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LABOUR MARKET PROFILE
2015 Tanzania and Zanzibar
LO/FTF Council’s Analytical Unit
Copenhagen, Denmark
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania & Zanzibar 2015 Page ii
PREFACE
The LO/FTF Council presents this Labour Market Profile
as a yearly updated report that provides an overview
of the labour market's situation.
This country profile presents the recent main
developments and is not an in-depth analysis.
Nevertheless, it shows a wide range of data in a
reader-friendly style. Certain key findings of this report
can be found on the Executive Summary.
The report is divided in 11 thematic sections, which
includes trade unions, employers’ organizations,
tripartite structures, national labour legislation,
violations of trade union rights, working conditions,
situation of the workforce (with subsections such as
unemployment, sectoral employment, migration,
informal economy, child labour, gender, and youth),
education (with subsection vocational training), social
protection, general economic performance, and trade.
Additionally, the reader may find, an appendix
including a list of the ratified ILO Conventions.
As indicated, the report is driven by statistical data
selection from international databanks, surveys and
reports (e.g. the International Labour Organization
(ILO), the International Trade Union Confederation
(ITUC), the World Bank, WageIndicator Foundation, the
Africa Labour Research & Educational Institute (ALREI),
etc.) as well as national statistical institutions and
ministries, and others. Moreover, narrative inputs are
collected from international news sources (e.g. The
Economist, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),
LabourStart, The Guardian, etc.) together with local
sources such as trade unions centers, NGOs, local news,
the LO/FTF Council’s Sub-Regional Office, among
others.
This report also collects references from several
indexes, e.g. Global Rights Index, Doing Business Index,
the Governance Indicators, and the Human
Development Index. The indexes’ methodologies and
the data quality can be followed by the sources
websites.
All sources, indicators and/or narrative inputs that are
used are available by links through footnotes.
It is noteworthy to highlight that although most of the
statistical data is available, there were some problems
with availability and reliability of the data. In
particular, the data collection of trade union
membership, Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBAs),
women’s trade union membership and occupational
health and safety (OHS) committees are a challenge.
Therefore, used data from these abovementioned
indicators should be interpreted with some reservations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This Labour Market Profile is prepared by the LO/FTF
Council’s Analytical Unit in Copenhagen with support
from our Sub-Region Office in Tanzania as well as our
local partners in terms of data collection of trade union
membership.
All other labour market profiles of the countries where
LO/FTF Council operates are available at our website:
http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/content/landeanaly
ser
Should you have questions about the profiles you can
contact Kasper Andersen ([email protected]), Manager of
the Analytical Unit.
Cover Photo: Carsten Snejbjerg
Editing, design and layout: Adriana Romero
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page iii
Tanzania & Zanzibar Labour Market Profile
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Tanzania has experienced decades of political and
social stability, coupled with a significant reduction on
working poor and a fast growing middle-class. Such
improvements are a result of a somewhat economic
transformation with an increasing labour productivity.
There has also been an increase in the minimum wage
even though such wages have been affected in real
terms due to rising inflation in consumer prices over
recent years. Albeit the country is still a low-income
country, it is moving towards a middle-income status. It
continues to be overshadowed by deterioration of the
governance environment and with marginalized
improvements of the conditions of doing business.
Albeit the wage & salaried workers are on a rise, which
is related to the increasing industry sector, the formal
sector is still unable to create sufficient jobs to the
growing workforce. Estimations show that workers in the
formal sector are a minority group since close to 9 out
of 10 workers operate in the informal economy.
Unemployment rates are relatively low in comparison
with the Sub-Saharan Africa’s average. At the same
time the skilled youth population faces
underemployment when they have no choice then to
enter the informal economy.
The labour legislations have some flaws just as the
regulations are ineffective when applied in practice. It
is also noteworthy to mention that regular violation of
labour rights is present in Tanzania.
Another character of the labour market is that nearly
80 percent of workers in the private sector are
considered casual-labours and close to 90 percent of
enterprises are very small with between one to four
employees. As urbanization continues to experience a
rapid evolvement, urban zones are attracting many
micro-enterprises. These kinds of enterprises operate on
very little or basic specialization. However, in light of
these proceedings, the government has implemented
plans to curb a mismatch of the labour market needs.
Equally important it makes things difficult to achieve
when the education system, particularly vocational
training, is far behind targets due to a lack of resources
and insufficient school enrolment. Also the incidence of
skills mismatch remains high at 40 percent in terms of
undereducation.
The public sector's services are generally very under-
financed, which is related to its weak tax system. The
low social protection coverage suffers from financial
deficiencies, decreasing non financed by private
households out-of-pockets payments, and exclude
workers from the informal economy.
Tanzania, mainland
Both the Constitution and labour legislation has been
under reforms. They have been somewhat stalled by
technical voting systems. Reformed social security
regulations are under finalizations.
The trade union movement in Tanzania mainland has
experienced a significant growth of membership and
coverage of collective bargaining agreements. There
are some emeriging challenges such as financial
sustainability and competition from new and
fragmented unions.
There are no formal bipartite agreement developed
between the Trade Unions Congress of Tanzania
(TUCTA) and the Association of Tanzania Employers
(ATE) on thematic issues.
Zanzibar
Social dialogue has not been present on a regular basis
in Zanzibar. Many of the formal bi/tripartite institutions
rarely convey. However, some improvements of social
dialogue have been observed during recent years. The
Social Security Law revision is in the final process by the
Government.
There are far greater restrictions on trade union rights
in Zanzibar than in the rest of the Mainland. There is a
high minimum membership requirement, and the
Registrar has considerable powers to restrict
registration. The High Court can interfere in trade union
affairs by appointing the Registrar to act as a trade
union liquidator.
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page iv
COUNTRY MAP
Source: The CIA World Factbook
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................................... ii
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... iii
Country Map ................................................................................................................................................................ iv
Trade Unions ................................................................................................................................................................ 1
Tanzania, mainland ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Zanzibar ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Employers’ Organisations .............................................................................................................................................. 3
Tanzania, mainland ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Zanzibar ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Central Tripartite Structures ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Tanzania, mainland ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Zanzibar ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
National Labour Legislation ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Tanzania, mainland ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Zanzibar ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
TRADE UNION RIGHTS VIOLATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 6
Working Conditions ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Workforce ..................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Unemployment .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Sectoral Employment ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Migration ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Informal Economy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Child Labour........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Gender ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Youth ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Education ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Vocational training ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Social Protection .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Tanzania, mainland ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Zanzibar .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Economic Performance ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Trade Agreements ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Export Processing Zones (EPZ) ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Appendix: Additional Data ........................................................................................................................................... 23
Ratified ILO Conventions .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Trade unions in Tanzania 2013 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Trade Union Centre and affiliates in Zanzibar .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
References .................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page vi
Tables Table 1: Trade union status in Tanzania, mainland, 2014-2015..................................................................................................................... 1
Table 2: Trade Union Congress of Tanzania (TUCTA), 2014 ........................................................................................................................... 1
Table 3: Trade union status in Zanzibar, 2014 .................................................................................................................................................... 2
Table 4: Zanzibar Trade Union Congress (ZATUC), 2014 ................................................................................................................................ 2
Table 5: Membership of Association of Tanzania Employers (ATE), 2008 .................................................................................................... 3
Table 6: Tanzania: Global Rights Index (2015) .................................................................................................................................................. 6
Table 7: Wages and earnings Monthly average and legal minimum wages .............................................................................................. 7
Table 8: Working Conditions in Tanzania ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Table 9: Employment rates in Tanzania, Age and Sex distribution, 2013 .................................................................................................... 8
Table 10: Employment Participation and Inactivity rates in Tanzania, ........................................................................................................... 9
Table 11: Inactivity rate in Tanzania ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Table 12: Skills mismatch between job requirements and qualifications in Tanzania, 2013 .................................................................... 9
Table 13: Comparative average growth of GDP per capita, Employment and WAP in Tanzania 2004-2013 ................................ 9
Table 14: Unemployment in Tanzania, 2013 .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Table 15 : Employment (2006) & GDP share (2012) Sector & Sex distribution ...................................................................................... 11
Table 16: Migration Facts ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Table 17: Working children Proportion of all children ................................................................................................................................... 13
Table 18 : Highest level of schooling attained .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Table 19: Vocational Training, 2013 .................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Table 20: Public spending on social protection schemes, 2010 .................................................................................................................... 16
Table 21: Benefits, coverage and contributions to pension schemes, 2010 ............................................................................................... 17
Table 22: Key Facts in Tanzania (2014 est.) ..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Table 23: Ease of Doing Business in Tanzania ................................................................................................................................................... 20
Table 24: Tanzania's Governance Indicators, 2009-2014 ............................................................................................................................ 20
Table 25 : Trade and Foreign Direct Investment in Tanzania, (2014 est.) ................................................................................................. 21
Table 26: Ratified ILO Conventions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Table 27: Trade unions in Tanzania 2013 ......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Table 28: Trade Union Centre and affiliates in Zanzibar (2014) ................................................................................................................ 25
Figures
Figure 1: TUCTA membership & union members covered by Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBA), 2008-2013........................ 1
Figure 2: Minimum wage trend in Tanzania .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: Labour productivity ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Unemployment trends in Tanzania and the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 2000-2013, % ...................................................... 10
Figure 5 : Distribution of enterprises by size in Tanzania, 2011 .................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 6: Sector Share in Tanzania, 2002-2013, % of GDP ........................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 7: Status of employment in Tanzania, 1991-2013, % ....................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8: Employment in the informal economy ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 9: Women in Management and Ownership, 2013 ............................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 10: Youth unemployment, sex distribution, 2000-2013, % ............................................................................................................... 14
Figure 11: School Levels and Enrolment .............................................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 12: Ratio of vocational student to all pupils in secondary education ............................................................................................. 16
Figure 13: Total health-care expenditure not financed by private household's out-of-pocket payments .......................................... 17
Figure 14: GDP real growth, Tanzania and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 2000-2014, % ...................................................................... 18
Figure 15: GDP per capita (PPP), trend and forecast, Current US$............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 16: Working poor, Tanzania and the Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), % ............................................................................................. 19
Figure 17: Middle-class in Tanzania and the Sub-Saharan Africa .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 18: Inflation trend and forecast ............................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 19: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) .................................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 20: Export, Import and Foreign Direct Investment trends ................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 21: Tanzania's main products share of exports, 2012 ....................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 22: Tanzania's main export markets, 2013 .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 23: Number of Zone Developers and Operators since established of EPZA, 2006-2010 ........................................................ 22
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 1
TRADE UNIONS
Tanzania, mainland
By the end of 2014, there were registered 29 trade
unions registered; one was deregistered and another
three trade unions are in the process of being
deregistered. There are an estimated 506,000 trade
union members, increasing by 7 percent since 2011
(Table 1).
The sole national trade union federation in Tanzania is
the Trade Unions Congress of Tanzania (TUCTA). It was
established in 2001 under the Trade Unions Act of
1998. The organization is affiliated to the International
Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). There is a 28
percent representation of women in the Congress; and
regional meetings, making them slightly less than the
targeted 30 percent.
One third of TUCTA’s total membership is organised by
the Tanzania Teacher Union (TTU), which is one of the
strongest trade unions in Tanzania. TTU, together with
the trade unions for government workers (TUGHE) and
local government workers (TALGWU), represent more
than 50 percent of the total TUCTA membership (Table
27).
The trade union density was estimated at 2.5 percent of
the labour force and at 16 percent of labour salaried
workers. Women members of trade unions were
assessed at 42 percent.
Table 1: Trade union status in Tanzania, mainland, 2014-20151
Number of trade unions 29
Due (median) N/A
Members of trade unions (2014) 505,561
Women members of trade unions (TUCTA) 42 %
Trade union member share of labour force 2.5 %
Trade union member share of labour salaried workers
16 %
Members of affiliated trade unions from the informal economy
17,865
Number of CBAs 321
Workers covered by CBAs 420,000
Share of labour force covered by CBAs from the formal sector (estimation)
1.7 %
Labour force2 (2013) 24,219,000
TUCTA maintains strong ties with the Government and
has regular meetings with many other state institutions
for discussion on issues related to the labour market.
This congress union has twelve representatives on board
(see also Table 2 and Table 27).
Table 2: Trade Union Congress of Tanzania (TUCTA), 2014
Total Members 494,584
Women Members 208,446
No. of OHS Committees at workplaces 398
Note: Through TUCTA’s website, it was registered in December 2015 that the organization has 12 affiliated trade unions. More information about the affiliated and non-affiliated trade unions is
available in Table 27.
As of December 2013, there are a total of 310
collective bargaining agreements from the affiliated
unions to TUCTA. If we look back on time, this reflects a
considerable increase of CBA’s coverage since 2008
(Figure 1). There are estimations that the number of
CBAs reached 321 collective agreements since 2014
and covering 420,000 workers, i.e. 1.7 percent of the
labour force (Table 1).
Figure 1: TUCTA membership & union members covered by
Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBA)3, 2008-2013
The TUCTA strategic plan 2012-2016 continues to
promote attention to strengthen the financial situation of
the organization. The management of the real estate
owned by the organization has been improved and a
business plan has been developed for the revamping of
the Mbeya Labour College. Furthermore, a membership
database is under development. Also a draft policy has
been developed on how TUCTA and affiliated unions
can engage and organize in the informal sector. It is
equally important to note, that TUCTA faces challenges
and competition from new and fragmented unions.
During 2015 TUCTA conducted advocacy campaigns
through national media on topics like domestic workers,
gender labor rights and labour rights compliance,
workman’s compensation fund, Informal Economy
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Number of members in TUCTA affiliated unionsNumber of union members covered by CBA
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 2
contributions to social security schemes, among others.
TUCTA managed to pressurize government to allow
workers from the informal economy to pay contributions
to – and benefit from - social security schemes. On the
same token, TUCTA has supported regional trainers’
network through training of (master) trainers,
researchers and regional trade union representatives.
TUCTA is faced with serious financial constraints due to
lack of income from fees from affiliated unions, real
estates, decreasing formal sector, and losing external
donor support, among others. TUCTA is working on
financial recovery plans. Internal conflicts have also
arisen because affiliated unions oppose TUCTA’s
constitutional right to direct check-off from the source
(5% of member fees paid to unions). In addition, TUCTA
hardly pay salaries to the secretariat, and most
activities have been donor funded.
Zanzibar
Zanzibar’s labour concerns have historically been
neglected when it comes to constitutional matters. The
Zanzibar House of Representatives was compelled to
enact the Zanzibar Trade Union Act of 2001, which
allowed registration of trade unions in Zanzibar.
Subsequently, the national trade union centre -
Zanzibar Trade Union Congress (ZATUC) - was
established in 2003.
The labour law requires a union with 50 or more
members to be registered and sets literacy standards
for trade union officers. Not to mention the law
provides considerable powers of the registrar to restrict
registration by setting forth criteria for determining
whether an organization’s constitution contains suitable
provisions to protect its members’ interests.4
ZATUC continues its positive development and is
continuously consulted by the government. Among
others, trade union leaders are placed centrally in
standing committees in the House of Representatives to
lobby tabled Bills. For instance, ZATUC participated in
formulating the new regulation on public service to
establish committee of negotiating machinery for public
sector employees.
The trade union movement in Zanzibar is under reforms.
Internally ZATUC is merging resources together to make
fewer and stronger unions and has continued the
process of union merger. So far, it has managed to
reduce the number of affiliates from eleven to nine. The
new Zanzibar Public Sector Workers Union-ZAPSWU is
in place, while another merger process for private
sector unions has been initiated. It is without the teachers
union ZATU. ZATUC is currently working on merging two
private sector unions.
According to the available data, the trade union
movement covers nine trade unions with an estimated
18,000 workers and 40 percent are women. The trade
union density was assessed at 3 percent as a share of
the labour force (Table 3).
Unions affiliated to ZATUC have concluded 6 CBA’s,
which is up from four in 2012, and number of bipartite
negotiations has increased from four in 2012 to eleven
in 2013. In the private sector, affiliated unions have
negotiated at least 3 CBAs at workplaces in 2015;
others still on-going.
Table 3: Trade union status in Zanzibar, 20145
Number of trade unions 9
Due (median) N/A
Members of trade unions 18,285
Women members of trade unions 7,329
Trade union members share of labour force
3.0 %
Members of affiliated trade unions from the informal economy
832
Number of CBAs 6
Workers covered by CBAs 3,600
Share of workers covered by CBA 5.1%
Labour force (2012 )6 600,000
Note: The registered CBAs exclude the three new CBAs from the private sector due to lack of their worker coverage in 2015.
ZATUC continues to strengthening its working relations
with the Government of Zanzibar as well as employers’
organization. ZATUC presented a proposal for public
sector negotiation machinery to the Government and
succeeded having it established. ZATUC also played a
major role in the development of the Zanzibar Youth
Employment Action Plan and developed a strategic
plan and guidelines for combating HIV/AIDS in private
sector work places.
Table 4: Zanzibar Trade Union Congress (ZATUC), 2014
Total Members 18,265
Women Members 7,329
No. of OHS Committees at workplaces 1
Note: More information about the affiliated trade unions is
available at Table 28.
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 3
ZATUC Congress was held in December 2013. The
number of women leaders increased at national level
from 27 percent to 54 percent. ZATUC continued in
2015 of promoting young and female leaders in the
affiliated unions in line with its new policies on gender
and youth.
A new five year strategic plan and a work plan for
2014 were adopted, which is related on how to
engage with informal economy. So far 832 members
from the informal economy have been organized. In
2015, ZATUC set up a national union committee and
informal economy desk on informal economy to
organise its workers, and informal economy associations
have been trained on trade unionism and labour rights.
It is noteworthy to mention that the teachers union ZATU
has reached a membership rate of 52 percent of all
public teachers in Zanzibar and the largest affiliated
union in ZATUC. However, ZATU is facing a membership
saturation point, and has reached a deadlock in
collecting dues/payment arrears especially from
secondary teachers who are opposed to a flat rate of
2% direct check-off. In 2015, ZATU intensified its
membership service by disseminating newsletters,
training manuals and cluster visits to schools.
Regionally, ZATU is active in the federation for East
African Teachers’ Unions (FEATU) that recently gained
legal registration in Tanzania and is in the process to
finalize establishment of permanent office in Arusha
and receiving official observer status in the East Africa
Community (EAC) in line with the East African Trade
Union Confederation (EATUC) (only on issues pertaining
teachers’ rights and education matters).
EMPLOYERS’ ORGANISATIONS
Tanzania, mainland
Founded in 1960, Association of Tanzania Employers
(ATE) is the main employers’ organization in Tanzania.
The organization has representatives in most important
bi/tripartite organs. Their main objective is to enhance
sustainable socio-economic development in coordination
with the government and trade union movement. ATE’s
membership base currently stands at over 1,000
members, the majority of who are based in Dar es
Salaam (70%) and the remainder in other parts of
Tanzania mainland. The organization provides advisory
and representation services to its members with
industrial relations, legal, management etc. ATE is
governed by an annual general meeting and an
executive council.7
Table 5: Membership of Association of Tanzania Employers (ATE), 2008
Divisions No. of
enterprises per division
No. of employees per
division
Agriculture 30 25,956
Banking and finance 42 10,298
Commerce 288 25,210
Industry 259 41,263
Mining 20 6,238
Oil industry 17 1,694
Utilities and services 170 54,430
Total members 826 165,089
ATE is divided into eight divisions (Table 4). According
to the table above, which has some slightly outdate
data but remains indicative, the eight divisions in ATE
had a total 826 enterprise members, employing
165,089 workers, which is roughly equivalent of 14
percent of all formal workers.8 Furthermore, ATE and
ZANEMA are members of the East African Employers
Organization (EAEO).
Zanzibar
Zanzibar's employers’ organization is Employers
Association of Zanzibar (ZANEMA). Main activities are
to represent the private sector in policy advocacy and
to conduct training workshops for members. ZANEMA
maintains good working relations with ZATUC, but the
organization faces constraints in terms of manpower
resources. Recently ZANEMA expressed that despite
hefty work permit fees to protect domestic labour
forces from alien workers, it should also apply other
measures, such as upgrading skills of the workforce.9
CENTRAL TRIPARTITE STRUCTURES
Tanzania, mainland
Labour, Economic and Social Council (LESCO)
LESCO advises the government through the Ministry of
Labour on different matters such as measures to
promote economic growth and social equity, and any
significant changes to social and economic policy before
it is submitted to cabinet. LESCO consists of an
independent chairperson and sixteen members all
appointed by the Minister of Labour, which represent
the interest of the government, employers, workers; and
Danish Trade Council for International Development and Cooperation
Labour Market Profile 2015
Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 4
four members appointed because of their expertise.
LESCO advises the Minister on e.g. national labour
market policy, any proposed labour law before it is
submitted to cabinet. It also collects and compiles
information and statistics relating to the administration
of the labour laws. Meeting in LESCO have been
seldom. In March 2013, new members of LESCO were
inaugurated for 3 years.
Labour Court
The Labour Court is a division of the high court, which
settles labour disputes referred to it. The Labour Court
is presided by a judge and two assessors from
Employers’ Organizations and Trade Unions. The
Labour Court lacks resources and processing slightly less
than half of the cases it receives.10
In May 2014 the government ordered striking Tanzania
Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA) workers to go
back to work since the High Court’s Labour Division
ruled that their strike was illegal.11
Commission for Mediation and Arbitration (CMA)
Labour disputes are mainly regulated and resolved by
mediation through the CMA. It is an independent
department of government and has been operating
since 2007. The functions of the Commission are to
mediate or arbitrate in any dispute referred to the
Commission in terms of any labour laws, if the parties to
the dispute agree to arbitration or the Labour Court
refers a dispute. The CMA is well functioning and
therefore an important organ in the Tanzanian labour
market. Since its inception in 2007 to 2010, the CMA
had received around 19,000 cases and resolved 87%
of them.12
TUCTA petitioned in 2013 that the new chairman for
the CMA was appointed in disregard of the laws and
regulations. The Government eventually agreed to
appoint another chairman. In the meantime, the number
of pending cases before the CMA increased and
excessive delays (up to a year to hear the ruling) made
it difficult to go to appeal court. In the 2013/2014
budget a provision was given for an infusion of
manpower (mediators/arbitrators) in order to solve the
problem.
In addition, according to the U.S. Annual Country Report
on Human Rights Practices 2014,13 law prohibits
antiunion discrimination, it does not provide sufficient
protection against it. Disputes on the grounds of
antiunion discrimination must appear before the
Commission for Mediation and Arbitration, a
governmental department affiliated with the Ministry of
Labor. Reinstatement is not mandatory.
Sectoral Wage Boards
The members of the Wage Boards are appointed by
the Minister in consultation with LESCO. The functions of
the Wage Boards are to: i) conduct an investigation on
a minimum remuneration and other conditions of
employment; ii) promote collective bargaining between
registered trade unions, employers and registered
employer’s associations, and iii) make recommendations
to the Minister on minimum wages and conditions of
employment. Wage boards have been established in
sectors such as domestic service, private security,
agriculture, mining, and health.14
TUCTA and Ministry of labour agreed to increase
minimum wages by 11% in 2015/16, but in future,
minimum wage negotiations will be dealt with by
special wage regulatory committees and social
partners.
Essential Services Committee
The Essential Services Committee is composed of
employers, workers, and government representatives.
Workers in certain “essential” sectors, which may not
strike without a pre-existing agreement to maintain
“minimum services”, and workers in other sectors may
also be subject to strike limitation as determined by the
Essential Services Committee. This committee has the
authority to deem periodically which services are
essential.15
Other bi/tripartite organs16
Workman Compensation Body
Work Permit Board
Vocational Training Board
Tanzania Commission for AIDS
National Social Security Board (NSSF)
National Health Insurance Fund Board (NHIF)
Public Pension Fund
Regulatory Board for Social Security
Joint Assistance Strategy
Negotiation machinery at the Joint Staff Council
(central) and at the Master Joint Staff Council.
Teacher Education Quality Task Force, EFA
Committee
Education Sector Advisory Council
Education Sector Master Workers Council
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Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 5
Board of the Vocational Education & Training
Authority (VETA), technical team member of the
adult literacy programme.
Zanzibar
Zanzibar Industrial Court
The Zanzibar Industrial Court is a division of the High
Court of Zanzibar, which settles formal labour disputes
conferred to it and like its mainland counterpart the
Zanzibar Industrial Court is presided by a judge and
two assessors from Employers’ Organisations and Trade
Unions.17 According to an ILO labour administration
audit,18 the industrial court is functioning, but is slow and
irregular due to lack of resources. The courts are the
only venue in which labor disputes can be heard.
Labour Advisory Board
The Labour Advisory Board consists of nine member,
with three members each from government, employers
and workers, all appointed by the Labour Minister. The
board provides advice on labour related issues, such as
proposed legislation, ILO conventions, industrial
relations, and working conditions. It is required to meet
four times a year.19 However, the board is reported not
to function effectively, and in the period 2005-2010
the board had only met twice.
Wages Advisory Board
The Wages Advisory Board consists of 13 members,
representing government, employers, workers, informal
sector, commerce and independent experts. It provides
recommendation for minimum wages and working
conditions. The board is required to meet twice a year.
According to an ILO labour administration audit, the
board is reported not to function effectively, and in the
period 2005-10 the board had only met twice.
Other important bi/tripartite organs
Conflict Resolution Committee
Zanzibar Social Security Board
Zanzibar Disabled Board
Zanzibar Business Council (bipartite)
MKUZA on Irrigation/Poverty Board
National Committee on HIV/AIDS
National OHS Committee
Committee on Education Policy
Aids Business Coalition Zanzibar (ABCZ)
Education Coordinating Board
NATIONAL LABOUR LEGISLATION
Constitution20
The Constitution applies to the United Republic of
Tanzania. The state is obliged to realize the right to
work and social welfare. The freedom of association is
guaranteed, though with several restrictions. Equal
opportunity and just remuneration is enshrined in the
constitution. A Constitution Review process was initiated
in 2013. The process has been very much debated and
is in its final stages. The draft new Constitution was
adopted and handed to the two presidents in Tanzania
and Zanzibar in October 2014. A referendum for
adoption of the new constitution was scheduled in April
2015, but has been postponed to 2016 due to delays
in registering voters.
The participating trade union representatives ensured
inclusion of labour rights clauses in a draft constitution
that awaits the coming referendum. Concerns remain
mainly related to the division of Tanzania mainland and
Zanzibar, ethnic relations, ownership of oil, and gas
reserves. The same awaits the proposed amendment of
employment and labour legislation that takes into
account ILO core conventions.
The mainland and Zanzibar governments have separate
labor laws:
Tanzania, mainland
Employment and Labour Relations Act21
The Employment and Labour Relations Act of 2004 sets
fundamental rights at work and regulates hours of
work, remuneration, leave, termination of employment,
trade unions and employers’ organizations,
organizational rights, collective bargaining, strikes and
lockouts and sets dispute resolution under the
Commission for Mediation and Arbitration. The labor
laws cover all workers, including foreign and migrant
workers.
The Labour Relations Act is contradicted by the Public
Service (Negotiation Machinery) of 200322 for civil
servants by having conflicting regulations concerning
strikes. Amendments of the Act are prepared and are
underway to parliament discussions.
Labour Institutions Act23
The Labour Institutions Act of 2004 applies to the
United Republic of Tanzania. It establishes the Labour,
Economic and Social Council, the Commission for
Mediation and Arbitration, the Essential Services
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Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 6
Committee, the Sectoral Wage boards, the Labour
Administration and Inspection, and the Labour Court.
According to an assessment from 2013 by the Legal
and Human Rights Centre in Tanzania, 67% of workers
are completely unaware of the labour laws.24
Zanzibar
Labour Relations Act25
Of the laws specifically to Zanzibar, the Labour
Relations Act of 2005 regulates fundamental
employees’ rights, establishes the framework for
registration of trade unions and organizations,
organizational rights, collective bargaining and
agreements, labour disputes / right to strike, dispute
prevention and resolution and establishes the Zanzibar
Industrial Court.
The Employment Act
The Employment Act of 2005 regulates fundamental
rights and protection, employment procedures and
foreign employment, contracts of service and
employment standards and rights (hours at work,
wages, leave, vacation, penalties, termination of
employment, etc.). The law also establishes the Labour
Advisory Board, Wage fixing machinery and wages
protection as well as the Labour Commission and labour
inspection.
***
Several other legislations exist from Tanzania mainland
& Zanzibar which regulate and set standards and
restrictions for the labour market.26
Equally important the International Trade Union
Confederation (ITUC) has registered flaws on the
legislations. For example, the law prohibits anti-union
discrimination, but does not provide adequate means of
protection against it; just as Restrictions on the right to
elect representatives and self-administer in full
freedom.27
TRADE UNION RIGHTS VIOLATIONS
Tanzania was ranked as 3 out of 5 at ITUC’s Global
Rights Index in 2015, which was interpreted by ‘regular
violations of rights’. Stated differently, there are
deficiencies in laws and/or certain practices which
make frequent violations possible (Table 6).
Table 6: Tanzania: Global Rights Index28 (2015)
3 out of 5+
o Regular violation of rights o Workers in countries with the rating of 3
have reported government and/or companies are regularly interfering in collective labour rights or are failing to fully guarantee important aspects of these rights.
Note: Five clusters in total with ratings from 1 to 5. A country is assigned the rating 5+ by default, if the rule of law has completely broken down.
ITUC registered two cases on the regular violations of
rights in 2015.29 Both are related to the labour division
of Tanzania’s High Court ruled that a strike by workers
of Tanzania-Zambia Authority Railways Authority
(TAZARA) was illegal. It had been agreed workers
would resume work if the salary arrears were paid.
However, not all salary arrears were paid in time, and
other demands were not met. The government ordered
the workers to resume work, failing which they would
lose their jobs, and directed the TAZARA management
to keep a record of the number of days the workers
were on strike and deduct their salaries accordingly.
A similarly problem was repeated. TAZARA workers
went on strike but were ordered back to work by the
High Court. The strike was called to demand five
months’ salary arrears. The strikers returned to work
after receiving promises that their salaries would be
paid. The workers did start receiving their salary
arrears, after they returned to work, but the process
was slow.
According to the U.S. Annual Country Report on Human
Rights Practices 2014, 30 many private sector employers
adopt antiunion policies or tactics, although case law
discourages discriminatory activities by an employer
against union members. This is on both the mainland and
Zanzibar. Other antiunion activities were registered
such as international mining interests engaged in paying
officials from the Ministry of Labor Inspectorate to
ignore worker complaints or to write favorable reports
on working conditions. Also ILO reported during 2014
that some mining interests “barred” unions from
organizing and used security staff to block labour
inspectors from entering mines.
The above mentioned U.S. Annual Country Report on
Human Rights Practices also registered that TUCTA
officials stated that there were many instances of
discrimination against union workers. Again it was
related mining companies that appear to establish
employer-controlled unions under brands such as
‘welfare committees’ and ‘declared workers redundant’
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to prevent organizers from starting a union. According
to the report, the Tanzanian Mining and Construction
Workers Union reported 120 active cases of unfair
termination involving mining companies in different
stages of adjudication. TUCTA also reported cases of
hotels and construction firms dismissing employees for
attempting to unionize.
Both Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar have no cases with the ILO's Committee of Freedom of Association.31
WORKING CONDITIONS
In Tanzania mainland minimum wages are fixed by the
Government after tripartite consultation in the LESCO
based on recommendations from 12 sub-sectoral wage
boards.
The average earnings for employees in the public
sector are currently twice as much as compared to
monthly average earnings in the private sector.32 In July
2014, the minimum wages for public sector were raised
from 200,000 TZS (US$120) to 240,000 TZS
(US$144). The Government announced in July 2014 a
substantial increase in private sector minimum wages up
to 65%. The decision to raise statutory minimum wages
for private sector employees came after years of
debate. The announced increase would bring minimum
wages to TZS 40,000 (US$25) per month for domestic
workers, which is the lowest, while TZS 400,000
(US$248) for workers in the commercial and
communication services is the highest (Table 7). These
monthly wages were above the poverty line of TZS
13,998 (US$8.75) per month/person.
However, when the Wage Order was gazette it did by
far reflect what was announced and promised. TUCTA
has been advocating and lobbying for a minimum
wage policy and wage boards for public sector put in
place; and reduction of tax rates for low income
earners. Intensive TUCTA protests have eventually
caused the President to form a tripartite task force to
sort out the issue. As a result a new minimum salary
raise was reached in June 2015 at TZS 310,000
(US$167) per month. In addition, the Pay-As-You-Earn
(PAYE) – i.e. withholding tax on taxable incomes of
employees - was reduced from 12 percent in 2014 to
11 percent in 2015 (June) for income between TZS
170,000-360,000 per month. No income tax under TZS
170,000 per month.
According to the Income Tax Act (2004) the resident
individual income tax rates applicable in Zanzibar
differ from those which are applicable in Tanzania
Mainland.
Table 7: Wages and earnings Monthly average and legal minimum wages
Source
Current Shilling (TZS)
Current US$
Tanzania, nation wide
Mean nominal, average wage (2012)
Global Wage Database33
356,666 226
Minimum wage, average (2015)
The Citizen34 310,000 167
Minimum wage for a 19-year old worker or an apprentice (2014) Doing
Business35
77,697 48
Ratio minimum wage to value added per worker (2014)
0.53
Tanzania, mainland
Highest minimum wage (2013-16) WageIndicator
36
400,000 248
Lowest minimum wage (2013-16)
40,000 25
Median wage (2012)
WageIndicator37
114,400 72
Zanzibar
Minimum wage (2013)
LO/FTF Council
180,000 111
Median Wage (2010)
170,000 122
In reality the minimum wage experienced a growing
gap with the real minimum wage, which was related to
the rising inflation in consumer prices (Figure 2 & Figure
18).
Figure 2: Minimum wage trend in Tanzania38
The lowest wages are found in the trade sector, retail
manufacturing, and agriculture. Although earnings are
0%
-1%
61%
0% 0%
0% -3%
0%
66%
18%
-4% -10%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
Real minimum wage trend (% change)Minimum wageReal minimum wage
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Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 8
pegged on productivity indices, in practice wages are
also related to levels of education, i.e. those sectors
employing workers with low levels of education pays
lower wages.
Public civil servants have received increased travel
allowances (up to 50%) after years of lobbying by
trade unions to align salaries with the rising cost of
travelling fees and accommodations.
The public sector minimum wage in Zanzibar increased
in 2013 from TZS 145,000 (US$90) to TZS 180,000
(US$111). The Government announced that private
sector minimum wages be revised in 2014. In 2010,
before the minimum wage increase, the median wage
was around TZS 170,000 (US$122), notably higher
than on the mainland. In Zanzibar it has been observed
that officials responsible for checking minimum wages
are often corrupt, with the result that some rival
businesses can ignore the law without being penalized,
which includes kept in check enterprises in the informal
economy.39
General working conditions in Tanzania are available
at Table 8. Generally, the labour standards are not
effectively enforced, particularly in the informal
economy.
Table 8: Working Conditions in Tanzania40
Normal Weekly Hour
Limit 45 hours (mainland Tanzania)
Overtime Limit
12 hours (including overtime);
50 hours over a 4-week
period (mainland)
Max. Weekly Hours Limit 57 hours (mainland)
Min. Mandatory
Overtime premium/time
off in Lieu of Overtime
Wages
50% increase (mainland
Tanzania); no universal natinal
entitlement to compensatory
time off
Min. Annual Leave 20 days (mainland Tanzania)
Duration of Maternity
Leave Benefits 84 days
Amount of Maternity
Leave Benefits 100 %
Source of Maternity
Leave Benefits Social ensurance
Laws regulate safety in the workplace, but the
Occupational Safety and Health Authority (OSHA) is
ineffective. Also the inspection system operates with a
limited effectiveness and a small number of labor
officers are available to conduct inspections. As an
example, mining companies take advantage of these
limitations to avoid inspections.41
Moreover, a large majority of workers do not have
employment contracts and lacked legal protections.
Among others, TUCTA officials mention long-haul bus
drivers and seasonal agricultural workers as commonly
working for “one or two years” without a contract.42
A tripartite plan of action of promoting the ratification
of the Domestic Workers Convention No. 189 was
launched in February 2014.
WORKFORCE
The total population of Tanzania is 49.6 million (1.3
million in Zanzibar) and a labour force with 24 million
workers. Men are slightly more engaged active in the
labour market than women; in youth the gap is very
minimal (Table 9).
Table 9: Employment rates in Tanzania43, Age and Sex distribution, 2013
Sex Age Employment rate
Men & women
Total 15+ 86 %
Youth 15-24 75 %
Adult 25+ 92 %
Men
Total 15+ 88 %
Youth 15-24 76 %
Adult 25+ 95 %
Women
Total 15+ 84 %
Youth 15-24 75 %
Adult 25+ 89 %
Sources have reported that around 900,000 young
people enter the country’s job market annually, but only
50,000 to 60,000 formal sector jobs are created each
year. With more than 66 percent of the population
under 25, this job shortage will keep rising. 44 The latest
Employment and Earnings Survey from 2012 showed
that close to 1.6 million persons were employed in the
formal sector, which was an increase at 14 percent
since 2011.45
In Zanzibar, the labour market is estimated to hold
70,000 public and private workers, but the informal
economy is expanding because of high unemployment.
As a result of promoting the need for decent
employment, over 2,800 jobs have been created in
2015.
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The employment participation rate has basically stayed
flat the last two decades. Only the youth inactivity rate
has increased slightly (Table 10).
Table 10: Employment Participation and Inactivity rates in Tanzania46,
1991-2013, Total & Youth, %
One out of ten (11 percent) of the working age
population (WAP, 15+) and two out of ten (20 percent)
of the youth population (15-24 years old) are inactive
on the labour market in Tanzania; and with quite small
gaps between men and women (Table 11).
Table 11: Inactivity rate in Tanzania47 Total & Youth, 2013, %
Total Men Women
Inactivity Rate 11 % 10 % 12 %
Inactivity rate, youth 20 % 20 % 19 %
Skills mismatch between labour supply and demand by
educational attainment is present, with an estimated 28
percent in 2013 and a noteworthy gap between men
(21%) and women (32%). In terms of skills mismatch
between job requirements and qualifications has been
assessed at 40 percent in terms of incidence of under-
education and 14 percent of over-education (Table
12). This indicates that many youth have few
opportunities to learn skills to help them start and
sustain enterprises.
Table 12: Skills mismatch between job requirements and qualifications in Tanzania, 201348
Total Men Women
Incidence of over-education 14 % 13 % 15 %
Incidence of under-education 40 % 41 % 38 %
Labour productivity is a key measure of economic
performance. There has also been a stable increase in
the productivity in Tanzania, but remains with a wide
gap to the Sub-Saharan Africa’s average (Figure 3).
The improvements are related to an expansion in
agricultural production, services, construction as well as
an increased access to electricity.
Figure 3: Labour productivity49
2000-2012, Output per worker and GDP per hour worked as an index with base year 2000 (= 100)
Note: Tanzania’s labour productivity is defined as output per worker (GDP constant 2005 international US$ in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)) while the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the World’s averages are estimated at output per worker in constant 2005 international US$. This could slightly underestimate Tanzania’s relative labour productivity in this Figure.
Based on estimations, the labour productivity (GDP per
worker) growth over the period 2004-2013 was
relatively low at 0.5 percent per year on average: it
decreased from 0.7 percent in 2004-2008 to 0.3
percent in 2009-2013. Employment grew on average
at the same rate as the working age population (WAP)
at 0 percent during 2004-2013. This suggests that the
GDP per capita is exclusively to changes in labour
productivity over the period. It is noteworthy to mention
that similar to labour productivity, the employment rate
increased slightly during 2004-2008, and fell again in
2009-2013 (Table 13).
Table 13: Comparative average growth of GDP per capita, Employment and WAP in Tanzania 2004-201350
% Change on Average
Years GDP/
employment
GDP/
WAP
Employment/
WAP
2004-08 0.7 % 0.9 % 0.2 %
2009-13 0.3 % 0.1 % -0.2 %
2004-13 0.5 % 0.0 % 0.0 %
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
Participation - 15+ Participation - 15-24Inactivity - 15+ Inactivity - 15-24
100 103 106 110 114 119 126 128
134 138 145
150 156
0
50
100
150
200
0
5.000
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.000
Tanzania SSA
World Tanzania - year 2000 (=100)
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Note: The columns above reflect: i) GDP per capita/employment
equals GDP per worker (i.e. labour productivity); ii) GDP/WAP
equals GDP per capita; and iii) employment/WAP equals the
employment rate (ratio of workers to working-age population
(15+)).
Unemployment
ILO's has estimated Tanzania's ‘strict’ unemployment
rate at 3.5 percent whereas youth unemployment is
double as high at 6.5 percent. Women have a double
as high unemployment rate than men (Table 14). The
unemployment rate has stayed stable in recent years
and significant below the Sub-Saharan Africa’s
averages (Figure 4).
Table 14: Unemployment in Tanzania51, 2013
Gender Rate
Unemployment
Total 3.5 %
Male 2.4 %
Female 4.5 %
Youth Unemployment
Total 6.5 %
Male 5.5 %
Female 7.4 %
Underemployment (2006)
Total 7.8 %
Youth 8.2 %
Adult 7.6 %
Figure 4: Unemployment trends in Tanzania and the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 2000-2013, %52
Unemployment rates differ substantially depending on
the locality, though. According to other data signal that
the rural areas have the lowest unemployment rate at
7.5 percent followed by other urban areas (excluding
Dar es Salaam) at 17 percent and are highest in Dar es
Salaam at 32 percent.53 These estimations could
diverge somewhat in terms of the other above
mentioned estimations due to methodology differences.
Newly recruited workers are on increase: In 2011/12
was around 75,000 as compared to 48,000 workers
recruited in 2010/11. The majority of the newly
recruited workers were technicians and professionals.
However, employment services in Tanzania are
unpopular and ineffective. Not to mention, it is
insufficient to curb the rising youth unemployment and
underemployment. These themes are areas of policy
concern due to new entrants in the labour market are
estimated at around 800,000 from schools and colleges
each year.54
Tanzania's National Employment Policy (NEP) has
assessed that the informal economy has a capacity to
employ 63% of the yearly increasing labour force in
urban areas while the formal sector is 8.5%.55 Other
facts demonstrate that only 6% of annual graduates
from secondary and tertiary schools in the mainland
find formal waged employment.56
As many other countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa, the
population increases with many young Tanzanians
entering the labour force and moving from rural to
urban areas. The economy is not able to generate
enough jobs to absorb them. Youth in Dar es Salaam
are six times more likely to be unemployed than rural
youth. Many therefore end up in the informal economy.
Other data show Tanzania’s youth vulnerable
employment has been estimated at 57 percent.57 In all
of Tanzania unemployed youth have been assessed to
constitute 28 percent of the urban youth labour force
and 32 percent of the rural unemployed population.58
Young females are particularly vulnerable to
unemployment due to education and skills, cultural
attitudes and practices, discrimination and limited
opportunities to access productive resources. Education
does not necessarily provide a clear path to decent
employment.
An official unemployment rate in Zanzibar was 34
percent in 2012, with a much higher real rate
estimating youth unemployment at 20 percent and
joblessness as high as 85 percent.59 Unemployment in
Zanzibar has also been called a “ticking time bomb”.60
In Zanzibar the Ministry for Labour and the Ministry of
Public Services were drawn together as the Ministry of
State President Office Labour and Public Service, thus
merging labour and Public Service issues.
0
5
10
15
Unemployment - Tanzania
Youth unemployment - Tanzania
Unemployment - SSA
Youth unemployment - SSA
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Zanzibar's Employment Policy was adopted in 2005
and endorsed in 2009. Following a 2012 government
report on the employment situation, ZATUC asked the
Government to develop a plan of action, and ILO
agreed to support this. The exercise resulted in the
Zanzibar Youth Employment Policy, which holds issues
on youth employment and job creation.
ZATUC is also involved in discussions with employers’
organization and a number of ministries on how to work
together in private sector.
Sectoral Employment
The graph above shows considerable contrasts in the
amount of GDP generated in different industries
compared to the number of people employed per
sector. The sectors that are male dominated also have
higher contribution to GDP relative to the number of
workers in these sectors, e.g. manufacturing, transport,
and finance. Whether these sectors also have the
highest paid workers, depends on the sectors capital
intensity and the distribution of wages.
Table 15 : Employment (2006) 61 & GDP share (2012)62 Sector & Sex distribution
Sector Male
employment Female
employment GDP share per sector
Mining & quarrying 901 134 3.8 %
Manufacturing 272,872 161,335 9.7 %
Electricity, gas & water
13,507 3,498 2.4 %
Construction 171,995 6,686 8.9 %
Trade, restaurants & hotels
837,881 758,909 16 %
Transport & communication
231,116 13,111 8.3 %
Finance, real estate & business services
76,578 18,709 10 %
Public administration & services
528,725 734,651 8.6 %
Other services N/A N/A 4.0 %
Agriculture 5,880,789 6,832,446 29 %
The economy depends on the agricultural sector that
contributes with 29% of GDP and is by far the largest
employer, employing 76% of the workforce. This sector
is also the biggest employer for young people. Albeit it
small-scale agricultural producers are not characterized
as workers in the informal economy but termed as self-
employed, they do not have any access to decent work
benefits, rights, and protection. It is also noteworthy that
all land in Tanzania is owned by the state, which can
lease land for up to 99 years. Proposed reforms to
allow for land ownership, particularly foreign
land ownership, remain controversial.
A study shows that that there are about five million non-
farm businesses in Tanzania, which mostly consist of
household enterprises. This number is growing fast at
approximately 10 percent-15 percent per year, fueled
by the rapid urbanization and by lack of other
employment options for the majority of Tanzanian
workers. As a result about half of small non-farm
businesses are located in urban centers today. They are
very small with little specialization. They tend to
operate only a few hours per day or a few days a
week.63 As the table below shows that close to nine out
of ten (88%) enterprises are between one to four
employees. Around 70 percent to 90 percent of the
workforce in the private sector is casual labours and the
country has a low professional density, e.g. very low
numbers of accountants and lawyers.64
Figure 5 : Distribution of enterprises by size in Tanzania65,
2011
The government operates with the Vision 25 that is
based on three five year development plans that
linkage with skills development initiatives. It is
noteworthy that the sectors: services, engineering,
manufacturing, constructions, and health and welfare
have high skills targets. A study has showed, though,
that the planned enrolment targets, especially in the
health and welfare sectors, engineering as well as
technical and vocational levels are far behind the
targets. There is a mismatch of the labour market’s
needs relative to the government’s effort in terms of
funds and enrolments.
In the last decade, Tanzania has experienced some
sectoral shifts, with a diminishing share from agriculture
and a growing industry. It could also explain part of
Micro (1-2 employees);
60%
Small (3-4 employees);
28%
Medium (5-9
employees); 9%
Large (10 - <100
employees); 2%
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the increasing labour productivity that was previously
showed.
Figure 6: Sector Share in Tanzania, 2002-2013, % of GDP66
These structural changes have also been observed in the
status of employment. Especially own-account workers
have experienced a significant decrease from 90
percent in 1990 to 42 percent in 2013. As a contrast,
both waged workers and contributing family workers
increased (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Status of employment in Tanzania, 1991-2013,
%67
The own-account workers and contributing family
workers together make up a category of “vulnerable
employment”. This category fell by 23 percent in the
period 1991-2013, i.e. from 91 percent to 71 percent,
respectively.
Migration
In Tanzania almost double as many leave the country
than enter in comparison with the Sub-Saharan Africa's
average. Among others, this is due to native Tanzanians
migrating for labour opportunities. Due to Tanzania’s
stability it has hosted many refugees from conflict
riddled neighbouring countries, mainly Rwanda and
Burundi. Many of these have returned home, which is
reflected in the decline of -300,000 net migrants in the
period 2006-2010 to -150,000 in 2008-2012 (Table
16).
Table 16: Migration Facts68
Net migration (2008-2012)
Tanzania -150,000
Net migration to average population (2008-2012)
Tanzania - 1 : 1,501 inhabitants
Sub-Saharan Africa
- 1 : 2,838 inhabitants
Remittances received, % of GDP (2012)
Tanzania 0.2 %
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.0 %
In 2013 a total of 35,000 refugees from Rwanda,
Burundi and Uganda were expelled from Tanzania in
what was code named “The Kimbunga Operation”. It
was announced that the refugees forced to leave the
country were those failing to prove their citizenship or
otherwise legal status and thus living as illegal
immigrants in Tanzania. Tanzania Immigrations
authorities often carry out blueprint operations to catch
illegal immigrants. However, in 2014 almost 170,000
Burundians living in Eastern parts of Tanzania were
granted citizenship. Survey data from 2013 also
showed that only 0.13% of the total workforce is
regular non-citizen employees. It suggests that most
immigrants operate in the informal economy.69
In practice, Tanzania is attracting labour migrants.70
This is reflected in the very low share of remittances
sent to Tanzania, which indicates few Tanzanians
abroad sending money home to their families.
The East African Community (EAC) commits Tanzania to
adopt measures to the free movement of persons and
labour from the other five member states. So far,
Tanzania has been very reluctant to open its borders
and thus lack behind neighbouring countries in
implementing the provisions in the EAC Common Market
Protocol.
Informal Economy
The majority of Tanzanian mainland and Zanzibar
workers (85% and 88%, respectively) are employed in
the informal economy and this tends to be in subsistence
farming. There has been indications that the growing
informalization of the urban economy due to the lack of
alternatives.71
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Agriculture Industry Services
90 88 84
76
69
48
42
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
10
20
30
40
1991 2001 2002 2006 2007 2011 2013
Wage & salaried workers Employers
Contributing family workers Own-account workers
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There are no formal policies and legislation developed
by the government in formalizing informal economy,
except social security reform has recently created funds
to roll over into the informal ‘sector’. Just as in many
other African countries, most new jobs are created in
the informal sector, crowding out jobs in the formal
sector. The informal 'sector' also absorbs many of the
young, since unemployment is not an option.
A Tanzania mainland Wage Indicator survey from
2012 showed that around 35% work without a
contract.72 The survey preselected workers, though, who
have better conditions as it sampled registered self-
employed and employees, and not unregistered self-
employed in the agricultural sector. The survey also
showed that the more young people tend to have no
contract, and that the median wage for workers with a
permanent contract is more than double that for
workers with no contract. In Zanzibar, 32% do not
operate with contracts.73
Figure 8: Employment in the informal economy
Share of persons employed in the informal economy
Tanzania (2014) 85%
Tanzania74 (2006) 93 %
Zanzibar75 (2010) 88 %
There is a big room to widen the tax base in the
informal 'sector' and improve government revenue
performance, but, in practice, it is the informality that
complicates it. Trade unions and cooperatives in
Tanzania have demonstrated as natural partners in
providing services and support to curb the informal and
unprotected situations of the workforce.76
Child Labour
Child labour is as high at 21 percent in Tanzania,
somewhat lower than the Sub-Saharan average (Table
17). Most children on the mainland work in agriculture,
with 32 percent of rural children being child labourers
compared to 11 percent of urban children. In Zanzibar
only 9 percent of 5-17 year olds are reported to be
engaged in child labour.
Table 17: Working children Proportion of all children
Region Year Type Proportion
Tanzania, mainland77 (age 5-17)
2006
Child labourers
21 %
Hazardous work
5 %
Zanzibar78 (age 5-17)
2006 Child labourers
9 %
Sub-Saharan Africa79 (age 5-17)
2008
Children in employment
28 %
Child labourers 25 %
Hazardous work 13 %
Children in employment include all children who conduct some kind of work, whereas child labourers are a narrower term without mild forms of work. Hazardous work is the worst from of child labour as defined in ILO C182.
The Government launched the National Costed Plan of
Action for Most Vulnerable Children II (2013-17), which
includes plans to provide social services to vulnerable
children, including child laborers. However, not much has
been achieved in recent years, except initiating a
National Child Labor Survey and with some support
programs on the elimination of child labor.80
Both on the mainland and Zanzibar, children tend to
work on a wide range of sectors, e.g. agriculture,
domestic helpers, street vendors, and mining. These
reasons force children to drop out of school and
become subjected to enforced labour, often times out of
necessity.
In Tanzania the number of HIV orphans exceeded 1.3
million representing the word’s third highest number of
HIV orphans. Tanzania's trade unions have started
activities aiming at helping children to stop work and
register for schooling, and at supporting vocational
training programs that equip youth with skills and
enhance their meaningful employability.81
Gender
Unequal division of labour responsibilities and decision
making within the family, limits women’s control over
household assets and income. For example, while
Self-employed
7%
Permanent labour contract
41%
Fixed-term contract
26%
No contract
26%
Employment status, mainland
Self-employed
25%
Permanent labour contract
22%
Fixed-term contract
45%
No contract 8%
Employment status, Zanzinar
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women have some decision making powers on the
utilization of their income, the amount of money earned
was insufficient to meet household needs adequately.
Thus, majority relies on their children’s earning to
supplement the family income.82
Women’s slightly lower levels of education are a
barrier to running their own farms. This is also a barrier
for women obtaining better-paid jobs on commercial
farms just as working on agricultural estates are
frequently the pickers and packers; and very rarely
attain management positions. In practice many women
are locked out of land ownership, access to credit and
productive farm inputs, support from extension services
and access to markets.
It is also noteworthy that young women earn lower
incomes where they are employed, and often face
hostile conditions in seeking employment and within the
workplace.
A 2013 Enterprise Survey reported that 24 percent of
firms had women participation in ownership in
Tanzania, which is lower than the Sub-Saharan Africa's
average at 34 percent. Tanzania has also a lower
score in terms of firms with women in top management
(Figure 9).
Figure 9: Women in Management and Ownership83, 2013
ILO’s Decent Work Country Programme for Tanzania58
identifies a need for increased gender equity in trade
union membership, but some improvements have been
registered. TUCTA and ZATUC are also collaborating
with the trade union confederation for the East African
Community EATUC to promote gender equality, both
within the labour movement and in Tanzania.84
Youth
Nearly 1 out of 2 (47%) of Tanzania’s population is
under 15 years of age. A youth boom is thus expected
to rise in the upcoming years. The private sector
employs slightly more young people than the public
sector.85
Since paid employment in rural areas is limited, it
pushes an increasing rural-urban migration of young
people. However, this is not met by supply of jobs. This
explains the fast increasing contributing family workers
among youth (see also Figure 7). Moreover, youth
population covers 59 percent of unemployed workers,
and is significantly higher within urban areas, and likely
to increase with their population growth.
When comparing youth female unemployment to youth
male unemployment, women outnumber men with
roughly 26 percent (Figure 10).
Figure 10: Youth unemployment, sex distribution, 2000-2013, %
The majority of Tanzanian youth had begun their
transition from studying to the labour market. As a
matter of fact, based on a survey from 2014, young
Tanzanians are either in a period of labour market
transition (47 percent) or has completed their transition
to a job designated as either stable and/or satisfactory
(32 percent). With attention to nearly one-third of
Tanzanian youth has completed their transition, most are
experienced into low-skill or unskilled manual jobs that
the respondent deemed satisfactory. This is likely to be
on recognition of the limited options available. After all,
young people are rarely found in professional jobs as
managers, professionals or technicians.86
The government in Zanzibar formulated a Youth Policy
in 2007, which is currently under review. The Youth
Employment Action Plan (2007) focusing on building
their capacity for their effective engagement in social,
political and economic development.87 ZATUC is
promoting training for youth unionists.88
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
Firms with female top manager Firms with female participation inownership
Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa Low income
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Men Women
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EDUCATION
Based on a Basic Education Master Plan, the Tanzanian
government aims to achieve universal access to basic
education for children over the age of 7 years and
ensures that at least 80 percent of children complete
primary education.
In practice, in terms of schooling, Tanzania’s population
receives on average 5 years of education. It can be
argued that most of the population has completed
primary school. When it comes to secondary school,
there are only a few Tanzanians who have attained this
level of education. Not to mention very few have
completed university.
Table 18 : Highest level of schooling attained89
Population 25+, Total and Female, 2010
Highest Level Attained Total Female
No Schooling 26.1 % 34.1 %
Primary Begun 17.4 % 17.2 %
Completed 49.0 % 43.1 %
Secondary Begun 5.5 % 4.0 %
Completed 1.2 % 0.8 %
Tertiary Begun 0.2 % 0.3 %
Completed 0.5 % 0.5 %
Average year of total schooling
5.11 years 4.46 years
Table 18above shows the educational attainment of all
Tanzanians above 25 years, and therefore gives a
glance of the human capital of the labour force.
Women in general have less education than men, but
slightly more have completed university.
Data for enrolment in secondary school show a lower
rate than the Sub-Saharan Africa's average and has
entered a decline from 2012 to 2013 (Figure 11),
reaching 33 percent. Other data gives participation in
secondary education from 2005-10 at 26 percent for
boys and 24 percent for girls. Compare that to 31
percent for boys and 28 percent for girls for Sub-
Saharan Africa. Tertiary educations have also lower
enrolment rates than the rest of region and with low
rates.
Figure 11: School Levels and Enrolment90 Total and Female, Tanzania and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA),
2000-2012, %
Net enrolment is the ratio of children of official school age, who are enrolled in school to the population of the corresponding official school age. Gross enrolment is the ratio of total enrolment, regardless of age, to the population of the corresponding official school age. Gross enrolment can therefore be higher than 100 %, but with tertiary or university education, the age of the pupils is more diverse.
The government has successfully implementing free and
compulsory primary education in 2001, considering the
high enrolment rates in Tanzania. The primary
enrolment rates are extremely high, with the prevalence
of child labour in Tanzania in mind. They do only record
enrolment, and primary school attendance is around
80%91, which is still very high for Sub-Saharan Africa.
The expansion in primary school has not been equalled
by expansion of teachers and schools facilities, which
constrains the educational system.
Vocational training
There has been a 39 percent increase of pupils in
vocational training in Tanzania in the period 2010 to
2013, reaching 248,239 pupils. Also the ratio of pupils
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Net Enrolment in Primary School
Tanzania,
Femaleenrolment
Tanzania,
Totalenrolment
SSA, Female
enrolment
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Gross Secondary school enrolment
School enrollment,secondary (%
gross)
School enrollment,secondary,
female (% gross)
School enrollment,secondary (%
gross)
School enrollment,secondary,
female (% gross)
0
2
4
6
8
10
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Gross Enrolment in Tertiary School
Tanzania,
Femaleenrolment
Tanzania,
Totalenrolment
SSA,
Femaleenrolment
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in vocational training in terms of all pupils in secondary
education is 11 percent, which is higher than the
average in Sub-Saharan Africa. It should be mentioned,
though, that the rate of secondary pupils is lower in
Tanzania in comparison with Sub-Saharan Africa which
inflates the vocational pupils’ ratio.
Table 19: Vocational Training92, 2013
Pupils in vocational training Tanzania 248,239
Pupils in vocational training (% females)
Tanzania 46 %
Sub-Saharan Africa (2012)
40 %
Ratio of pupils in vocational student to all pupils in secondary education
Tanzania 11 %
Sub-Saharan Africa
7.6 %
Ratio of pupils in vocational training out of 15-24 year olds
Tanzania 2.5 %
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.0 %
Note: Ratios are calculated based on average of the period 2010-2012.
Formal vocational training is administered by the
Vocational Education and Training Authority (VETA) of
Tanzania, which runs training centres. Vocational
training is also done by technical colleges, religious
training centres; private training centres and through
informal apprenticeships.
Figure 12: Ratio of vocational student to all pupils in
secondary education93 Tanzania and the Sub-Sahara Africa, 2004-2013
It is estimated that 37 percent of formal firms in
Tanzania are offering formal training.94 Due to the
Skills and Development Levy employers in Tanzania are
required by law to pay a Skills and Development Levy
of 6 percent of their wage bill. Two per cent of the
wage bill goes to the Vocational Training Fund, which is
administered by the VETA and 4 percent is remitted
directly to the Treasury. Recently the government has
allocated the 4 percent to the Higher Education Student
Loans Board (HESLB). Employers have argued that the
levy is unacceptably high, and that there is
misallocation of the 4 percent remitted to the
Treasury.95 On the other hand, the trade unions seem to
have played a modest role in developing the
vocational education and training system. The unions
have not been very active in developing policies or
putting forward initiatives in this field.
Apprenticeships average 21 months. The training fee is
an average around TZS 4,000 per month (US$3.2), and
a skilled worker will earn an average of TZS 81,228
(US$65).96
Informal training represents the most common since 58
percent of skilled workers coming from informal
apprenticeships, compared to 15% from formal
vocational training and 15% in NGO non-formal
training.
The labour market’s demand-side is mainly guided by
the previously mentioned NEP. This promotes
employment creation initiatives and employment
growth. The policy has deficiencies in terms of the post-
employment education and training system that lacks
guiding such skills development initiatives.
Opportunities for vocational training in Zanzibar are
limited. While enrolment in general education has
expanded rapidly within the last decade, technical and
vocational education has only experienced a limited
growth. There are few recognized institutions which
offer this type of education/training in Zanzibar.97
Regarding statistics there are only outdated data from
1998.98
SOCIAL PROTECTION
Table 20: Public spending on social protection schemes99, 2010
Public social protection expenditure, excl. health
Tanzania Shilling 752 billion
US$ 534 million
% of GDP 2.3 %
per capita 11.9 US$
% of government expenditure
15 %
Public health care % of GDP 4,5 %
Health social protection coverage
% of population 13 %
Trends in government expenditure in health
% changes per year (2007-2011)
-2.6 %
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa
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Table 21: Benefits, coverage and contributions to pension schemes100, 2010
Social benefits for the active age % of GDP 0.03 %
Total (public and private) health-care expenditure not financed by private household's (2011)
Out-of-pocket payments (%)
68 %
Old age effective coverage as proportion of programs
Contributory 3.2 %
Active contributors to an old age pension scheme
15-64 years 3.1 %
Tanzania, mainland101
Social security coverage in terms of numbers, scope and
adequacy is low for both contributory and non-
contributory provision: An estimated 2.7 percent covers
the entire population and about 6.5 percent of the
formal working population. Basically the entire informal
‘sector’ is not covered by any coordinated form of
social security scheme which makes it difficult to access
the available protection. There is no unemployment
benefit scheme.
There are seven social security funds supervised by the
Social Security Regulatory Authority. The two largest
social insurance funds offering health and medical
coverage are: i) the National Health Insurance Fund
(NHIF) providing the main access to health services,
after the state tax-financed health programs; and ii)
the National Social Security Fund (NSSF). In 2011, NSSF
had registered 521,629 members originating from
18,779 registered employers.102 The NHIF has
expanded its active registered members from 164,708
in 2001 to 536,829 in 2013, and, including
dependents, a total of more than 1 million people were
covered.103
The health system operates through a range of
programs. The Government is the largest provider of
health social services, but the health coverage is only
13 percent of the population. The expenditure on
health declined on 2.6% in the period 2007-2011 and
the not out-of-pocket payment fell from 85 percent in
2009 to 68 percent in 2011 (Table 20 & Figure 13).
Figure 13: Total health-care expenditure not financed by private household's out-of-pocket payments
East African countries,104 1995-2011, %
Reformed social security regulations have been in
progress. Many people are concerned about their rights
and pension benefits, especially the probability of
social rights between the social security schemes and the
right to withdraw pension funds before retirement age.
The Government of Tanzania has reached huge arrears
in payments to the social security funds, which threatens
the whole social security system.
The Government is expanding the Tanzania Social
Action Fund conditional cash transfer program, which
demonstrated an increase in school enrollment and a
decrease in child labor.
The Government of Tanzania adopted the Arusha
Declaration on Social Protection in December 2014
which provides a foundation for advancing the agenda
of social protection in Tanzania.
Zanzibar105
The Zanzibar Social Security Fund (ZSSF) is the only
public insurance scheme in Zanzibar. It provides old age
pension, life insurance, invalidity and maternity benefits.
In 2011, ZSSF had registered 61,396 employee
members originating from 927 registered employers.106
It is a contributory scheme with 10 percent of salary
paid by the employer and 5 percent by the employee.
Pension in Zanzibar is generally much lower than in
mainland Tanzania, at an average 3.5 times lower.
Pay-out to old age pensions has tended to be delayed,
often for several years.107 By intervention from ZATUC
this problem has been reduced.
The National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) is operating
in Zanzibar Island providing the access to health
services. There are also several non-contributory safety
net programmes for vulnerable children, elderly and
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Burundi Kenya Rwanda
Tanzania Uganda
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disabled. Zanzibar also has several funds for Zakat the
Islamic founded social welfare, for an amount
equivalent to 2.5 percent of annual personal wealth.
In 2013 the ZSSF opened the issue of extending social
security coverage to informal economy, which was
discussed for the first time in the islands’ history. A
Social Security Law revision has been in the final
process. This also includes that the Government of
Zanzibar decided to introduce a universal social
pension to be provided to all older people aged 70
years and above, starting from April 2016.
In 2015, ZATUC negotiations with government resulted
in some improved benefits from the social security
scheme in Zanzibar (ZSSF), but ZATUC is concerned
about compulsory transfers from social security to health
schemes.
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE
In the past few decades, Tanzania has experienced a
liberalized market economy transition as well as
political and social stability. The government occupies a
strong presence in sectors such as telecommunications,
banking, energy, and mining. The recent constitution
review process and the up-coming general elections in
2015 cause some tensions.
Table 22: Key Facts in Tanzania108 (2014 est.)
GDP GDP real
growth
Doing Business
2016
Human Development
Index
Gini Index (2007)
48.1 billion US$
7.0 % 139 of 189
countries
0.521 37.8
151 of 188 countries
76 of 144 countries
A high Doing Business ranking means the regulatory environment is more conducive to the start-up and operation of a local firm. The Human Development Index (HDI) measures the average of a long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a decent standard of living. The Gini Index ranking the first country as the highest inequality, while the number 144 has the highest equality.
Discovery of huge oil and gas reserves holds promises
for the development of the extractive industry and for
substantial contributions to the Tanzanian economy. The
GDP growth in 2000-2014 was at 6.6 percent on
average per year due to high gold production prices
and tourism (Figure 14). The country is close to
achieving middle income status.
Figure 14: GDP real growth, Tanzania and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 2000-2014, %
However, the GDP per capita in Purchasing Power
Parity (PPP) remains low and below the Sub Saharan
Africa's average; and ranked as 193 out of 230
countries (Figure 15).
Figure 15: GDP per capita (PPP), trend and forecast, Current US$109
Based on the distribution of income (Gini index) the
country has experienced a trend towards more
equality. But taking the low GDP per capita (PPP) in
account the population is still relatively poor. Tanzania
has also stepped up two steps in the Human
Development Index (HDI) in the period 2009-2014. The
progress toward the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) has been uneven, though.
Other data show that Tanzania has experienced a
noteworthy reduction of the working poor during the
2000s. In the share of working poor at US$1.25 a day
in total employment, it fell fast from 81 percent in 2000
to 36 percent in 2012. It even superseded the Sub-
Saharan Africa’s (SSA) average. Equally important the
working poor at US$2 a day decreased, but at a lower
rate from 91 percent in 2000 to 74 percent in 2012.
This latter trend remains higher than the SSA average
(Figure 16).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Tanzania SSA
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
200
2
200
3
200
4
200
5
200
6
200
7
200
8
200
9
201
0
201
1
201
2
201
3
201
4
201
5
201
6
201
7
201
8
Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa
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Figure 16: Working poor, Tanzania and the Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), %110
It has been reflected in the increasing middle-class.
Especially the low middle-class has fast increased: In
2000, 3 percent of Tanzanians lived for US$2-4 a day
and 1 percent for US$4-20 a day, while in 2011 it
reached 21 percent and 6 percent, respectively. The
former also superseded the Sub-Saharan Africa’s
average while the higher middle-class remains below
the region’s average. The low middle-class remains
economically vulnerable and could rapid drop below
the working poor rate (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Middle-class in Tanzania and the Sub-Saharan
Africa111
Tanzania's tax system revenues have rapidly grown, but
remains with insufficient finance to cover the public
sector demand. Roughly 450 big firms cover 70 percent
of the country's income tax. A challenge authority’s face
is the non-existent system to identify tax contributors of
their citizens. An additional burden is that the informal
economy retains most workers, making it harder for to
collect tax payments from small-medium enterprises
(SMEs)
In the late 2014, a major corruption scandal was
disclosed and as consequence, international donors
froze budget support. In light of these events, it is
expected to witness numerous sectors be affected, thus,
causing a burden in Tanzania’s economy.
Inflation of consumer prices used to be low, but in the
latter part of the 2000s in became volatile; peaking at
16 percent in 2012 due to rising oil prices, monetary
expansion and mounting food prices. This also affected
real wages. The inflation returned to one-digit since
2013 and has remained steady at around 6 percent,
largely due to the stability of food and energy prices
on international markets.
Figure 18: Inflation trend and forecast
There is a significant upward trend for capital
formation with the exception of 2009-10 and 2012
declines. It remains significant higher than the SSA’s
average (Figure 19). The trend is related to growing
capital inflows from the private sector that goes
towards the industrialization process, and a lower
proportion from development aid.
Figure 19: Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) 112
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1992 2000 2007 2012
Tanzania - US$1.25 Tanzania - US$2
SSA - US$1.25 SSA - US$2
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
1990/91 1999/2000 2007/08 2011
Middle class US$2-4 (Tanzania) Middle class US$4-20 (Tanzania)
Middle class US$2-4 (SSA) Middle class US$4-20 (SSA)
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
18%
200
2
200
3
200
4
200
5
200
6
200
7
200
8
200
9
201
0
201
1
201
2
201
3
201
4
201
5
201
6
201
7
201
8
Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa
10
15
20
25
30
35
Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa (all income levels)
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The doing business environment in Tanzania has not
experienced many improvements since last year. The
country was indexed at 139 out of 189 countries in
2016. The ranking was 140 out of 189 countries in
2015. The country’s ranking remains slightly higher than
the SSA’s average ranking that was set at 143. This
modest increase in Tanzania is related to improvements
of dealing with construction permits. Endorsing contracts
as well as getting electricity have the highest rankings,
64 and 83, respectively. Trading across borders (180),
getting credit (152), and paying taxes (150) are the
most underperforming indicators. Eight of the ten
indicators have not demonstrated improvements (Table
23).
Table 23: Ease of Doing Business in Tanzania113
Topics 2016 2015 Change
Starting a Business 129 122 -7
Dealing with Construction Permits 126 147 21
Getting Electricity 82 83 No change
Registering Property 133 132 -1
Getting Credit 152 150 -2
Protecting Minority Investors 122 121 -1
Paying Taxes 150 147 -3
Trading Across Borders 180 181 1
Enforcing Contracts 64 64 No change
Resolving Insolvency 99 98 -1
Doing Business 2014 indicators are ranking from 1(top) to 189 (bottom) among other countries. The rankings do not measure all aspects of the business surroundings that matter to firms and investors or that affects the competitiveness of the economy. A high ranking does mean that the government has created a regulatory environment conducive to operating a business. Note: This Index has been controversial due to flawed data, especially in terms of labour market flexibility and undervalued paying taxes. However, the table can still be used as indicative measurement with reservations.114
Overall, Tanzania continues to enjoy a stable and
democratic government. In the light of the governance
milieu, the country has experienced declining trends on
five out of six of the Governance Indicators. Especially
has the political stability and control of corruption
declined, but also government effectiveness has
underachieved. Only has there been registered that
some improvements on regulatory quality has improved
(Table 24).
Table 24: Tanzania's Governance Indicators115, 2009-2014
Year Voice and
Accountability Political Stability
Government Effectiveness
2009 -0.16 / 44%
0.07 / 48%
-0.59 / 34%
2014
-0.17 / 42%
-0.54 / 27%
-0.64 / 27%
Year Regulatory
Quality Rule of Law
Control of Corruption
2009 -0.42 / 36%
-0.48 / 39%
-0.44 / 39%
2014
-0.34 / 41%
-0.41 / 39%
-0.80 / 23%
Note: The Governance Indicators score from ‐2.5 to 2.5 while the percentiles rank from 0 (lowest) to 100 (highest).116
TRADE
The National Vision 2025, trade policy and industrial
policy are closely linked and complementary. The
country is one of the best performing countries in Africa
in terms of global value chains’ (GVCs) participation
and its growth rate since 1995 was estimated at 67
percent of total exports, only superseded by Zimbabwe
(71 percent).117 Stated differently, Tanzania’s economy
has significantly globalized in the last decade.
The largest contributor to the export basket continues to
be primary commodities, particularly gold, metal ore,
tobacco, and coffee. The volume of manufactured
exports is also up surging.118 The development of the
extraction sector will likely continue through gas
exportation.
Generally, Tanzania exports an estimated 19 percent
of GDP and remains strong, driven by gold and tourism.
In contrast, the Sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) export
average was assessed at 29 percent.
Also the import has growing fast and reached 30
percent in 2014. This is mainly due to imports of capital
and a rapid increase in consumption imports,
particularly of vehicles and fuel, which has not been
matched by the development of productive sectors. It is
basically mining that is able to keep up with the growth
in imports. SSA’s average import was expected at 32
percent of GDP in 2014 (Table 25 & Figure 20). A
significant trade deficit is present in the country, and
keeping the current account deficit wide at around 11
percent of GDP.
The growth of foreign direct investment (FDI) has been
slightly higher than the SSA’s average in recent years.
Oil and gas exploration activities will continue to attract
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private capital in the country, and net inflow of FDI is
expected to remain strong.119
Table 25 : Trade and Foreign Direct Investment in Tanzania120, (2014 est.)
Exports Imports FDI flow FDI Stock121
9.4 billion US$
14 billion US$
2.0 billion US$
13 billion US$
19 % of GDP
30 % of GDP
4.3 % of GDP
27 % of GDP
Figure 20: Export, Import and Foreign Direct Investment trends
Tanzania and the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 2000-2014122
In 2013 restrictions will be instituted on the size of land
that single investors can acquire. Disputes over land
have become a major issue in Tanzania, often with small
scale farmers pitted against powerful investors, who
seek to use the land for production of cash crops
exports, such as sugar.123
The European Union (EU), China and India are the main
importers of Tanzania’s goods. And the country’s main
export goods are gold, precious metal ore, tobacco,
and coffee (see Figure 21 & Figure 22).
Figure 21: Tanzania's main products share of
exports, 2012124
Figure 22: Tanzania's main export markets, 2013125
Trade Agreements
Tanzania is part of the East African Community (EAC).
The EAC free trade agreement from 1999 contains a
labour provision with cooperation on employment and
working conditions with an emphasis on gender equality
and discriminatory law and practices. Likewise, the
labour provision of the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA) agreement extends to
cooperation on employment conditions and labour
law.126 Tanzania is also part of the 2000 Cotonou
Agreement between the European Union (EU) and
African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, which
reaffirms commitment to ILO’s Fundamental Conventions
and includes a labour provision on cooperation on
various labour and social issues.
In 2005 the EAC established a customs union and in
2010 the EAC agreed to establish full common market
with free movement for workers, goods, services and
capital.
Freedom of association and collective bargaining is
enshrined in the EAC common market in the sense that
an EAC migrant worker has equal rights as a
national.127 The free movement of labour within the EAC
opens up questions of how to achieve equal
opportunities and equal social and labour rights for
migrant workers, for example if workers can bring
pensions with them across borders. The free movement
of labour is also a source of concern in some of the EAC
countries, as the countries workforces have differences
in productivity and educational level. However, the
actual implementation of the economic integration have
slowed down the last few years especially with regards
to lifting barriers to trade and free movement of
labour. Although formal tariffs are increasing
0
10
20
30
40
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Export - Tanzania Import - Tanzania
FDI - Tanzania Export - SSA
Import - SSA FDI - SSA
Gold; 32%
Precious Metal
Ore; 9,5%
Raw Tobacco;
5,6% Coffee; 4,1%
Manganese Ore; 3,0%
Fish Fillets; 2,9%
Coconuts, Brazil
Nuts, and Cashews;
2,6%
Others; 40%
EU; 15%
China; 13%
India; 20%
Japan; 5%
U.A.Emirates; 4%
Kenya; 4%
Others; 38%
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Tanzania and Zanzibar 2015 Page 22
abolished, trade is still challenged by non-tariff
barriers and corruption.
The objective of the East African trade union movement
is to safeguard workers’ interests in the EAC, ensure that
ILO standards are upheld and member states’ labour
policies are harmonized and the tripartite model is
institutionalized, while the free movement of labour is
promoted. The trade union movement has reached
observer status in the EAC in 2009, and along with
employers’ organizations they participate in ministerial
summits, sectoral summits, and other summits that involve
labour market issues. However, no meetings were
conducted in the Council of Ministers responsible of
Labour since 2009/2010 and implementation of the
EAC Common Market Protocol is moving very slow.
In terms of regional trade integration, Tanzania’s legal
services and accounting/auditing services tend to be
very regulated and restricted. Moreover, the country
does not allow foreign participation in initial public
offerings (IPOs). Sale or issue of shares by foreigners is
not restricted. Institutional investors, national pension
funds, fund management firms, and insurance companies
usually dominate participation in EAC stock and bond
markets, but the participation of Tanzanian investors in
other EAC markets is a maximum of 0.5 percent, which
is very low.128
Through the EAC, Tanzania is allowed to export duty
and quota free to EU since 2008, and will have to
gradually remove duties and quotas on EU exports to
Tanzania on most products, except the products
deemed to need protection from EU exports. These
include agricultural products, wines and spirits,
chemicals, plastics, wood based paper, textiles and
clothing. Negotiations on Economic Partnership
Agreement between the EAC and the EU were long last
concluded in late 2014, securing continued free access
to the European markets.
Since 2001 Tanzania has benefitted from the United
States’ African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA),
which is a Generalised System of Preferences. It allows
duty and quota free access for some products.
Tanzania can be removed from AGOA, if the United
States deems that Tanzania among other human rights
issues, do not seek to uphold the ILO Core Labour
Standards and have acceptable minimum wages, hours
of work and occupational safety and health.
Export Processing Zones (EPZ)
The EPZ and Special Economic Zone (SEZ) programs in
Tanzania were established in 2002 and have been
under significant expansion.129 There are 25 EPZ with
70 manufacturing industries whereby about 15
companies have applied for establishment of industries
in different areas in the country. These EPZ has created
around 26,400 direct employment, and 120,000
indirect ones;130 and contributing with 5 percent of
national exports. The industries operate in machinery,
processing of food and of minerals.
Figure 23: Number of Zone Developers and Operators since established of EPZA131, 2006-2010
There are two EPZs on Zanzibar, where there previously
have been unconfirmed reports of trade union rights
violations.
A study concluded that Tanzania’s EPZ program is
lagging behind, mainly due to the rigid and expensive
infrastructural issues. While EPZ firms have been
enjoying fiscal incentives, the government has not been
reaping benefits from the scheme as well as borne
fiscal losses in terms of huge tax exemptions extending
over up to 10 years.132 The EPZ program also face a
number of other challenges: High cost of operations and
production due to unreliable supply of electricity and
water made the EPZ operating enterprises
uncompetitive in the international markets.133
In October 2014 Obtala Resources Limited (AIM:OBT),
an emerging agri-processing, farming and timber
company, received an award by the London Stock
Exchange of an Export Processing Zone Certificate for
its farm project near Morogoro, Tanzania.134
4 5
10
18
24
3
15 18
28
35
0
10
20
30
40
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010Zone Developers Operators
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APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL DATA
Table 26: Ratified ILO Conventions135
Subject and/or right Convention Ratification
date
Fundamental Conventions
Freedom of association and collective bargaining
C087 - Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise, 1948 2000
C098 - Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 1962
Elimination of all forms of forced labour
C029 - Forced Labour Convention, 1930 1962
C105 - Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 1962
Effective abolition of child labour
C138 - Minimum Age Convention, 1973 1998
C182 - Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 2001
Elimination of discri-mination in employment
C100 - Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 2002
C111 - Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 2002
Governance Conventions
Labour inspection C081 - Labour Inspection Convention, 1947 Not ratified
C129 - Labour Inspection (Agriculture) Convention, 1969 Not ratified
Employment policy C122 - Employment Policy Convention, 1964 Not ratified
Tripartism C144 - Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention, 1976 1983
Up-to-date Conventions
Wages
C094 - Labour Clauses (Public Contracts) Convention, 1949 1962
C095 - Protection of Wages Convention, 1949 1962
C131 - Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970 1983
Industrial relations C135 - Workers’ Representatives Convention, 1971 1983
C154 - Collective Bargaining Convention, 1981 1998
Vocational guidance and training
C140 - Paid Educational Leave Convention 1983
C142 - Human Resources Development Convention 1983
Occupational Safety and Health
C148 - Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration), 1977 1983
C170 - Chemicals Convention, 1990 1999
Specific categories of workers
C149 - Nursing Personnel Convention, 1977 1983
Dockworkers C152 - Occupational Safety and Health (Dock Work) Convention, 1979 1983
Fundamental Conventions are the eight most important ILO conventions that cover four fundamental principles and rights at work. Equivalent to basic human rights at work. Governance Conventions are four conventions that the ILO has designated as important to building national institutions and capacities that serve to promote employment. In other words, conventions that promotes a well-regulated and well-functioning labour market. In addition, there are 71 conventions, which ILO considers “up-to-date" and actively promotes.
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Table 27: Trade unions in Tanzania 2013
Trade Unions Total
Members Female
Members
Estimated potential members
No. of CBAs
Workers covered by
CBAs
No. of OHS Committees
at workplaces
Affiliated to TUCTA
CHODAWU Conservation, Hotel Domestic and Allied Workers Union
38,272 10,429 11,479 35 N/A 7
COTWU Communication Transport Workers Union of Tanzania
6,043 1,301 6,180 15 1,703 4
TTU Tanzania Teachers Union/ Chama cha Waalimu Tanzania
217,761 102,083 46,770 1 266,039 0
DOWUTA Dock Workers Union of Tanzania
3,410 - 325 2 3,810 1
RAAWU Researchers, Academician and Allied Workers Union
11,945 4,193 2,864 4 N/A 2
TALGWU Tanzania Local Government Workers Union
59,903 32,145 - 1 N/A 0
TAMICO Tanzania Mines, Energy and Construction Workers Union
12,071 1,421 17,820 10 18,765 10
TEWUTA Telecommunication Workers Union of Tanzania
1,593 631 6,439 3 1,627 2
TPAWU Tanzania Plantation and Agricultural Workers Union
43,113 14,592 20,580 198 N/A 25
TRAWU Tanzania Railways Workers Union
3,428 976 478 2 N/A 0
TUGHE Trade Union of Government and Health Workers
51,268 24,409 29,366 5 300 2
TUICO Tanzania Union of Industrial and Commercial Workers *
73,122 27,192 22,500 31 35,438 345
Not affiliated to TUCTA
TASU Tanzania Seafarers Union 771 40 640 3 741 0
TFCAWU Tanzania Fishing Crew and Allied Workers’ Union
2,400 - - - - -
TUJ Tanzania Union of Journalists 150 - - - - -
TAFIMU 200 - - - - -
IGWUTA 676 - - - - -
TASIWU 2,851 - - - - -
TUPSE 1,102 - - - - -
MPETU 303 - - - - -
FIBUCA 4,302 - - - - -
PRIPPAWUTA 361 - - - - -
NUMET 1,182 - - - - -
* Data of TUICO’s total and women union membership are from June 2015.
Note: An addition eight trade unions are not affiliated with TUCTA, but lack data of members. These following trade unions are: TMW, TPU, TAWU, THTU, TARWOTU, TMDPWU, DOSHITWA, and TAWUTA.136
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Table 28: Trade Union Centre and affiliates in Zanzibar (2014)
Trade unions Total
Members (2014)
Female Members (2014)
No. of CBAs (2014)
Workers covered by CBAs (2014)
No. of OSH committees
at workplaces
ZATUC The Zanzibar Trade Union Congress 18,265 7,329 6 3,600 1
COTWU –ZNZ Zanzibar Communication and Transport Workers’ Union
905 324 1 720 2
ZASU Zanzibar Seafarers Union 4,275 2 1
TUICO-Z Zanzibar Union of Industrial and commercial Workers
878 393 1 335 -
ZUPHE Zanzibar Union for Public and Health employees 1,990 1,207 4
CHODAWU-Z Zanzibar Conservation, Hotel, Domestic and Allied Workers’ Union
1,340
683 3 2,125 -
ZATU Zanzibar Teachers’ Union 5,527 3,344 - - -
ZAFICOWU Zanzibar Financial and Commercial Workers Union
565
252 - - -
TEWUTA-Z Zanzibar Telecommunication Workers Union 286 61 - - 1
ZAPSWU Zanzibar Public sector Workers Union 2,519 1,063 1 420 3
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