122 UNTS 359, 395, 396

Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed on BoardAircraft, Sept. 14, 1963. 20 UST 2941, 704 UNTS 219, 395

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 1456 UNTS1987, 396

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime ofGenocide, 78 UNTS 277, 247, 248

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes againstInternationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, 28UST 1975, TIAS No. 8532, 1035 UNTS 167, 396

Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, Nov. 16,1937 (1938) 19 League of Nations Official Journal 23, 367

Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 UTNS 221, 6, 247, 326, 381

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety ofCivil Aviation, 24 UST 565, TIAS No. 7570, 974 UNTS 178, 396

Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety ofMaritime Navigation, Mar. 10, 1988, 1678 UNTS 221, 396

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or DegradingTreatment or Punishment, GA res. 39/46, annex. 39 UN GAOR Supp.(No. 51), UN Doc A/39/51 (1984), 248, 381

xxi






xxii table of treat ies

European Convention on Human Rights, 13, 61, 247, 249, 256, 257,259--60, 261--62, 268--69, 290, 347, 373, 419

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms, 40

European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (1979) 1137UNTS 93, 90, European Treaty Series 3, 368, 394, 397

European Convention on Terrorism, ETS No. 090 (1977), 394General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Oct. 30, 1947, 55 UNTS 194,

218Geneva Conventions, 180, 204, 350, 351, 352, 350--55, 355--59, 360,

362--63, 386, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft,

Dec. 16, 1970. 22 UST 1641, 860 UNTS 105, 396Inter-American Anti-War Treaty of Non-Aggression and Conciliation

(Saavedra Lamas Treaty), Oct. 10, 1933, 49 Stat. 3363, 163 League ofNations Treaty Series 57, 329

Inter-American Convention against Terrorism, OAS AG Res. 1840, 32ndSess., OAS Doc. XXXII/O/02 (June 3, 2002), 368, 394, 397

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing ofTerrorism, Dec. 9, 1999, UN GAOR, 54th Sess., UN Doc. A/RES/54/109(1999), 397, 401

International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings,Jan. 9, 1998, GA Res. 164, UN GAOR, 52nd Sess., Supp. No. 49, UNDoc. A/52/164 (1998), 397, 401

International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, GA Res.34/146, UN GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, UN Doc. A/34/146 (1979),396

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, 999UNTS 171, 247, 256, 260, 261, 381

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, GAres. 2200A (XXI), 21 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 16), 247, 256

North American Free Trade Agreement, Dec. 17, 1992, 32 ILM 296, 218,219

Protocol Concerning the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against theSafety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, Mar. 10,1988, 396

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at AirportsServing International Aviation, Senate Treaty Doc. No. 101--1 (1989),396

Refugee Convention, 406






table of treat ies xxiii

Treaty on European Union, 411Treaty Providing for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of

National Policy, Aug. 27, 94 League of Nations Treaty Series 57(Kellogg--Briand Pact), 329

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA res 217A (III), UN Doc A/810(1948), 247

Washington Treaty, 390






Table of legislation

Constitutions

Albania, 58, 61Algeria, 61Argentina, 42Armenia, 58Austria, 55, 59, 61Belarus, 58Belgium, 37, 61Bolivia, 42, 56, 57, 59Brazil, 42, 56, 58, 59, 61Bulgaria, 58Cambodia, 61Colombia, 42Costa Rica, 56, 58Croatia, 58, 61Cyprus, 58Denmark, 55, 59Dominican Republic, 42, 55Ecuador, 45, 56El Salvador, 58Estonia, 41, 58Fiji, 58Finland, 59France, 56, 61Germany, 43, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61Greece, 55, 57, 58, 59Guatemala, 45, 58

xxiv






table of leg i s l at ion xxv

Hungary, 41, 55, 58, 61India, 56, 57, 59, 60Ireland, 59, 63Israel, 45, 55, 57, 59Italy, 55Japan, 37Lithuania, 41Luxembourg, 61Macedonia, 61Malaysia, 63Mexico, 45Nepal, 58Netherlands, 58Nicaragua, 42, 56, 58Panama, 42, 56, 58, 59Paraguay, 42, 56, 58, 61Peru, 56, 58, 59Philippines, 63Poland, 43, 58, 61Portugal, 45, 56, 58, 61Romania, 41, 56, 61Russia, 41, 58, 60Slovakia, 41Slovenia, 41, 55, 58South Africa, 45, 55, 57, 58, 63Spain, 58, 59, 61Sweden, 61Thailand, 63United States, 37, 48, 50, 209Venezuela, 56, 58

Canada

Anti-Terrorism Act, 370Emergencies Act 1998, 43--44

France

Loi instituant un état d’urgence, 201






xxvi table of leg i s l at ion

India

Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act 303

Kenya

Access to Information and Protection of Privacy (Media Law), 2002Suppression of Terrorism Bill, 253

Republic of Ireland

Criminal Justice Act of 1984 230, 232Offences against the State Act of 1939, 230--31

Spain

Organic Law 4/1981 44

Turkey

Criminal Code and Terrorism Act, 287

United Kingdom

Act of Indemnity, 131--32, 138, 141, 147, 150--51, 153Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, 320, 409Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Bill, 71, 205, 395Aviation and Maritime Security Act 1990, 394Aviation Security Act 1982, 394Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act (Northern Ireland) of 1922, 177Counter-Terrorism Bill, 72Criminal Evidence Order (Northern Ireland), 184--85, 186--87Criminal Justice (Terrorist Offences) Bill 2002, 409Criminal Justice and Public Order Act (CJPOA), 186, 187--88Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 229Defence of the Realm Act of 1914, 4, 181--83, 233--34Emergency Powers Act, 4, 234--35Human Rights Act (Designated Derogation) Order 2001, 275Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978, 394






table of leg i s l at ion xxvii

Joint Directive on Military Interrogation in Internal SecurityOperations Overseas, 189

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act of 1996, 177Nuclear Material (Offences) Act 1983, 394Prevention of Terrorism Act, 69Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act of 1974, 48

Halsbury Stat. 972 (3rd edn, 1978), 71, 177, 275, 321Suppression of Terrorism Act 1978, 394Taking of Hostages Act 1982, 394Terrorism Act of 2000, 71, 177, 320

United States

An Act Relating to Habeas Corpus, and Regulating Judicial Proceedingsin Certain Cases, ch. 81, 12 Stat. 755 (1863), 91, 129

Emergency Banking Act, 70Enemy Aliens Act of 1798, 227Feed and Forage Act of 1861, 230Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. No. 95-511, 92 Stat.

1783, 212, 232International Emergency Economic Powers Act of 1977 176Minnesota Mortgage Moratorium Law, 76National Emergencies Act, 68National Security Act of 1947, 213National Security Act of 2002, 243Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools

Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act,Pub. L. No. 107-56, 115 State. 272 (2001), 70--71, 177--79, 212--13, 232

Zimbabwe

Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act of 2002 254Non-Governmental Organization Act 254Private Voluntary Organizations Act 254Public Order and Security Act of 2002 254






Table of international materials

Council of Europe

The Fight against Terrorism -- Council of Europe Standards (3rd edn,Council of Europe, 2005), 367

Guidelines on Human Rights and the Fight against Terrorism, 2002, 381

European Union

Council Framework Decision on Money Laundering, 411, 412Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism, 399, 409–17, 417–20Framework Decision on the European Arrest Warrant, 394, 411

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

Report No. 55/97, on Case No. 11.137, Argentina (Tablada case), OEA/Ser.L/V/II. 97, Doc. 38, Oct. 30, 1997, 346

Report on Terrorism and Human Rights, OEA/Ser. L/V/II. 116, Doc. 5 rev.1 corr. (Oct. 22, 2002), 368, 370, 371

Inter-American Court of Human Rights

Habeas Corpus in Emergency Situations, Advisory Opinion, (1987) 8Inter-Am. Ct HR (ser. A), OEA/ser.L/V/111.17 doc. 13 (1987), 250, 290,291, 292, 296

Judicial Guarantees in States of Emergency, 9 Inter-American Ct HR(ser. A), OEA ser. L/VI/iii.9 doc. 13 (1987), 259, 342

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table of internat ional mater ials xxix

International Court of Justice

Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the OccupiedPalestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, July 9, 2004, 328

Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion(1996) International Court of Justice Reports 226 (1997), 328, 362

International Criminal Court

Rome Statute, UN Doc. 2187 UNTS 90, 359, 362

United Nations

Charter, 37, 332, 333, 382, 387, 400, 401Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, UN Doc.

A/RES/49/60 (Dec. 9, 1994), 370Report of the Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Threats,

Challenges and Change, 2004, 369

United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms whileCountering Terrorism, UN Doc. A/59/428 Ict, 8, 2004, 377

United Nations Human Rights Committee

Report of the Human Rights Committee, 34 UN GAOR Supp. No. 40, UNDoc. A/34/40 (1979), 303

Report of the Human Rights Committee, UN GAOR, 36th Sess., Supp.40, Annex VII, UN Doc. A/36/40 (1981), 249, 302

Report of the Human Rights Committee, UN GAOR, 37th Sess., Supp.40, Annex XV, UN Doc. A/37/40 (1982), 298

Report of the Human Rights Committee, UN GAOR 47th Sess., Supp.40, UN Doc. A/47/40 (1992), 297

United States

Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon theUnited States (The 9/11 Commission Report), US GPO 2004, 178, 398






Documents

Law in Times of Crisis - Cambridge University Pressassets.cambridge.org/97805215/41237/frontmatter/9780521541237_frontmatter.pdfLaw in Times of Crisis Emergency powers in theory and