CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INRODUCTION

The term settlement refers to the vertical downward displacement at the base of a

foundation or other structure due to the ground movement. There are several mechanism which

may produce ground movement, and there are many types of structure, with varying potentials to

withstand or to be distressed by movement. Brick and masonry building are brittle and may

sustain crack and even structural damage following very small foundation displacement, other

structure may be constructed to sustain considerable movement without suffering real damage.

Also, soil conditions are keep to change, often considerably, from before, to during, and

also after construction. Most building damage occurs when unforeseen soil condition arise,

inadequate site investigations and a lack of understanding of soil behavior are largely to blame.

Method are available by which both the amount and the rate of foundation settlement can be

estimated. These estimate will remain reasonably reliable providing that the assume soil

condition represent the actual condition and are likely to persist throughout the life of the

building.

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The soil around the Murni Apartment is one of several places in Universiti Tenaga

Nasional (UNITEN) that we taked as the sample. The non-drained shear strength of this area will

be determined by in-situ testing method and the result will show that whether treatment of soil is

need to be done when a structure is intend to be built. The site investigation data and analysis

will be done and taken as well as the sampling procedures. The soil sample will be tested in

laboratory to obtain its basic engineering properties and shear strength. All the data will be used

in order to obtain valuable information of the sand.

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and

mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock

sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings

and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

The second most common form of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite,

which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like

coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs

have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years, like the Caribbean.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Structures are mean to stand firm for many years to come and more importantly, could

provide great strength to support loads within the structure. Consolidation settlement was a major

topic discussed by the civil engineers and geologist particularly when dealing with structure

design involving foundation. The predictions of long –term settlement can be determined by the

soil exploration. In this study the prediction of the settlement for highway construction project

have been selected and discussed as a case study. The soil sample were investigated in a

laboratory by consolidation test which was done by using the odometer apparatus. Finally, the

consolidation time and settlement can be predict from the odometer result.

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1.3 PROPERTIES OF SAND

Mineral composition, whether single mineral grains like quartz sand, or made up of other

minerals or small rock fragments. Sands containing a large proportion of heavy minerals, such as

rutile and zircon are mined as sources of titanium and zirconium. There are also sands rich in

magnetite, suitable for treating as iron ore.

Grain size and size distribution (sorting). Well sorted sands (single sized) are useful for

industrial applications, whereas sand with a wide distribution of grainsize is preferred for

concrete manufacture (because a poorly sorted sand has less pore space, and less cement is

needed in making concrete).

Porosity and permeability. Well sorted sand has a higher permeability, and is suitable for

drainage materials and, especially if pure quartz sand, for water filtration.Grain shape (angular,

subangular or rounded). More angular sand is preferred for concrete manufacture, and well-

rounded sand is preferred for filtration sand.

1.4 PROPOSED SOLUTION

Consolidation settlement was a major topic discussed by the civil engineers and geologist

when designing the structure. From past, many case of building problem and failure found that

settlement could affect them by continuing settlement for many years with total accumulated

settlement being very large. This settlement may due to creep or secondary settlement. There are

many method used to predict the settlement such as Casagrande Odometer (Terzaghi 1923 ;

Casagrande 1936). We can predict the primary and secondary settlement in laboratory using

consolidation odometer test. The reliability of the prediction depend on many factors such as

good sample, human, apparatus, and other uncertainties soils.

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Atterberg Limits test methods are used as an integral part of several engineering

classification systems to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils along the lakeside of

college of engineering UNITEN and to specify the fine-grained fraction of construction

materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils are also used extensively,

either individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior

such as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity (permeability), compatibility, shrink-swell, and

shear strength. The liquid and plastic limits of the soil and its water content can be used to

express its relative consistency or liquidity index. In addition, the plasticity index and the

percentage finer than 2-μm particle size can be used to determine its activity number. The liquid

limit of a soil containing substantial amounts of organic matter decreases dramatically when the

soil is oven-dried before testing. Comparison of the liquid limit of a sample before and after

oven-drying can therefore be used as a qualitative measure of organic matter content of soil .

1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The main reason of the project is :

I. To determine and identify the type and the percentages of gravel and sand

II. To determine the percentage of moisture content of liquid limit.

III. To determine the percentages of moisture content of plastic limit of soil sample.

IV. To determine the settlement of soil with time increasing.

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1.6 SCOPE OF WORK

The main scope of this project is to determine the coefficient of consolidation (cv) of soil

sample. The scope of study has been narrowed down so the study will not exceed the limit stated.

The scope of work involved in this study is in-situ soil testing. Testing is involving the sieve

analysis, plastic limit, liquid limit and consolidation test. The testing method will be done only in

the laboratory which means there is no field testing involve. The properties of the soil is said to

be categorized as sand as the soil sample taken is situated around the land beside Murni

Apartment of Universiti Tenaga Nasional.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SOIL CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLE

It is necessary to provide a conventional classification of type of soil for the purpose of

describing the various materials encountered in site exploration.The system adopted need to be

sufficiently comprehensive to include all but the rarest of natural deposit,while still being

reasonable,systematic and concise.Such a system is required if useful conclusion are to be drawn

from the knowledge of the type of materials.Without the use of a classification system,published

information or recommendations on design and construction based on the type of the material are

likely to be misleading and it will be difficult to apply experience gained to future design.

Furthermore unless a system of conventional nomenclature is adopted, conflicting interpretation

of the term used may lead to confusion, rendering the process of communication ineffective.

Most classification system divide soil into three main groups : course, fine and organic.

The main characteristic differences displayed by these group are shown in Figure 2.1

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Figure 2.1: Major classes of engineering soils

The range of particles size encountered in soil is very wide: from around 200mm down to

the colloidal size of some clays of less than 0.001mm.Although natural soils are mixture of

various sized particle, it is common to fine a predominance occurring within a relatively narrow

band of sizes. When the width of this size band is very narrow the soil will be term poorly-

graded, if it is wide the soil is said to be well graded. A number of engineering properties, e.g

permeability, frost susceptibility, compressibility, are related directly or in directly to particles

size characteristic.

Figure 2.2 shows the British Standard range of the particles size. The particles size

analysis of a soil is carried out by determining the weight percentages falling within bands of

size represented by divisions and subdivision. In the case of a course soil, from which fine

grained particles have been removed or were absent, the usual process is a sieve analysis. A

representative sample of the soil is spilt systematically down to be convenient sub sample size

and then oven dried .This sample is then passed through a nest of standard test sieve arranged in

descending order of mesh size. Following agitation of first the whole nest and then individuals

sieves, the weight of the soil retained on each sieve is determined and the cumulative percentages

of the sub sample weight passing each sieve calculated.

7

Figure 2.2 : British Standard Range of Particle

For our sample we has determined that our sample is catagorised as a sand because we take the sample that passing through between 0.06mm to 2mm.

2.2 LIQUID LIMIT

In the early 1990s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to describe

the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents. Atterberg limits are defined

as the water corresponding to different behaviour conditions of fine-grained soil (silts and clays).

The four states of consistency in Atterberg limits are liquid, plastic, semisolid and solid.

The dividing line between liquid and plastic states is the liquid limit; the dividing line between

plastic and semisolid states is the shrinkage limit. If a soil in the liquid state is gradually dried

out, it wills past through the liquid limit, plastic state, plastic limit, semisolid state and shrinkage

limit and reach the solid stage. The liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits are therefore quantified in

terms of the water content at which a soil changes from the liquid to the plastic state. The

difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit is the plasticity index. Because the liquid

limit and plastic limit are the two most commonly used Atterberg limits, the following discussion

is limited to the test procedures and calculation for these two laboratory tests.

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The liquid limit is that moisture content at which a soil changes from the liquid state to

the plastic state. It along with the plastic limit provides a means of soil classification as well as

being useful in determining other soil properties.

As explained, plastic limit is the dividing line between the plastic and semisolid states.

From a physical standpoint, it is the water content at which the soil will begin to crumble when

rolled in small threads.

Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general properties of the soil met

with construction. From the results of liquid limit the compression index may be estimated. The

compression index value will help us in settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of

soil is closer to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture content is lesser

than liquids limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture content is lesser than liquid

limit. The soil is brittle and stiffer.

The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove, formed by a standard tool

into the sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 10 mm on being given 25 blows in a

standard manner. At this limit the soil possess low shear strength.

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2.3 PLASTIC LIMIT

Plastic limit test is conducted to determine the moisture at the point of transition from

plastic to semisolid state. The plastic limit is defined as the minimum water content at which a

soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3.2mm in diameter .Soil is used for

making bricks , tiles , soil cement blocks in addition to its use as foundation for structures.

The following moisture conditions liquid limit, plastic limit, along with shrinkage limit

are referred to as the “Atterberg Limit” after the originator of the test procedure.

Figure 2.3 : Atterberg Limit & Indices.

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2.4 CONSOLIDATION TEST

In saturated cohesive soil the effect of loading is to squeeze out pore water; this process is

called consolidation. A gradual reduction in volume occurs until internal pore pressure

equilibrium is reached. Unloading result is swelling, providing the soil can remain saturated. A

detailed study of the consolidation process and methods of assessing the resulting settlement.

The rate of the consolidation depend on the soil permeability can be very slow in fine soils, so

that it may take several years for the final settlement to be achieved.

When a saturated mass of soil is loaded, say by foundation, an immediate increase in pore

pressure occurs and a hydraulic gradient is set up so that seepage flow take place into

surrounding soil. This excess pore pressure dissipates as water drain from the soil: very quickly

in coarse soil (sand and gravel), and very slowly in fine soil (silt and clay) which have low

permeability. As water leaves the soil a change in volume accurs, the rate gradually diminishing

until steady state condition are regained. The process is called consolidation.

Terzaghi (1943) suggest the model of one- dimensional consolidation which used the

steel spring technique that represents the soil. It is assumed that the frictionless piston was

supported by the spring and the cylinder was filled with water. If a load was applied to the piston

by the closed valve, the length of the spring will remain unchanged since the water was assume

as incompressible. If the load was induced an increase in total stress of ∆σ the whole of the

consideration must be count initially by an equal increase in pore water pressure ∆u.

For standard references ASTM D 2435- Standard Test Method for One – Dimensional

Consolidation Properties of Soil.

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Figure 2.4 : One dimensional consolidation

a) Terzaghi model b) stress- time curve

Figure 2.5 : Section of a Typical Consolidation Cell

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the techniques used in information and data gathering are being discussed.

The data’s are referred to facts and the consolidation value which is being studied and

determined. All the facts and information gathered and compiled are strictly based upon the

specific scope of which is mentioned in the literature review. In the mean time, the determination

the coefficient of consolidation (cv) of soil is achieved through laboratory tests. Diagram 3.0

below is referring to the flow chart of this entire research.

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A specific site was chosen for the purpose of soil sampling. Hence, we decide to take the

sample at behind Murni 3 parking area for the soil sample. A portion of about 10kg soil was

taken back to the laboratory for further investigation. The soil sample was sieved using the sieve

size of 2mm. Only a small portion of soil was needed for the sieving. The sieved soil was used

for the plastic limit and the liquid limit experimentation also for consolidation test.Diagram

below is referring to the flow chart of this entire research.

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SOIL SAMPLING THE SOIL WAS TAKEN BEHIND MURNI 3 PARKING AREA

THE EXPERIMENT WAS STARTED

THE SOIL WAS SIEVED BY USING 2MM SIZE OF SIEVE

THE UNWANTED MATERIAL SUCH AS WOOD, ROCK AND LEAF WAS REMOVED

LIQUID LIMITBASIC SOIL

CLASSIFICATION TEST

PLASTIC LIMIT

CONSOLIDATIONCOEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION

10 KG OF SOIL WAS PREPARED

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF SOIL SAMPLING AT SITE

From the soil sample that we took is to determine the soil type, soil classification and the

sensitivity of the soil from a selected site. Soil that is to be taken will first examine based on its

colour and stickiness. The colour of our soil at the site is dark and it is sticky. This characteristics

is enough to classify the type of soil that is needed to conduct the basic soil test and the

sensitivity test.

It was selected for the experiment sample test due to open ended based from a strategic

area. This is easy for students to bring the sample to the lab. In addition, the soil still in good

condition. It was not too disturbed because the land is nearby to the trees and no traffic areas.

FIGURE 3.1: Site Selection

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FIGURE 3.2 : Sample have been taken by using spade

FIGURE 3.3 : Collecting sample into the tray

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Figure 3.4 : Sieving process of soil sample to get in particles size 2-mm

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3.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.3.1 LIQUID LIMIT TEST

About roughly 300g of soil sample that passes sieve size 2.00mm had prepared.The height

of fall of the liquid limit device was adjusted through which the cup is lifted and dropped where

the point on the cup comes in contact with the base falls through exactly 10.00mm, the handle

was rotated by one revolution. Whenthe adjustment plate was complete, the adjustment was

screwed tight. The soil sample was mixed thoroughly with distilled water on a large glass plate

to formed uniform paste.A portion of the paste was taken with a spatulaand placed it in the centre

of the cup so that it is almost half filled.

The surface of the wet soil was smoothed off level and parallel to the base maximum depth

of the soil 10.0mm.Using the grooving tool, a clan, straight groove was cut through the soil

dividing it into two halves, on a line joining the highest point to the lowest point on the rim of

the cup. When the groove was cut, the tool must be held normal to the surface of the cup. The tip

of the tool must scrape the bowl lightly. The handle of the apparatus had turned at the rate of 2

revolution per seconds to lift and drop the cup, until the two halves of the soil pat come in

contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 12.7 mm. The number of blows required

to close the groove was recorded.

A slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula extending from one edge to the other

edge of the soil cake at right angles to the groove including that portion of the groove in which

the soil flowed together was collected, and put it in a weighted container and cover it. This was

done to determine the water content of the soil sample.The remaining soil from the cup was

removed and mixed it with the soil left on the glass plate. Add distilled water to increase the

water content of the soil and decrease the number of blows required closing the groove.The steps

were repeated successively and lower number of blows required to close the groove.

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FIGURE 3.5 : Apparatus of liquid limit test

FIGURE 3.6 : Sample was mixed with distilled water

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FIGURE 3.7 : Rotate 2 blows in to one seconds

FIGURE 3.8 : Make sure a sample touch to each other

FIGURE 3.9 : A little sample was taken to get a moisture content

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3.3.2 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

A soil sample 50g of the material are taken and mix with water remaining from the liquid

limit test. From that a ball were made and rolled on the glass of plate with the hand with just

steady pressure at a rate of 80-90 strokes per minute. Therate of rolling may have to be decreased

for very fragile soils.

The mass was rolled into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length until the thread

reaches a diameter of approximately 3mm.At this point the thread began to act brittle and

crumbled then the plastic limit was reached. The crumbled soil was collected in the airtight

container and was kept for water content determination. The process was continued until the

thread just crumble at 3mm diameter.

FIGURE 3.10 : Set of apparatus of plastic limit test

FIGURE 3.11 : Roll sample until the diameter 3mmthe soil begins to crack

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3.3.3 CONSOLIDATION TEST

The specimen ring is weighed approximately 30mm of soil was extruded from the sample

tube.The oedometer cell- cutting ring was used as a guide template, the extruded soil sample was

trimmed until the edged of the trimmed sample just allowing the cutter ring to slide over the soil.

The ring is pressed down until it is centrally positioned with the upper and lower surfaces of the

soil just protruding by an equal amount. A straight edge or spatula was used to trim these

surfaces to be level with the end faces of the cutting ring. The specimen was weighted in the ring

and the weight of the ring was deducted, to obtain the sample weight.

The moisture content of the sample is determined. After swinging the loading yoke clear of

the centre line of the platenthe filled cell was loaded .The loading beam was swing up to the

vertical and the beam support is screwed to the point where it just touches the underside of the

beam. the sliding arm attachment (where fitted) was set to the zero position.The beam was

slowly lower and yoked until the screw spindle was just above the loading cap. If the beam,

when contact was made above the horizontal, the support jack was raised to hold the lever arm

and bring the screw spindle into contact by screwing down.

Position was locked using the lock nut and the changed in the beam angle has a negligible

effect on the loading ratio.The dial gauge was swing on its block and the spindle was above the

top surface of the crossbeam screw spindle. a small positive reading is obtained after set the dial

gauge, then the screw jack was ensured to support the beam, the first increment load was placed

on the weight pan, then when ready to start readings, the screw jack was release and the timer is

started.

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When a saturated soil mass was subjected to an increase in load, it is carried initially by

increased pore water pressure.  The resulting causes water to drain from the soil pores, shifting

the load to the soil structure. The volume of the soil also decreases (equivalent to the volume of

water drained) causing settlement. The process is known as consolidation.

Three important soil properties found using a consolidation test are:

The coefficient of consolidation, Cv, obtained from deformation-time curve data and an

equation.  It indicates the rate of compression under a load increment.

The pre-consolidation stress, C'p, obtained graphically from a log stress-void ratio curve. 

It indicates the maximum past effective stress the soil has been subjected to.

The compression index, Cc, also obtained graphically from the log stress-void ratio

curve.  It indicates the compressibility of the specimen.

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Figure 3.12 : Preparing the apparatus

Figure 3.13 : Poured the distilled water to make it into a soil paste

24

Figure 3.14: Trim this surface to be level with the end faces of the cutting

ring

Figure 3.15: The apparatus is ready set up. Make sure the sliding arm

attachment is set to the zero position

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CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1.1 LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Container number 1 2 3 4

Number of blows 20 29 15 30

Mass of container + wet soil (g) 17.0 18.1 29.9 24.1

Mass of container + dry soil (g) 15.0 15.5 26.7 20.3

Mass of water (g) 2.0 2.60 3.20 3.80

Mass of container (g) 8.70 8.5 18.0 8.3

Mass of dry soil (g) 6.3 7.0 8.7 12.0

Water content (%) 31.75 37.15 36.78 31.67

Table 4.1 : Result of Liquid Limit Test

The percent of moisture content of 25 blows is 33.30%

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4.1.2 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

Determination No. 1 2 3

Container number 1 2 3

Mass of container + wet soil (g) 9.7 9.5 9.0

Mass of container + dry soil (g) 9.5 9.40 8.9

Mass of water (g) 0.20 0.10 0.1

Mass of container (g) 8.60 8.7 8.30

Mass dry soil (g) 0.9 0.7 0.6

Water content (%) 22.22 14.29 16.67

Table 4.2 : Result of Plastic Limit Test

The value of Plastic Limit is 17.72%

The plasticity index: 15.58%

From the plasticity chart and our results where liquid limit is 33.30% while plasticity index is

15.58 %, the soil sample is classified as ‘clay ’. This chart was based on the British Standard

System

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Figure 4.3 : Plasticity Chart based on British Standard

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4.1.3 CONSOLIDATION TEST

Diameter of soil specimen =48mm

Height of soil specimen =18mm

Initial water content =45.36 %

Loading = 2kg

1 unit of dial gage =0.02mm

Elapsed

time ,t(minute)

Dial gauge Compression √t

0 0 0 0

0.25 1.86 0.0372 0.500

1 1.79 0.0358 1.000

2.25 1.75 0.0350 1.500

4 1.70 0.0340 2.000

8 1.66 0.0332 2.828

16 1.60 0.0320 4.000

25 1.56 0.0312 5.000

36 1.53 0.0306 6.000

49 1.50 0.0300 7.000

64 1.48 0.0296 8.000

81 1.48 0.0296 9.000

100 1.48 0.0296 10.00

Table 4.4 : Odometer test data

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Determination no 1

Mass of container (g) 61.10

Mass of container + wet soil (g) 134.00

Mass of wet soil (g) 72.90

Mass of container + dry soil (g) 111.25

Mass of dry soil (g) 50.15

Water content (%) 45.36

Table 4.5 : Soil Water Content Determination.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

5.1 LIQUID LIMIT

It is part of several engineering classifications systems to characterize the fine-grained

fractions of soil and to specify the fine-grained fraction of construction materials. The liquid

limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of soils are also used extensively, either individually or

together with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as compressibility,

permeability, compactibility, shrink-swell and shear strength.

Different soils have varying liquid limits. The liquid limit from this experiment that we

get are 33.30%. This liquid limit we get after plot the graph of water content (%) vs the number

of blows. This result was compare with the other previous finding where one of testing.The

liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of soils are also used extensively, either

individually or together with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as

compressibility, permeability, compactibility, shrink-swell and shear strength

This testing get 33.30% of liquid limit for their experiment.

5.2 PLASTIC LIMIT

From the result it was determined the plastic limit of the soil. The plastic limit is the

lower boundary range of the plastic behaviour of a given soil. Its primary use is in association

with the other Atterberg limits in soil identification and classification. For the first time testing,

the percentage of water content was only 22.22%. For the second and third test, the value of

water content was 14.29% and 14.67%. So, from all the values we can see that the percentage of

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water content not show the extremely different, and after calculate the average, we found that the

plastic limit of soil was 17.72.%

5.3 CONSOLIDATION TEST

The coefficient of consolidation is the parameter used to describe the rate at which

saturated clay or other soil undergoes consolidation, or compaction, when subjected to an

increase in pressure. It is measure in square centimeters per second or square inches per minute.

The coefficient of consolidation can be measured in a laboratory. The process involves

measuring the change in height of a soil sample as it is loaded in increments. The coefficient of

consolidation can be determined by plotting the change in height against the logarithm or square

root of time.

The coefficient of consolidation measures one-dimensional consolidation, or

consolidation that occurs when soil experiences no lateral strain. This is acceptable for most

practical problems, where it is acceptable to assume that seepage and strain occur only in the

vertical direction.

Consolidation is one of the most important behaviors of saturated fine-grained soils that

needs to be understood for settlement analysis of these soils. The two most important aspects of

laboratory consolidation tests are:

(1) estimation of the compression index (Cc), used to predict total settlement of normally

consolidated soils provided the void ratio versus log (effective stress) is linear.

(2) the coefficient of consolidation (Cv), used to predict the rate of settlement in the range

of primary consolidation.

The recorded thickness changes during one of the load stages in an odometer test are used

to evaluate the coefficient of consolidation (cv).

The procedure involves plotting thickness changes (i.e. settlement) against a suitable

function of time and then fitting to this the theoretical Tv:Ut curve.

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In this way known intercepts of Tv:Ut are located from which cv may be calculated.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

All the test has met the aim and objectives that set up earlier as the following conclusion can

be drawn based on the findings :

The type of soil that we get from the sieve analysis test is sand

Our soil is classified as disturb sample

The liquid limit of our soil is 33.30 %.

The plastic limit value is equal to 17.72%.The plasticity index15.58%

Tinggal untuk masukkan nilai settlement conso

The knowledge on consolidation of soil is important as it helps us to design effectively. With this we are able to predict and design in way that settlement is minimized where we are able to prevent damages towards buildings also with our case study which is highways.

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REFERENCES

1) http://civilengineeringlaboratory.blogspot.com/2012/02/liquid-limit-and-plastic-limit-

tests.html

2) https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/technical-services/technical-services-

repository/GTM-7b.pdf

3) https://www.mdt.mt.gov/other/materials/external/geotech_manual/chapter09.pdf

4) http://www.vulcanhammer.net/geotechnical/EM-1110-2-1906.pdf

5) Book : Soil Mechanics Fourth edition Roy Whitlow

6) Book : Open Ended Lab Manual for Soil Mechanics Laboratory

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