Upload
ionelcpopescu
View
239
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
1/63
Late Roman army
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation,search
Late Roman Army
Active AD 284 4!"
#West$ and to
"4% ca& #'ast$
Country (oman 'mpire
Branch Army
Size (ange: ca&
4%%,%%%
"%%,%%%
Unit seniority
and type
)cholae,
*alatini,
+omitatenses,
imitanei,
Foederati
Engagements )atala#2-8$,
)tras.ourg
#/0!$,
+tesiphon
#/"/$,
Adrianople
#/!8$ and
+atalaunian
*lains
#+halons$#401$
Disbanded he Western
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitaneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foederatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Satala_(298)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Satala_(298)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitaneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foederatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Satala_(298)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
2/63
army
disintegrated
AD 420!%,
3hilst the 'ast
(oman army
continued until
theuslim
con5uests, after
3hich the
themesystem
3as created&
he etrarchs: he emperor Diocletianand his three imperial colleagues& o the left,
Diocletian and a6imianus,the t3oAugusti#coemperors$7 to the right,aleriusand+onstantius +hlorus, the t3o Caesars#deputy emperors$& 9ote the 3oollen *annoniancaps commonly 3orn #out of com.at$ .y officers in the late army as a result of the
pervasive influence of the Danu.ian officer class7 and the s3ord grips 3ith eagleheadpommels& *orphyrystatue on the ;asilica di )an arco,
7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
3/63
army#or early ;y@antine army$ remained largely intact in si@e and structure until the
reign of Justinian =#ended 0"0$&1B
he =mperial (oman armyof the *rincipate#/% ;+ AD 284$ under3ent a significanttransformation as a result of the chaotic /rd century& Cnlike the army of the *rincipate,
the army of the 4th century 3as heavily dependent onconscriptionand its soldiers 3erepaid much less than in the 2nd century& ;ar.ariansfrom outside the empire pro.a.ly
supplied a much larger proportion of the late army?s recruits than in the army of the 1stand 2nd centuries, .ut there is little evidence that this adversely affected the army?s
performance&
)cholarly estimates of the si@e of the 4thcentury army diverge 3idely, ranging from ca&4%%,%%% to over one million effectives #i&e& from roughly the same si@e as the 2ndcentury
army to 2 or / times larger$&2Bhis is due to fragmentary evidence, unlike the much
.etterdocumented 2ndcentury army&
Cnder the etrarchy, military commands 3ere separated from administrativegovernorships for the first time& #Cnder the *rincipate, provincial governors 3ere also
commandersinchief of all military forces deployed in their provinces$&
he main change in structure from the 2ndcentury army 3as the esta.lishment of large
escort armies #comitatus praesentales$, typically containing 2%/%,%%% topgradepalatinitroops& hese 3ere normally .ased near the imperial capitals: #+onstantinoplein the 'ast,
ilanin the West$, thus far from the 'mpire?s .orders& hese armies? primary function
3as to deter usurpations, and they usually campaigned under the personal command oftheir emperors& he legions3ere split up into smaller units compara.le in si@e to the
au6iliary regimentsof the *rincipate& =nfantry adopted the more protective e5uipment of
the *rincipate cavalry&
he role of cavalry in the late army does not appear to have .een greatly enhanced ascompared 3ith the army of the *rincipate& he evidence is that cavalry 3as much the
same proportion of overall army num.ers as in the 2nd century and that its tactical role
and prestige remained similar& o3ever, the cavalry 3as endo3ed 3ith greater num.ers
of specialised units, such as e6traheavy shock cavalry #cataphractarii and cli.anarii$ andmounted archers&/BDuring the later 4th century, the cavalry ac5uired a reputation for
incompetence and co3ardice for their role in three maEor .attles& =n contrast, the infantry
retained its traditional reputation for e6cellence&
he /rd and 4th centuries sa3 the upgrading of many e6isting .order forts to make themmore defensi.le, as 3ell as the construction of ne3 forts 3ith stronger defenses& he
interpretation of this trend has fuelled an ongoing de.ate 3hether the army adopted a
defenceindepthstrategy or continued the same posture of for3ard defence as in theearly *rincipate& any elements of the late army?s defence posture 3ere similar to those
associated 3ith for3ard defence, such as for3ard location of forts, fre5uent cross.order
operations, and e6ternal .uffer@ones of allied .ar.arian tri.es& Whatever the defencestrategy, it 3as apparently less successful in preventing .ar.arian incursions than in the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Roman_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_609-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Roman_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usurperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence-in-depth_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence-in-depth_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Roman_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_609-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Roman_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usurperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence-in-depth_(Roman_military)7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
4/63
1st and 2nd centuries& his may have .een due to heavier .ar.arian pressure, andor to
the practice of keeping large armies of the .est troops in the interior, depriving the .order
forces of sufficient support&
Contents
hideB
1 )ources
2 'volution of the 4thcentury army
o 2&1 ;ackground: the army of the *rincipate
o 2&2 /rdcentury developments
o 2&/ /rdcentury crisis
o 2&4 Danu.ian military Eunta
o 2&0 Diocletian
2&0&1 ilitary command structure
2&0&2 anpo3er
2&0&/ )upplies
2&0&4 ilitary infrastructure
o 2&" +onstantine
o 2&! ater 4th century
/ Army si@e
o /&1 arger ate Army
o /&2 )maller late army
4 Army structure
o 4&1 igh +ommand structure
4&1&1 'ast
4&1&2 West 4&1&/ )cholae
o 4&2 ;ases
o 4&/ (egiments
4&/&1 Cnit si@es
4&/&2 Cnit types
4&/&2&1 )cholae
4&/&2&2 *alatini and +omitatenses
4&/&2&/ imitanei
4&/&2&4 )pecialists
4&/&2&0Foederati
0 (ecruitmento 0&1 (omans
o 0&2 ;ar.arians
" (anks, pay and .enefits
o "&1 +ommon soldiers
o "&2 (egimental officers
o "&/ (egimental and corps commanders
"&/&1 +adet regimental commanders #protectores$
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Evolution_of_the_4th-century_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Background:_the_army_of_the_Principatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#3rd-century_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#3rd-century_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Danubian_military_juntahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Diocletianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Military_command_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Manpowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supplieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Military_infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Constantinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Later_4th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Larger_Late_Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Smaller_late_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#High_Command_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Westhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Baseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Unit_sizeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Unit_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Scholae_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Palatini_and_Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Limitaneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Specialistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Foederatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Foederatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Recruitmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Recruitmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Romanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Barbarianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Ranks.2C_pay_and_benefitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Common_soldiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_officershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_and_corps_commandershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Cadet_regimental_commanders_.28protectores.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Cadet_regimental_commanders_.28protectores.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Cadet_regimental_commanders_.28protectores.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Evolution_of_the_4th-century_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Background:_the_army_of_the_Principatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#3rd-century_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#3rd-century_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Danubian_military_juntahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Diocletianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Military_command_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Manpowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supplieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Military_infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Constantinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Later_4th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Larger_Late_Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Smaller_late_armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Army_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#High_Command_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Westhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Baseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Unit_sizeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Unit_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Scholae_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Palatini_and_Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Limitaneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Specialistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Foederatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Recruitmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Romanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Barbarianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Ranks.2C_pay_and_benefitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Common_soldiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_officershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_and_corps_commandershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Cadet_regimental_commanders_.28protectores.297/25/2019 Late Roman Army
5/63
"&/&2 (egimental commanders #tribuni $ "&/&/ )enior regimental commanders #tribuni comites$ "&/&4 +orps commanders #duces , comites rei militaris, magistri
militum $ ! '5uipment
o !&1 +lothingo !&2 Armour
o !&/ elmets
o !&4 )hields
o !&0 and 3eapons
o !&" issiles
8 )upply infrastructure
o 8&1 )upply organisation
o 8&2 )upply transport
o 8&/ Weapons manufacture
- Fortifications
1% )trategy and tacticso 1%&1 )trategy
o 1%&2 (ole of cavalry
o 1%&/ actics
11 he .ar.arisation theory
12 )ee also
1/ +itations
14 (eferences
o 14&1 Ancient
o 14&2 odern
10 '6ternal links
Sources[edit]
uch of our evidence for 4th century army unit deployments is contained in a singledocument, theNotitia Dignitatum, compiled c& /-0>42%, a manual of all late (omanpu.lic offices, military and civil& he main deficiency 3ith theNotitiais that it lacks anypersonnel figures so as to render estimates of army si@e impossi.le& Also, it 3as compiled
at the very end of the 4th century7 it is thus difficult to reconstruct the position earlier&o3ever, theNotitiaremains the central source on the late Army?s structure due to thedearth of other evidence&4BheNotitiaalso suffers from significant lacunaeand
numerous errors accumulated from centuries of copying&
he main literary sources for the 4thcentury army are theRes Gestae#istory$ ofAmmianus arcellinus, 3hose surviving .ooks cover the period /0/ to /!8& arcellinus,
himself a veteran soldier, is regarded .y scholars as a relia.le and valua.le source& ;ut he
largely fails to remedy the deficiencies of theNotitiaas regards army and unit strength orunits in e6istence, as he is rarely specific a.out either& he third maEor source for the late
army is the corpus of imperial decrees pu.lished in the 'ast (oman empire in the 0th and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_commanders_.28tribuni.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_commanders_.28tribuni.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_commanders_.28tribuni.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Senior_regimental_commanders_.28tribuni_comites.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Senior_regimental_commanders_.28tribuni_comites.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Senior_regimental_commanders_.28tribuni_comites.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Clothinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Armourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Helmetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Shieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Hand_weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Missileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supply_infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supply_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supply_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Weapons_manufacturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Fortificationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategy_and_tacticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Role_of_cavalryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Tacticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#The_.22barbarisation.22_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Ancienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Modernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Regimental_commanders_.28tribuni.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Senior_regimental_commanders_.28tribuni_comites.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Corps_commanders_.28duces.2C_comites_rei_militaris.2C_magistri_militum.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Clothinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Armourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Helmetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Shieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Hand_weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Missileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supply_infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supply_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Supply_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Weapons_manufacturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Fortificationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategy_and_tacticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Role_of_cavalryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Tacticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#The_.22barbarisation.22_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Ancienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Modernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
6/63
"th centuries: the heodosian code#4/8$ and the +orpus =uris +ivilis#028>/-$& hese
compilations of (oman la3s dating from the 4th century contain numerous imperial
decrees relating to all aspects of the regulation and administration of the late army&
De re militari, a treatise on (oman military affairs .yemperorAugustus#ruled /% ;+ > 14 AD$ and survived until the end of the /rd century& he regular armyconsisted of t3o distinct corps, .oth .eing made up of mainly volunteer professionals&
he elite legions3ere large infantry formations, varying .et3een 20 and // in num.er,
of c& 0,0%% men each #all infantry save a small cavalry arm of 12%$ 3hich admitted only
(oman citi@ens&!Bhe au%iliaconsisted of around 4%% much smaller units of c& 0%% meneach #a minority 3ere up to 1,%%% strong$, 3hich 3ere divided into appro6imately 1%%
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosian_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosian_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Iuris_Civilishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_military_diplomahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_military_diplomahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_military_tombstoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_military_tombstoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.H.M._Joneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_auxiliarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosian_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Iuris_Civilishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_military_diplomahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_military_tombstoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.H.M._Joneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_auxiliaries7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
7/63
cavalry alae, 1%% infantry cohortesand 2%% mi6ed cavalryinfantry units or cohortese&uitatae&8B)ome au6ilia regiments 3ere designatedsagittariorum, meaning that theyspecialised in archery& he au%iliathus contained almost all the (oman army?s cavalryand archers, as 3ell as #from the late 1st century on3ards$ appro6imately the same
num.er of foot soldiers as the legions&-Bhe au%ilia3ere mainly recruited from the
peregrini:provincial su.Eects of the empire 3ho did not hold (oman citi@enship, .ut theau%iliaalso admitted (oman citi@ens and possi.ly barbari, the (oman term for peoplesliving outside the empire?s .orders&1%BAt this time .oth legions and au6ilia 3ere almost all
.ased in frontier provinces&11Bhe only su.stantial military force at the immediatedisposal of the emperor 3as the elite *raetorian uardof c& 1%,%%% men 3hich 3as .ased
in (ome&12B
he senior officers of the army 3ere, until the /rd century, mainly from the =talian
aristocracy& his 3as divided into t3o orders, the senatorial order #ordo senatorius$,consisting of the c& "%% sitting mem.ers of the (oman )enateand their sons and
grandsons, and the more numerous #several thousandstrong$ e&uitesor knights&
ereditary senators and e&uitescom.ined military service 3ith civilian posts, a careerpath kno3n as the cursus honorum, typically starting 3ith a period of Eunioradministrative posts in (ome, follo3ed .y 0>1% years in the military and a final period of
senior positions in the either the provinces or (ome& 1/Bhis tiny, tightlyknit ruling
oligarchy of under 1%,%%% men monopolised political, military and economic po3er in anempire of c& 8% million inha.itants and achieved a remarka.le degree of political sta.ility&
During the first 2%% years of its e6istence #/% ;+ > 18% AD$, the empire suffered only
one maEor episode of civil strife #the+ivil War of "8>-$& Gther3ise, usurpation attempts
.y provincial governors 3ere fe3 and s3iftly suppressed&
As regards the military, mem.ers of the senatorial order #senatorii$ e6clusively filled thefollo3ing posts:
#a$ legatus Augusti pro praetore#provincial governor of a .order province, 3ho3as commanderinchief of the military forces deployed there as 3ell as headingthe civil administration$
#.$ legatus legionis#legion commander$#c$ tribunus militum laticla'ius#legion deputy commander$&14B
he e&uitesprovided:
#a$ the governors #procuratores$ of 'gyptand of a fe3 minor provinces#.$ the t3oprae(ecti praetorio#commanders of the *raetorian uard$#c$ a legion?sprae(ectus castrorum#/rdincommand$ and its remaining fivetribuni militum#senior staff officers$#d$ theprae(ecti#commanders$ of the au6iliary regiments&10B
;y the late 1st century, a distinct e5uestrian group, non=talian and military in character,
.ecame esta.lished& his 3as a result of the esta.lished custom 3here.y the emperor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_2003_120-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_2003_145-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_2003_145-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_Guardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_Guardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Goldsworthy_2003_58-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrian_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus_honorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_of_the_four_emperorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_of_the_four_emperorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatus_Augusti_pro_praetorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatus_legionishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praefectus_praetoriohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_2003_120-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_2003_145-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_Guardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Goldsworthy_2003_58-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrian_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus_honorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_of_the_four_emperorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatus_Augusti_pro_praetorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legatus_legionishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praefectus_praetoriohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-157/25/2019 Late Roman Army
8/63
elevated theprimuspilus#chief centurion$ of each legion to e5uestrian rank oncompletion of his year in office& his resulted in some /% career soldiers, mostly non
=talian and risen from the ranks, Eoining the aristocracy each year&1"BFar less 3ealthy thantheir =talian counterparts, many such e&uites.elonged to families that provided careersoldiers for generations& *rominent among them 3ere (omanised=llyrians, the
descendants of the =llyrianspeaking tri.es that inha.ited the (oman provinces of*annonia#W ungary+roatia)lovenia$, Dalmatia#+roatia;osnia$ and oesia )uperior
#)er.ia$, together 3ith the neigh.ouring hraciansof oesia =nferior#9 ;ulgaria$ and
acedoniaprovinces& From the time of Domitian #ruled 81>-"$, 3hen over half the(oman army 3as deployed in the Danu.ian regions, the =llyrian and hracian provinces
.ecame the most important recruiting ground of the au6ilia and later the legions&1!B
'rd#century deveopments[edit]
(eenactor 3earing the typical e5uipment of a late /rdcentury foot soldier& he helmet is
a 9ieder.ie.er type, 3ith crosspattern reinforcing ridges on the top of the .o3l, andcheekguards 3hich can .e fastened together& he s3ord is a spatha#median .lade length
-%% mm/" inches$, used .y the cavalry only in the 1st and 2nd centuries& his soldier
carries aspiculum, a heavypilumtype Eavelin& 9ote the chain mail#lorica hamata$ shirtand oval shield& +lothing consisted of a longsleeved tunic, trousers and .oots& he
e5uipment of a 4thcentury infantryman 3as very similar to the /rd century, save that thespiculum
3as usually replaced .y a heavy thrustingspear #hasta
$ and the helmet 3aspredominantly of the =ntercisatype&18B
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia_Superiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia_Inferiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia_Inferiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-t109-17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_mailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorica_hamatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasta_(spear)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercisahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_soldier_175_aC_in_northern_province.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia_Superiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia_Inferiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-t109-17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_mailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorica_hamatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasta_(spear)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercisahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-187/25/2019 Late Roman Army
9/63
Fresco from the synagogue in the (oman fortified frontier city of Dura 'uroposdating to
c& 20% AD& he centre sho3s unarmoured light cavalry charging 3ith lances, the
foreground and .ackground sho3 infantry fighting 3ith spathae #long.laded s3ords$7they are e5uipped 3ith kneelength scale armours, some 3ith fulllength sleeves&
he seminal development for the army in the early /rd century 3as theConstitutio
Antoniniana#Antonine Decree$ of 212, issued .y 'mperor +aracalla#ruled 211>18$& hisgranted (oman citi@enship to all free inha.itants of the empire, ending the secondclassstatus of theperegrini&1-Bhis had the effect of .reaking do3n the distinction .et3een theciti@en legions and the au6iliary regiments& =n the 1st and 2nd centuries, the legions 3ere
the sym.ol #and guarantors$ of the dominance of the =talian master nation over its
su.Eect peoples& =n the /rd century, they 3ere no longer socially superior to their au6iliarycounterparts #although they may have retained their elite status in military terms$ and the
legions? special armour and e5uipment #e.g.the lorica segmentata$ 3as phased out&2%B
he traditional alternation .et3een senior civilian and military posts fell into disuse inthe 2nd and /rd centuries, as the =talian hereditary aristocracy 3as progressively replaced
in the senior echelons of the army .y theprimipilares#former chief centurions$&21B
=n the/rd century, only 1%H of au6iliary prefects 3hose origins are kno3n 3ere =talian
e5uestrians, compared to the maEority in the previous t3o centuries& 22BAt the same time,e5uestrians increasingly replaced the senatorial order in the top commands& )eptimius
)everus#ruled 1-!>211$ placed e5uestrianprimipilaresin command of the three ne3legions he raised and allienus#2"%>"8$ did the same for all the other legions, givingthem the titleprae(ectus pro legato#prefect acting as legate$&2/B24Bhe rise of theprimipilaresmay have provided the army 3ith more professional leadership, .ut itincreased military re.ellions .y am.itious generals& he /rd century sa3 numerous coupsd)*tatand civil 3ars& Fe3 /rdcentury emperors enEoyed long reigns or died of naturalcauses&20B
'mperors responded to the increased insecurity 3ith a steady .uildup of the forces at
their immediate disposal& hese .ecame kno3n as the comitatus#escort, from 3hichderives the 'nglish 3ord committee$& o the *raetorian uard?s 1%,%%% men, )eptimius
)everus added the legion++ arthica&;ased at Al.ano a@ialenear (ome, it 3as the firstlegion to .e stationed in =taly since Augustus& e dou.led the si@e of the imperial escortcavalry, the e&uites singulares Augusti, to 2,%%% .y dra3ing select detachments from alaeon the .orders&2"Bis comitatusthus num.ered some 1!,%%% men, e5uivalent to /1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura_Europoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura_Europoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Antoninianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Antoninianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Antoninianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracallahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracallahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorica_segmentatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Goldsworthy_2003_205-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legio_II_Parthicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legio_II_Parthicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albano_Lazialehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DuraSyn-NB1_Eben-Ezer_2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura_Europoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Antoninianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Antoninianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracallahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorica_segmentatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Goldsworthy_2003_205-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legio_II_Parthicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albano_Lazialehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-267/25/2019 Late Roman Army
10/63
infantry cohortesand 11 alaeof cavalry&2!Bhe trend for the emperor to gather round hisperson ever greater forces reached its peak in the 4th century under +onstantine = the
reat#ruled /12>/!$ 3hose comitatusmay have reached 1%%,%%% men, perhaps a 5uarterof the army?s total effective strength&28B
he rule of allienus sa3 the appointment of a senior officer, 3ith the title of du%#pluralform: duces, the origin of the medieval no.le rank of duke$, to command all thecomitatuscavalry& his force included e&uites promoti#cavalry contingents detachedfrom the legions$, plus =llyrian light cavalry #e&uites Dalmatarum$ and allied .ar.ariancavalry #e&uites (oederati$&24BCnder +onstantine =, the head of the comitatuscavalry 3asgiven the title of magister e&uitum#master of horse$, 3hich in (epu.lican times had.een held .y the deputy to a (oman dictator&2-B;ut neither title implies the e6istence of
an independent cavalry army, as 3as suggested .y some more dated scholars& he
cavalry under .oth officers 3ere integral to mi6ed infantry and cavalry comitatus, 3iththe infantry remaining the predominant element&2!B
he /rd century sa3 a progressive reduction in the si@e of the legions and even someau6iliary units& egions 3ere .roken up into smaller units, as evidenced .y the shrinkage
and eventual a.andonment of their traditional large .ases, documented for e6ample in;ritain&/%B=n addition, from the 2nd century on3ards, the separation of some detachments
from their parent units .ecame permanent in some cases, esta.lishing ne3 unit types, e.g.the 'e%illatio e&uitum +ll-ricorum.ased in Dacia in the early 2nd century/1Band thee&uites promoti24Band numerus nau(ridiin ;ritain&/2Bhis led to the proliferation of unittypes in the 4th century, generally of smaller si@e than those of the *rincipate& For
e6ample, in the 2nd century, a 'e%illatio#from 'e%illumI standard$ 3as anydetachment from a legion or au6iliary regiment, either cavalry or infantry& =n the 4thcentury, it denoted an elite cavalry regiment&//B
From the /rd century are the first records of a small num.er of regular units .earing the
names of .ar.arian tri.es #as opposed toperegrinitri.al names$& hese 3ere(oederati#allied troops under a military o.ligation to (ome$ converted into regular units, a trend
that 3as to accelerate in the 4th century&/4Bhe ala + /armatarum, .ased in ;ritain, 3aspro.a.ly composed of some of the 0,0%% captured)armatianhorsemen sent to garrison
adrian?s Wall .y emperorarcus Aureliusin c& 1!0&/0Bhere is no evidence of irregular.ar.arian units .ecoming part of the regular army of the *rincipate until the /rd century&
/"B
'rd#century crisis[edit]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Zosimus_II.43-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_97-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_97-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_620-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_620-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aureliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aureliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aureliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_1980_109.E2.80.9324-36http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Zosimus_II.43-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_97-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_108-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_620-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aureliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Holder_1980_109.E2.80.9324-36http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=57/25/2019 Late Roman Army
11/63
(oman emperor
7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
12/63
he Aurelian Wallsof (ome, .uilt .y Aurelianin 2!%>0& (ome?s first ne3 3all since the
construction of the )ervian Wallafter the auls sacked (ome "0% years earlier, they
sym.olised the pervasive insecurity of the /rdcentury empire& Griginal height: 8m #20ft$& Dou.led in 41% to 1"m #02 ft$ after second sack of (ome in 41%& ;oth 3alls and
to3ers 3ere originally crenellated, .ut this has only survived in small sections& ost of
the 1-km circuit still stands today
;y the /rd century, (omanised =llyrians and hracians, mostlyprimipilaresand theirdescendants, came to dominate the army?s senior officer echelons&4-BFinally, the
Danu.ian officerclass sei@ed control of the state itself& =n 2"8, the emperor allienus
#ruled 2"%>"8$ 3as overthro3n .y a coup d)*tatorganised .y a cli5ue of Danu.ian seniorofficers, including his successors +laudius == othicus and Aurelian#2!%>!0$&0%Bhey
and their successors *ro.us#2!">82$ and Diocletian#ruled 284>/%0$ and his colleagues
in the etrarchyformed a sort of selfperpetuating military Euntaof Danu.ian officers3ho 3ere .orn in the same provinces #several in the same city, )irmium, a maEor
legionary .ase in oesia )uperior$ andor had served in the same regiments& 1!B
he Junta reversed the military disasters of 201>!1 3ith a string of victories, most
nota.ly the defeat at9aissusof a vast othic army .y +laudius ==, 3hich 3as so crushingthat the oths did not seriously threaten the empire again until a century later at
Adrianople#/!8$&01B
he Danu.ian emperors3ere especially concerned 3ith the depopulation of the .order
provinces due to plague and .ar.arian invasions during the +risis& he pro.lem 3asespecially acute in their o3n Danu.ian home provinces, 3here much ara.le land had
fallen out of cultivation through lack of manpo3er&02Bhe depopulation 3as thus a serious
threat to army recruitment and supply& =n response, the Danu.ian Junta pursued anaggressive policy of resettling defeated .ar.arian tri.esmen on imperial territory on a
massive scale& Aurelian moved a large num.er of +arpito *annonia in 2!2&0/B#=n
addition, .y 2!0 he evacuated the province of Dacia,removing the entire provincialpopulation to oesia, an act largely motivated .y the same pro.lem$&04Bis successor
*ro.us is recorded as transferring 1%%,%%% ;astarnaeto oesia in 2!-8% and later
e5uivalent num.ers of epids,othsand )armatians&00BDiocletian continued the policy,
transferring in 2-! huge num.ers of ;astarnae, )armatians and +arpi #the entire lattertri.e, according to
7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
13/63
grant of land in return for an o.ligation of military service much heavier than the normal
conscription 5uota& he policy had the triple .enefit, from the (oman government?s point
of vie3, of 3eakening the hostile tri.e, repopulating the plagueravaged frontierprovinces #and .ringing their a.andoned fields .ack into cultivation$ and providing a
pool of firstrate recruits for the army& ;ut it could also .e popular 3ith the .ar.arian
prisoners, 3ho 3ere often delighted .y the prospect of a land grant 3ithin the empire& =nthe 4th century, such communities 3ere kno3n as laeti&/4B
he Danu.ian emperors ruled the empire for over a century, until /!-& =ndeed, until /"/,
po3er 3as held .y descendants of one of the original Junta mem.ers& +onstantine =? s
father,+onstantius +hlorus, 3as a Caesar#deputy emperor$ in Diocletian?s etrarchy&0!B+onstantine?s grandson Julianruled until /"/& hese emperors restored the army to its
former strength and effectiveness, .ut 3ere solely concerned 3ith the needs and interests
of the military& hey 3ere also divorced from the 3ealthy (oman senatorial families thatdominated the )enate and o3ned much of the empire?s land& his in turn .red a feeling of
alienation from the army among the (oman aristocracy 3hich in the later 4th century
.egan to resist the military?s e6or.itant demands for recruits and supplies&08B
Diocetian[edit]
he emperor Diocletian#ruled 284>/%0$, 3ho launched 3ideranging reforms of the
(oman army and government& ;ron@e(olliscoin
Diocletian is 3idely recognised as the greatest of the =llyrian emperors& Diocletian?s3ideranging administrative, economic and military reforms 3ere aimed at providing the
military 3ith ade5uate manpo3er, supplies and military infrastructure&0-B=n the 3ords ofone historian, Diocletian &&& turned the entire empire into a regimented logistic .ase #tosupply the army$&"%B
)iitary command structure[edit]
Diocletian?s administrative reforms had the t3in aims of ensuring political sta.ility and
providing the .ureaucratic infrastructure needed to raise the recruits and supplies needed
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_620-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_620-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_Chlorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_Chlorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DiocletianusFollis-transparent.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_620-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_Chlorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=87/25/2019 Late Roman Army
14/63
.y the army& At the top, Diocletian instituted the etrarchy& his divided the empire into
t3o halves, 'ast and West, each to .e ruled .y anAugustus#emperor$& 'achAugustus3ould in turn appoint a deputy called a Caesar, 3ho 3ould act .oth as his ruling partner#each +aesar 3as assigned a 5uarter of the empire$ and designated successor& his four
man team 3ould thus have the fle6i.ility to deal 3ith multiple and simultaneous
challenges as 3ell as providing for a legitimate succession&"1B
he latter failed in itscentral aim, to prevent the disastrous civil 3ars caused .y the multiple usurpations of the
/rd century& =ndeed, the situation may have .een made 3orse, .y providing each
pretender 3ith a su.stantial comitatusto enforce his claim& Diocletian himself lived #inretirement$ to see his successors fight each other for po3er& ;ut the division of the empire
into 'astern and Western halves, recognising .oth geographical and cultural realities,
proved enduring: it 3as mostly retained during the 4th century and .ecame permanent
after /-0&
Diocletian reformed the provincial administration, esta.lishing a threetiered provincial
hierarchy, in place of the previous singletier structure& he original 42 provinces of the
*rincipate 3ere almost tripled in num.er to c& 12%&citation neededB
hese 3ere grouped into 12divisions called dioceses, each under a 'icarius, in turn grouped into 4praetorianprefectures,to correspond to the areas of command assigned to the four etrarchs, 3ho
3ere each assisted .y a chiefofstaff called aprae(ectus praetorio#not .e confused 3iththe commanders of the *raetorian uard, 3ho held the same title$& he aim of thisfragmentation of provincial administration 3as pro.a.ly to reduce the possi.ility of
military re.ellion .y governors #.y reducing the forces they each controlled$& "2B
Also to this end, and to provide more professional military leadership, Diocletian
separated military from civil command at the lo3est, provincial level& overnors ofprovinces on the frontiers 3ere stripped of command of the troops stationed there in
favour of purely military officers called duces limitis#.order commanders$& )ome 2%ducesmay have .een created under Diocletian&02Bost duces3ere given command offorces in a single province, .ut a fe3 controlled more than one province e&g& the du%annoniae + et Norici&"/Bo3ever, at higher echelons, military and administrativecommand remained united in the 'icariiandprae(ecti praetorio&"2B=n addition, Diocletiancompleted the e6clusion of the senatorial class, still dominated .y the =talian aristocracy,
from all senior military commands and from all top administrative posts e6cept in =taly&"4B
)anpo*er[edit]
o ensure the army received sufficient recruits, Diocletian appears to have instituted
systematic annual conscription of (oman citi@ens for the first time since the days of the(oman (epu.lic& =n addition, he 3as pro.a.ly responsi.le for the decree, first recorded
in /1/, compelling the sons of serving soldiers and veterans to enlist&4!B
Cnder Diocletian, the num.er of legions, and pro.a.ly of other units, more than dou.led&"0B;ut it is unlikely that overall army si@e increased nearly as much, since unit strengths
appear to have .een reduced, in some cases drastically e&g& ne3 legions raised .y
Diocletian appear to have num.ered Eust 1,%%% men, compared to the esta.lishment of c&
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_diocesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefectureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefectureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefectureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefectureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-j615-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_diocesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefectureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefectureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-j615-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-657/25/2019 Late Roman Army
15/63
0,0%% in the *rincipate i&e& the ne3 legions may have increased overall legionary num.ers
.y only c& 10H&""B"!B'ven so, scholars generally agree that Diocletian increased army
num.ers su.stantially, .y at least //H&"8B
Suppies[edit]
Diocletian?s primary concern 3as to place the provision of food supplies to the army on a
rational and sustaina.le .asis& o this end, the emperor put an end to the ar.itrary
e6action of food levies #indictiones$ for the army, 3hose .urden fell mainly on .orderprovinces and 3hich had ruined them economically& e instituted a system of regular
annual indictiones#ta6 levies$ 3ith the ta6 demanded set in advance for 0 years andrelated to the amount of cultivated land in each province, .acked .y a thorough empire3ide census of land, peasants and livestock& "-Bo deal 3ith the pro.lem of rural
depopulation #and conse5uent loss of food production$, he decreed that peasants, 3ho had
al3ays .een free to leave their land during the *rincipate, must never leave the locality in
3hich they 3ere registered .y the census& his measure had the effect of legally tying
tenant farmers #coloni$ and their descendants to their landlords? estates&!%B
)iitary in!rastructure[edit]
=n parallel 3ith restoring the si@e of the army, Diocletian?s efforts and resources 3ere
focused on a massive upgrading of the defensive infrastructure along all the empire?s.orders, including ne3 forts and strategic military roads&!1B
Constantine[edit]
he emperor +onstantine =#ruled /12>/!$, 3ho esta.lished the first largescalecomitatus#imperial escort army$ and divided the army into escort army #comitatenses$and .order #limitanei$ troops, giving the late (oman army the structure descri.ed in theNotitia Dignitatum& ;ust in usei +apitolini, (ome
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_111-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_681-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musei_Capitolinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Constantin_I.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_111-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_681-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musei_Capitolini7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
16/63
After defeating a6entiusin /12, +onstantine dis.anded the *raetorian uard, ending
the latter?s /%%year e6istence&!2BAlthough the instant reason 3as the uard?s support for
his rival a6entius, a force .ased in (ome had also .ecome o.solete since emperors no3rarely resided there& he imperial escort role of the uard?s cavalry, the e&uitessingulares Augusti, 3as no3 fulfilled .y thescholae&hese elite cavalry regiments
e6isted .y the time of +onstantine and may have .een founded .y Diocletian&!/B
+onstantine e6panded his comitatusinto a maEor and permanent force& his 3as achieved.y the addition of units 3ithdra3n from the frontier provinces and .y creating ne3 units:
more cavalry 'e%illationesand ne3style infantry units called au%ilia& he e6pandedcomitatus3as no3 placed under the command of t3o ne3 officers, a magister peditumtocommand the infantry and magister e&uitumfor cavalry& Comitatustroops 3ere no3formally denoted comitatensesto distinguish them from the frontier forces #limitanei$&"2Bhe si@e of the +onstantinian comitatusis uncertain& ;ut +onstantine mo.ilised -8,%%%troops for his 3ar against a6entius, according to osimus&28B=t is likely that most of
these 3ere retained for his comitatus&2-Bhis represented a.out a 5uarter of the total
regular forces, if one accepts that the +onstantinian army num.ered around 4%%,%%%&!4B
he rationale for such a large comitatushas .een de.ated among scholars& A traditionalvie3 sees the comitatusas a strategic reserve 3hich could .e deployed against maEor.ar.arian invasions that succeeded in penetrating deep into the empire or as the core of
large e6peditionary forces sent across the .orders& ;ut more recent scholarship hasvie3ed its primary function as insurance against potential usurpers&2!B#)ee )trategy of the
ate (oman army.elo3$&
+onstantine = completed the separation of military commands from the administrative
structure& he 'icariiandprae(ecti praetoriolost their field commands and .ecamepurely administrative officials& o3ever, they retained a central role in military affairs, as
they remained responsi.le for military recruitment, pay and, a.ove all, supply&
!0B
=t isunclear 3hether the duceson the .order no3 reported direct to the emperor, or to one ofthe t3o magistriof the comitatus&
=n addition, +onstantine appears to have reorganised the .order forces along the Danu.e,
replacing the oldstyle alaeand cohortes3ith ne3 units of cunei#cavalry$ and au%ilia#infantry$ respectively&"2B=t is unclear ho3 the ne3style units differed from the oldstyleones, .ut those stationed on the .order #as opposed to those in the comitatus$ may have.een smaller, perhaps half the si@e&!"B=n sectors other than the Danu.e, oldstyle au6iliary
regiments survived&!!B
he 0thcentury historian osimusstrongly criticised the esta.lishment of the largecomitatus, accusing +onstantine of 3recking his predecessor Diocletian?s 3ork ofstrengthening the .order defences: ;y the foresight of Diocletian, the frontiers of the
(oman empire 3ere every3here studded 3ith cities and forts and to3ers&&& and the 3holearmy 3as stationed along them, so it 3as impossi.le for the .ar.arians to .reak through&&&
;ut +onstantine ruined this defensive system .y 3ithdra3ing the maEority of the troops
from the frontiers and stationing them in cities 3hich did not re5uire protection&!8Bosimus? criti5ue is pro.a.ly e6cessive, .oth .ecause the comitatusalready e6isted in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxentiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_100-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_613-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitaneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Zosimus_II.43-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_97-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_120-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_120-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Mattingly_2006_239-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxentiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_100-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_613-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatenseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitaneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Zosimus_II.43-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_97-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_120-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Mattingly_2006_239-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-787/25/2019 Late Roman Army
17/63
Diocletian?s time and .ecause some ne3 regiments 3ere raised .y +onstantine for his
e6panded comitatus, as 3ell as incorporating e6isting units&!-B9evertheless, the maEorityof his comitatus3as dra3n from e6isting frontier units&""Bhis dra3do3n of largenum.ers of the .est units inevita.ly increased the risk of successful largescale .ar.arian
.reaches of the frontier defences&8%B
Later "th century[edit]
Gn +onstantine?s death in //!, his three sons+onstantine ==, +onstansand +onstantius ==,
divided the empire .et3een them, ruling the West #aul, ;ritain and )pain$, the +entre
#=taly, Africa and the ;alkans$, and the 'ast respectively& hey also each received a shareof their father?s comitatus& ;y /0/, 3hen only +onstantius survived, it appears that the /comitatushad .ecome permanently .ased in these regions, one each in aul, =llyricumand the 'ast& ;y the /"%s, the .order ducesreported to their regional comitatuscommander&!2Bo3ever, in addition to the regional comitatus, +onstantius retained aforce that accompanied him every3here, 3hich 3as from then called a comitatus
praesentalis#imperial escort army$&81B
he three regional armies .ecame steadily morenumerous until, .y the time of theNotitia#c& 4%%$, there 3ere " in the West and / in the'ast&"2Bhese corresponded to the .order dioceses of, in the West: ;ritannia, res alliae,
=llyricum #West$, Africa and ispaniae7 and in the 'ast: =llyricum #'ast$, hraciae and
Griens, respectively& hus, the regional comitatuscommander had .ecome the militarycounterpart of the diocesan administrative head, the 'icarius, in control of all militaryforces in the diocese, including the duces&1B82BAt this point, therefore, the parallelmilitarycivil administrative structure may .e summarised as follo3s:
*(G20H of the
total effectives& (egiments 3hich remained 3ith the escort armies 3ere, not later than/"0, denotedpalatini#lit& of the palace, frompalatium$, a higher grade of comitatenses&81B(egiments 3ere no3 classified in four grades, 3hich denoted 5uality, prestige and pay&
hese 3ere, in descending order,scholares,palatini, comitatensesand limitanei&80B
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_111-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_100-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_125-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_609-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_609-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_201-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_125-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Tomlin_1988_111-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_100-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_125-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_608-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_609-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_201-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_125-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-857/25/2019 Late Roman Army
18/63
Army size[edit]
;ecause of fairly detailed evidence, there is .road scholarly consensus among modern
scholars regarding the si@e of the (oman Army in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD&o3ever, this consensus .reaks do3n regarding the si@e of the Army in the 4th century&
ack of evidence a.out unitstrengths has resulted in 3idely divergent estimates of theate Army?s strength, ranging from c& 4%%,%%% #much the same as in the 2nd century$ to3ell in e6cess of one million& o3ever, mainstream scholarship is divided .et3een a
lo3 count of c& 4%%,%%% and a higher count of c& "%%,%%%&
Larger Late Army[edit]
he traditional vie3 of scholars is that the 4thcentury army 3as much larger than the
2ndcentury army, in the region of dou.le the si@e& he late "thcentury 3riter Agathias,
gives a glo.al total of "40,%%% effectives for the army in the old days, presumed tomean at its peak under +onstantine =&8"Bhis figure pro.a.ly includes fleets, leaving a
total of c& "%%,%%% for the army alone& Figures in osimusfor the armies of contendingemperors #including +onstantine?s$ in /12 add up to a similar total of 081,%%% soldiers&
A&&& Jones?Later Roman Empire#1-"4$, 3hich contains the fundamental study of thelate (oman army, calculated a similar total of "%%,%%% #e6c& fleets$ .y applying his o3n
estimates of unitstrengths to the units listed in theNotitia Dignitatum&8!B
o3ever, Jones? figure of "%%,%%% is .ased on assumptions a.out limitaneiunit strengths3hich may .e too high& Jones calculated unitstrengths in 'gypt under Diocletian using
papyrus evidence of unit payrolls& ;ut a rigorous reassessment of that evidence .y (&
DuncanJones concluded that Jones had overestimated unit si@es .y 2>" times&88BFor
e6ample, Jones estimated legions on the frontiers at c& /,%%% men and other units at c&
0%%&8-B;ut DuncanJones? revisions found frontier legions of around 0%% men, an alaofEust 1"% and an e&uitesunit of 8%& 'ven allo3ing for the possi.ility that some of theseunits 3ere detachments from larger units, it is likely that Diocletianic unitstrengths 3erefar lo3er than earlier&-%B
ore recently, readgold #1--0$ has endorsed the arge ate Army position in a
detailed e6amination of the ;y@antine army?s strength #1--0$& readgold argues that John
ydus?figure of /8-,!%4 soldiers represents the army?s strength in 280, -1B3hile osimus?figures totalling 081,%%% soldiers account for the army in /12&-2Breadgold estimates that
the army?s si@e 3as roughly constant 2/080, follo3ed .y a rapid increase of over 0%H
.et3een 280/%0, and again remained roughly constant /%0-0& -/B
;ut readgold?s analysis can .e criticised on a num.er of grounds:
1& he conclusion that the army?s si@e remained constant .et3een 2/0 and 280
appears implausi.le, as this period sa3 the hird +entury +risis, during 3hich the
army?s recruitment capacity 3as severely diminished .y the impact of the *lague
of +yprian, numerous civil 3ars and devastating .ar.arian invasions&
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.H.M._Joneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.H.M._Joneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_681.E2.80.932-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-91http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-93http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.H.M._Joneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_681.E2.80.932-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-90http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-91http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-937/25/2019 Late Roman Army
19/63
2& he assumption that John of ydus? figure of /-%,%%% for the Diocletian?s army
refers to the .eginning of that emperor?s reign is du.ious as it 3ould seem more
natural for the chronicler to report the army?s peak strength under that emperor&/& readgold?s claim that Diocletian increased the army?s num.ers .y over 0%H is
considered implausi.le .y eather, 3ho points out that even //H 3ould have
re5uired a erculean effort&-4B
4& readgold?s estimates are .ased on figures for +onstantine?s army provided .y
osimus, 3ho is notorious among scholars as an unrelia.le chronicler,-0B-"B.oth in
general and as regards figures in particular: e&g& he reports that "%,%%% Alamanni3ere killed at the ;attle of )tras.ourgin /0!, an a.surd inflation of the ",%%%
reported .y the contemporary and relia.leAmmianus arcellinus&-!B
Smaer ate army[edit]
he traditional vie3 of a much larger 4th century army has fallen out of favour 3ith some
historians in more recent times, as e6isting evidence has .een reappraised and ne3
evidence uncovered& he revisionist vie3 is that the 4thcentury army 3as, at its peak,roughly the same si@e as the 2ndcentury one and considera.ly smaller in the late 4th
century&
1& Agathias? and osimus? figures, if they have any validity at all, may represent the
official, as opposed to actual, strength of the +onstantinian army& =n reality, theslim evidence is that late units 3ere often severely understrength, perhaps only
a.out t3othirds of official&-8Bhus Agathias? "%%,%%% on paper may have .een no
more than c& 4%%,%%% in reality& he latter figure accords 3ell 3ith the other
glo.al figure from ancient sources, .y the "thcentury 3riter John ydus,of/8-,!%4 #e6cluding fleets$ for the army of Diocletian& ydus? figure is accorded
greater credi.ility than Agathias? .y scholars .ecause of its precision #implyingthat it 3as found in an official document$ and the fact that it is ascri.ed to aspecific time period&--B
2& '6cavation evidence from all the imperial .orders 3hich suggests that late forts
3ere designed to accommodate much smaller garrisons than their predecessorsfrom the *rincipate& Where such sites can .e identified 3ith forts listed in the
Notitia, the implication is that the resident units 3ere also smaller& '6amplesinclude theLegio ++ erculia, created .y Diocletian, 3hich occupied a fort Eustoneseventh the si@e of a typical *rincipate legionary .ase, implying a strength of
c& !0% men& AtAbusinaon the Danu.e, the Cohors +++ 0rittonum3as housed in afort only 1%H the si@e of its old raEanic fort, suggesting that it num.ered only
around 0% men& he evidence must .e treated 3ith caution as identification ofarchaeological sites 3ith placenames in theNotitiais often tentative and again,the units in 5uestion may .e detachments #theNotitiafre5uently sho3s the sameunit in t3o or three different locations simultaneously$& 9evertheless, the 3eightof the archaeological evidence favours small si@es for frontier units&1%%B
Archaeological evidence suggests that the army in ;ritain in ca& 4%% Eust onethird
its si@e in 2%% #1!,0%% effectives versus 00,%%%$&!"B
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-95http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamannihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamannihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-97http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-97http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_89-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Mattingly_2006_239-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-94http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-95http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamannihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-97http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_89-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lydushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-99http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Mattingly_2006_239-767/25/2019 Late Roman Army
20/63
At the same time, more recent 3ork has suggested that the regular army of the 2nd
century 3as considera.ly larger than the c& /%%,%%% traditionally assumed& his is
.ecause the 2ndcentury au6ilia 3ere not Eust e5ual in num.ers to the legions as in theearly 1st century, .ut some 0%H larger&8Bhe army of the *rincipate pro.a.ly reached a
peak of nearly 40%,%%% #e6cluding fleets and(oederati$ at the end of the 2nd century&1%1B
Furthermore, the evidence is that the actual strength of 2ndcentury units 3as typicallymuch closer to official #c& 80H$ than 4th century units& 1%2B
'stimates of the strength of the Army through the imperial period may .e summarised as
follo3s:
R+)A, AR)- ,U)BERS ."/".0
Army corps1iberius
24
2adrian
c. 130
S3
Severus
211
Diocetian
start rule
284
Diocetia
n
end rule
305
Constanti
ne 4
end rule
337
,otitia
(East ca.
395; West
ca. 420)
'=G9) 120,%%%1%
/B 100,%%%1%
4B 182,%%%1%
0B
ACK==A120,%%%1%"B 218,%%%
8B 20%,%%%1%!B
*(A'G(=A
9 CA(DLL0,%%%1%8B
LL8,%%%1%-B
L10,%%%11%B
1ota Roman
Army.556000111B
'786000112B
""9600011/B
o3
count:
.:06000;114B
readgold:
'7
7/25/2019 Late Roman Army
21/63
po3erful force 3ould deter many potential rivals, and if it did not, the escort army alone
3as often sufficient to defeat them&2!Bheir secondary role 3as to accompany the
emperor on maEor campaigns such as a foreign 3ar or to repel a large .ar.arian invasion&122Bhe diocesan comitatus, on the other hand, had the task of supporting the .orderforces of their diocese in maEor operations&12/B
2igh Command structure[edit]
East[edit]
igh command structure of the 'ast (oman army c& AD /-0& +ommands and army si@es
.ased on data in theNotitia Dignitatum1rientis&124B'astern magistri militum, incommand of comitatusarmies, reported direct to the emperor&Ducesare sho3n reportingto their diocesan magister militum, as suggested .y Jones and 'lton& ocations givenindicate usual 3inter 5uarters in this period&
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-122http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-123http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-124http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:East_Roman_army_command_structure.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-g170-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-122http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-123http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-1247/25/2019 Late Roman Army
22/63
igh command structure of the West (oman army c& 41%>420& +ommands and army
si@es .ased on data in theNotitia Dignitatum& (eporting relationship .et3een ducesandcomitesas in the 'ast, 3ith ducesreporting to senior officer in their diocese #3hereas theNotitiaplaces them directly under the magister utrius&ue militiae$&120Bocations givenindicate usual 3inter 5uarters in this period&
he eastern section of theNotitiais dated to c& /-0, at the death ofheodosius =& At thistime, according to theNotitia, in the 'ast there 3ere 2 imperial escort armies #comitatuspraesentales$, each commanded .y amagister militum praesentalis, the highest militaryrank, 3ho reported direct to the emperor& hese contained units of mainlypalatinigrade&=n addition, there 3ere / diocesan comitatus, in 'ast =llyricum, hraciae and Griensdioceses, consisting mostly of comitatensesgrade troops& 'ach 3as commanded .y amagister militum, 3ho also reported direct to the emperor&12"B
he 1/ eastern .order ducesreported to the magister militumof their diocese: #'ast$=llyricum #2 duces$, hraciae #2$, *ontica #1$, Griens #"$ and Aegyptum #2$&82B12"B12!B128B
he eastern structure as presented in theNotitiaremained largely intact until the reign ofJustinian =#020"0$&1B
=est[edit]
he 3estern section 3as completed considera.ly later than its eastern counterpart, c& 420,after the West had .een overrun .y ermanic peoples&12-Bo3ever, it appears that the
3estern section 3as several times revised, in the period c& 4%%20: e&g& the dispositions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_610-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magister_militum_praesentalishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magister_militum_praesentalishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Notitia_Oriens_Title_I-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Notitia_Oriens_Title_I-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_201-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Notitia_Oriens_Title_I-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-127http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_609-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Roman_army&action=edit§ion=20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:West_Roman_army_command_structure.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Jones_1964_610-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magister_militum_praesentalishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Notitia_Oriens_Title_I-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Elton_1996_201-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-Notitia_Oriens_Title_I-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_army#cite_note-127http://en.wikipedia
