international foundation for development alternatives

fundaci6n internacional para alternativas de desarrollo

fondation internationale pour un autre developpement

IFDA DOSSIER 25 , SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1981

CONTENTS ages

INTRODUCTORY NOTE; World food day

BUILDING BLOCKS / M A T ~ R I A U X

L iemp lo i des femmes dans une p e r s p e c t i v e de changements sociaux e t de l i b e r a t i o n des fenmes: l e cas de 1 ' A f r i q u e (M.A. Savan6)

SAM: The Mexican food system

Who i s i g n o r a n t ? R e - t h i n k i n g food and n u t r i t i o n educa t ion under changing socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s (IUNS Workshop)

B r e a s t i s b e s t (IBFAN)

REPERES / MARKINGS

La n o u v e l l e p o l i t i q u e f r a n c a i s e de c o o p e r a t i o n pour I e developpement (Jean-P ie r re Co t )

M a n i f e s t o o f Nobel P r i z e winners

INTERACTIONS

, T h i r d World: t h e nove l as a t o o l i n t h e search f o r a new i n f o r m a t i o n o r d e r (Sonia M i l l s ) Kuala J u r u - a peop le ' s c o o p e r a t i v e . Towards a new s t y l e i n North-South r e l a t i o n s : t h e example o f a1 t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m (L.A. Derno i ) Como p r o d u c i r sus p rop ios a l i m e n t o s en l a c iudad: l a e x p e r i e n c i a de l a casa e c o l o g i c a (Juan Rober t ) I n t e r r o g a t i o n s s u r l e determin isme du d6veloppement (P. Pasca l lon ) 78 I s t h e "Arusha I n i t i a t i v e " t h e answer? ( A l i Abda l la A l i ) 81 . A l t e r n a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r h a n d l i n g balance o f payments and 86 deb t c r i s e s : a T h i r d World monetary fund (R ichard L. K i t c h e n ) . P l a n e t a r y ne twork ing (Hazel Henderson) 91

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS 93

Contributions t o the IFDA Dossier are presented under the responsibi l i ty of the i r authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be repro- duced or transmitted i n any form or by any means without permission o f the authors or IFDA. In ease of reprint , acknowledgement of source and receipt o f a copy would be appreciated. IFDA Dossier i s published bi-monthly.

executive committee: ismaii-sabri obdalia, ahmed ben soiah, gamani corea, mahbub ul haq. enrique igiesias, jon meijer, marc nerfin (president), justinion f. rweyemamu, ignacy sachs, juan somavia, rnaurice f. strong, Ingo thorsson

co-chairmen 1981.1982. fernando henrique ccrdoso, ernst michonek

secretariat: 2 , place du march& ch-1260 nyon, switzerland; telephone 41 (22) 61 8282; telex 28640 ifda ch; cable fipod, geneva

WORLD FOOD DAY

A MESSAGE FROM EDOUARD SAOUMA, DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF FAO

No nation can make progress - economically, socially or politically - if many of its citizens do not have enough to eat. National independence, likewise, is impossible when large numbers of people can neither produce nor buy food sufficient for their needs.

Agricultural development is essential if there is to be growth and lasting health in other economic sectors. Most of the world's population still live in rural areas. Creating more jobs in food production can help to increase out-put and diminish poverty. The effort to achieve this is one of the great challenges facing us in the closing decades of the Twentieth Century,

Encouraging, promoting and overseeing the world's agricultural development is the task of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Since its foundation on 16 October 1945, immediately after the establishment of the United Nations, FAO has led the world's nations in the struggle against hunger and its causes. FAO provides technical assistance and material aid. Through conferences and other initiatives, FAO promotes policies to encourage food production, to ensure secure food supplies and to see that they are avai- lable to those who need them.

Today, 36 years after FAO's foundation, at least one out of nine people still suffer severe malnourishment. World population is growing at 2.7. per year and in many countries per capita supplies of food are decreasing. Global food stocks are dangerously low.

In order to call public attention to this grave situation, and to encourage even greater efforts to overcome hunger, the 20th FAO Conference decided that World Food Day should be observed for the first time on 16 October 1981 and annually thereafter.

World Food Day is the opportunity for all those concerned about world hunger to renew their commitment and to take vigorous action. Governments, local groups, non-governmental organizations and international bodies are plannning a wide range of World Food Day activities.

As a contribution t o the f i r s t World Food Day (16 October 1981) , t h i s i s sue of the IFDA Dossier presents a c lus te r of relevant papers: one on the employ- ment of women - the principal providers of food - followed by an analys is of SAM, the Mexican Food System; a report from the International Union o f Nutrit ional Sciences on nu t r i t ion education; a s tory on the in ternat ional code o f marketing of breast milk subs t i tu t e s and a short piece on urban agricul ture . I t i s our hope tha t these uill provide not only food for thought but a lso contribute t o a b e t t e r understanding of the causes o f , and remedies to , woeld hunger.

L'EMPLOI DES FEMMES DANS UNE PERSPECTIVE DE CHANGEMENTS SOCIAUX E T DE L IBERATION DES FEITOS : LE CAS DE L'AFRIQUE ,

1 / p a r M a r i e Ange l ique Savane - P r e s i d e n t e A s s o c i a t i o n des femmes a f r i c a i n e s pour l a recherche sur 1e developpement (AFARD) c /o IDEP, B,P. 3186 Dakar , Senegal

O r i g i n a l : F r a n c a i s

Resume: L16tude des m6canismes par lesquels l e s m6nages paysans sont &or- pores duns l a d iv i s ion internationale du t rava i l , montre Z'importance du tra- v a i l gratui t des fermes duns l laccmula t ion du capi tal . EILe explique aussi la nkess i - te de La pr6servation du s e c t e w "traditionneL domestiquet' qui r e s t e Ie support des s tructures sociales permettant la reproduction de la force de t rava i l e t assurant la s6curit6 socials de la majorit6 de La popu- lo t ion. Et la d iv i s ion sexuelle du t rava i l qui delegue aux f e m e s l a princi- pale responsabiZit6 dans Ies t&hes que requier t la reproduction hmaine, e s t un f a c t e w determinant duns la poursuite de l a s o m i s s i o n des f emes aux homes,

Ainsi, l e s probI2mes t e l s que I1emploi des femes, sont eonditionn6s par l e s r 3 e s qui sont assign& d ces demieres dans l e s processus socio-histor'iqiies.

L e w l iberat ion depend de ehanqements profonds non settlement duns l e s stn-.c,- t w e s e t Zes rapports de production, mais auss i duns La superstructure qui "legalise" Le patriarcat.

WOMEN' EMPLOYMENT I N THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIAL CHANGE AND WOMEN

L I B E R A T I O N : THE CASE OF A F R I C A

Abstract: The analys is o f mechanisms through which peasant households are incorporated i n the international d iv i s ion o f labour shows the importance o f women's free work i n the accumulation of capi tal . I t a lso explains the (cont. on page l 4 ( 1 6 ) ) .

l/ Ce travail a et6 present6 par l'auteur au sixisme congrss mondial d'econo- mistes organise 5 Mexico l'an dernier par llAssociation internationale des sciences 6conomiques.

Marie Ang6lique Savane

ET DE L I B E R A T I O N DES FEMMES : LE CAS DE L'AFRIQUE

introduction

Le sous-emploi, Ie chomage, font partie des problemes cruciaux du Tiers Monde. La creation d'emplois, avec une remuneration capable de permettre la satisfaction des besoins essentiels a et6 identi- fi6e comme un facteur determinant dans la reduction, voire 1'6li- mination de la pauvret6 qui touche une large majorite de la popu- lation du Tiers Monde. C'est ce qui explique qu'un orqanisme tel que le Bureau International du Travail (BIT) joue un role cl6 dans la demande pour l'elaboration de politiques de developpement visant au plein emploi.

Or, le sous-emploi, Ie chomaqe d'une population qui ne cesse de s'accroltre, decoulent non seulement desconsequences de la forme d'inteqration des Etats du Tiers Monde S la division internatio- nale du travail, mais surtout des fonctions qui leur sont d6vo- lues, c'est-S-dire d'etre et producteurs de matieres premieres et/ou de force de travail a bon marche, et aussi consommateurs. Car Ie capitalisme a des besoins contraire 2 ceux des economies pre-capitalistes. Ces besoins naissent de circonstances histo- riques specifiques : recherche de matieres premieres, terre, main- d'oeuvre; et en periode de crise, marches-

Ces fonctions ont cre6 des distorsions au niveau des differents pays suivant les possibilites qu'ils pouvaient offrir, et au sein de chaque pays un developpement inegal des regions et des qroupes soc iaux.

Pour faire face a cette situation, les populations ont et6 ame- nees 2 une strategic familiale capable de repondre aux change- ments intervenus dans les conditions materielles de production. Cette strategic est basee essentiellement sur une redistribution des tzches selon l'appartenance sexuelle.

Les femmes, S cause de leur subordination millenaire au patriar- cat , heriteront du "secteur traditionnel" en milieu rural et dans l'industrie, des tzches les plus fastidieuses qui ne necessi- tent pas de formation supplementaire, mais sont les moins remu- ner6es.

Cette "marginalisation apparente" des femmes du Tiers Monde a et6 2 l'origine du concept ambiqu de "l'inteqration des femmes au d6veloppement" qui est 2 la base du "plan mondial d'action" de la conference des Nations Unies 2 Mexico, dans Ie cadre de

1'Annee internationale de la femme en 1975 , et qui a orient6 tout Ie debat sur les femmes et le developpement ces dernisres annees . Or, l'etude des mscanismes par lesquels les menages paysans sont incorpores dans la division internationale du travail, montre l'importance du travail gratuit des femmes dans l'accumulation du capital. Elle explique aussi la necessite de la preservation du secteur "traditionnel domestique" qui reste le support des structures sociales permettant la reproduction de la force de tra- vail et assurant la securite sociale de la majorite de la popu- lation. Et la division sexuelle du travail qui delsgue aux fenunes la principale responsabilite dans les tzches que requiert la re- production humaine, est un facteur determinant dans la poursuite de la soumission des fenunes aux homes.

Ainsi, les problSmes tels que l'emploi des femmes, sont condition- nes par les roles qui sont assignes 2 ces dernisres dans les pro- cessus socio-historiques.

Leur liberation depend de changements profonds non seulement dans les structures et les rapports de production, mais aussi dans la superstructure qui "legalise" Ie patriarcat.

Dans ce texte, nous analyserons Ie problsme de l'emploi des femmes dans Ie secteur rural et industriel dans la problematique de l'in- corporation des pays africains au syst@me economique mondial, puis nous concluerons par les elements necessaires 2 la liberation des fenune S.

I . Ie secteur ru ra l

Les paysannes reprssentent 70 2 90% de la population feminine des pays africains. Elles effectuent 60 5 80% du travail agricole et fournissent jusqu'2 44% des prestations necessaires 2 l'alimenta- tion familiale.

A ces tzches productives, s'ajoutent celles liees S la reproduc- tion : travaux domestiques, soins et education des enfants, etc. Pour accomplir toutes ces activites, les femmes doivent travailler 15 2 16 h par jour,.

La modernisation des facteurs de production et des techniques agri- culturales dans les unites familiales de production ont ajoute un surplus de travail aux fenunes et parfois diminue leurs revenus. L'implantation des complexes agro-industriels, des grandes plan- tations privees a accelere la semi-proletarisation des femmes.

A. Femmes et agriculture de subsistance

La participation des femmes 2 la production agricole est diffgren- te selon les @CO-cultures qui ont determine les besoins du capital central.

l. En Afrique de l0Ouest et du centre, en l'absence de richesses minieres connues, le colonisateur avait cr66 des structures per- mettant Ie developpement 2 grande echelle de produits agricoles tropicaux d'exportation (cafe, cacao, arachide, coton, agrumes, etc.) et ce aux conditions necessaires pour interesser Ie capital du centre 2 ces produits, les regions continentales servant sur- tout c o m e pourvoyeuses de main-d'oeuvre.

AprSs les independances, les nouveaux Etats continueront cette orientation de leur economie agricole par le biais des societes dlEtat, des cooperatives de commercialisation, etc. Cette situa- tion a provoque de grands chanqements dans la division tradition- nelle du travail selon les sexes. Car la division sexuelle du travail est une strategic familiale en reponse aux changements des conditions materielles de production. Elle n'est ni statique, ni uniquement determinee par la bioloqie ou la culture, elle est principalement une variable economique qui evolue dans le temps et l'espace. C'est ce qui fait dire 2 Deere que "La division se- xuelle du travail est concue cornme un aspect du procgs de travail; bien qu'elle soit une categoric 6conomique, sa forme specifique et son contenu sont determines par l'effet initial des aspects id&ologiques, politiques et eiconomiques qui caracterisent la for- mation sociale".

a. Dans les pays soudano-saheliens, oii domine l'agriculture &re- aliSre, Ie partage entre temps de travail et temps libre est deli- mite par la succession dans l'annee d'une saison productive et d'une saison morte. Et dans la mesure oii le travail intensif se situe durant l'unique saison des pluies, l'introduction des cultu- res d'exportation a contraint les femmes 2 participer de plus en plus 2 la culture collective du mil et de l'arachide ou du coton dans les champs du chef de l'unite de production. Ce travail est gratuit, c'est l'apport des femmes 2 la subsistance familiale. Dans le m6me temps, les femmes c'~ltivent des arachides dans leurs propres champs et pratiquent la cults-ire de case (legumes, condi- ments divers,..).

Les produits de leurs cr.amps transformes servent 2 completer Ie menu familial et le s,-irrdl3~s est vendu ou echange.

Par centre dans les pals sans facade maritime oii l'emigration mas- culine est trSs Sle'/Ce, les femmes prennent en charge l'ensemble de la production vr/ri&re.

b. Dans les pays situes dans la zone forestisre oCi ont et6 deve- loppees les grandes plantations, l'alternance entre les periodes productives et les periodes improductives est assez rapprochge.

C'est pourquoi on trouve la coexistence de deux types d'agricul- ture nettement differencies par leurs produits, leur destination, mais surtout par les personnes qui en controlent la production.

Les homes se sont specialises dans l'agriculture commerciale (cacao, cafe, noix de cola, palmier 2 huile, ananas, etc.) et les femmes, dans l'agriculture de subsistance (bananes plantins, riz pluvial, manioc, ma'is, legumes, etc.) et dans Ie ramassage des produits vegetaux (graines de palmiers 2 huile, avocats, etc.) de plantes et des fruits.

Dans cet 6co-systeme, les femmes, non seulement produisent les aliments necessaires 2 la subsistance de la famille, mais parti- cipent aussi activement 2 certaines tsches dans les plantations (la recolte des cerises de cafe, par exemple ou Ie transport des recoltes au village) . Et cette surcharge de travail pour les femmes a et6 cr66e par l'introduction des cultures de rente.

2. En Afrique australe, "l'Afr~que des reserves", la colonisa- tion avait des le debut provoqu6 une disparite economique pro- fonde entre les homes et les femmes.

Cette situation resultait des besoins immediats du capital cen- tral de disposer d'une main-d'oeuvre masculine pour les indus- tries extractives (or, diamant dtAfrique du Sud, cuivre de Rho- desie du Nord) et pour celles de substitution d'importation, mais aussi 5 cause de la colonisation agricole de peuplement (Boers en Afrique du Sud, Anqlais en Rhodesie du Sud (actuel Zimbabwe) et au Kenya).

Les conununaut6s rurales africaines vont Etre d6possedees brutale- ment de leurs terres et confinees dans des regions pauvres et exi- ques. L'obligation de payer les imp6ts et la commercialisation du ma'is sont aussi autant de facteurs qui vont pousser les homes & gmigrer, laissant derriere eux des femmes, des enfants et des vieux. Les femes deviennent alors la seule main-d'oeuvre robuste laissee dans les regions rurales. Elles sont chefs de menage et assurent l'essentiel de la production vivriere.

Ainsi les femmes participant activement 5 la production vivriere, lorsqu'elles n'en ont pas la totale responsabilite. Elles accom- plissent aussi des tzches indispensables 5 l'agriculture de rente. Les activites dites "secondaires" telle la commercialisation des denrges, des boissons, l'artisanat ou d'autres activit6s remune- ratrices exercees par les femmes sont indispensables 2 l1@quilibre des budgets familiaux.

D'ailleurs, les recettes tirees de ces activites constituent, dans bien des cas, l'essentiel des ressources familiales. Leur travail est non seulement plus eleve mais plus reparti dans Ie temps que l'effort masculin.

En Tanzanie, on estime Ie travail des homes 2 1'800 heures par an alors qu'il est de 2 ' 6 0 0 heures pour les femmes. De nom- breuses etudes ont Gtai-ili des temps de travaux differentiels en- tre homes et femmes pour plusieurs pays.

Les champs qui leur sont alloues sont souvent exiqus, eloignes des villages, non am6riages. Les femes ne beneficient pas ou trss peu de l'encadrement t-echnique et de la vulgarisation, aussi elles continuent 2 travailler manuellement, avec des outils rudimentaires.

La persistance de Itutilisation de ces techniques "traditionnelles" dans l'agriculture de subsistance, s'explique par Ie mode d'exploi- tation du petit paysannat qui.stoppose 2 l'introduction du capi- talisme dans l'agriculture vivrisre. De ce fait, on entretient la basse productivit6 de cette agriculture qui demeure malqre tout une base de repli pour les differents membres de l'unite de pro- duction lorsque les conditions de la production comerciale de- viennent trop contraignantes.

B. Les femmes et la modernisation de l'agriculture

Dans l'unit6 de production, l'encadrement aqricole, la fourniture de semences, plants et enqrais, les cooperatives, les societ6s

I rurales, l'infrastructure comerciale et l'orqanisation du march6 ont 6te entigrement orient& vers les productions pour l'exporta- tion. Cela a cr66 non seulement des distorsions economiques sur le plan regional mais aussi des discriminations sexuelles dans l'unite de production sur le plan du travail aqricole : "l'intro- duction de methodes technoloqiques et scientifiques dans l'aqri- culture a contribue souvent 2 la marginalisation des femes. Les projets de developpement, les services agricoles, la formation aux techniques de l'aqriculture moderne et l'acquisition de machi- nes et des terres ont et6 orientees principalement vers les hom- mes" (FAO, Rapport Commission statut de la femme, 1970).

En effet, dans 1'6conomie de marche, l'unite de production devient vendeuse de force de travail et de marchandises. Mais les rapports de production "traditionnel" etant maintenus, c'est le chef de l'unite qui reqoit la remuneration du travail des femmes, des jeu- nes et de la clientele.

"L'home acquiert de nouvelles fonctions patronales come ordonna- teur du travail et depositaire des gains de la famille, tandis que sa f e m e ou ses femmes prennent certaines des caracteristiques du proletariat rural" (Revue internationale du travail, janvier 1977).

D'autre part, les innovations techniques augmentent bien souvent les tzches des femmes. E. Boserup a constat6 que "les femmes ex& cutent 55% du travail aqricole dans un village traditionnel et 68% dans un village oCi on applique des techniques aqricoles perfection- nees" (Woman's role in economic development (Londres: Alien & Unwin, 1970).

I1 est meme apparu dans certains pays que l'introduction de nou- velles cultures, si elle accroit la participation des femmes 2 la main-d'oeuvre, n'accroit pas toujours leurs revenus.

En Cote d t Ivoire, par exemple, dans la region d& Bouak6, 10 2 35% seulement du revenu familial est attribu6 aux femmes contre 50% dans les villages traditionnels.

Dans la logique du systeme, il s'aqissait de moderniser l'agri- culture conunerciale pour une meilleure productivite. Car le deve- loppement ne se conceit que lS oii Ie travail rapporte beaucoup d'arqent et 06 il est localise dans le secteur moderne. Or, les rapports travail-argent-secteur moderne sont essentiellement mas- culins .

Parce que dans les conditions d'une agriculture dominee, la re- production de la force de travail suppose Ie maintien des rapports de production domestiques et s'oppose aux transformations qui, en chanqeant les rapports de production, diminuent la rente. La nou- velle division sexuelle du travail qui en resulte est la rgponse de l'unite familiale de production pour supporter l'exploitation feroce dont elle est l'objet. Les femmes 2 cause de leur subordi- nation, de leur responsabilitg dans l'alimentation familiale, sont d'office 6cartges de la production marchande ainsi que de toutes les structures et circuits y affgrant (credits - coop6ratives - encadrement technique, etc.).

Les seuls efforts diriqgs vers les femmes sent faits pour leur apprendre a mieux gerer la production familiale, S devenir de meilleures nutritionnistes et de bonnes couturieres. Ce sont les fameux "projets fgminins" dont Ie resultat est de renforcer le statut inf6rieur des femmes dans la production en les cantonnant dans les circuits de la production de subsistance ou de la petite production marchande (cf. Dossier FIPAD 1 4 ) .

Ainsi, la modernisation cr6e au sein de l'unite de production des differences de productivite non seulement entre les hommes (chef de l'unit6 et les "cadets") mais aussi avec les fernmes, ce qui aqgrave encore lfin6qalit6 dej2 existante, et renforce leur sub- ordination dans la mesure oii l'essentiel de leur travail n16tant pas remunerg, est d6valorisfi.

11. le secteur industriel

L'industrialisation de llAfrique, contrairement celle de I'Ame- rique latine et de l1Asie, a 6te tres tardive. Durant la premiere phase de l'integration du continent au systhe capitaliste mondial, l'accent est mis principalement sur la possibilit6 d'exporter des matisres premieres, avec une remuneration trSs faible du travail. Le march6 etroit, n'attire qu'un volume limite de capitaux. Ce march6 s'aqqrandira proqressivement avec 1'6larqissement des cou- ches sociales qui remplissent la fonction de courroie de trans-

mission entre Ie capital Stranger et les producteurs locaux.

Durant la periode du "pacte colonial", il n'existe que quelques industries 16gSres pouvant satisfaire la demande en biens de con- sommation "de luxe" de ces couches intermediaires. Car dans Ie cadre de la division internationale du travail, 1'Afrique ne peut qu'exporter des matisres premieres avec lesquelles elle doit im- porter tous les produits manufactures dont elle a besoin. L'indus- trie lui est interdite.

En dehors de l'enclave qu'est 1'Afrique australe (Afrique du Sud et Rhodesie , la victoire du mouvement de liberation nationa- Ie, avec les independances desannees soixante en Afrique, permet aux bourgeoisies nationales de s'enqager dans une strategic d'in- dustrialisation "par substitution d'importations".

Cette industrialisation permet de repondre aux modgles de consom- mation d'essence occidentale des classes privilegiees et de d6- velopper une industrie de base au service de la croissance, de la production pour l'exportation, et de luxe pour Ie march6 interne, la consommation de masse etant prise en charge par Ie secteur in- forme1 non-structure (artisanat-bricoleurs, etc).

Dans ce contexte, l'apparition de nombreuses industries vont elar- gir la base du proletariat, mais surtout permettre en son sein l'apparition des femmes ouvrieres. Elle est Ie resultat de la di- vision sexuelle dans le travail industriel.

Les industries S forte utilisation de main-d'oeuvre vont faire appel S elles, 2 cause des bas salaires qu'on peut leur offrir, de leur dexterit6 manuelle qu'elles ont acquises a travers l'his- toire, de leur subordination au patriarcat.

Leur patience et leur supposee "aptitude au travail fastidieux" sont d'autres facteurs determinants. C'est pour cela que les fem- mes ont toujours et@ une source de main-d'oeuvre bon march6 pour Ie capitalisme industriel.

Cependant Ie travail des femmes dans le secteur industriel ne va pas sans difficultes, car elles doivent dans le meme temps, combi- ner leur r61e de producteur dans un emploi salari6 et leur role de producteur en tant que femmes et meres.

Et plus que les ouvriers, elles sont la victime designee du sous- emploi et du ch6mage. Car les maiqres debauches du secteur indus- triel sont orientss d'abord vers les homes.

C'est pourquoi un del6gue S la Conference du BIT disait : "Je pense qu'il est erron@, pour les pays en voie de developpement, de donner une importance prioritaire aux plans visant 2 encourager 11entr6e des femes dans Ie march6 du travail, specialement les femmes avec des responsabilit6s familiales lorsque ces mgmes pays n'ont pas ou

ne peuvent pas cr5er suffisament d'emplois pour leur population masculine"

1. Caracteristiques des ouvrisres et types d'industries

Les ouvrisres sont generalement des migrantes anciennes ou recen- tes qui, en ville, ont commence par ce qui semblait pour des fem- mes, l'emploi "le plus naturel" : Ie travail domestique : "de la cuisine 5 l'usine, tel est 11itin5raire professionnel de plus de 50% des ouvrieres interviewees qui ont et6 domestiques avant de devenir ouvrisres". (F. Kane in IDEP document R/2670, Dakar, 1970) .

Leur nombre est peut-Gtre plus important que ne Ie laissent sup- poser les statistiques du personnel des entreprises ou des bureaux de la main-d'oeuvre. .

Les femmes etant generalement embauchees comme journalisres ou temporaires et la rotation frequente des effectifs ne concerns pas toujours les mEmes personnes. Les ouvrieres sont pour la plupart analphabetes, sans qualification professionnelle. Elles sont done employees come manoeuvres, journalieres ou saisonnisres. Pourtant elles ont dej5 une technicit5 dans ce genre de travail qui n'est en fait qu'un prolongement de leurs tzches m6nagSres.

Les ouvrieres sont jeunes, dans plusieurs pays elles sont c61iba- taires. Les employeurs semblent preferer cette categoric : "les femmes sont mieux que les homes, car elles sont plus dociles, aiment faire plaisir au patron et un mot gentil peut leur donner Ie moral et augmenter leur productivit6. La fernme celibataire est pr6f6rable car son taux d'absenteisme est plus bas que celui de la feme mariee. Elle est moins encline a la fatigue, la maladie et plus efficace dans son travail, car elle espSre que son travail 2 l'usine est temporaire et finira 5 son mariage.

Ces femmes travaillent principalement dans les industrie alimen- taires (conserveries de poisson, confiseries, chocolateries, etc. et dans les textiles, filatures, confection, bonneterie, etc.) et dans les entreprises agro-industrielles pour la cueillette des fruits et legumes.

2. s i t i o n s de travail et salaires des ouvrisres

Les femes ouvrisres ne bgneficient d'aucune securit6 ploi, ni des avantages sociaux reconnus aux autres sa que jour, devant les usines, les journalisres doivent queue desesp6r6ment pour Etre engagees mEme si elles depuis des annees pour la meme entreprise.

dans l'em- laries. Cha- faire la

travaillent

L'impossibilite pour elles d'obtenir un emploi permanent est aggra- v6e par la pauvrete qui leur fait une obligation d'accepter du tra- vail a n'importe quelle condition. L'essentiel pour elles etant de rapporter un peu d'argent afin d'assurer Ie budget familial ou y

participer, car elles sont soit epouses d'ouvriers, de manoeuvres ou de ch6meurs, soit divorcees ou veuves.

Elles travaillent trss souvent plus que l'horaire rsglementaire. Meme Ie travail de nuit ne leur est eparqne. Les hommes journa- liers sont pay& 2 la journee alors que les femmes sont payees 3 la tSche.

Les ouvrisres ne beneficient pas de la protection de la maternits Elles travaillent dans des conditions insalubres et inhumaines. Pourtant leurs Etats ont parfois ratifie Ie "Code international du travail de l'OIT1', dont certaines conventions et recommanda- tions concernant particulisrement les femmes travailleuses.

Les femmes proletaires habitent parfois des quartiers trss eloi- qnes de leur lieu de travail. La carence des transports collec- tifs et Ie manque d'arqent les obliqent 2 faire chaque jour de longs trajets a pieds dans des conditions d1ins6curit6 totale, surtout la nuit.

La qarde des enfants est un problsme preoccupant. Ainsi, ces ou- vrisres sont-elles obligees de faire appel 2 leurs plus qrandes filles, 3 leurs voisines ou 5 leur famille.

Une enquete realisee en 1975 au Senegal resume assez bien la si- tuation de ces femmes : "Le plus haut salaire enregistrg est de 18'754 FCFA pour une ouvrisre de 3e categoric ayant neuf ans d'anciennete dans l'entreprise et quatre enfants vivants. Mais il faut noter qu'a la page suivante, malade une partie du mois, cette femme n'a touche que 8 ' 0 0 0 FCFA. L'ensemble des ouvrisres se sont plaintes d'irregularites dans le calcul comptable de leur salaire. Comme ces irregularites sont toujours au desavantaqe des ouvrisres, celles-ci ont tendance 2 accuser le service comptable d'escroquerie ... L'insuffisance 2 ce niveau de la defense syndi- cale est soulignee par quelques ouvrisres qui juqent que les syn- dicalistes "bavardent" plus qu'ils n'aqissent" (Kane, op . cit.).

Dans les entreprises aqro-industrielles, les femmes executent des tZches qui leur sont connues. En effet, on n'a confie aux £erne que les travaux aqricoles qui s'apparentent aux tSches qui leur incombaient dans l'aqriculture traditionnelle. Les travaux de coupe, de confection et d'irriqation sont configs uniquement aux homes.

I1 faut rappeler que dans l'agro-industrie, Ie travail des femmes est saisonnier, et elles sont remunerees 2 la tSche. La discrimi- nation entre hommes et femmes est reelles. Elle se traduit non seulement au niveau du type d'activites, mais aussi dans les sa- laires et la distribution des equipements pour la protection des travailleurs. "Dans les plantations, certains chefs equipent les homes (en bottes, impermeables et chapeaux) tandis que les fem- mes, sous le pretexte qu'elles n'en ont pas l'habitude ne reqoi- vent rien" .

Le travail des femmes dans l'agro-industrie 6tant saisonnier, les fenunes continuant de cultiver leur lopin de terre. Le salaire est alors perqu comme un appoint 2 la production vivrifire. Ceci expli- que en partie Ie fait de la semi-prolfitarisation des fenunes dans ce secteur.

On peut done dire que les industries emploient les femmes parce que :

. le travail d'usine est un duplicata du travail domestique tra- ditionnel des femmes pour lequel elles ont 6t6 form6es des leur plus jeune age, dans leurs families;

. l'absence de formation professionnelle des femmes en fait des employ6es 3 qui 1'on peut offrir n'importe quel salaire dans un climat de sous-emploi et de ch6mage structure1 05 les entre- prises ne sentent pas la n6cessit6 de cr6er des institutions sociales pour attirer ou retenir la main-d'oeuvre.

Et lorsqu'elles existent elles sont paternalistes :

. la "docilit6" des fenunes generalement non syndiqu6es donne aux patrons la possibilit6 de ne respecter aucune protection so- ciale;

. les femmes, employees come main-d'oeuvre saisonniere ou jour- nalisre, ne perqoivent en fait qu'un "salaire d'appoint" qui ne couvre que la reconstitution de la force de travail. En tant que migrantes, elles gardent des liens 6troits avec la conunu- naut6 rurale 05 elles peuvent retourner.

Dans l'agro-industrie, elles peuvent toujours continuer 2 s'occu- per de la production de subsistance.

Les ouvrisres, confront6es 2 la machine, modifient leur comporte- ment traditionnel. Le modsle d'essence petite-bourgeoise que leur proposent les femmes-6lites ne concorde pas avec la dure realit6 de leur vie et de leur travail. Pour elles, la recherche d'une identity n'est pas leur pr6occupation principale. Les tsches con- traignantes et fastidieuses qu'elles accomplissent, et le maigre salaire qu'elles en retirent, leur font comprendre la notion de classes sociales avec des int6rGts antaqoniques.

Leurs problsmes (emploi, garde et education des enfants, habitat et loyer, transports peu coilteux, nourriture ... ) dependent de l'organisation economique et politique de leur pays dont elles ne tirent aucun profit. Mais l'oppression patriarcale, les religions, les traditions, sont autant d'Sl6ments qui freinent leur prise de conscience politique et leur adhesion au syndica- lisrne. I1 est vrai que l'alliance syndicat-gouvernement ne permet pas 2 ces ouvrisres de fonder beaucoup d'espoirs dans les luttes syndicales.

111. elements pour la liberation des femmes

Cette analyse de l'emploi des femmes dans Ie secteur rural et in- dustriel revele non seulement la faiblesse du developpement mais aussi l'injustice qui est faite aux femmes.

Malqre la place importante qu'elles occupent aussi bien dans la production de subsistance et d'exportation que dans la reproduc- tion, elles sont peu ou pas du tout r6munfirees; elles subissent fortement Ie poids de l'oppression patriarcale, traditionnelle et bourgeoise.

Cette situation d'exploitation du travail des femmes et de l'op- pression quiendecoule est ant6rieure 3 11int6gration de 1'Afri- que a la division internationale du travail. Mais cette dernisre renforce la subordination des femmes et les classe parmi les groupes sociaux les plus exploit6s.

L'oppression, la domination des femmes, n'est ni statique, ni un ph6nomSne naturel. Elle est nee avec 1'6mergence de la propri6t6 privfie qui a cr66 des conflits non seulement entre les differents groupes sociaux mais entre membres d'un meme qroupe. Ces conflits vont se refleter progressivement dans les' rapports familiaux (ex- ploitation et oppression des cadets par les ainfis) et dans les relations entre les homes et les femmes (baisse du statut social des fenunes - depreciation du travail fhinin relegue dans la sphe- re de la production privee, domestique). C'est "la grande d6faite historique du sexe ffiminin" (Engels).

Cette domination masculine, appelfie patriarcat est le support id6ologique d'institutions sociales telle que la famine et il est sous-tendu par des structures economiques et politiques. Le patriarcat a done un caractere structure!, historique et de classe. C'est-a-dire qu'il est vfihicul6 3 travers certaines structures, dans Ie cadre d'un mode de production determine et avec une expres- sion de classe.

I1 apparait alors que la subordination des femmes n6e avec la so- ci6t6 de classe ne disparaitra qu'avec celle-ci. Les politi- ques actuelles de dfiveloppement fortement influencfies par 1'6chec du modele de d6veloppement extraverti et dependant, incapable de resoudre les problSmes de base, s'engagent de plus en plus vers une nouvelle strategic de dfiveloppement qui s'articule autour :

. d'une option en faveur d'un developpement autocentrfi;

. la priorit6 donnfie 2 la cooperation et a l'intfigration ficono- mique entre pays du Tiers Monde;

. de l'exigence d'un Nouvel Ordre Economique International.

Cette strateqie permettrait d'asseoir l'independance politique par Ie renforcement de l'indfipendance economique.

Pourtant cette nouvelle strategic de developpement n'envisaqe pas de sortir du systeme mondial des ^changes de marchandises, de technologies et de capitaux. Ce qui, 2 notre avis, remet en cause toute perspective de developper dans les pays du Tiers Monde un capitalisme acheve, autonome. La permanence de "l'echange ineqal" ne permet pas d'espfirer pour des femmes des possibilites reelles d'emancipation.

Dans Ie domaine de l'agriculture, il faudra s'attendre 5 une in- jection plus importante de capitaux qui menera 5 la destruction de la petite production marchande au benefice des qrandes plan- tations ou des agro-industries. I1 en resultera l'accroissement d'un salariat agricole, des divisions sociales antaqoniques au sein des campaqnes et un exode rural massif.

Les femmes les plus jeunes de la paysannerie pauvre iront grossir les rangs du "lumpen-proletariat". Sans qualification profession- nelle, elles ne pourront exercer que les metiers tels que : le travail domestique rernunere ou la prostitution.

D'autres iront offrir leurs services aux usines qui s'ouvrent dans les "zones franches industrielles". Les textiles, l'habillement, , l'electronique qui affectionnent particulierement la main-d'oeuvre fhinine, adroite, docile, bon march6 seront de nouveaux debauches.

Cette politique de developpement va creuser les differences so- ciales entre les femmes.

Celles des classes moyennes ayant un acc6s plus grand au march6 du travail et dans des postes Sieves, de responsabilite. Les au- tres se proletarisant ou se marginalisant dans les activites arti- sanales ou de petit commerce de survie dans le "secteur informel non structure".

I1 apparalt done que la liberation des femmes ne peut exister en dehors de la liberation des classes.

Dans la mesure 06 leur oppression est la consequence de la divi- sion de la sociEt6 en classes, il n'y a pas pour les femmes, de possibilites reelles d'atteindre 5 l'egalite de droit avec les homes dans le cadre du patriarcat.

Les femmes pour se liberer de l'exploitation et de l'oppression doivent non seulement detruire l'orqanisation patriarcale mais aussi Ie systeme de production sur lequel repose cette organisa- tion.

Dans cette perspective, le mouvement de liberation des femmes est partie integrante du mouvement ouvrier qui lutte pour l'abolition de la socief-6 de classes.

c'est ce qui explique la necessite pour les femmes de s'organiser S present autour de la defense de leurs droits. L'instauration

du socialisme, si elle cree les conditions objectives necessaires S un changement profond de la situation des femmes, n'est que l'a- boutissement d'un long processus, au cours duquel les femmes remet- tent en question les fondements du patriarcat. C'est ainsi qu'elles ameliorent sensiblement dans cette periode leurs conditions de vie et leurs statut. C'est en ce sens qu'il faut soutenir les diverses formes de lutte que les femmes msnent dans les trois mondes.

(cont. from page 3 ) .

necess i ty t o maintain the "'household tradi t ionalrr sector uhich remains the basis o f social s tructures enabling the reproduction of the labour force and ensuring the social securi ty o f the majority of the population. And the sexual d iv i s ion o f labour which delegates t o women the main respons ib i l i t y i n jobs required by human reproduction i s a determining factor i n the continua- t i o n o f the submission o f uomen t o men.

Thus problems such as women's employment are conditionned by the roles given t o them i n socio-historical processes.

Womenr l iberat ion depends on deep ekanges not only i n productions structures and relat ionships , but a lso i n the superstructure uhich " legal izer1 the patri- archal system.

E L EMPLEO DE L A MUJER, LOS CAMBIOS S O C I A L E S Y L A L I B E R A C I O N

F E M E N I N A : E L CASO DE A F R I C A .

Reswnen: E l es tudio de Los meeanismos mediante 'Los cuales se ineorpora a2 rnatvimonio campesino dentro de la divisio?z in ternaeiond del triibajo muestra la importancia del trabajo gratui to de las mujeres en la uciwnulaeio% del capi tal . Empero, tarnbi@n explica la necesidad de preservar e l sector "tra- d i c i o n d dorn6stico1', que es a~& e l sost6n de las estructuras socidles que permiten la reproduceioh de la fuerza de trabajo y garantizan la seguridad social de la mayorz% de la poblacio?. La d iv i s ion sexual del trabajo, que delega en las rnujeres la responsabilidad principal en las tareas que dernanda ta veproduaei-on humam, e s un factor determinante para que pposiga La surnisio% de las mujeres a 20s hornbres.

En es ta forma, problemas como e l del empleo femenino estdn condicionados por las funeiones que se asignan a las mujeres dentro de 20s procesos sociales e h i s t o ~ i e o s . La liberacioh de es tas A t h a s depende de camb'ins profundos, no solo en las estructuras y las relaciones de producci6n, sino tambidn en La superestructura que r'legalisalr e l patriareado.

I FDA DOSSIER 25 t SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1981

BUILDING BLOCKS

SAM: THE MEXICAN FOOD SYSTEM

Orignal language: English

Abstract: The deveLopment model adopted by Mexico 30 years ago was based on industriaLization, whose bene f i t s were to ' t r i c k l e dom' t o the masses. This did not happen. There i s a c r i s i s i n the agricultural sector. Basic grain imports have increased t o dangerous Levels. Half of the population, including IS mi l l ion children, s u f f e r from malnutrit ion.

To change t h i s s i tuat ion, the government Zaunchedin1980 the 'Mexican Food System' whose basic features are as foLLows: (i) internat ional ty , food i s power: Mexico now aims a t food se l f - su f f i c i ency , (ii) concentration o f owner- ship and income i s a major constraint: production increase w i l l come from snai l peasants workingonnon-irrigated land; and (Â¥Hi the extent o f mal- nu t r i t ion c a l l s for a new system of food dis tr ibut ion, selected subsidies and nu t r i t iona l education.

SAM i s a complex system of a c t i v i t i e s tackling the problem i n a comprehensive manner, from production through consumption. I t comprises 80 sub-projects, the most important o f which are analysed i n t h i s paper.

Resmi : Le mod2Le de &veLoppement chois i par Le Mexique i L y a 30 ans re- posait sur L'industrialisation, dont l e s retombees devaient pro f i t e r a m masses. Cela ne s ' e s t pas produit. L'agriculture e s t en c r i se . Les impor- ta t ions de cer6aLes croissent dangereusement. La malnutrit ion a f f e c t e la moi t ie de La population, dont 15 mi l l ions d'enfants.

A f in de changer e e t t e s i tuat ion, Le gouvernement a Lance en 1980 l e 'syst2me alimentuire mexicain' dont Zes t r a i t s e s sen t ia l s sont l e s suivants: (i) in ter - nationalement, Les aLiments sent Le pouvoir: Le Mexique tend disormais d I 'autosuffisance alimentaire; (ii) La concentration de La propr i i t i e t du revenu const i tuent un s e r i e m obstacle: L'accroissement de la production viendra des p e t i t s paysans cuLtivant l e s zones non-irriguees; e t (iii) La gravitg de la s i tua t ion nutritzonneLLe appeLIe un nouveau systems de d i s t r i - bution, des subventions se lec t i ves e t L'education nu t r i t ionne l l e .

Le SAM e s t un ensemble complexe d ' a c t i v i t e s abordant Le probl2me dans tous see aspects, de La production 2 La consomation. IL cornprend 20 sous-projets dont l e s plus importants sont analys6s duns e e t a r t i c l e .

(Resumen espanol en la pagina 1 4 ( 3 0 ) ) .

SAM: THE M E X I CAN FOOD SYSTEM (S I STEMA A L I M E N T A R I O MEXI CANO) I/

SAM, t h e beginnings o f a s t r a t e g y

More than t h i r t y y e a r s ago, Mexico adopted a development model t h a t emphasized i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and what was then seen a s t h e moderniza t ion of t h e count ry . I t was f e l t t h a t i n o r d e r t o i m - prove t h e s t anda rd o f l i v i n g o f t h e Mexican people , weal th had f i r s t t o be c r e a t e d and then d i s t r i b u t e d . Indeed, g r e a t wea l th was gene ra t ed and t h e count ry became "modernized". However, t h e bonanza came t o a p r i v i l e g e d few, whi le g r e a t masses, among them t h a t formed by t h e campesinos, f a i l e d t o b e n e f i t from t h e growth achieved. I n f a c t , f o r some, "modernizat ion" brought about a g radua l d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e i r a l r e a d y p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n . The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r made a major c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e development of i n d u s t r y , b u t it s u f f e r e d e v e n t u a l l y from a s t eady l o s s of dynamism and t h e measures needed t o i n j e c t new l i f e i n t o t h e s e c t o r were n o t taken . A g r i c u l t u r e ended up wrung o u t , exhaus ted .

The c r i s i s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r i s r e f l e c t e d d a i l y i n t h e p r e s s : i n s u f f i c i e n t g r a i n p roduc t ion , p r i c e i n c r e a s e s , c y c l i c a l s c a r c i t i e s , c o n f l i c t s ove r l and t e n u r e , e c o l o g i c a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n . These a r e on ly some of t h e more v i s i b l e s i g n s ; t h e r e a r e o t h e r s , less obvious , such a s t h e m a l n u t r i t i o n t h a t a f f e c t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e popu la t ion .

I f t o t h e fo rego ing a r e added such f a c t o r s a s i n e f f i c i e n t t r a n s - p o r t a t i o n sys tems, sub-s tandard systems f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and market ing of food, o r temporary d i f f i c u l t i e s , such a s t h e p r e s e n t d rough t , t h e n w e have t h e makings of a r e a l t h r e a t t o t h e v i t a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e n a t i o n .

S o l u t i o n s a r e p o s t u l a t e d from a l l p o i n t s , b u t s o f a r i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t i o n has been l i m i t e d t o pa t ch ing up t h e most s e n s i t i v e manifes- t a t i o n s of t h e g e n e r a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n , b u t w i thou t i n f l u e n c i n g t h e a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s e c t o r . The f a c t t h a t a s u i t a b l e so lu - t i o n is by no means s imple t o come up wi th i s evidenced by t h e involved and wider- ranging d i s c u s s i o n s which have t aken p l a c e i n a v a r i e t y o f forums w i t h o u t any conc lus ion e v e r be ing reached. For t h e f a c t is t h a t t h e i n e r t i a of t h e s t a b i l l z i n g development model i s c o n s i d e r a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e few who b e n e f i t t e d s o much from it a r e borne i n mind.

I t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t mere i n c r e a s e s i n guaranteed p r i c e s , i n d i s - c r i m i n a t e mechaniza t ion , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e towards t h e e x p o r t o f h i g h l y - p r o f i t a b l e c rops and, a s a counter -weight , t h e importance o f b a s i c g r a i n s , f a i l t o o f f e r a s o l u t i o n a s soon a s t hey begin t o harm t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e major a c t o r s i n t h e drama - t h e campesinos. And let i t n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t t h e s e

I / Reproduced from 'Comercio Exterior de Mexico', English edition. Vol. 26, - No. 7.

l a t t e r a r e , i n any c a s e , exposed t o m a c h i n a t i o n s o f u n s c r u p u l o u s l o c a l b i g - s h o t s and v o r a c i o u s middlemen, t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o r - r u p t i o n a n d , on o c c a s i o n , t o a l a c k o f p r o p e r s u p p o r t from i n s t i - t u t i o n s .

I t was w i t h i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t , i n March 1980 , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f SAM ( S i s t e m a A l i m e n t a r i o Mexicano - t h e Mexican Food Sys tem) was announced, and o p e r a t i o n s were commenced on May 21. T h i s i s most e n c o u r a g i n g . The sys tem, i n f a c t , r e p r e s e n t s p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t - t h o u g h t - o u t S t a t e p o l i c y f o r a g r i c u l t u r e f o r many y e a r s .

Genera l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

SAM i s an a m b i t i o u s p r o j e c t , embrac ing a wide r a n g e o f d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s . Based on t h e documents made p u b l i c t h u s f a r , ]_/it seems a p p r o p r i a t e t o d e v o t e some s p a c e t o t h e g e n e r a l p r o p o s a l s and t o t h e major p o l i c y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and i n s t r u m e n t s i n v o l v e d . I t m i g h t be p o i n t e d o u t , however , t h a t a f u l l s t u d y would r e q u i r e d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e a c h o f t h e 2 0 s u b - p r o j e c t s t h a t went i n t o c r e a t i n g SAM, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e which i n c l u d e t h e p o l i c y mea- s u r e s e x p e c t e d t o be a p p l i e d f o r e a c h o f t h e a s p e c t s embraced by t h e g e n e r a l p r o j e c t . On t h e one hand , however , a v a i l a b l e s p a c e p r e v e n t s us from g o i n g i n t o t h i s amount o f d e t a i l a n d , on t h e o t h e r , t h e r e a r e s t i l l a number o f s u b - p r o j e c t s t h e s t a g e o f deve lopment o f which h a s n o t y e t been made p u b l i c .

Our c o u n t r y - s a y t h e SAM s t r a t e g i s t s - i s i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e v e r s e c e r t a i n t r e n d s which , above a l l i n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f w o r l d a f f a i r s , may l e a d u s " t o a d e n a t i o n a l i z e d c o n d i t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l dependence . . . " The Government t o d a y h a s " t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , p e r h a p s un ique and u n r e p e a t a b l e , c f s a t i s f y i n g o u r g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r growth w i t h o u t making unneces- s a r y c o n c e s s i o n s , by expanding t h e p r o d u c t i v e b a s e and t h e clomes- t i c m a r k e t . " T h i s would p r o v i d e " s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n s f o r s o v e r e i g n - t y and f o r a n e f f i c i e n t and powerfu l economy."

.Ã ̂ . I n t h i s s t r a t e g y - it i s a s s e r t e d - t h e Government o f P r e s i d e n t Lopez P o r t i l l o "has r e g a r d e d f o o d s t u f f s and e n e r g e t i c s a s con- v e r g i n g v e c t o r s . " Energy h a s b e n e f i t t e d from l e v e l s o f i n v e s t - ment w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t i n t h e c o u n t r y ' s h i s t o r y and t h e s e c t o r i s a l r e a d y i n a p o s i t i o n " t o grow w i t h o u t b e i n g s t r a n g l e d by e x t e r n a l a t t a c h m e n t s o r f i n a n c i a l s e r v i t u d e . " Thus i t i s t h a t what i s s o u g h t now i s " t h e most d i f f i c u l t and t h e most b a s i c

11 The f i r s t of these i s en t i t l ed "Preliminary proposals of consumption goals - and production strategy for basic foodstuffs for 1980-1982". I t was de- veloped in accordance with the degree of progress that had been made, by March 1, 1980, on 8 of the 20 sub-projects comprising SAM. The second i s en t i t l ed "Agricultural and f isheries operational measures; s t rategies for marketing, processing, dis t r ibut ion and consumption f o r the Recommended Basic Basket". I t was developed in accordance with the degree of progress that had been made by May 7 , 1980 on 14 sub-projects. Consideration i s given in this note to both documents.

t h i n g o f a l l : an a d e q u a t e and s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n and con- sumpt ion o f p o p u l a r f o o d s t u f f s w i t h an u n d e r l y i n g g o a l o f r e d i s - t r i b u t i n g income".

Only by m a s s i v e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b a s i c f o o d s t u f f s can t h e c o u n t r y " o r g a n i z e i t s e l f t o r e s c u e i t s a g r i c u l t u r e , b r i n g dynamism t o i t s f i s h e r i e s s e c t o r and g r e a t e r b r e a d t h t o i t s domes- t i c m a r k e t " . T h i s w i l l be a c h i e v e d , t h e SAM documents i n d i c a t e , "by means o f t h e s w i f t e s t and most e f f i c i e n t r e s p o n s e p o s s i b l e : t h e c r e a t i o n o f j o b s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e " .

From t h e p o i n t o f view o f s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e a t t i t u d e i s a d o p t e d t h a t i n t o d a y ' s w o r l d " food power" i s o f " s i n g u l a r i m p o r t a n c e " and it i s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t " i f we do n o t wish t h e un ique b u t t emporary a d v a n t a g e s o f o u r f a v o r a b l e e n e r g y p o s i t i o n t o b e m e r e l y n u g a t o r y , t h e n i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t we d e v e l o p a p o l i c y o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i n f o o d , and e s p e c i a l l y i n c e r e a l s and o l e a g i n o u s p r o d u c t s " . Food, i t i s e x p l a i n e d , " w i l l be i n c r e a s i n g - l y used a s a s t r a t e g i c n e g o t i a t i n g d e v i c e and a s a means o f e x e r - t i n g p r e s s u r e " . Even t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s a r e l o o k i n g t o e n s u r e " s e c u r i t y " , o r s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , i n f o o d , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t f r e q u e n t l y "domes t ic p r i c e s a r e much h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e on w o r l d m a r k e t s " . T h i s c l a i m i s i l l u s t r a t e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c a s e o f J a p a n , which p r e f e r s t o p roduce r i c e a t a c o s t s e v e r a l t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n wor ld marke t p r i c e s t o l o s i n g i t s " f o o d s t u f f s s e c u r i t y " . For a c o u n t r y l i k e Mexico, i t i s c l a i m e d , " such a p o l i c y may have even g r e a t e r v a l i d i t y " .

E q u a l l y , it i s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e p r e m i s e s o f "compara t ive advan- t a g e s " a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d i n m a r k e t s " a s i m p e r f e c t a s t h e w o r l d m a r k e t s f o r c e r e a l s and o l e a g i n o u s p r o d u c t s " . B u t , i n a d d i t i o n , any such a d v a n t a g e s s h o u l d be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e need t o a c h i e v e a r e a l and e f f i c i e n t p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o d u c i n g b a s i c g r a i n s p r e - c i s e l y by and f o r t h e campesinos who demand them".

I n expanding on t h i s theme, t h e documents n o t e t h a t f i v e o r s i x companies , t h e m a j o r i t y o f them American, c o n t r o l v i r t u a l l y 85% o f t h e wor ld g r a i n m a r k e t . I n view o f t h i s , t h e c o n c l u s i o n must b e r e a c h e d t h a t " t h e a s t o n i s h i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y o f U n i t e d S t a t e s a g r i c u l t u r e i s b e g i n n i n g t o come up a g a i n s t l i m i t s i n t h e expan- s i o n o f i t s a g r i c u l t u r a l f r o n t i e r and i n t h e i n c r e a s i n g produc- t i o n c o s t s o f a h i g h l y e n e r g y - i n t e n s i v e s y s t e m " , and t h a t t h e growing w o r l d g r a i n d e f i c i t w i l l s h a r p l y push up p r i c e s . ( I n 1985 , t h e s h o r t f a l l o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s w i l l be d o u b l e t h e p r e s e n t 85 m i l l i o n m e t r i c t o n s ) . The SAM p r o j e c t emphas izes t h e f a c t . t h a t , o v e r t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s , t h e commodit ies showing t h e s h a r p e s t p r i c e i n c r e a s e s on wor ld m a r k e t s have been p r e c i s e l y c e r e a l s and o l e a q i n o u s p r o d u c t s , which have gone up "more t h a n manuf a c t u r e s and more even t h a n o i l " .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s e n c o u r a g e changes i n d i e t a r y h a b i t s b a s e d on an imal p r o t e i n , " b u t w i t h a d d i t i v e s and e x t r a i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s " which add enormously t o t h e c o s t o f e a c h gram o f p r o t e i n and e a c h c a l o r i e . I n s u c h c o u n t r i e s , con- sumer income i s r i s i n g f a s t e r t h a n i s e x p e n d i t u r e on food . But

t h e p o o r n a t i o n s have a d o p t e d such p a t t e r n s b l i n d l y and t h i s h a s had a d e c i s i v e e f f e c t on " t h e r e a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n t h a t h a s been o b s e r v e d i n t h e n u t r i t i o n o f more t h a n h a l f o f humani ty" o v e r t h e p a s t decade .

I n Mexico, t h i s " m a r g i n a l i z i n g m o d e r n i z a t i o n " h a s c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c r i s i s t h a t began 1 5 y e a r s a g o , "when t h e a r e a o f l a n d u n d e r c o r n plummeted a s t h a t under s o r - ghum s o a r e d ; when t h e r e was a s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n t h e s u p p l y and demand f o r soybeans and a growing d i v e r s i o n o f c o r n f o r a n i m a l consumpt ion , a t t h e e x p e n s e o f human consumers" .

SAM warns t h a t i f it i s o n l y i n d u s t r y and e n e r g e t i c s which b o o s t t h e c o u n t r y ' s g rowth , t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r food w i l l have t o b e s a t i s f i e d by e v e r - h i g h e r l e v e l s o f food i m p o r t s . These would e a t up a v a s t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s o i l s u r p l u s , which m i g h t o t h e r w i s e be d e v o t e d t o p r o d u c t i v e and s e l f - s u s - t a i n i n g i n v e s t m e n t . Our c o u n t r y a l r e a d y s u f f e r s f rom growing dependence on i t s i m p o r t s o f b a s i c g r a i n s . I n 1965 , s u c h i m p o r t s a c c o u n t e d f o r 9 % o f t h e t o t a l f o r t h e s e c t o r ; t e n y e a r s l a t e r , t h e p r o p o r t i o n had r e a c h e d 6 7 % and i n 1980 it was e x p e c t e d t o be n o l e s s t h a n 80 p e r c e n t .

These t r e n d s "must and c a n be r e v e r s e d f o r t h e y r u n c o u n t e r t o t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h e p r o d u c t i v e , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Mexican a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r and s e r i o u s l y compromise t h e c o u n t r y ' s new economic s t r a t e g y " .

Accord ing t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n s p r o v i d e d i n SAM, t h e s t r a t e g y o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i n food h a s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f o b j e c t i v e s : " i t i s n o t s i m p l y a q u e s t i o n o f p r o d u c i n g more b a s i c f o o d s t u f f s , b u t t h a t t h e s e s h o u l d b e produced above a l l by campes inos working n o n - i r r i g a t e d l a n d . T h i s i s b e c a u s e it i s t h e s e campes inos who have t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l t o respond t o such a p r o d u c t i o n c h a l l e n g e ; b e c a u s e t h i s i s t h e n a t i o n ' s b e s t chance t o p r o v i d e employment and income f o r m i l l i o n s o f Mexicans, and b e c a u s e r e a c t i v a t i n g t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n t o t h e i r p rob- lems o f m a l n u t r i t i o n . We s h o u l d n o t ' s o l v e ' t h e food problem t h r o u g h i s o l a t e d a i d t o b e c h a r g e d a g a i n s t o u r o i l s u r p l u s e s , f o r t h i s would o n l y i n c r e a s e o u r dependence on i m p o r t s " . What i s s o u g h t i s " g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t y from n o n - i r r i g a t e d a g r i - c u l t u r a l l a n d and from t h e f i s h e r i e s s e c t o r , t h r o u g h e n c o u r a g i n g s u i t a b l e t e c h n o l o g y t h r o u g h o u t t h e f o o d s t u f f s p r o d u c t i o n and m a r k e t i n g p r o c e s s e s , and a n e q u i t a b l e s h a r e f o r t h e p r o d u c e r s i n t h e income g e n e r a t e d by t h e f o o d - p r o d u c t i o n c h a i n " .

I t i s c l a i m e d i n t h e SAM p r o j e c t t h a t t h e main o b s t a c l e t o r a i - s i n g d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s i s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f income. T h i s o c c u r s b o t h a t t h e i n t e r - s e c t o r a l l e v e l and w i t h i n t h e r u r a l s e c t o r , a s w e l l a s between t h e v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f t h e p r o - d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s . Thus, it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t e a c t i o n s aimed a t b o o s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n from p o l i c i e s t h a t e n a b l e p r o d u c e r s t o r e t a i n t h e s u r p l u s e s from t h e i r own work , i f a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g economy i s t o b e c r e a t e d .

"T!;e S t a t e a c t i o n s aimed a t b o o s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n begun i n t h e 1980 sprjng-summer c y c l e , and which w i l l come t o f r u i t i o n i n t h e me- d i u ~ and l o n g t e r m , p r e s u p p o s e t h e s e l e c t i v e management o f p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s a t t h e S t a t e ' s d i s p o s a l t o induce a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h - n o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s t o t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of p r o d u c t i v e u n i t , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s and t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o a b s o r b new f a c t o r s " .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s o f SAM warn t h a t " t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a r a p i d ' m o d e r n i z a t i o n ' p r o c e s s t h r o u g h t h e i n t e n s i v e u s e o f n a c n i n e r y and i n d u s t r i a l i n p u t s t h a t would v i t i a t e t h e economic b a s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p r o d u c e r and would weaken t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own l i v i n g and working c o n d i t i o n s , would en- c o u r a q e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d h o l d i n g s and f u r t h e r i n e q u a l i t y ir. t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income".

Tne SAX documents r e i t e r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o d u c e r o r g a n i z a - t i o n s " i n t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l sequence c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n - income s t r a t e g y " . T h e s e , it i s a s s e r t e d , r e i n f o r c e t h e c o n d i - 1 3 n s t h a t " e n a b l e t h e p r imary p r o d u c e r s t o r e t a i n c o n t r o l o v e r + : 1 p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s " and t h i s , i n t u r n , makes it p o s s i b l e f o r

" s t a b l e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r a g e n t s i n t h e food c h a i n , e s p e c i a l - ; t h e a q r o i n d u s t r i a l u n i t s " t o o c c u r . Such s t a b i l i t y q i v e s r i s e t; t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a c o n s t a n t f low o f t e c h n o l o g y and f i n a n - c i n g t o d e v e l o p , f a v o r i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f improved t e c h n o l o g y L I t h e p r i m a r y u n i t s . A s f o r t h e a q r o i n d u s t r i a l u n i t s t h e m s e l v e s , t t ~ e s e r e p r e s e n t t h e most dynamic phase o f t h e food c h a i n and t i i e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e - which i s g r e a t e r t h a n any p r i m a r y p r o d u c e r - " r o s u l t s i n t h e i r becoming i n t e g r a t i n g f a c t o r s i n t h e food e*:onomy" . i n t h i s r e g a r d , t h e need t o e n c o u r a q e " i n t e g r a t e d a g r o i n d u s t r i a l u n d e r t a k i n g s w i t h j o i n t campesino p a r t i c i p a t i o n " i s p u t f o r w a r d . These would have t o combine l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l u n i t s w i t h c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s .

S A M r e q u i r e s a " n a t i o n a l economic food s p a c e , t h e c o n t o u r s and s t r u c t u r e " o f which a r e f i x e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s : a d i e t a r y p a t t e r n e x p r e s s e d i n a Recommended B a s i c B a s k e t (RBB); t h e amounts o f f o o d s t u f f s r e q u i r e d by improved d i e t a r y l e v e l s , and t h e k i n d o f p r o d u c e r s t h a t s u p p l y such commodit ies . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h i s s p a c e i s r e s t r i c t e d b e c a u s e o n l y e f f e c t i v e demand i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t and because " t h e s t r u c t u r e i s ' i r i e n t e d towards t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f goods f o r s e l e c t i v e consumer m a r k e t s " . For t h i s r e a s o n , t h e s p a c e r e f e r r e d t o must b e expan- ded and a d a p t e d s o a s t o g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e mass o f t h e popula - t i o n towards which SAM i s d i r e c t e d h a s a c c e s s t o t h e recommended :onsumpt ion l e v e l s .

It i s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s t r a t e g y proposed w i l l r e v e r s e t h e t r e n d t o i n c r e a s e d i m p o r t s o f b a s i c g r a i n s which , w h i l e t h e y nay have 1 c 'n " t h e n e c e s s a r y r e c o u r s e t o c o v e r o u r s h o r t f a l l " , have a t t i e same t i m e c o n t r i b u t e d t o d i s c o u r a g i n g d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n .

O u r i m p o r t p o l i c y d i l l no l o n g e r be g u i d e d by t h e p r i o r i t y g o a l

o f a v o i d i n g p r i c e i n c r e a s e s f o r d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n , b u t by t h e p r o d u c t i o n g o a l s programmed by t h e Mexican F o o d s t u f f s Sys tem" .

I t i s made p e r f e c t l y c l e a r i n t h e SAM documents t h a t t h e r e i s no i n t e n t i o n o f t r a n s f e r r i n g l a n d where e x p o r t c r o p s a r e produced t o b a s i c g r a i n p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s i s because such l a n d s (which av- e r a g e d 270,000 h e c t a r e s between 1975 and 1979) "would o n l y add, f o r example, some 6 % t o c o r n a v a i l a b i l i t y , b u t would l e a d t o t h e l o s s o f 14 m i l l i o n workdays a n n u a l l y because of t h e d i f f e r e n t l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e n e s s o f e x p o r t c r o u s on t h e one Land and of corn on t h e o t h e r " .

A n a l y s i s o f t h e problems

The SAM documents examine t h e major problems a f f e c t i n g t h e food s e c t o r . Among o t h e r s , emphas i s i s g i v e n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g :

. I n r u r a l a r e a s , a l m o s t 90% o f t h e popx-ilation ( 2 1 m i l l i o n peo- p l e ) s u f f e r from some d e g r e e o f c a l o r i e and p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n c y , and some 9 . 5 m i l l i o n have "a s e r i o u s c a l o r i e d e f i c i e n c y " , r a n q i n o from 25 t o 40 p e r c e n t below t h e recommended minimum l e v e l o f 2 ,750 c a l o r i e s p e r p e r s o n p e r day . I n u rban a r e a s , i t i s e s t i - mated t h a t a t l e a s t one m i l l i o n p e r s o n s consume l e s s t h a n 2 ,000 c a l o r i e s p e r d a y ; t h a t i s , t h e y s u f f e r from m a l n u t r i t i o n .

. Between 1959 and 1979 , it was o n l y i n t h e c o u n t r y ' s n o r t h e r n r e g i o n t h a t t h e d a i l y c a l o r i e i n t a k e r o s e ( f rom 2 , 1 3 1 t o 2 ,222 p e r p e r s o n ) ; i n t h e Gulf r e g i o n and t h e w e s t e r n r e g i o n , t h e r e was n o change ; i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s , t h e i n t a k e f e l l : t h e c e n t e r ( f rom 1 , 9 0 1 t o 1 , 7 5 2 ) ; t h e s o u t h ( f rom 1 , 9 1 1 t o 1 , 7 5 5 ) and t h e s o u t h - e a s t , where t h e f a l l was p a r t i c u l a r l y d r a s t i c ( f r o m 2,007 t o 1 , 5 7 7 ) . I t w i l l b e n o t e d t h a t t h e recommended minimum was n o t r e a c h e d i n a s i n g l e one o f t h e a r e a s .

. A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t some 35 m i l l i o n Mexicans f a i l t o e n j o y t h e minimum n u t r i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s r e p r e - s e n t e d by 2,750 c a l o r i e s and 80 grams o f p r o t e i n p e r day . T h i s i s SAM's " t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n " . However, t h e r e a r e some 19 m i l l i o n p e r s o n s ( 1 3 m i l l i o n i n r u r a l a r e a s and 6 m i l l i o n i n u rban a r e a s ) who have a " v e r y low n u t r i t i o n a l l e v e l " , and who a r e g i v e n p r e - f e r e n c e i n t h e SAM s t r a t e g y . A most s h o c k i n g s t a t i s t i c i s t h a t , o f t h i s l a t t e r number, 14 .5 m i l l i o n a r e c h i l d r e n between t h e a g e s o f 0 and 14 y e a r s .

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s " p r i o r i t y p o p u l a t i o n " , a number o f " c r i t i c a l zones" have been i d e n t i f i e d . T h ~ s e embrace 782 m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and w i l l b e t h e f o c u s o f S t a t e a c t i o n .

. I m p o r t a n t changes have t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f con- sumpt ion o v e r t h e p a s t twenty y e a r s . Over t h e p e r i o d 1959-1964 t o 1979, t h e f o l l o w i n g were r e c o r d e d f o r r u a l a r e a s : a v e r a g e c o r n consumption f e l l f rom 407 t o 324 grams p e r d a y ; t h a t o f b l a c k b e a n s from 56 t o 35 qrams; t h a t o f b r e a d and p a s t a s r o s e from 36 t o 45 grams; t h a t o f e g g s from 1 5 t o 27; t h a t o f mi lk from 76 t o 102 , and t h a t o f c o o k i n g f a t s from 14 t o 27 qrams.

Meanwhile, i n u rban a r e a s , t h e r e were fewer changes : a v e r a g e c o r n consumption s t a y e d a t a round 200 grams p e r d a y , and t h a t o f wheat a t n e a r l y 1 3 0 ; t h a t of r i c e went up from 21 t o 39 grams, and t h a t o f e g g s from 23 t o 53 grams; t h e l e v e l s f o r m e a t , mi lk and f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e s remained a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l . A c o n s i d e r a b l e i n - c r e a s e was r e c o r d e d i n t h e consumption o f i n d u s t r i a l i z e d p r o d u c t s made from r e f i n e d f l c u r and s u g a r ; two f i g u r e s a r e g i v e n i n con- n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l a t t e r : s u g a r i t s e l f , f o r which consumption r o s e from 10 t o 30 grams p e r d a y , and s o f t d r i n k s ( f rom 135 t o 218 grams ) . Viewing t h e f i g u r e s from a n o t h e r s t a n d p o i n t , i t i s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e p o o r e s t 1 0 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n spend someth ing more t h a n 32% o f t h e i r t o t a l o u t g o i n g s on food on c o r n and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s , some 8 % on b l a c k b e a n s , and a b o u t 22% on f o o d s t u f f s o f a n i m a l o r i g i n . T h i s c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e p r o p o r t i o n s i n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e : r a t h e r l e s s t h a n 1 0 % on c o r n and d e r i v a t i v e s ; a mere 3% on b l a c k b e a n s , and more t h a n 37% on an imal p r o d u c t s .

. SAM's t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n h a s a p r e s e n t consumer b a s k e t (PCB) c o m p r i s i n g 38 p r o d u c t s , which a c c o u n t f o r 86% o f t o t a l e x p e n d i - t u r e on food . Corn and b l a c k b e a n s r e p r e s e n t 36% o f such expen- d i t u r e , and i f t o m a t o e s , o n i o n s , f r e s h c h i l i s , d a r k s u g a r , p a s t a f o r soups and pork l a r d a r e added , t h e s h a r e r i s e s t o 61 p e r c e n t .

Fundamenta l ly on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e f i g u r e s , a "Recommended B a s i c B a s k e t " i s d e f i n e d , " t h a t c o v e r s f i v e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s : i ) it r e a c h e s t h e minimum n u t r i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s ; i i) it t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p r o d u c t i o n c o s t o f t h e p r i m a r y goods t h a t a f f e c t t h e f i n a l p r i c e o f t h e f o o d s t u f f s i n c l u d e d ; iii) it t a k e s i n t o con- s i d e r a t i o n t h e p u r c h a s i n g power o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ; i v ) it t a k e s a c c o u n t o f n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l consumer h a b i t s ; v ) it t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e human and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l and f i s h e r i e s s e c t o r s , as w e l l a s o f t h e food i n d u s t r y , t o p roduce t h e s e goods" . The p r i c e o f t h e RBB f o r t h e t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n i s 1 3 p e s o s p e r day p e r p e r s o n , a t J a n u a r y 1980 p r i c e s .

. Given t h a t t h e S t a t e w i l l have t o i n t e r v e n e t o " r a i s e t h e d i s - t r i b u t i v e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m a r k e t i n g c h a n n e l s " i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e RBB f o o d s r e a c h t h e t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n , a s t a r t was made by c l a s s i f y i n g them a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p u r c h a s e r s t h e y s e r v e . Thus, t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n p r e f e r s t h e s m a l l g r o c e r y s h o p , t h e p u b l i c m a r k e t s o r , where s u c h o u t l e t s e x i s t , t h e Diconsa ( D i s t r i b u i d o r a Conasupo) s y s t e m . I n t h e c i t i e s , t h o s e i n t h e lowes t - income b r a c k e t s a l s o have r e c o u r s e t o m a r k e t s on w h e e l s and o t h e r s t r e e t m a r k e t s .

T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i l l e n a b l e t h e S t a t e t o a d o p t s e l e c t i v e sub- s i d y p o l i c i e s t o w a r d s t h e s a l e o f a l l RBB p r o d u c t s by e s t a b - l i s h i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l p r i c e s a c c o r d i n g t o m a r k e t i n g c h a n n e l .

I n 1979 , t h e Mexican F o o d s t u f f s System r e c e i v e d s u b s i d i e s t o t a l - l i n g 65 b i l l i o n p e s o s ( 3 6 b i l l i o n t o p r o d u c t i o n , 1 5 b i l l i o n t o consumpt ion , t h r o u g h Conasupo, and 1 4 b i l l i o n on t h e p r i c e o f

sugar). The estimated total for 1980 is 85 billion pesos. In spite of its enormous size, this figure is below the subsidy on the gasoline price, for example, which this year will amount to 100 billion pesos, if the international price is taken to be 10 pesos per liter. However, the SAM strategists point out that it is not so much the amount as the selective management of the sub- sidy that really matters.

For purposes of comparison and as an "extreme case that is not to be recommended", the SAM project mentions that, if all the RBB products (priced at 13 pesos) were distributed free to the 19 million individuals constituting the priority target group, the subsidy would amount to slightly over 90 billion pesos per year. What is desirable, they add, is to reduce the price to 9 pesos (by 30%) through the use of a 27-billion-peso selective subsidy. If, in addition, the distribution were effected through the Diconsa system, the price of the RBB to the rural population would be reduced by 50 percent.

At the present time, Diconsa serves 6,000 population centers through 4,780 shops, and plans to have opened a total of 10,000 by the end of 1980, which will serve 60% of the rural population. With another 4,000 outlets, it is estimated, all the centers with between 500 and 1,000 inhabitants will be reached. If, in addi- tion, Conasupo could increase its coverage in the short term, it would be possible to put a project into practice directed at attending to and providing a selective subsidy for 19 million Mexicans.

. The State has the necessary means (the broadcasting time it may dispose of in the commercial radio and television systems, the rural television system, urban and rural schools and other factors which exert considerable influence, such as free school textbooks) to carry out a permanent campaign to rectify the poor consumer habits imposed by the food industry, which is largely made up of transnational corporations.

The SAM projects

SAM is made up of 20 sub-projects, selected according to an "integral systems" approach. The project explains that this "enables the food problem to be tackled from production through to consumption". Thus, the sub-projects were grouped according to "their greater incidence on each of the phases or spheres of activity involved in the food-production chain".

The first four (1. "Frame of reference", 2. "Nutritional profile", 3. "Balance of supply and demand for a food basket", and 4. "The international food system") refer to aspects which have been touched on in this note.

Sub-project 5, "Strategic inputs and services", considers actions with regard to water, fertilizers, seeds, machinery and capital goods, insurance and credit. The next ( 6 ) , entitled "Agricul- tural production", identifies the different campesino strata and ecological zones with the aim of achieving the goals of alimen- tary self-sufficiency and improved distribution of income among the major producers.

In number 7 ("The Food Industry") studies are made of both the concentration and the operation of the food industry as a whole, and of the strategies of the transnational corporations. This has the aim of identifying the dominant nucleus of each system and of coming up with guidelines for action on economic policy which would allow for a "gradual reorientation towards basic pro- ducts". Such guidelines refer basically to the SAM proposal of promoting the food industry and boosting the creation of agro- industries that encourage improved forms of campesino orqaniza- tion and thereby enable the State to orient its support, regula- tion and assistance actions towards better-qualified and less numerous agents.

The sub-project entitled "Markets, marketing and distribution" ( 8 ) . starts out from the need to coordinate such activities in a "logistics network" that would guarantee the trading of inputs and foodstuffs. Because of this, what was sought was a ware- housing, transportation and packaging system that would take account not just of the rationalization of each activity, but also of that of the system as a whole.

The ninth sub-project ("Conasupo"), concerns itself with the im- portance of this organization within SAM, as a valuable vehicle for the application of different policy instruments, and suggests that improved integration and greater diversification of its activities would ensure a wider coverage "in addition to its tra- ditional functions".

The sub-project entitled "Policies for consumption, income dis- tribution and welfare minimums" (10), identifies "the essential needs of the population by analyzinq possible modifications in the distribution of income and in the structure of demand".

The next sub-projects (from 11 to 14) deal with the following "systems": i) basic grains, with corn as the backbone, and also including black beans, wheat and rice (here account is taken of the reactivation of non-irrigated land in ensuring the partici- pation of the main RBB deficit consumers); ii) oleaqinous pro- ducts, where attention is paid to the nation's grave difficulties in obtaining supplies and self-sufficiency in the medium term is proposed, as is the introduction of a range of forage crops; iii) protective foods (animal protein), where it is pointed out that, if the future demand for meat, milk and eggs is to be efficiently met, cattle-rearing must be made intensive again,

which would also enable more land to be freed for grain cultiva- tion; iv) fisheries and agriculture, activities to which SAM assigns the utmost importance because of the high nutritional value of fish and because its price per gram of protein is the lowest of any food of animal origin (a substantial increase in the consumption of fish is envisaged on the basis of the fish- eries plan).

Sub-project no. 15 ("'Complementary' systems") includes sugar and fruit and vegetables. In the case of the former, careful evaluation of the economic and nutritional functions of sugar is recommended since it is a highly important calorific complement, because of the high-level of State participation in the sector, and because of its potential for horizontal development. Mean- while, consideration is given to the fundamental importance of fruit and vegetables in the Mexican diet, while it is also pointed out that these are products which can also be exported and which generate more employment than others.

In view of the need to utilize the country's entire productive potential, including non-traditional sources of food, it is imperative to "rescue some low-cost foods with high nutritional value, which have been abandoned because of dietary 'moderniza- tion'". This claim is postulated in the sub-project "Non-tradi- tional foods and the enrichment of basic foods" (16), which analyses "the nutritional and productive potential of some pro- ducts (natural and synthetic) which form part of the popular diet". This is done with the aim of determining the viability of in'corporating them into the nation's alimentary structure.

Sub-project no. 17 ("Supply of foodstuffs to critical zones") geographically locates the priority target population for the SAM program in 782 "critical" municipalities. These were linked with the proposals and execution of the production and supply systems already set up by Coplamar and Conasupo in coordination. Progress in the same direction is being made with the zones attended by Pider (the Investment Program for Rural Development).

In the next sub-project (no. 18, "Food technology") guidelines were established for achieving technological autonomy and the rationalization of costs, as well as for alleviating problems in strategic areas: equipment, genetics, machinery, boilermaking, warehousing, refrigeration, conservation and packaging. The belief is expressed that the country genuinely enjoys the con- ditions to become autoncmous, technologically and in production terms, throughout the food chain.

In the sub-project "Promotion and education for production and consumption" (19), the importance of "gradually and carefully modifying many dietary habits" is urged. To this end, it en- visages a massive campaign directed at the different regions and age-groups characterizing the target population, in order to

form a realistic and suitable "nutritional culture". At the same time, agricultural practices will be disseminated, above all in the countryside, "in accord with the productive postulates of SAM" . The final sub-project is entitled "Institutional, legal and ad- ministrative analysis of the Mexican Foodstuffs System". There it is emphasized that the Alliance for Production becomes reality through the combination of the State and the campesino organiza- tions, and with the incorporation of the shared-risk scheme. Indeed, it is asserted that SAM "foments and vitalizes the ejido in alliance with the State in the face of the food problem. At the same time, efforts are made to ensure respect for authentic smallholdings and to really stand up to the pulverization of the minifundia" .

Other important aspects

The first measures approved to get the SAM project moving give an idea of the policy measures to be implemented. However, it is worthwhile indicating some of the more important general operational guidelines.

In the first place, emphasis is given to the importance for the successful running of the project of the different sectors involved (agriculture, fisheries, commerce and industry) incor- porating the strategic proposals and the operational guidelines of SAM into their own plans, projects and programs. At the same time, increased resources must be allocated to the priority geo- graphical zones and population groups. "For this, it will be necessary for the state investment programs forumulated by the Coprodes (Committees for the Promotion of Socio-economic Develop- ment) to be developed from the non-irrigated zones, and for the programs considered for foodstuffs priority to be identified". These will constitute the "basic element" in sectoral programing.

Meanwhile a proposal is made that resources should be destined to a fund aimed at sorting out problems associated with budgetary action on unspent portions due to administrative difficulties, and to finance specific studies and projects, as well as unpro- qramed but indispensable investments. Such funds would be managed by Banrural "and should be available by May 31 at the latest".

There is a need for "political and institutional support from state and municipal governments". To achieve this, the Federa- tion decided to transfer the programs and resources of Pider to the state governments by incorporating them into the Single Co- ordinating Agreements.

The implementation of state and municipal actions will be based on programs that fix production, distribution and consumption goals. These programs will form the basis of agreements between

"the public, private and social sectors". With the aim of con- trolling them and permanently evaluating them, such agreements will be formulated for each production and consumption cycle, for each seasonal-agriculture district in the countryside and for the priority target population in the cities.

Political and institutional bottlenecks will be resolved with the support and intervention of governors and municipal presidents. Administrative bottlenecks that appear in the non-irrigated areas "could be resolved through a revolving fund assigned to state governments solely for this purpose".

Importance must be given to the "technical and institutional scheme of organization that the seasonal-agriculture areas re- present". Thus what is required is to: speed up the administra- tive decentralization of the SARH, so that the necessary funds destined to develop permanent training of technical cadres are applied in timely fashion. Meanwhile, the non-irrigated areas are defined as "the basic unit for programing, execution and evaluation in the agricultural sector".

The SAN documents also indicate other important points, which would take a great deal of space simply to enumerate. In some cases, the action required has already been defined and in others, fewer in number, the orientation required is already known, though it has not been made public. The project is, in fact, one with characteristics such that it is constantly being enriched as the various projects envisaged progress.

By May 7, a number of policy recommendations had already been structured in the fields of agriculture, stock-breeding, fish- eries and aquaculture, storage and marketing industrial trans- formation, distribution, consumption and publicity.

From another point of view, it is important that the different spheres of action of SAM should not be confused. While it is true that it is concerned with a reality that demands immediate action and will require results by the end of the spring-summer cycle, it is no less true that it incorporates a strategy aimed at modifying, in a permanent and stable manner, the conditions in the agricultural sector and the foodstuffs issue as a whole. This is important because it may happen that the results are not very encouraging in the short term and this may bring discredit on the path proposed by SAM.

In much the same vein, it is desirable that all the issues rela- ted to SAM should be widely broadcast so that a responsible dis- cussion may develop as to the means of improving the project, with policy instruments being questioned and problems and bottlenecks aired.

The foregoing would be congruent with the democratic orientation which it is sought to give to the project, and will additionally enable a much broader social consensus to be generated, which would make it that much easier for the State to carry this "per- haps unique and unrepeatable" opportunity to its ultimate and most desirable conclusions.

SAM; EL SISTEMA ALIMENTICIO MEJICANO

Resmen: E2 model0 de desarroZlo elegido por M6jieo ha~ce 30 a3os se bus6 en La industr ial isaci6n euyos resultados iban a benef ie iar poeo a las masas. k s t e no ha sido e l caso. E l sector de la agricultura t iene d f i c u l t a d e s . Las importaeiones de eereales aumentan pel igrosmente . La desnutricio% afeeta a La mitad de La poblacion, ineZu'Cdos 15 mill iones de ninos.

Fara eambiar e s ta s i t u a c i h e l qobierno lanzo e l 'Sistema ALimenticio Mefi- eano' en 1980, cuyas caracter'Csticas eseneiales son: (i) a n ive l international, Los alimentos son e l poder: Mejieo trata as< de ZZegar a autosuficieneia a l i - menticia; (ii) La concentraci6n de La propiedad y de los ingresos constituyen un obstdoulo importante: e l aumento de la producei6n verdr6 de Los pequeEos eanpesinos que cuZtivan Zas t i e r ras no irrigadas; y i i i i ) la gravedad de la desnutrici6n hace indispensable un nuevo sistema de dis tr ibut ion, de sub- venciones seLectivas y de educaci6n nu t r ia iond .

SAM e s un sistema complejo de actividades que aborda e l problema en todos sus aspectos, desde La produceioh hasta e l consume. Hay 20 sub-proyectos de 20s cuales 20.9 m6s importantes son anaZizados en es t e art'CcuZo.

RE-THINKING FOOD AND NUTRITION EDUCATION

UNDER CHANGING SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Report from an IUNS workshop

I G N O R A N T

BU I L D I NG BLOCKS

WHO I S IGNORANT? R E - T H I N K I N G FOOD AND N U T R I T I O N E D U C A T I O N U N D E R C H A N G I N G S O C I O - E C O N O M I C C O N D I T I CNS

Repor t from an IUNS workshop c /o I n s t i t u t e f o r N u t r i t i o n Research U n i v e r s i t y o f Os lo P.O. Box 1046 Os lo 3, Norway

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract: This i s a report from a workshop held i n Dar Es Salaam i n 1978. I t was organized by the International Union o f Nutrit ional Sciences (IUNS). The aim of the workshop was to take a fresh look a t education about food and nutr i t ion. Hitherto, nu t r i t ion educators have mainly been concerned with practical aspects o f nu t r i t ion education. The workshop emphasized that edu- cators ought t o become more aware of the i r potent ial ly important ro le i n the formation of pol ic ies that can lead to real improvements i n the nu t r i t ion s i tua t ion i n various socie t ies . Ã

Three years la t e r , t h i s t e x t has not l o s t any of i t s relevance. Moreover, the IUNS i s organizing a uorld-wide survey, not l imited to ' s p e c i a l i s t s ' , of current a t t i tudes and approaches to nu t r i t ion education. The questionnaire could be obtained from the address mentioned above.

Q U I EST IGNORANT? REPENSER L'EDUCATION EN M A T I ~ R E DE NOURRITURE

ET DE NUTRITION DANS DES CONDITIONS SOCIO-ECONOMIQUES CHANGEANTES

Resume: ue t e x t e qui s u i t const i tue l e rapport d'un s4minaire organise 2 Dar Es Salaam en 1978 par I'Union internationale des sciences de La nu t r i t ion (UISN)- Lrob jec t i f de la reunion e t a i t de porter un regard neuf sur Z'educa- t i o n en matisre de nou"rriture e t de nu t r i t ion . Jusquf2 present, les h a - teurs en nu t r i t ion se ssont o c c u p ~ s principalernent de quelques aspects pra- t iques . La r tknion a dt4 d 'avis que Zes 4ducatews devraient ^ largiv leurs horizons e t prendre conscience de l e w ro le potent ie l dans la fomulation de pol i t iques qui eonduisent 2 une am6lioration r e e l l e de la s i tua t ion nutr i - t i o n e l l e dans des eontextes socio-cul twels sp4cifiques.

Trois ans aprss Dar Es Salaam, ce t ex te n'a f ien perdu de son actual i t6 . Qui plus eat, Z'UISN organise une enquSte internationale, non l imi tee aux ' sp i - c i a l i s t e s r , sur l e s a t t i tudes e t l e s methodes de l '4ducation pour la nutr i t ion. Le questionnaire pent S tre obtenu en eerivant 2 Z'adresse qui figure ci-dessus.

(Resumen espanol en la pagina l O ( 4 0 ) ) .

WHO IS IGNORANT? R E - T H I N K I N G FOOD AND NUTRITION EDUCATION UNDER

CHANGING SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

I Outline o f t he problem

1. Introduction

In spite of increasing per capita food production, hunger and malnutrition are increasing in both industrialised and Third World countries. According to FAO, the number of hungry and mal- nourished increased from 401 million people in 1970 to 455 mil- lion in 1974 in the Third World countries alone. This has happened in spite of an increase in average per capita food pro- duction of approximately 1% per year in the Third World countries in the first seven years of this decade.

The proposals for a New International Economic Order and the 'Basic Needs Approach' that have been discussed by many nations and international development organizations will remain mere rhe- toric unless the structural factors outlined below are addressed.

In this context there is a need for a re-thinking of the role of the nutrition educator I/ and others working with nutrition problems in research, planning and education.

The traditional methods in nutrition education have mainly been based on the assumptions that the causes of malnutrition were to be found in ignorance or lack of motivation on the part of the individual and the failure of the individual to optimally use existing resources. This is evidently true in many cases and attacking this ignorance will continue to be a primary responsi- bility of the .nutrition educator. However, the traditional as- sumptions prevent nutrition workers from having a clear percep- tion of the basic causes of malnutrition. We must recognize that in the grave situation of most contemporary industrialised and Third World countries there are limits to what traditional edu- cation alone can accomplish.

2. Food, nutrition and society

Traditional nutrition education has concentrated on how food through its nutrients effects people and how people store and prepare their food. But nutrition also depends on access to food and thus must include people as producers. In most contem- porary societies, including those where many go hungry, the po- tential~ for adequate food production actually exist. The equitable distribution of present production, the release of

l/ We have defined nutrition educators as all those who are working actively - in research, education, planning and implementation aimed at removing the causes of malnutrition (including both under- and overnutrition).

potentials and the manner in which the productive resources are controlled are all constrained by the structure of the society.

Societies where people go hungry are often characterized by in- equality in control over food producing resources. The result is both underutilization and the misutilization of these resources. Thus, in highly stratified societies built-in "inefficiences and inequalities" thwart food production and distort its use. The real potential for food production can only be achieved in so- cieties where the people exert democratic control over food pro- ducing resources.

3. The role of the nutrition educator

Acceptance of this approach to understanding the causes of mal- nutrition has strategic implications for nutrition education and for the role of the nutrition educator. If one accepts that malnutrition in the final analysis results from a maldistribution of food and the means for food production, then nutrition educa- tors must come to grips with the need for redistribution of such resources and orient their activities accordingly. We have too long thought of ignorance as our chief enemy and failed to realize that one cannot educate people to use techniques and materials to which they have limited access. Nutrition educators must question why segments of the population are denied access to the means of adequate nutrition and how such means can be secured for them.

From this it follows that nutrition educators like everyone else play a political role in all societies. This role varies between societies and of course depends upon the ideology of the educator.

This in turn demands recognition that the distribution of re- sources and even the food and nutrition practices in a society are not accidental but reflect the conflicting interests and power relations in that society. Nutrition educators may be constrained to work within social frameworks not of their own choosing. But they should understand that the distribution of resources within and between societies is not fixed nor inevi- table. This understanding should underlie the form and content of their activities.

Obviously, the best strategy for nutrition educators must appear + . - - to conform to the social and economic structure in which the educator works. One cannot build on wishful thinking. For a society where the economic policy and programs are consistently directed toward the redistribution of resources to enable every individual to provide him/herself with sufficient nutrients, the nutrition educator will be able to utilize any number of officia as well as "grass-roots" organizations and institutions to pro- vide nutrition information. The major goals of education are no longer those of teaching the skills or tactics for appropriating power to gain access to resources, but rather to teach people

how to best utilize the resources that will increasingly be made available. In this case, more conventional methods of nutrition education such as changing eating habits and health behaviour may prove effective.

In a country with serious intentionsof equalizing access to resources there are commonly a number of popular organizations, run by political parties or specific interest groups, which are used to develop the population through informal education. The nutrition educator should find such popular organizations along with formal educational institutions and mass media to be good resources for the promotion of nutrition information. On the societal level the nutrition educator should be encouraged to influence socio-economic policy, if changes would further promote general well-being.

In a society, on the other hand, whose economic and social poli- cies are either explicitly or implicitly directed towards the maintenance of the status quo - most commonly an economically stratified system - the strategy and role of the nutrition edu- cator is much more complex. In this case there is a danger that the activities of the nutrition educator will be co-opted, so as to provide apparent rather than real attacks upon nutritional problems. This is particularly a problem if the nutrition educa- tor sees his or her platform as one provided by government or essentially official agencies. This is of course not to say that no good can be accomplished by working through such channels, but the nutrition educator should also be alert to opportunities that may exist to cooperate with organizations seeking social changes of broader context than those directly associated with nutrition-such as trade unions, community groups and the like. For example, the nutrition educator is in a better position than most to provide these groups with irrefutable statistics indica- ting the human cost of policies promoting inequality.

In some societies an element of risk may be involved in this work, and in such cases international support and solidarity must be offered to nutrition educators by their professional colleagues.

I 1 Some concrete issues relevant to the practical activities of the nutrition worker, re-considered in the light of the above considerations

1. Analysis

As an initial step the nutrition worker should make a personal analysis of the factors or mechanisms in the society that deter- mine the nutrition situation in the local context, including the possible effects of national and international development policies at this level. Reading and maintaining a dialogue with

people who have identified some of these factors is a necessary prerequisite to this process.

2. Interdisciplinary approaches

The common claim for interdisciplinary approaches to nutrition analysis and practical activities must be made operational. This requires that the nutrition worker comes to an understanding of the fact that the involvement of other scientists and profes- sionals does not constitute a professional threat. Other people's ways of conceptualizing and examining the problems of/and solu- tions to malnutrition must be accepted.

3. se-orientation of concepts and practical programs

The perceptualization of many conventional and imported approaches to nutrition analysis and education is a form of "cultural impe- rialism", as it perpetuates dependency on knowledge generated in universities in the Western countries. While much of the basic nutritional knowledge related to biochemistry, physiology and pathology is universal, nutritional problems related to the societal level are not and can only be studied in the given con- text in which nutrition activities, including education, will be carried out. Nutrition-oriented workers must therefore critical- ly assess part of the knowledge they have acquired through various training programs. Some examples of topics that must be totally re-oriented are:

a) "Foreign" versus "traditional" dietary practices.

Recommendations of dietary practices alien to local contexts have often been imposed on indigenous practices and contributed to the low prestige and status of local foods and beliefs in their in- ferior nutritional value. The most harmful among these have been complementary feeding in very early infancy and the despising of prolonged breastfeeding.

b) The concept of food taboos.

Careful attention should be given to the fact that food taboos too often have been used as an explanation for failure of nutri- tion programs. There is an urgent need to re-think and re- conceptualize traditional ideas and biases held by professionals concerning food taboos of population groups. This form of pro- fessional bias prevents the delivery of comprehensive health services. Studies and educational programs appear to indicate that certain dietary avoidances are more directly rooted in real food scarcity than in mental constructions of individuals and groups. If so, these dietary practices can be overcome by an increased food supply and well designed nutrition education programs.

c) Food science and technology

Nutrition workers should give strong emphasis to the indentifica- tion and improvement of socially appropriate technology in the field of food production, preservation, processing, preparation and consumption. In particular, more attention must be given to the development of useful technologies for work carried out by women who are most commonly responsible for the food production, processing and preparation at the local level. Activities of agrobusiness and transnationals in food and related fields must be carefully analyzed for their impact on local technologies, so that these are not neglected and forgotten despite their appropriateness to a specific environment and socio-cultural conditions.

d) Population.

Population strategies should be so designed as to increase the real options of people. The need for child spacing as a health measure to protect the nutrition of mothers and children should be central to any strategy. Population control activities, including sterilization without valid informed consent of the patient, must be arrested.

e) Food aid.

Emergency relief food aid must be organized in such ways that it does not perpetuate dependency on external food supplies. Long term food aid programs should only be accepted if integrated with projects aimed at increasing food production and alleviating the need for food aid.

f) Nutritional priorities in food and agricultural research.

The usefulness of programs such as those aimed at producing non- traditional crops must be critically examined. Examples could include the 'green revolution' package in Asia and the minigreen revolution in Africa. Genetic breeding programs should first and foremost be advocated for crops natural to the given environment. They must take into account the need to preserve the possibili- ties for multiple rather than single cropping, as well as the necessity of using local manure or fertilizer rather than impor- ted chemicals (e.g. insecticides). Programs said to have spe- cific nutritional objectives may have to be re-examined for the validity of the nutritional arguments. Breeding programs for higher protein or amino acid content of cereals are typical examples.

g) Affluence, nutrition and health.

The relationship between affluence and health must be further examined in the industrialised as well as in the Third World countries. Exclusive emphasis on undernutrition will easily ignore that there are also dietary related diseases resulting from modernization and overconsumption (e.g. heart diseases,

obesity, colon cancer etc.), which seem to affect people in the better-off groups of all societies. At the same time further analysis is needed of the consequences of new demands from these same groups on land use and primary food resources both at inter- national and national levels. The possible price paid in terms of new forms of ill health among the well-off for the satisfac- tion of these demands should be discussed, documented and acted upon. This could be a new selling argument in the efforts to educate and persuade politicians and planners that agricultural and other state policies must become more oriented towards equal distribution and the fulfilment of basic food and health needs for all.

h) Mass media.

Mass media can be useful provided the limitations are recognized and the potential value does not become a dogma. Messages should be based on felt needs by those addressed. Whenever possible, traditional methods of mass communication should be used pro- vided these do not block the development process. In the use of modern mass communication messages should be very specific and designed for clearly defined purposes. If a program is to pro- mote real change, it is important to establish effective struc- tures to encourage follow-up actions, e.g. various promotion groups.

4. -- Research, planning and evaluation

The external orientation of the nutrition workers have often removed them from the context in which they work. There is a strong need for analyzing community set-ups, delienating the factors leading to malnutrition, and from this analysis to work out solutions to the problems. This is not a new suggestion, but the methods to be used have to change considerably if these approaches are to be effective. This implies active participa- tion of the community in the definition of the problem, collec- tion of data, planning, implementation and evaluation of prac- tical programs. Data originating from such action programs can in turn be utilized by central bodies for national overall planning, rather than the other way round.

The exact ways of generating local participation must be worked out within each specific context and no universal recipe can be given. However, with emphasis upon local participation there will no longer be a sharp demarkation line between research, action and education.

It is not possible nor is it necessary to have a full overview of all determinants involved in any food and nutrition program and their relative impact. There must therefore be a continuous evaluation of actions, results and views so as to provide a basis for reinterpretation of results and adjustment of the direction of the programs.

5. Training of nutrition workers

In the light of the above reconsiderations, there is urgent need for re-orienting the training of all nutrition workers. This new orientation must be undertaken to prevent further maintenance of myths regarding the causes of and solutions to malnutrition in the world.

I I I Conclusions and general recommendations 1. Nutrition education must be alert to the nature of the con- straints on various policies generated by international economic systems (e.g. the New International Economic Order) as well as on the proposed "Basic Needs Approach" to development strategy. In particular one needs to be aware of the following aspects rele- vant to food and nutrition:

a) The New International Economic Order, for example, can be implemented at macro level (i.e. between states), yet may have no impact on the nutritional level of the people unless special measures are taken within countries to equally distribute the fruits of a more equal international economic system.

b) A "Basic Needs Approach" which merely seeks to satisfy basic material needs, may still leave some groups without the possibi- lity of determining the course of their own lives. Therefore, participation in the identification of ways and means to satisfy basic needs and participation and planning in the solutions should be included in the list of such needs.

2. Nutrition and nutrition education have too heavily concentra- ted on the side of individual consumption and its physiological effects. Nutrition education must clearly emphasize that mal- nutrition is the result of maldistribution of the means for food production, storage and distribution, and by inequality in con- trol over the access to food. The concept of nutrition must therefore be broadened to include these factors.

3. Socio-economic structure determines the role of the nutrition educator.

a) In situations in which programs and policies are directed towards erasing economic and social inequality the nutrition educator can employ commonly accepted methods while working through formal channels like schools, mass media and political institutions, and informal channels such as special interest and community groups.

b) In situations where the government supports economic in- equality, the nutrition educator must take care that his/her work is not used to deflect attention from what we recognize as

the underlying causes of malnutrition, and may need to utilize less conventional methods to work in support of groups attempting to expose and tackle these causes at their root.

4. In most cases it is not possible to reach a full consensus on what nutrition education should be if there is not a shared view on why malnutrition e.<ists in a society. Nevertheless, a dialogue between holders of different views must be encouraged so that channels of communication remain open.

5. In some societies the work of exposing the root causes of malnutrition may place the job or personal safety of the nutri- tion educator at risk. In those cases support and solidarity must be offered to such workers by their professional colleagues.

ALIMENT0 Y NUTRICION EN CONDICIONES SOCIO-ECONOMICAS CAMBIANTES

Reswnen: Esze ar t i r -u lo e s e l informe de un seminario organizado en Dar e s S a t a m en 1978 por l a Uni6-rt Internaci-onal de Ciencias de l a Nutr-idoh (UICN). El o b j e t i v o de La reunion rue r ev i sar desde un punto de v i s t a mu> moderno l a educaeion en materia de alimento y de nu t r i e ioh i Hasta ahora, Los edueadores e s p e c i a l i s t a s en nu t r i e ioh se han preocupado sobre todo de 20s aspectos PP&-

t i c o s de l a edueacioh nutr io ional . Segun la reunio'n, 20s educadores deberfan e s t u r mas coneientes de l importante papel que t i enen en l a formulac-ioh de p o l i t i c a s que pueden conducir a un verdadero me.joramiento de 'La nutr ' iei6n en eontex tos so&-eul t u f a l e s espec'Cficos.

inres anas despues de l a reunion de Dar e s Salaam, e s t e t e x t o no ha perdido su a c ~ , ~ a l i d a d . Ademas, l a LfICN organiza una invest ' iqacioh international, no l imitada a 20s 'espec 'Lal i s tas f , sobre l a s perspeetivas y 20s mRtodos de l a educwion de La nutr io ion . Se puede obtener e l eues t ionar io escr ib iendo a l a dir~eecio'n men-ionada en l a pa@na 2.

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

BREAST I S BEST THE WORLD HEALTH O R G A N I Z A T I O N S INTERNATIONAL CODE OF M A R K E T I N G

OF B R E A S T M I L K S U B S T I T U T E S

IBFAN IBFAN NEWS P.0, Box 157 c/o I N F A C ~ , 1701 University Ave. S E 121 1 Geneva 19, Switzerland Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA

-: English

Abstract: On 21 May 1981, the World Health AssembLy voted o v e m h e t m i n ~ (118 t o 1 ) t o adopt an International Code of Marketing of BreastmzIk subst i - t u t e s . Thus the uorld's highest health au thor i t i e shave e x p l i c i t e l y recog- nised tha t breast feeding and in fan t health must be protected from the agressive marketing campaign of transnational corporations producing artij ' i- e i a l baby milk.

This vote i s the r e s u l t o f a mufti-year campaign organized by concerned c k i - sens andespecially the International Baby Food Action Netvork (IBFAK). The following paper was uri-tten for the IFDA Dossier by Andy Chetley, of War on Want, uhich i n i t i a t e d -ir. the early 70s the campaign against baby k i l l e r s .

M I E U X VAUT L E S E I N MATERNEL

L E CODE I N T E R N A T I O N A L D E C O M M E R C I A L I S A T I O N D E S S U B S T I T U T S D U

L A I T MATERNEL

Le 21 mai dernier, LIAssemblee mondiale de La santb a adopt4 par un vote massif (118 voix eontre 1) Ie Code international de commercialisation des sub- s t i t u t s du l a i t maternel. Ainsi l e s plus hautes autor-ites du monde en matisre de sant i ont clairement reconnu que l 'alimentation U L ~ se in e t la sant6 des nouveaux n i s devaient Stye proteges des cccmpagrzes agressi-ves des soci6t6s transnationales produisant des subs t i tu t e du l a i t naternel.

Ce vote e s t l e f r u i t d'une cmpagnc de plusieurs annees par des c i toyens justement alarmis, e t partieuli2rement du Reseau d 'act ion international pour l 'alimentation des bbbiZs. L 'ar t ic le qui s u i t U b tb e a r i t po-n~ Le Dossier FIPAD par Andy Chetley, de I'organisation anglaise War on Want, qui a entre- pr is la campagne au debut des ann6es 1970.

(Resumen espanol en la pagina 1 4 ( 5 L )

Andy C h e t l e y -"-l

BREAST IS BEST

I n an h i s t o r i c d e c i s i o n , t h e 3 4 t h World H e a l t h Assembly ( W H A ) , t h e g o v e r n i n g body o f t h 2 World H e a l t h O r g a n i s a t i o n ( W H O ) , overwhelm- i n g l y approved i n Ma{ t h e a d o p t i o n o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l code of m a r k e t i n g t o h e l p c o n t r o l t h e p romot ion o f a r t i f i c i a l f e e d i n g p r o d u c t s f o r i n f a n t s .

The d e c i s i o n was t a k e n a g a i n s t a background o f c o n t r o v e r s y and i n t r i g u e t h a t h a s s u r r o u n d e d t h e whole i s s u e of b o t t l e f e e d i n g f o r more t h a n a decade . I t h a s exposed t h e l e n g t h s t o which t r a n s - n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s w i l l go t o p r o t e c t t h e i r m a r k e t s , t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e governments , and h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e con- s i d e r a b l e p u b l i c p r e s s u r e which non-governmental o r g a n i s a t i o n s (NGOs) can g e n e r a t e .

F o l l o w i n g i n t e n s i v e l o b b y i n g e f f o r t s by t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y t h r o u g h a campaign of m i s i n f o r m a t i o n , o n l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s v o t e d a g a i n s t t h e code and p u t c o n c e r n s f o r i n d u s t r i a l p r o f i t s ahead o f i n f a n t h e a l t h . Three o t h e r n a t i o n s - A r g e n t i n a , Japan and t h e R e p u b l i c o f Korea - abS-tained. A s t h e r o l l was c a l l e d o f t h e 157 WHO member s t a t e s , t h e " y e s " v o t e s r a n g o u t u n m i s t a k a b l y c l e a r , w i t h t h e o t h e r 118 n a t i o n s p r e s e n t r e c o r d i n g t h e i r condemnation of t h e a g g r e s s i v e and u n j u s t i f i a b l e p romot ion o f a r t i f i c i a l f e e d i n g .

D r . A l i A l - S a i f , d e p u t y head o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f P r e v e n t i v e Med- i c i n e a t t h e Kuwait M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h announced t o t h e Assembly a s t h e f i n a l v o t e was b e i n g t a l l i e d :

"This code is a landmark in the history of health, in particular the health of children, particularly for the developing countries. Today, we believe that this is our minimum duty in adopting this code, in view of the needs of protection of health for children. We therefore wonder why certain countries, particularly in the case of the major powers, why certain countries are adop- ting a position against this international code, in order to hamper our work. We think this is a deplorable and regrettable situation which will be recorded in the annals of history."

The b a s i c f a c t s

No-one, n o t even t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y , d o u b t s t h a t b r e a s t m i l k i s t h e most n a t u r a l and i d e a l food f o r i n f a n t s . The s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e a l s o e x i s t s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e h e a l t h h a z a r d s t h a t r e - s u l t f rom t h e i n a p p r o p r i a t e u s e o f a r t i f i c i a l m i l k s t o f e e d i n - f a n t s . The i s s u e t h a t h a s been i n d i s p u t e f o r more t h a n 1 0 y e a r s h a s been t h e r o l e o f t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y i n c r e a t i n g an un- n e c e s s a r y demand f o r i t s p r o d u c t s .

l/ Andy Chetley, War on Want, 467 Caledonian Road, London N7 9BE, England. - In this connexion, see also: War on Want, The Baby Killer (London: 1975); Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, Development Dialogue (1980:l) pp. 102-125; IFDA Dossier 15 (January/February 1980).

D r . M. Karpeh, t h e Deputy Min i s t e r of Heal th i n L i b e r i a , t o l d d e l e g a t e s a t t h e 1981 WHA:

"In r e c e n t t imes we have been observ ing a marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f c a s e s of d i a r r h o e a among i n f a n t s due t o i n c r e a s e d a r t i f i c i a l f e e d i n g of b a b i e s a s a r e s u l t of brain-washing t h e p o p u l a t i o n through c o n s t a n t adver t i sement by t h e p roducers ." He was echoing t h e concern which has l e d t o t h e development of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l code of market ing . I n 1979, i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a meeting t o d i s c u s s i n f a n t and young c h i l d f eed ing , WHO and UNICEF p repa red a background paper which s e t o u t t h e v a r i o u s arguments on t h e i s s u e . The paper commented:

"While t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y has met c e r t a i n needs , i t h a s a l s o d i f f u s e d new and o f t e n i n a p p r o p r i a t e i d e a s on i n f a n t f e e d i n g and has c r e a t e d an un- n e c e s s a r y demand, wi th w e l l known h e a l t h h a z a r d s . The a d v e r t i s i n g and pro- motion of b r e a s t m i l k s u b s t i t u t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h e a l t h f a c i l i t i e s , h a s con- t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e c l i n e i n b r e a s t f e e d i n g . Promotion of b r e a s t m i l k s u b s t i t u t e s by commercial concerns h a s been more e x t e n s i v e and p e r v a s i v e than t h e p r o v i s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n concern ing t h e advan tages of b r e a s t m i l k and b r e a s t f e e d i n g . "

The i n d u s t r y has sought t o minimise t h e importance of i t s promo- t i o n a l e f f o r t s , c l a iming i n s t e a d t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e d use of a r t i - f i c i a l mi lks i s due t o changing socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s , cu l - t u r a l changes, and changes i n t h e r o l e o f women i n s o c i e t y . The i n d u s t r y h a s c la imed t h e r e a r e no s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s which show a cause and e f f e c t l i n k between promotion o f a r t i f i c i a l mi lks and a d e c l i n e i n b r e a s t feeding . However, a s tudy r e l e a s e d by d o c t o r s a t McGill U n i v e r s i t y i n Canada du r ing May 1981 concluded t h a t "women who r e c e i v e i n f a n t formula samples (upon d i scha rge from h o s p i t a l ) w e r e more l i k e l y t o t e r m i n a t e b r e a s t f eed ing e a r l y . "

D r . John Bryan t , t h e Deputy A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Heal th i n t h e US, s a i d of t h e s tudy :

"The Canadian s t u d y i n which t h e p r o v i s i o n of samples t o b r e a s t f e e d i n g mothers r e s u l t e d i n a s h o r t e r d u r a t i o n of b r e a s t f e e d i n g , would appear , a t l e a s t i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t o c o n t r a d i c t i n d u s t r y ' s p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e no s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s t h a t show a cause and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between marke t ing p r a c t i c e s and d e c l i n e s i n b r e a s t f eed ing ."

Obvious ly , t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y a r e n o t t h e s o l e cause f o r t h e widespread changes i n i n f a n t f eed ing p r a c t i c e s which have occu r red throughout t h e wor ld . However, t h e i n d u s t r y has e x p l o i t e d t h e o t h e r f a c t o r s through i t s a d v e r t i s i n g and mar- k e t i n g t e c h n i q u e s ; p l a y i n g on t h e i d e a s t h a t it i s "modern" t o b o t t l e f e e d , t h a t s c i e n c e and technology have been a b l e t o coun te r - f e i t b r e a s t mi lk , t h a t it is more "convenient" t o b o t t l e f e e d , and t h a t it o f f e r s women t h e "freedom of cho ice" ove r i n f a n t f eed ing p r a c t i c e s .

The i n d u s t r y h a s sought t o of fer t e c h n o l o g i c a l " s o l u t i o n s " t o i n f a n t f e e d i n g problems and t h e wider problem of adequate n u t r i - t i o n . Its " s o l u t i o n s " have on ly looked a t t h e symptoms, n o t t h e causes . Fo r example, an i n d u s t r y argument i s t h a t mothers who a r e undernour ished shou ld use a r t i f i c i a l mi lk s t o f eed t h e i r

bab ie s . The argument i gno res t h e cause of t h e undernourishment - o f t e n t h e pove r ty c o n d i t i o n s i n which t h e f ami ly l i v e s - and o f f e r s a " s o l u t i o n " which w i l l on ly exace rba t e t h a t pove r ty . Also igno red i s t h e f a c t t h a t many s t u d i e s have shown t h a t under- nou r i shed mothers a r e a b l e t o p rov ide adequate milk f o r t h e i r i n f a n t s .

Rather t han i n c r e a s e economic dependence, t h e more p r o g r e s s i v e f o r c e s i n t h e i n f a n t f eed ing deba te have sought a r e - eva lua t ion o f t h e problem wi th more human s o l u t i o n s . These vlould i nvo lve t h e development o f s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s which suppor t ed women, ensu red t h e i r a c c e s s t o adequate n u t r i t i o n and provided t h e b a s i s s o t h a t t hey could s u c c e s s f u l l y b r e a s t f eed wi thou t t h e i r own h e a l t h s u f f e r i n g .

The measures envisaged inc luded a c a r e f u l review of h e a l t h c a r e d e l i v e r y p r a c t i c e s , i n t r o d u c t i o n of b e t t e r m a t e r n i t y l e g i s l a t i o n f o r working mothers , i n c l u s i o n of i n fo rma t ion about a p p r o p r i a t e i n f a n t f eed ing i n e d u c a t i o n a l cou r se s f o r s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l , t o g e t h e r w i th a r e v i s i o n of t r a i n i n g cou r se s f o r h e a l t h workers , an improvement i n t h e h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s of women, much more suppor t f o r women i n s o c i e t y and a b e t t e r unde r s t and ing of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s which mothers f a c e when t h e y b r e a s t f eed .

I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e development of a code o f market ing was p l aced . I t was seen a s an e lement o f primary h e a l t h c a r e - t h e removal of one of t h e p o t e n t i a l causes of ill h e a l t h coupled wi th t h e encouragement and i n t r o d u c t i o n of measures t o e n s u r e b e t t e r h e a l t h .

The r o l e of NGOs

Without t h e s t r e n o u s e f f o r t s of NGOs ove r t h e p a s t seven y e a r s i n b r i n g i n g t h i s whole i s s u e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c , t h e r e i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t i t would s t i l l be l a n g u i s h i n g a s a deba t e recorded i n a few s e l e c t h e a l t h j o u r n a l s . I n s t e a d , it has gene- r a t e d h e a d l i n e s and e d i t o r i a l s i n eve ry major newspaper and maga- z i n e i n t h e wor ld .

Beginning i n 1974 wi th t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of a major expos6 of t h e market ing t a c t i c s of t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y by a B r i t i s h devel - opment agency, War on Want, t h e i s s u e has been t aken up by groups throughout t h e world.

Church o r g a n i s a t i o n s , t r a d e unions , women's groups , consumer o r g a n i s a t i o n s , academics, h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s and m i l l i o n s of people have jo ined i n p r o t e s t ove r what h a s been termed " t h e baby k i l l e r s canda l " .

Th i s p u b l i c s c r u t i n y and t h e broad-based s u p p o r t f o r t h e campaign h a s made it imposs ib l e f o r t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y t o success- f u l l y adopt t h e t a c t i c s t r a n s n a t i o n a l s normally use t o d e f l e c t c r i t i c i s m . The u s u a l c l a ims t h a t r e p o r t s of m a l p r a c t i c e s were " i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n t s " , t h a t i t s opponents were i d e o l o g i c a l l y mo t iva t ed , o r t h a t s c i e n t i f i c ev idence was l a c k i n g t o j u s t i f y t h e c r i t i c i s m a l l f e l l on s tony ground a s t h e media and t h e

g e n e r a l p u b l i c came t o d i s t r u s t more and more t h e g l o s s y p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s e f f o r t s t h e i n d u s t r y made.

The wea l th and power of t r a n s n a t i o n a l s i s most e f f e c t i v e l y used "behind c lo sed door s " , i n p r i v a t e d i s c u s s i o n s w i th government l e a d e r s t o ensu re mutual unde r s t and ing . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e behind t h e s cenes manipula t ion has been exposed by t h e N G O s , and t h e b a t t l e has been fought i n p u b l i c a r e n a s , wi th p u b l i c d i s c l o s u r e of i n fo rma t ion .

Two c o u r t c a s e s i n t h e mid 70s , one brought by Nes t l e a g a i n s t a sma l l Swiss a c t i o n group, t h e o t h e r brought a g a i n s t B r i s t o l Myers by a r e l i g i o u s o r d e r i n t h e US, began t h e d i s c l o s u r e p r o c e s s . N e s t l e was judged t o be g u i l t y of u n e t h i c a l market ing p r a c t i c e s and B r i s t o l Myers admi t t ed t o f a l s i f y i n g r e p o r t s o f i t s p r a c t i c e s . By a s s o c i a t i o n , t h e r e s t of t h e i n d u s t r y became q u i c k l y d i s c r e - d i t e d .

The l a c k of r e s p e c t which t h e i n d u s t r y has managed t o g e n e r a t e i s a b l y demonst ra ted i n some lobbying t a c t i c s it used d u r i n g t h e May 1981 WHA.

- The 14-company I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l of I n f a n t Food I n d u s t r i e s ( I C I F I ) , whose members c o n t r o l an e s t i m a t e d 85% of t h e market i n Th i rd World c o u n t r i e s , c i r c u l a t e d a l e t t e r t o WHA d e l e g a t e s c r i t i c i s i n g t h e marke t ing code. The l e t t e r was accompanied by t h e ICIFI C h a r t e r which quoted on i t s cover a s t a t e m e n t from t h e Department of H e a l t h and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y i n t h e United Kingdom. The s t a t e m e n t impl ied UK Government s u p p o r t f o r t h e i n d u s t r y ' s p o s i t i o n . I t prompted t h e UK Government t o c i r c u l a t e a l e t t e r t o a l l d e l e - g a t e s a t t h e WHA s t a t i n g : " t h i s r e p r o d u c t i o n h a s been done w i t h o u t any autho- r i s a t i o n o r agreement by o r on b e h a l f of t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a t o r y o r of t h e United Kingdom Government."

- S e v e r a l documents c i r c u l a t e d t o d e l e g a t e s by an o r g a n i s a t i o n c a l l i n g i t s e l f "Voices of t h e World 's Chi ld ren" claimed t h a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P a e d i a t r i c s A s s o c i a t i o n was opposed t o t h e code of marke t ing . Two members of t h e Associa- t i o n ' s e x e c u t i v e were p r e s e n t a s d e l e g a t e s t o t h e Assembly and p u b l i c l y r e - p u d i a t e d t h i s c l a i m . Voices of t h e World 's C h i l d r e n was s u b s e q u e n t l y found t o have been formed o n l y a few days b e f o r e t h e d e b a t e on t h e code took p l a c e and t h e on ly s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n about i t s a c t i v i t i e s came from t h e ICIFI P r e s s O f f i c e .

- A c a b l e from t h e US Ambassador i n Geneva t o t h e US S t a t e Department r e p o r t e d on a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h an ICIFI r e p r e s e n t a t i v e who o u t l i n e d t h e s t r a t e g y developed by ICIFI "hawks" t o " thoroughly d i s c r e d i t " t h e WHO by pushing t h e US t o v o t e "no" on t h e code, t h u s provoking " c o n f r o n t a t i o n a t t h e upcoming World H e a l t h Assembly." The c a b l e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e ICIFI "hawks" c la imed t h a t A u s t r a l i a , Canada and t h e F e d e r a l Republ ic of Germany were p repared t o t a k e WHO t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court of J u s t i c e i f t h e code passed a s a regu- l a t i o n . T h i s prompted Canada's Chief De lega te t o s t a t e : "I wish t o make i t c l e a r t h a t t h e Government of Canada i s n o t con templa t ing such an a c t i o n , now o r i n t h e f u t u r e . "

Caught i n such a t a n g l e of Fa l se s t a t e m e n t s , and viewed a g a i n s t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f s e v e r a l y e a r s of s i m i l a r manoeuvers, t h e

i n d u s t r y has l o s t a major b a t t l e i n i t s e f f o r t s t o avoid c o n t r o l o f i t s a c t i v i t i e s .

The development of a code

The p o s s i b i l i t y of a code f i r s t emerged du r ing t h e October 1979 WHO/UNICEF meeting on i n f a n t and young c h i l d f eed ing , a l though f o r many y e a r s p rev ious t o t h a t both UN agencies were c a l l i n g f o r some form o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on commercial promotion of a r t i f i c i a l mi lks .

The Sta tement and Recommendations of t h e October 1979 meeting touched upon t h e s k e l e t o n of a code. They c a l l e d f o r an end t o promotional a d v e r t i s i n q , an end t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of f r e e sam- p l e s of t h e p roduc t s t o mothers , an end t o t h e use of h e a l t h s e r v i c e f a c i l i t i e s a s promotional channe l s , and p laced t h e r e s - p o n s i b i l i t y f o r informat ion and educa t ion on a p p r o p r i a t e i n f a n t f eed ing c l e a r l y i n t h e hands of governments, n o t i n d u s t r y . Also inc luded was t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t an i n t e r n a t i o n a l code o f mar- k e t i n g was needed, and a r e q u e s t was made t o WHO and UNICEF t o under take t h e d r a f t i n g of such a code.

The p r o s p e c t of a code was an unprecedented i n t e r n a t i o n a l orga- n i s i n g t o o l f o r N G O s . I t provided a focus , r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c i n p u t s , and imposed a t i m e frame f o r a c t i o n . I t a l s o demonstra- t e d t h e need f o r coord ina ted i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y on t h e i s s u e The t r a n s n a t i o n a l co rpora t ions worked a c r o s s boundar ies and a c r o s s c u l t u r e s and i f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was t o be chal lenged s u c c e s s f u l l y , t h e N G O s would have t o adopt an i n t e r n a t i o n a l ap- proach.

To f a c i l i t a t e t h i s , t h e N G O s t h a t were r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e October 1979 meeting s e t up a loose c o a l i t i o n , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Baby Food Act ion Network (IBFAN). Compared t o ICIFI , t h e NGOs ne t - work was a t i n y baby. I t had no budget , no s t a f f , no o f f i c e f a c i l i t i e s and no immediate p rospec t f o r any of t h e s e t h i n g s . What it d i d have, however, was a commitment t o t h e i s s u e and an a b i l i t y t o use a wide range o f r e sources and s t r u c t u r e s t o con- s i s t e n t l y t u r n t h e power of t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l s back upon them- s e l v e s . What evolved was a form of i n t e r n a t i o n a l j u j i t s u .

I n t h e 19 months it took t o move t h e code from an i d e a t o a docu- ment t h a t r ece ived t h e overwhelming approval of t h e w o r l d ' s h i g h e s t h e a l t h a u t h o r i t y , t h e r e was a c o n s t a n t b a t t l e t o keep t h e code s t r o n g and s p e c i f i c . Throughout t h i s p e r i o d , t h e i n d u s t r y ' s primary o b j e c t i v e was t o evolve a weak, vague and gene ra l code t h a t , r a t h e r t h a n banning any p r a c t i c e s , would on ly s e r v e t o l e g i t i m i s e them, p rov id ing t h e y were c a r r i e d o u t i n an approved manner.

During 1980 t h e r e were s e v e r a l c o n s u l t a t i o n s on d r a f t s o f t h e code ar ranged by WHO and UNICEF. A t every oppor tun i ty t h e indus- t r y p re sen ted o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e code. Indeed from October 1979 t o May 1981, t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y r e fused t o accep t e i t h e r t h e need f o r , o r t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s d r a f t s of t h e

i n t e r n a t i o n a l code. The i r own words speak of t h e contempt of both t h e p rocess and t h e con ten t of t h e code:

* October 1979, f o l l o w i n g t h e WHO/UNICEF meeting: "We do n o t f e e l r e s t r i c t e d i n any way i n t h e f i e l d of c o m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y by t h e WHO r e c o m e n d a t i o n s . " - Arthur F u r e r , Managing D i r e c t o r of Nes t lg .

* January 1980: "Our company could n o t l i v e wi th t h e t i g h t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e WHO/UNICEF r e c o m e n d a t i o n s . " - David Cox, P r e s i d e n t of Ross Labo- r a t o r i e s .

* March 1980: "The (proposed WHO/UNICEF) code i s wholly i r r e s p o n s i b l e . ' ' - Barry R i c k e t t s of Cow & G a t e , on beha l f of ICIFI .

* January 1981: "The world i n d u s t r y has found t h i s p r e s e n t d r a f t code un- a c c e p t a b l e . " - E r n e s t Saunders , v i c e p r e s i d e n t of Nes t lg and p r e s i d e n t of ICIFI . * March 1981: "The proposed code i s p u n i t i v e i n tone , a n t i - c o m p e t i t i v e i n e f f e c t and a r b i t r a r y i n concep t ion . As a r e s u l t , none of t h e American com- p a n i e s can endorse t h e code." - US companies p o s i t i o n paper .

* A p r i l 1981: "Abbot L a b o r a t o r i e s and t h e o t h e r major United S t a t e s i n f a n t formula manufac tu re r s a r e opposed t o t h i s code and a r e u r g i n g t h e United S t a t e s government t o oppose i t . " - Abbot/Ross L a b o r a t o r i e s i n a l e t t e r t o US S e n a t o r s .

* 4 May 1981: "We oppose t h e u n i v e r s a l code and some b e l i e v e i t i s a s i g n t h a t t h e LJN system i s moving t o c o n t r o l m u l t i n a t i o n a l s . " - S t a n i s l a s F lache , s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l of I C I F I .

* 5 May 1981: "Like t h e r e s t of t h e food i n d u s t r y , we oppose t h e code i n i t s p r e s e n t form a s b e i n g t o o r e s t r i c t i v e and unworkable." - a s e n i o r Nest16 o f f i c i a l .

* 7 May 1981: "The medical premise under ly ing t h e code i s fundamenta l ly f a u l t y . The WHO'S proposed code c o n t a i n s many unwarranted r e s t r i c t i o n s and p r o h i b i t i o n s t h a t a r e u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and r e p r e s e n t s a dangerous p r e c e d e n t We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e United S t a t e s shou ld v o t e no on t h e proposed code." - B r i s t o l Myers company.

* 12 May 1981: "We have concluded t h a t t h e code a t t e m p t s t o impose i n f l e x i b l e and very o f t e n unworkable and some unwarranted r e s t r a i n t s on t h e marke t ing of p r o d u c t s whose wor th has now been proven f o r 65 y e a r s . We have t r i e d des- p e r a t e l y t o c u r e t h i s document, b u t we have f a i l e d , l amentab ly , we have f a i l e d . " - Steven Bauer , v i c e p r e s i d e n t of American Home ProductsIWyeth, a t an ICIFI p r e s s b r i e f i n g i n Geneva.

I t i s n o t w i th lament , bu t w i th r e l i e f t h a t one should view t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e i n f a n t food i n d u s t r y t o "cure" t h e code. That f a i l u r e r e p r e s e n t s a p o s i t i v e s t e p towards b e t t e r i n f a n t h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n throughout t h e world.

One of t h e arguments which t h e i n d u s t r y has used a g a i n s t t h e code i s t h a t WHO has no a u t h o r i t y t o d r a f t such a document, and t h a t r e a l l y what WHO and UNICEF were doing was a t t empt ing t o f o r c e t h e i r w i l l on sovere ign governments, i n t e r f e r e wi th n a t i o n a l r i g h t s and d i c t a t e one u n i v e r s a l law a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l n a t i o n s .

This argument helped to cloud the whole issue and brought about confusion over who had asked for the code in the first place. As virtually every discussion of the code has shown! it is the member states of WHO themselves who have welcomed the code. At the 1980 World Health Asse&ly which unanimously adopted the Statement and Recommendations of the October 1979 meeting and urged continued work on the code, the delegation from Burma said it "regretted that WHO had not taken action 25 years earlier". The Indian dele- gation urged resistance to "subtle pressures by transnational and even national food industries, which had already done enough harm to generations of children! particularly in developing countries". Following a consultation with government representatives on the code in September 1980, Lesotho immediately drafted a national code based on the WHO/UNICEE' model.

The member states were not worried about national sovereignty being put at risk by the development of the code. The process was providing an opportunity for governments to develop one stan- dard for the protection of infant health! in a forum where the power of transnationals could be effectively countered. It was a process which helped support the sovereignty of nations and pro- vided an avenue to move a little way from under the shadow of the transnationals.

The next phase

Throughout the entire process of the code's developmentf it was clear that the infant food industry was representinq no one. All its positionsf all its statements were ones of self-interest, designed to protect sales and profits. It now stands isolated, supported only by the United States government.

However! the industry is still attempting to keep up a charade. In a press statement released following the adoption of the code ICIF'I said:

"ICIFI will continue to cooperate with governments in their efforts to improve infant nutrition".

The form that "cooperation" will take has already been made clear. The industry intends to work bilaterally with governments in as many countries as possible to introduce watered down codes. In- deedf in the past two years such efforts have already taken place in Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa! Kenya, Nigeria, the Philip- pines and Peru.

In India, only last year, the industry forwarded wording for a code to a government sub-committee considering a national code by using the then president of the Indian Academy of Paediatrics. Prior to this movef Nestle offered the Academy approximately US$7fOO0 to give an oration on social paediatrics. When members of a consumer's group heard of the two developmentsf protest was made and the government committee's attention was drawn to the much stronger WHO/UNICEF code, which is now being used as model

from which India may legislate. The Indian Academy of Paedia- trics subsequently voted to turn down the financial offer from Nestle.

Through tactics like this, the industry hopes to be able to "steal" the code in much the same way as it has stolen the bene- fits of breast feeding - the closeness, the tenderness, the love - and applied them to the idea of bottle feeding in its adver- tising. By usurping the WHO/UNICEF code and replacing it with a pale imitation it hopes to be able to continue using the marketing techniques that will guarantee sales.

The potential market for artificial infant feeding products, par- ticularly in Third World countries, is enormous. But it is not an automatic market. It needs cultivation and the creation of demand. This demand has been generated in the past partly by the blatant mass media advertising which, in addition to announcing the availability of the products, helped to create a social accep- tance of bottle feeding as a legitimate and safe alternative to breast feeding.

At the same time, the health care system has been heavily infil- trated by the industry. Doctors, nurses, midwives have been bom- barded with "information" about bottle feeding. Until recently, most training courses said little or nothing about breast feeding, other than that it was a good thing to do. But the glossy bro- chures produced by the industry, the free samplesl the charming posters, the invitations to dinners, the grants for research, the conference expenses and travel expenses paid for by the industry and a host of other gifts and services over the years have helped to soften up the acceptability of bottle feeding to the medical profession.

Very fewl if any, paediatricians would ever say that bottle feed- ing was better than breast feeding. But very few have the prac- cal experiencel training or information on how to encourage and support breast feeding.

The international efforts now being undertaken to change that situation, the new literature being produced on the merits of breast milk coupled with restrictions on the production of "edu- cational" materials by the industryl could help to stem the flow of artificial milk products for infants. The markets will never totally disappear, but they may become static or have only mini- mal growth.

With the current market growth estimated at around 15% annually, such a prospect can only be viewed with despair by industry exe- cutives whose training has taught ?hem that standing still is unrewarding.

Will the code achieve its purpose?

The stated aim of the code is "to contribute to the provision of safe and adequate nutrition for infants, by the protection and promotion of breast feeding, and by ensuring the proper use of breast milk substitutes, when these are necessary, on the basis of adequate information and through appropriate marketing and distribution".

This is a rather convoluted way of saying that the aim of the code should be to control the inappropriate marketing and distribution of artificial infant feeding products as part of the efforts to protect and promote breast feeding and to provide safe and ade- quate nutrition for infants.

The latter expression is a more realistic aim. The code, by it- self, would be relatively ineffective in providing safe and ade- quate nutrition or protection and promotion of breast feeding. By itself, howeverl it could be effective in ccntrolling inappro- priate marketing practices. The control of such practices would then be of benefit to other efforts.

In all likelihood, as the code is translated into national regu- lations or legislation, it will be necessary to look at it from that perspective. At the moment, the code is directed towards governments. It is, as it were, a model for governments to use. When it becomes either national legislation or regulations it needs to be focussed more directly at manufacturers and distri- butors.

Strengths and weaknesses

The code is very clear and very strong about the need to pro- hibit direct advertising or promotion to the public. There are short, crisp and unambiguous statements that ban mass media ad- vertisingl billboards, point of sale material, product samples or contact with mothers by company sales personnel.

Somewhat less clear are the provisions that deal with promotion to health workers or through health care facilities. Althcughthe code states that "no facility of a health care system should be used for the purpose of promoting infant formula or other pro- ducts within the scope of (the) code," it does allow for the dissemination of "informational and educational" materials by the industry - materials which could be handed on to mothers by health care workers.

Although there are some "safeguards" about what such "informa- tional and educational" materials should and should not contain, it is an area where considerable interpretation is possible. For example, the provision that "such materials should not use any pictures or text which may idealise the use of breast milk sub- stitutes" is one which could generate endless arguments.

The industry has already demonstrated its ability to use the right words to say the wrong thing. Most of the "breast milk is best" messages are quickly followed with a "however, when you don't have sufficient milk, use our product". The qualification transforms the positive message into an ineffective statement. What is remembered is the inevitability of insufficient milk.

Similarly, many of the so-called "educational" brochures put out by the industry also make clever use of photographs and graphics which counter whatever the text says. The industry is unlikely to produce educational materials out of the kindness of its heart - it wants to sell something in all of those materials - the idea of bottle feeding, if not the products themselves.

The industry will fight for every inch it can on this issue. One of the factors which will help the industry in this is the sheer cost of producing vast quantities of materials that are attractive, appealing and effective. The industry has the resources; most governments do not.

One company, for example, offered to help pay the printing costs of WHO'S booklet on breast feeding, if three paragraphs were removed from the text. The paragraphs advised health workers to ensure that no type of advertising for artificial infant milk products occur in health carefacilities and that mothers should always be advised that breast milk is ideal and superior to any commercial product that is available. WHO refused the offer. But it demonstrates the lengths to which the industry will go to prevent the dissemination of "correct and full information" on appropriate infant feeding.

Disentangling the infant food industry from its place of pro- minence within the health care systems of the world will be another difficult task and one that will be met with strong re- sistance. The industry, while conceding some points on promotion to the public, will not willingly give up its "assistance" to health workers. It wants to continue to offer research grants, conference expenses, subsidies and services.

The code points out that such assistance should not be tied to a promotional effort, and if a grant is given to an individual, disclosure of the grant should be made to the institution where the individual is employed. Again, the possibility of determining whether or not such assistance is promotional is very slim.

Implementation and monitoring

The code is not perfect. According to Dr. K. Ridings of Western Samoa, another WHO Executive Board member:

'The code i s f a r t o o l o o s e from t h e p o i n t of view of a deve lop ing count ry . In f a c t , i t ' s g o t s o many h o l e s i n i t t h a t r e a l l y a n unscrupu lous manufac tu re r cou ld d r i v e a herd of m i l k cows through it".

The factors which will determine how many herds of cows get driven through the holes in the code are its implementation and moni- toring. The struggle to get a code written and adopted interna- tionally has been a long one, but it represents only the first step in an even longer process. Now the focus for the campaign has shifted from one forum to 157 - each of the WHO member states.

Governments are asked both in the code and in the enabling reso- lution which was adopted with the code to: "take action to give effect to the principles and aim of this code, as appropriate to their social and legislative framework, including the adoption of national legislation, regulations or other suitable measures".

Monitoring the code is the responsibility of governments, both individually and collectively through WHO. NGOs, professional groups, consumer organisations, institutions and individuals are requested to assist in this monitoring.

The industry is singled out for special responsibility:

"Independently of any other measures taken for implementation of this code, manufacturers and distributors of products within the scope of this code should regard themselves responsible for monitoring their marketing practices accord- ing to the principles and aim of this code, and for taking steps to ensure that their conduct at every level conforms to them".

This is a bit like asking arms dealers to negotiate world dis- armament. Since ICIFI was established in 1975, when it published its own weak "code of ethics" which it promised to abide by, the industry has not published any examples of inappropriate market- ing. Yet from January 1980 to April 1981, IBFAN was able to docu- ment, with minimal surveillance, over 1000 examples of marketing which violated the recommendations of the 1979 WHO/UNICEF meeting, many of which also violated ICIFI's own code.

Most governments have neither the staff nor the funds available to effectively monitor the code. WHO may do some minimal moni- toring in selected countries as part of an overall evaluation of primary health care programmes. The industry is unlikely to begin to publish self-incriminating reports of its activities. So the bulk of monitoring will fall on trie non-governmental sector, on health workers themselves ancl on ~onr'erneri individuals.

Monitoring is important for t-,/o reasons: first, to ensure that the code is followed and that inappropriate marketing is halted, and second, to evaluate t'-.i- effectiveness of the code as an instrument for soci'al c?.anqe.

Careful monitoring ill show up the loopholes of the code. The WHO is madated to review the code in two years time, and based on evidence from reports collected in that time period to offer

"proposals for revision of the text of the code and for the mea- sures needed for its effective application", if this should prove necessary.

In order to facilitate more thorough monitoring, IBFAN held its first International Congress immediately after the 1981 WHA and brought together more than 90 representatives from organisations in 40 countries to help broaden the network of groups involved. During the next two years IBFAN intends to work in as many na- tional locations as possible to assist governments in implemen- tation and monitoring of the code.

The experiencesgained to date by the NGOs in moving the issue forward, and the continuing efforts which will be required in order to transform a blueprint into reality, provide a new model for international cooperation between development agencies, con- sumer groups and other non-governmental organisations.

This issue marks the first time that a truly international effort has been made to tackle an international problem. It has helped develop a new way of working within the UN system, where usually NGOs are only onlookers. In this case, NGOs have been active participants in the whole process and will continue to be actively involved in the follow-up process.

Already the model set by IBFAN has been taken up by NGOs that are concerned about the question of pharmaceutical production and marketing. Following a three-day seminar in Geneva in May, Health Action International ( H A I ) was established to initially share information and pool resources on a pharmaceutical campaign.

From this and other networks it may be possible to develop the strong, broad-based campaigns that are necessary to bring about the changes in the world society which empower people rather than faceless corporations to take the lead in making the decisions that matter.

L A LECHE METERNA ES M t J U K : E L CODIGO INTERNACIONAL DE LA OMS EN

E L COMERCIO DE LOS SUBSTITUTOS DE L A LECHE MATERNA

Resmen: El 21 de mayo de 1981, la Asmblea Mundial de la Salid ucepto abrwna- d o r a n m e f 11n i~o tos *;antra 1 ) In uotaci6n de un CSdigo International del Corne~~zio de 20s S'abst'it~uzos de La Lecke Maternu. En consecueneia, Zas autori- dades rnundiales mus importuntes sobre la sali-id hem reeonocido plenmente que la leche m t e r n a y la salud de Los ve&n nacidos deben ser proteg'idas de las campczi5ns agresivas de eorpnraeiones hransnucionaZes que fabrican substitutes de Leche rnaterna.

Esta votaaion es e l resuitado dp. una cumpu%a orqunizudu durunte mu'ohos &OS

por eiudaaanos preocupados por e s t e pyoblema, en especial Za Red de Aceion Inter-naciona'l pura la Alimentucion de Los NZos (IBFAN, en IngZds). El art{- culo s iguiente fue escvLto para e l Dossier FIPAD por Andy Chetley, de la organization inglescz War on wunz, q7~e ha iniciado esta carnpu%a a prineipios i e 20s u%os 70.

DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION K I T S ON WOMEN

Women and D i s a b i l i t y , Women and H e a l t h - these a r e t h e themes o f t h e f i r s t two k i t s i n a s e r i e s b e i n g produced by t h e JUNIC/NGO Sub- Group on Women, J o i n t U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n f o r m a t i o n committee (JUNIC) Working Group on Development Educat ion.

Designed e s p e c i a l l y f o r NGO use, each k i t c o n t a i n s q u e s t i o n s f o r d i s c u s s i o n groups, sugges t ions f o r a c t i o n , an o v e r a l l examina t ion o f t h e theme i n r e l a t i o n t o development i ssues , and a d d i t i o n a l resources ( a r t i c l e s , c h a r t s , photos, b i b l i o g r a p h i c sugges t ions ) which a l l o w users t o t a i l o r t h e k i t t o t h e i r own needs.

The k i t on Women and H e a l t h , w r i t t e n i n the p e r s p e c t i v e o f "Hea l th f o r a l l by t h e Year ~ U O O " , ~ ; J ? ; the: accen t on Pr imary H e a l t h c a r e . I t examines the causes o f i l l h e a l t n i n women, i t s consequences (pe rsona l and s o c i a l ) , t i e ~ n w t h e a l t h needs o f women, and t h e complex i n t e r a c t i o n s between women, h e a l t h and human development.

Both k i t s a r e expected tr^ be a v a i l a b l e i n t h e autumn. O thers i n t h e s e r i e s wi11 t r e a t h'ornt-n and Food and Women and t h e NIEO. - . . . -- -. -- For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a c t : MS Jeanne V icke rs , JUNIC Working Group on Development Educa t ion , c / o UNICEF O f f i c e f o r Europe, P a l a i s des N a t i o n s , 1211 Geneva 10, S w i t z e r l a n d .

LA NOUVELLE POLITIQUE FRANCAISE DE COOPERATION POUR LE DEVELOPPEKENT

1 / par Jean-Pierre Cot -

La France aura 2 d i re avec force quriL ne saurait y auoir de ver i table c m - munaute internationaLe tant que Les d e w t i e r s de la p'Lan6te continueront d'behanger l e w s homes e t Lews biens centre La faim e t Ie mepris, P e s t ce qura declare Le nouveau President de 'La R&ub'Lique francaise dans son di-scourr . - " dfinauguration, Le 27 mai 1981 , Lfespoir , que Franco-is Mitterand vcudrait vo i r devenir 'La chose de France La mieux partagie' , e s t aussi ee2u-i du rnonde. Pour iLLustrer la nouvelle poLitique f r a n p i s e en rnati2re de cooperation in te r - rutionale, nous reproduisons ci-dessous de Larges e x t r a i t s a'un discours pro- nonce au Conseil iconomique e t social francais, Le 9 m, par Jean-Pierre Cot, Ministre de La cooperation e t du d&veZoppement. Jean-Pierre Cot m a i t par- t i e i g 2 la reunion de 'La FIPAD, 2 Nyon, en mars, sur I'environnement poli- t ique des n6gotiations globales ?/.

J'ai tou]ours, pour ma part, et6 frappe par le contraste entre d'une part la claire perception qu'ont eue le President et les qouvernements precedents de notre Republique, de la gravitg des problSmes des pays du Tiers Monde, et plus particulierement des plus pauvres d'entre eux, et, d'autre part, l'absence d'analyse qui a et6 la leur de l'oriqine de ces ph6nomenes, avec en cons6- quence Ie caractere a la fois inadapte et insuffisant des remsdes proposes. (. . . ) L'analyse du sous-developpernent : c'est le premier point sur le- quel je voudrais insister, car il me parait conditionner tout Ie reste.

Chez M. Raymond Barre, cornme on Ie voit dans sa lettre de saisie de votre conseil, cette analyse est 2 la fois moderniste dans la forme et des plus classique dans Ie fond. A reqarder d'un peu plus pres Ie texte de M. Barre les coupables sont encore une fois, pour l'essentiel, Ie p6trole, 1'O.P.E.P. qui font souffrir les plus pauvres encore davantaqe que nous-memes.

Chez M. Charles Magaud, votre Rapporteur, je dirai que le clas- sicisme s'accentue. Ce sont les handicaps naturels : enclavement,

I/ Ministre de la cooperation et du developpement, Paris. - 21 Cf. IFDA Dossier 23, 'The summits of pessimism'. -

climat, demographic, qui sont pour l'essentiel ;S l'origine des difficultes des pays les moins Equipes.

Une telle approche escamote 2 mes yeux ce qui est essentiel : l'histoire, et en particulier la colonisation qui est pourtant a l'origine premiere de la rupture des structures sociales de ces pays, de leur equilibre demographique. Cette colonisation qui a conduit pendant des docennies le Tiers Monde a voir son economie organisee sur la base des seuls besoins des metropoles exte- rieures. On appelait cela "Ie pacte colonial", et ce phenomene a bien existe, meme si Ie terme etait un peu un euphemisms. Biens alimentaires a bon march&, matieres premieres, ressources energe- tiques achetees a des prix de plus en plus derisoires compte tenu des termes de l'echange : voila quelles etaient les priorites de ces economies. Tel etait le rapport ainsi impose.

Des pays agraires capables de nourrir leur population ont vu leur agriculture vivriere transformee progressivement en monoculture - de l'arachide, du cacao, du coton - cependant que leur population rurale souffrait de la faim et que leur population urbaine, crois- sant & un rythrne vertigineux, s'entassait dans des bidonvilles de plus en plus proletarises, pour beneficier d'une aide alimentaire minimum.

Ainsi des pays aux riches rentes minieres ont Et6 depossedes au profit de quelques grandes firmes tqansnationales et pour Ie plus grand benefice des pays industriels. Nous en avons profit6 nous- memes abondamment.

Je veux done d'abord reaffirmer ici, avec force, que pas plus au niveau international qu'en France il n'y a d'origine naturelle ou divine, il n'y a des chanceux et des malchanceux, les uns riches et les autres pas. I1 y a des pays conune il y a des couches sociales qui se sont enrichis sur le dos des autres, et le plus souvent par la force. Developpement et sous-developpement ne sont que les deux faces d'une unique medaille, celle du rapport de force qui conduit au phenomene imperialiste.

Au demeurant, ce phenomene n'est pas nouveau et si l'on a une curiosits historique, on peut retrouver des la fin du 185me siecle et au debut du 19eme siecle, par exemple, telle famine en Jamalque provoquee par l'abandon des cultures vivrieres, par application du pacte colonial.

Je dois faire de manisre liminaire aussi une autre remarque. I1 faut rappeler que, si les problemes du d6veloppement sont au- jourd'hui au coeur du debat de nombreuses instances, nationales ou internationales, ce n'est pas le fruit d'un soudain acces de charit6 ou de lucidit6 chez les plus riches. (...)

En verite et il faut Ie dire, progressivement au fil des dernieres decennies, le Tiers Monde s'est revolte, puis organise : -

mouvements de liberation, mouvement des non-alignes, creation de llO.P.E.P., creation du groupe des 77. Nous devons bien Stre conscients que Ie couronnement provisoire de cette evolution - les crises petrolieresde1973 et 1979 - n'en sera pas le terme si nous persistons S en ignorer les vrais fondements, si nous ne nous montrons pas capables d'apporter de vrais remedes.

Avant de parler plus precisgment des pays les plus pauvres, Ie nouveau proletariat du Tiers M-onde qui, comme tel, merite en effet une attention particuliere, je voudrais indiquer, quitte S m'eloigner un petit peu du sujet, quelles sont les quatre idees forces qui quideront mon action S la tSte du Ministere de la Co- operation et du Developpement dont la responsabilite vient de m'etre confiee par le President et par Ie Premier Ministre.

Dans ces domaines, la premiere des idees forces, c'est le refus de reduire les problemes de developpement, les problemes entre le Nord et Ie Sud, S des problemes entre 1'Est et 1'Ouest comme en fait cela se passe trop souvent dans les conferences internatio- nales, et sur Ie terrain peut-Stre plus encore. Ce serait une erreur majeure et dramatique de considerer toute reforme contre les inegalites, toute exigence de reforme agraire, toute mesure de nationalisation de capitaux Gtrangers, toute reference au res- pect des droits de l'home, comme resultant des manipulations organisees 2 Moscou ou 2 Washington. Les pays du Tiers Monde doivent pouvoir Cchapper 2 l'optique des blocs, doivent pouvoir inscrire leur action dans la perspective d'un reel non-alignment, meme si cela n'est pas facile, et au vu de notre objectif de trans- formations sociales en France, je dis qu'il est de 1'interSt de notre pays de favoriser cela.

La deuxieme idee S laquelle je souhaiterais m'attacher et qui est profond6ment lice S la precedente, c'est Ie fait que le develop- pement du Tiers Monde ne se £er pas par la reproduction des modSlesindustriels de 1'Est ou de llOuest, qui tous deux ont construit & des titres divers leur prosperit6 sur Ie dos de ce Tiers Monde. Les pays du Tiers Monde doivent en effet se voir reconnaitre Ie droit S un developpement original, respectueux de leurs traditions, de leur histoire, de leur culture. Developpe- ment n'est pas synonyme de croissance, ni croissance de bien- Etre. Une croissance trop tournee vers l'exterieur peut accroitre dependance et inegalite. Les pays du Tiers Monde doivcnt done pouvoir elaborer ce type de developpement autonome, endogene, autocentre auquel ils sont de plus en plus nombreux 2 aspirer aujourd'hui.

La troisieme idee que je voudrais noter, qui cette fois-ci con- cerne precisement notre sujet, c'est que nous devons tirer les consequences de ce que j'ai dit pr6cedenunent : Snergie et matigres premieres plus chSres signifie aussi 2 moyen terme inflexion de notre propre type de croissance et peut signifier dans Ie court terme des problhes d'emploi. Ceci nous oblige done S developper

une vision plus longue de notre evolution en termes de planifica- tion, prevoyant et orqanisant celle des mutations qui seront considerees par tous c o m e inevitables.

J'ai et6 frappe par l'absence dans le projet d'avis du terme de nouvel ordre economique mondial". Ce nouvel ordre economique mondial qui est en trsin de nous Stre impose en ce moment et essentiellement par uii certain nombre de societes transnationales. Je crois qu'il est grand temps de faire face avec volontarisme au problsme. Ce n'est pas facile et j'entends bien toutes les conse- quences qui peuvent en decoder.

Dernigre idee enfin que je voudrais exposer rapidement et qui resume toutes les autres, c'est que les pays riches doivent ac- cepter reellement l'idee d'un dialogue d'eqal S egal avec Ie Tiers Monde. 11s doivent renoncer - et c'est ici le responsable d'un ministsre qui n'etait aucunement celui de la cooperation qui vous parle - aux vieilles mais trop presentes attitudes de type colonial qui n'ont pas cede le pas partout - il s'en faut -, y compris dans notre propre pays.

J'ajouterai qu'2 mes yeux cette attitude doit Stre demarquee pour commencer, S l'interieur mSme de nos frontisres S 1'6gard des travailleurs et des families irnmiqrees.

A partir de cette perspective globale, quelle attitude adopter S l'egard des pays les plus pauvres S l'occasion de cette conference qui se tiendra en September 2 Paris et oil les n6gociateurs fran- cais - n'en doutons pas - seront observes i3 la loupe?

Je voudrais d'abord dire que je partage ici Ie scepticisme qui a pu Etre exprime sur le concept mSme de "pays les moins avances", du moins tel qu'il a et6 affirm6 dans Ie rapport de M. Magaud, et qui tend 2 iqnorer en quelque sorte les negociations et la solu- tion du problsme meme des "P.M.A.", ainsi que la notion de nouvel ordre 6conomique international. Or, cet ensemble ne peut pas Stre dissocie d1Ottawa, ou de Cancun, ou du sort des negociations globales. Pour ma part, j'entends proposer au gouvernement et au President une serie d'initiatives dans quatre directions, sur ce problsme des "P.M.A."

D'abord, dans le domaine de l'alimentation et de l'aqriculture, qui est essentiel pour des pays oii ce secteur occupe plus des quatre cinquismes de la population active, 06 il reprgsente les deux tiers des recettes d'exportation, oii un quart S un tiers de la population souffre de malnutrition.

I1 nous faut d'abord accroitre et ameliorer les possibilites de l'aide alimentaire d'urqence, trop souvent encore necessaire en cas de catastrophes climatiques, bien silr, tout en nous rappelant c o m e Mao, qu'un h o m e 2 qui on donne un poisson aujourd'hui aura de nouveau faim demain alors que si on lui apprend S pScher, il n'aura plus jamais faim.

I1 faut en plus privilegier autant que faire se peut l'aide au developpement agricole en fournissant engrais, equipements, en aidant a etablir une approche integree du developpement rural combinant la lutte centre la degradation des sols et les grands travaux avec l'amelioration des grands circuits commerciaux et Ie developpement de l'artisanat.

Enfin, plus profondement, c'est l'aspect formation qui est tout 3 fait essentiel. I1 s'agit de contribuer 3 creer par cette formation des homes et par les transferts adaptes de technologies les possibilites pour ces pays d'etablir de veritables strategies alimentaires planifiees.

En second lieu, dans le domaine de l'energie, devenu aujourd'hui, mEme s'il n'est pas la cause premiere de leurs difficultes, cru- cial pour les "P.M.A.". I1 concerne 2 la fois leur balance des paiements et les effets de substitution de consomation qui, 3 travers un recours accru pour les plus pauvres 3 l'utilisation du bois et des dgchets v6getaux, amplifient de facon considerable les phenomsnes de deforestation et d'erosion des sols dans des circonstances qui au depart sont dej3 dramatiques.

I1 nous faut aider 3 etablir un inventaire des ressources Snerg6- tiques permettantdedefinir de veritables plans finergetiques 2 moyen terme, mettre l'accent sur les energies nouvelles et renouve- lables - et, 5 ce propos, j'attache pour ma part une grande impor- tance 3 la conference qui se tiendra 2 Nairobi au mois d'aoiit -, mettre l'accent sur les technologies appropriees 2 leur utilisa- tion, technologies qui devront Stre adaptees par une recherche commune aux homes et aux conditions locales.

En troisisme lieu, dans Ie domaine du commerce exterieur, qui est un point de fragilite redoutable pour les "P.M.A.", compte-tenu de leur dependance 2 l'figard du march6 mondial et de ses fluc- tuations aberrantes, doming par la pression et la speculation des societgs transnationales, en particulier du march6 de Chicago, il nous faut examiner l'idee qui est avancee en effet dans le rapport de M. Magaud d'gtendre aux "P.M.A." qui ne sont pas des pays A.C.P. en matigre douanisre et tarifaire, le systeme prefe- rentiel des accords de Lom6. De m6me que nous devons etudier la possibilite evoquee 12 encore dans ce mEme rapport, de l'exten- sion du STABEX/C.E.E. 3 l'ensemble des "P.M.A.". Les travaux de chiffrement ont et6 engages 3 cet egard dans mon Departement ministeriel afin d'eclairer rapidement la possibilite de decision.

Enfin nous devons plus fondamentalement mettre en place de veri- tables accords de CO-developpement 2 moyen terme, garantissant certains echanges entre pays industrialises, en particulier entre la France, et les "P.M.A." creant les conditions permettant d'echapper aux aleas des fluctuations du march6 mondial et faci- litant, par IS. mSme, pour chacun, la possibilite de planifier de faqon coherent@ son avenir.

Dans Ie domains des transferts de ressources, je me permets d'in- sister sur ce point a travers, notanunent, l'aide publique au developpement et je voudrais ouvrir une breve parenthgse pour dire mon disaccord avec la maniere dont votre rapporteur a pose, avec une pudeur peut-Stre excessive, Ie probleme. I1 a sans doute raison de souligner que Ie montant de cette aide n'est pas ce qu'il y a de plus determinant dans 1'6volution des pays du Tiers Monde et d'abord les "P.M.A.". L'objectif doit Stre de preciser les propositions sur lesquelles un accord pourra etre possible, en particulier a la conference de Paris et de rechercher au niveau mondial, et plus particulisrement au niveau europeen, (d'oii l'importance de la consultation que nous aurons avec nos partenaires), les modalites les plus efficaces pour faire aboutir ces propostions.

Je voudrais dire, en conclusion, ma conviction qu'il n'y aura pas, a terme, de maintien de la paix sur notre planste tant que pro- gresseront parallelement ou presque, proliferation nucleaire et malnutrition. Ma conviction aussi que les politiques conserva- trices suivies ces dernieres annees, en particulier par les pays industrialises, notamment aux Etats-Unis et malheureusement en France, ne prennent dans les temps a venir une tournure franche- ment reactionnaire, surtout en ce qui concerne les Etats-Unis de M. Reagan. Ma conviction, enfin, que ces politiques qui se veulent prudentes et raisonnables, n'offrent en fin de compte d'autre securite que celle du couvercle sur une marmite qui est en train de bouillir. Je voudrais vous dire ma conviction que le combat centre l'injustice et pour les droits fondamentaux de l'homme, ne saurait se diviser, aujourd'hui moins que jamais, entre une scene nationale et une scene internationale.

Ministre de la Cooperation et du Developpement, c'est sur la facon dont j'aurai su contribuer a mettre en oeuvre ces quelques idges que je viens de vous presenter, que je souhaiterais Stre j uge .

MARKINGS I 1

MANIFESTO OF NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS

We the undersigned, men and women of science, letters, men and

women of peace, of different religions, history and culture, we

who have been honoured because we look for and celebrate truth in

life and life in truth, in order that our work may serve as a

universal testimony of dialogue, fraternity and a common civiliza-

tion of peace and progress;

We the undersigned appeal to all men and women of goodwill, appeal

to the powerful and to the humble to act, each in their various

responsibilities, fortens of millions of people on the point of

dying from hunger and underdevelopment, victims of the interna-

tional political and economic disorder which prevails in the world

today, to be restored to life.

An unprecedented holocaust, encompassing in a single year all the

horror of the exterminations experienced in the first half of the

century is now being perpetrated and, with every moment that

passes, is extending the frontiers of barbarism and death in the

real world as well as in our consciences.

All of those who denounce and combat this holocaust are unanimous

in maintaining that the causes of this tragedy are political.

We therefore need a new political determination aimed at eradi-

cating the causes of this extermination and at the immediate

alleviation of its effects.

It is essential that a suitable method and procedure from the

many possible ones that exist or can be imagined, should be de-

vised, adopted and implemented immediately.

2 (62)

It is essential that there be devised a system of converging pro-

jects which answer the needs of the plural nature of the forces

involved, of our responsibilities and our consciences.

It is essential that the highest international authorities, the

governments, the people - too often kept unaware of the fact that policies to protect and preserve life are feasible-act, as some

of the highest spiritual powers of the earth summon us to do, in

concert or united by the work they do, with precise, certain and

suitable objectives to combat and conquer the death which pursues,

overwhelms and condemns a large portion of humanity at this time.

We must rebel against the false realism which accepts as inev-

itable what is in fact the outcome of the policies pursued by the

established order, or rather "established disorder". We must

fight in a realistic manner so that the attainable is attained

and not lost forever.

We call for a positive change in the well meaning policies of

aid which serve principally to salve the consciences of the more

fortunate and which do not save those at whom they are directed,

and of those cruel and barren utopias which sacrifice men of

today in the name of projected new men and today's societies in

the name of projected new societies of tomorrow.

It is essential that citizens and politicians choose and vote at

their respective levels, in elections, in parliaments, in govern-

ments or at international level, new laws, new budgets, new pro-

jects and new measures designed to take immediate effect to save

billions of people from malnutrition and underdevelopment and

hundreds of millions in every generation from death by hunger.

It is essential that each and every one give the force of law to

the need to save the living, not to kill and not to exterminate,

not even by inertia, failure to act or indifference.

Although the powerful of this earth bear the greatest responsi-

bility, they are not alone. If the helpless take their fate into

their own hands, if increasing numbers refuse to obey any law

other than the fundamental human rights, the most basic of which

is the right to life, if the weak organize themselves and use the

few but powerful weapons available to them: non-violent actions

exemplified by Gandhi, adopting and imposing objectives which are

limited and suitable: if these things happen it is certain that

an end could be put to this catastrophy in our time.

We cannot stand idly by and watch as disaster approaches. Our

knowledge tells us that the whole of humanity is increasingly in

danger of death and we must use this knowledge to create hope and

salvation to give substance to our beliefs and opinions.

If the news media and those who granted us the honours we have

received, listen to our voices now and make them heard, give heed

to our work and to the work of all those who have been making

efforts in the same direction, if people know or are informed we

have no doubt that the future can be changed for all the people of

the world.

But only if this is done.

Now is the time to act, now is the time to create, now is the

time for us to live in a way that will give life to others.

Vincente Aleixandre (Literature, 1977); Hannes Alfven (Physics, 1970); Philip Anderson (Physics, 1977); Christian Anfinsen (Chemistry, 1972); Kenneth Arrow (Economics, 1972); Julius Axelrod (Medicine, 1970); Samuel Beckett (Literature, 1969); Baruj Benacerraf (Medicine, 1980); Heinrich Boll (Literature, 1972); Norman Ernest Borlaug (Peace, 1970); Owen Chamberlain (Physics, 1959); Mairead Corrigan (Peace, 1976); Andre Cournand (Medicine, 1956); Jean Dausset (Medicine, 1980); John Carew Eccles (Medicine, 1963); Odysseus Elytis (Literature, 1979); Ernst Otto Fischer (Chemistry, 1973); Roger Guillemin (Medicine, 1977); Odd Hassel (Chemistry, 1969); Gerhard Herzberg (Chemistry, 1971); Robert Hofstadter (Physics, 1961); Frangois Jacob (Medicine, 1965); Brian Josephson (Physics, 1973); Alfred Kastler (Physics, 1966); Polykarp Kusch (Physics, 1955); Salvador Luria (Medicine, 1969); Andre Lwoff (Medicine, 1965); SeSn Mac Bride (Peace, 1974); Cweslaw Milosz (Literature, 1980); Eugenic Montale (Literature, 1975); Nevill Mott (Physics, 1977); Gunnar Myrdal (Economics, 1974); Daniel Nathans (Medicine, 1978); Philip Noel-Baker (Peace, 1959); Adolfo Perez Esquivel (Peace, 1980); Rodney Robert Porter (Medicine, 1972); Ilya Prigogine (Chemistry, 1977); Isidor Isaac Rabi (Physics, 1944); Martin Ryle (Physics, 1974); Abdus Salam (Physics, 1979); Frederik Sanger (Chemistry 1958 and 1980); Albert Szent- Gyorgyi (~edicine, 1937); Hugo Theorell (Medicine, 1955); Jan Tinbergen (Economics, 1969); Nikolaas Tinbergen (Medicine, 1973); Ulf Von Euler (Medicine, 1970); George Wald (Medicine, 1967); James Dewey Watson (~edicine, 1962); Patrick White (Literature, 1973); Maurice Wilkins (Medicine, 1962); Betty Williams (Peace, 1976); Charles Hard Townes (Physics, 1964); Lawrence R. Klein (Economics, 1980).

122 MILLION BABIES BORN IN 1979- 12 MILLION DEAD WITHIN 12 MONTHS

About 122 million children were born in 1979, the International Year of the Child, and one in 10 of them was dead within 12 months.

Another five million children aged between one and four died the same year, the Executive Board of the U.N. Children's Fund (UNICEF) was told.

UNICEF Executive Director James Grant told the opening meeting of the Board's annual session earlier this year that most deaths were from preventable causes, gross poverty and underdevelopment.

A malnourished child without access to rudimentary health services was hundred of times more likely to die of measles or diarrhoea than his counterpart in an industrial country, Mr. Grant said.

UNICEF's entire budget was equivalent to the cost of six advanced fighter planes, he added.

INTERACTIONS

THIRD WORLD ; THE NOVEL AS A TOOL I N THE SEARCH FOR A NEW INFORMATION ORDER An I n t e r Press S e r v i c e Fea tu re by Sonia M i l l s

Kingston, Jamaica, as t h e body of ind igenous T h i r d World l i t e r a t u r e con t inues t o grow, f u e l l e d by t h e e f f o r t s o f h i s t o r i a n s and w r i t e r s and persons o f l e t t e r s f rom t h e T h i r d World. A Jamaican n o v e l i s t launched h i s new novel he re w i t h some sober ing r e f l e c t i o n s :

' A b l a c k w r i t e r w r i t i n g about h i s people f o r a w h i t e audience", s a i d Michael T h e l w e l l , n o v e l i s t and p r o f e s s o r o f b l a c k s t u d i e s a t Amherst U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e U n i t e d S ta tes , "becomes a f o r e i g n correspondent" .

"My nove l " , he s a i d o f h i s work 'The Harder they come1-/ " i s addressed t o s imp le Jamaicans".

The t i t l e and s k e l e t o n o f 'The Harder they Come', i s borrowed f rom a success- f u l Jamaican f i l m p o r t r a y i n g t h e modern-day r e a l i t y o f an i s l a n d u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i s e d as mere ly a p a r a d i s e o f beaches and sun.

'The Harder t h e y Come' was perhaps t h e most commercia l ly success fu l T h i r d World movie, a c h i e v i n g m a j o r impact i n N o r t h America, Europe and s e c t i o n s o f A f r i c a and L a t i n America.

T h e l w e l l ' S hope i s t h a t Jamaicans who read t h e nove l " w i l l have t h e p leasure o f t h e same shock of r e c o g n i t i o n I f e l t as a c h i l d , I recogn ised m y s e l f and t h e people and p laces i n V i c R e i d ' s 'New Day'" .

'New Day' i s a c l a s s i c Jamaican nove l about t h e 1865 r e b e l l i o n i n t h e r u r a l town of Moraant Bay, t h i s Car ibbean i s land 'sf i rs tpost-s lavery u p r i s i n g .

" U n t i l we have a l i b e r a t i o n which i s p r o u d l y o u r own", s a i d T h e l w e l l a t h i s n o v e l ' s launch ing , " r o o t e d i n a s e n s i b i l i t y t h a t i s ind igenous, u n t i l 1 we can v iew ourse lves th rough o u r own eyes, and n o t see o u r s o c i e t y f i l t e r e d th rough a l i e n , and o f t e n h o s t i l e eyes, and a l i e n consciousness, t h e sch izophren ic i d e a o f o u r e x i s t e n c e w i l l c o n t i n u e t o haunt us" .

l/ Michael T h e l w e l l , The Harder they Come (London: P l u t o Press, 1980) - 400 pages.

The phenomenon on consolidating a l i t e ra ture of indigenous Third World flavour i s not new, and the e f for t s of the South to end cultural domination i s not being pursued purely on the l i t e ra ry front .

B u t increasing the body of Third World l i t e ra ture could represent a profound pol i t ical contribution to a new order of communication and information.

The process becan a long time ago in Africa, the West Indies, Asia, Latin America and the 'Third World Cultures' of North America.

Since the turn of the century, the e f f o r t to r e s i s t , and then to supplant cultural imperialism, has run parallel to e f for t s in the pol i t ical arena. And i f now the struggle i s not being won, a t l eas t i t i s gaining v i s ib i l i ty .

Toni Morrison, the black American wri ter , was featured on 'Newsweek' magazine's cover and the anti-hero of Third World writers, Vidia Naipual, was being lionised in the capitals of the North.

In the Caribbean, l ike elsewhere, i t has proved much easier to remove the dominion of the Queen than the dominion of the Queen's English forms and patterns of speech and thought which re f lec t cultural subjugation.

The very nature of the problem precludes any ' f inal assaul t ' on the l a s t bastions of cultural imperialism.

While praise for Vidia Naipaul i s r is ing to a crescendo among the Western l i t e ra ry establishment, among what the Trinidad-born writer describes as "the l i t e r a t e and civi l ised audience", i t i s in the largely i l l i t e r a t e and "half finished societ ies" of his most scornful references that most other Third World writers hope to win the ba t t l e of hearts and minds.

Writers older than Thelwell, and as committed, l ike Senegal's Ousmane Sembene, have f e l t i t necessary to go from novel to film in an attempt to reach a wider i l l i t e r a t e audience. Thelwell's reversal of the technique i s not altogether convincing.

Accepting the twenty-odd copies of the novel presented to the Jamaica Library Service, Joyce Robinson, who also heads the Literacy Foundation (JAMAL), supported Mike Thelwell's sentiments, remarking that JAMAL could offer the novel 200,000 new readers.

Jamaica's l i teracy programme, heavily supported by the past Manley Government as one of the major planks of i t s progra-me for social transformation, claims over 203, 000 graduates.

In a world of increasing l i teracy, one Third World novelist has renewed the appeal to l i teracy for increased understanding of Third World r e a l i t i e s , and a tool in the cultural liberation of his people.

KUALA JURU - A PEOPLE'S COOPERATIVE */ The I n s t i t u t Masyarakat Berhad & Consumers' A s s o c i a t i o n o f Penang -

The s t o r y abou t p o l l u t i o n i n Kuala J u r u echoed th roughou t Malaysia - and even reached o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d - i n 1976. A t t h a t t ime t h i s t i n y f i s h i n g v i l l a g e was on t h e verge o f e x t i n c t i o n as nearby f a c t o r i e s dumped chemical wastes i n t o t h e J u r u R i v e r and k i l l e d t h e f i s h e s on which t h e J u r u f ishermen depended f o r a l i v i n g . The p ress h i g h l i g h t e d t h e p l i g h t o f t h e v i l l a g e r s and soon Kuala J u r u was t h e focus o f p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n . Though t i n y and secluded on t h e Prov ince Wel les ley c o a s t l i n e , i t became t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t example o f how i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and i t s s i d e e f f e c t s , such as p o l l u t i o n , can u p r o o t t h e l i v e s and l i v e l i h o o d o f i nnocen t people.

Kuala J u r u made a name f o r i t s e l f when h e r f i shermen p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t p o l l u t i o n c o l l e c t i v e l y . Ga ther ing t o g e t h e r t h e i r i n s t i n c t s f o r s u r v i v a l , t h e y f o u g h t t o r e t a i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l way o f making a l i v i n g from t h e sea. Addressing them- se lves t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , t o t h e f a c t o r i e s t h a t p o l l u t e d t h e i r r i v e r , as w e l l as t o t h e general p u b l i c , they r a i s e d t h e a l a r m n o t o n l y f o r themselves b u t f o r o t h e r i n n o c e n t people who were s i m i l a r l y v i c t i m i s e d by i n d u s t r i a l p o i s o n i n g .

Today Kuala J u r u has made y e t ano ther s t r i d e . S t i l l conscious o f t h e i r p a s t exper ience o f a c t i n g i n un ison t o f i g h t p o l l u t i o n , t h e y have now ga thered t h e i r e f f o r t s t o g e t h e r a g a i n t o s e t up a c o o p e r a t i v e c o c k l e fa rm i n which e v e r y f i s h e r - man who works on i t has a share. The farm, b e i n g common p r o p e r t y , reaps har - v e s t s and p r o f i t s which a r e shared b y a l l . I n a d d i t i o n i t prov ides c o l l e c t i v e sav ing f o r t h e v i l l a g e as a whole and enables i t t o r u n a cof fee-shop and a sundry s t o r e on a c o o p e r a t i v e b a s i s .

The J u r u exper ience i s a un ique one f o r i t i s p e r h a p s t h e f i r s t c a s e i n Ma lays ia o f how a v i l l a g e has o rgan ised i t s e l f as a whole t o s u r v i v e t h e dangers o f c a r e l e s s i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and t o make a l i v i n g c o l l e c t i v e l y .

Th is l i t t l e book aims t o d e s c r i b e how t h e J u r u f i shermen r u n t h e i r own coopera- t i v e . I t t r a c e s back t o t h e days when Kuala J u r u faced i t s b i g g e s t c r i s i s , and t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f how t h e f i shermen u n i f i e d themselves t o f i g h t p o l l u t i o n as w e l l as t o s t a r t on a new f i s h i n g a c t i v i t y - c o c k l e fa rm ing on a c o o p e r a t i v e b a s i s - t o r e g a i n t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d as f ishermen. It d e s c r i b e s how t h e v i l l a g e s r u n t h e coopera t i ve , share t h e i r ea rn ings , spend on v i l l a g e a c t i v i t i e s , and save f o r t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e f u t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n i t l e t s t h e f i shermen speak f o r themselves as they r e f l e c t on t h e i r p a s t exper iences, assess t h e problems and b e n e f i t s o f t h e p resen t , and l o o k fo rward t o t h e f u t u r e . I t t e l l s t h e s t o r y of how o r d i n a r y f i s h e r f o l k come t o g e t h e r t o make a l i v i n g c o l l e c t i v e l y .

* / The Institut Masyarakat Berhad & Consumers' Association of Penang have pub- - lished a 28 page booklet on the Kuala Juru Cooperative. The booklet can be obtained from them at the following address: 9 Lorong Kucing, Pulau Tikus, Penang, Malaysia.

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TOWARDS A YEN STYLE I N NORTH-SOUTH RELATIONS: THE EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATIVE TOURISP ( 4 .T. ) by L.A. Dernoi

The cause of alternative tourism "The r i c h lands' leaders must have the courage t o t e l l t h e i r people they are r i c h enough". Jul ius Nyerere

1. Towards d e f i n i t i o n and purpose

I n a l t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m t h e " c l i e n t " rece ives accommodation d i r e c t l y i n o r a t t h e home o f t h e h o s t w i t h , e v e n t u a l l y , o t h e r s e r v i c e s , f a c i l i t i e s o f f e r e d t h e r e . Whi le t h i s may be t h e c h i e f d i f f e r e n c e between a l t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m and t h e conven t iona l fo rmat , a number o f o t h e r t r a i t s a r e a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h i s t ype o f t o u r i s m .

The a im o f t h i s paper i s t o b r i e f l y summarize t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c e o f t o u r - i sm w i t h o u t the p re tense o f a s c i e n t i f i c w r i t e - u p ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e s i m p l e s t way t o d e f i n e t h e concept seems t o be a p a r a l l e l l i s t i n g o f some more consp ic - uous c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b o t h as f o l l o w s :

Conventional/Commerci a1 Tour ism

- Run as a commercial e n t e r p r i s e ( b i g o r s m a l l )

- R a r e l y a f a m i l y e n t e r p r i s e , m o s t l y a manager system

- M o s t l y a business on i t s own ( a t most connected w i t h l e i s u r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s )

- Always more than one " r e n t a l " u n i t s a re o f f e r e d , r a r e l y under 6, g e n e r a l l y between 10 and 100, o f t e n a few hundred

- Needs ma jo r inves tments , o f t e n p u b l i c expenses f o r i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e

- More v u l n e r a b l e t o economic f l u c - t u a t i o n s ; g e n e r a l l y n o t f l e x i b l e , one-d imens iona l " use

A1 t e r n a t i v e Tour ism

- F u n c t i o n i n g as a home indus- t r y , as a c r a f t

- M o s t l y a f a m i l y o r s i m i l a r "business"

- Genera l l y a secondary source of revenue f o r a household

- Genera l l y 1 o r 2 u n i t s , r a r e l y o v e r 6 o f f e r e d ( e x c e p t f o r camping p l a c e s )

- Needs s m a l l e r i nves tments , ma in ly on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s

- F l e x i b l e use ( r a i s i n g hous ing and l e i s u r e s t a n - dards l o c a l l y , e t c . )

* / Institut fiir Zukunf tsforschung GmbH, Giesebrechtstrasse 15, 1000 Berlin -- 12, Federal Republic of Germany.

Conventi onal/Commerci a1 Tourism A1 t e r n a t i ve Tour i sm

- General ly o f f e r s h igh-cost accom- modation and services, w i t h a h igher l e v e l o f comfort, thus exc lud ing t o u r i s t s w i t h lower revenue

- Revenue (except i n small fami ly en te rp r i ses ) enters the commercial business c i r c u i t - slow, i n e f f e c t i v e down-fi l t r a t i o n t o the general popu la t ion . P r o f i t o f t en leaves the l o c a l i t y , even the country

- Needs land planning, l ayou t design; tends t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h the envi ron- ment and w i t h l o c a l ways and t r a d i t i o n ; changes landscape

- By i t s nature, r a the r " cen t ra l - i zed" : u n i t s immediately together

- By concentrat ion o f i t s un i t s , tends t o i s o l a t e t o u r i s t s from " l o c a l s "

- By the l i f e - s t y l e of fered, i t i s suscept ib le t o c reate tension between t o u r i s t s and l oca l s .

- Offers low cost services; wh i le most f a c i l i t i e s are ava i lab le , they o f t e n lack comfort; can accommodate low income groups

- Income goes d i r e c t l y t o the inhab i tan ts , stays there l o c a l l y

- F i t s i n t o e x i s t i n g s e t t l e - ment pat tern , no need f o r layout o r landscape a l t e r - a t i o n ; by i t s nature, has t o adapt more t o l o c a l hab i t s

- Uni ts are genera l ly d i s - persed i n the community o r region

- Automatical l y prevents o r reduces t o u r i s t "apartheid"

- Could promote b e t t e r under- standing between t o u r i s t s and l oca l s .

2. Raison d ' e t r e and background

Although serv ing as global economic s t imulant , the " ra ison d ' e t r e " of t h i s pro- j e c t (A.T.) i s manyfold. Up t o now, t he "host 's " main reason f o r o f f e r i n g such a l t e rna t i ves t o t o u r i s t s seems the wish t o complement h i s /he r revenue. While t h i s w i l l probably remain the c h i e f mot iva t ion o f the i n d i v i d u a l , the community and the "pub l i c purse" a lso could, when promoting a l t e r n a t i v e tourism, pursue t h e i r own aims. L e t us b r i e f l y review the advantages o f A.T. f o r everyone i n soc ie ty .

a ) For the i n d i v i d u a l o r the f am i l y :

This p a r t i c u l a r form o f tourism, t h a t i s t o accomodate ( c e r t a i n types o f ) t o u r i s t s i n the homes o f the l o c a l populat ion, channels revenue d i r e c t l y t o f am i l i es , bypassing pro fess iona l en terpr ises and i n t e r n a t i o n a l chains ( sho r t - c i r c u i t i n g the economic mu1 t i p l i e r f a c t o r ) .

I n order t o f u rn i sh accommodation as per i t em above, there w i l l be a need t o upgrade c e r t a i n percentage o f the e x i s t i n g housing stock. This could be done w i t h the he lp o f l oca l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l funds which then w i l l p rov ide both b e t t e r l i v i n g environment as w e l l as a source of revenue t h a t by i t s nature w i l l s tay se l f -perpetuat ing .

. I n d i v i d u a l s and f a m i l i e s may i n t h i s p r a c t i c e a c q u i r e manager ia l s k i l l and e n t e r p r e n e u r i a l s p i r i t .

b ) Fo r t h e l o c a l community:

. i t w i l l genera te d i r e c t revenue f o r t h e members o f t h e community,

. upgrades hous ing s tandards ,

. h e l p s t o p r e v e n t env i ronmenta l d e t e r i o r a t i o n ,

. and t o a v o i d ma jo r p u b l i c expenses f o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e .

c ) F o r t h e c o u n t r y :

. A.T. s h a l l g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e s t a t e : how t o keep t h e most p o s s i b l e income f rom ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l ) t o u r i s m i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld coun t ry , i n s t e a d o f l c s i n g i t t o t h e f o r e i g n p roducers and i n v e s t o r s .

A.T. h e l p s t o p r e v e n t s o c i a l t e n s i o n ( l o c a l s vs. t o u r i s t s ) as w e l l as t o p reserve l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s ( p h y s i c a l , b e h a v i o u r a l , e t c . ) .

d ) F o r t h e ( i n d u s t r i a l i z e d ) e m i t t i n g c o u n t r y :

The reason f o r t h e program i s the p romot ion o f a c e r t a i n t y p e of t o u r i s m s u i t a b l e f o r / s o u g h t by c e r t a i n t ypes o f c l i e n t s who e i t h e r a r e h i g h l y c o s t - consc ious ( s t u d e n t s , e t c . ) o r p r e f e r c l o s e c o n t a c t s w i t h l o c a l peop le ( i n s t e a d o f t h e anonymity o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l h o t e l c h a i n s ) . T h i s p r a c t i c e admi ts l e s s w e a l t h y p o p u l a t i o n groups i n t o the realms o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l tou - r i sm.

e ) F o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s :

A.T. h e l p s promote i n t e r n a t i o n a l /inter-regional/inter-cul t u r a l understand- i n g , e t c .

The p r a c t i c e o f a l t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m c o u l d n o t be termed "wide-spread" y e t ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , i t can be found i n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d w o r l d ( f r e e marke t o r p lanned economy), and even i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld.

The f a r m accommodation program ( " g i t e s r u r a u x " , "Bauernhof" v a c a t i o n ) i s w i d e l y known and so i s t h e bed-and-b reak fas t formula. "Meet the people i n t h e i r homes", " t o t a l immers ion" language courses w i t h f a m i l i e s , s t a y i n g w i t h c r a f t s - men and l e a r n i n g t h e c r a f t , e t c . a r e n o t unknown p r a c t i c e s .

I n t h e c o u n t r i e s o f Eas te rn Europe, a l t h o u g h c e n t r a l l y d i r e c t e d , t o u r i s t s a r e a l s o r e c e i v e d i n t h e homes o f l o c a l s . I n B u l g a r i a , pre-purchased meal t i c k e t s assure r e c e p t i o n o f t o u r i s t s ( t o e a t i n l o c a l f a m i l i e s ' homes)whi le e .g . i n Hungary the s t a t e t r a v e l agency l o o k s a f t e r p l a c i n g t h e t o u r i s t s i n t h e homes o f w i l l i n g h o s t s .

The T h i r d Wor ld a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a l t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m . The s t i l l l e s s e f f e c t i v e fo rmu la o f "peop le t o p e o p l e " , "meet the peop le " o f t h e Car ibbean i s d e f i n i t e l y " o u t d i s t a n c e d " by t h e I v o r y Coast o r Senegal where v i l l a g e r s i n i - t i a t e d programs t o accommodate t o u r i s t s w i t h a minimum o f comfo r t , b u t o f f e r i n g a maximum o f h o s p i t a l i t y by r e c e i v i n g them i n t h e community.

3. Scope, dimensions, v a r i a t i o n s o f a1 t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m

The scope and dimensions o f f e r e d i n a1 t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m may g r e a t l y va ry f rom t h e s imp le camping space on t h e l a n d o r y a r d o f a fa rmer th rough "cab ines" , rooms, bed-and-breakfast , room-and-board t o a p p r e n t i c e s h i p ( " s t a g e " ) o r even r e g u l a r ( p a i d o r unpa id ) work i n whatever s o c i a l u n i t .

Some grades o f i nvo lvement i n l o c a l l i f e may show such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

a ) Rooms o r e n t i r e d w e l l i n g u n i t s t o be r e n t e d by t o u r i s t s on d a i l y / w e e k l y / month ly b a s i s .

b ) P a r t i a l o r t o t a l meal-, l i n e n - and c l e a n i n g s e r v i c e s .

c ) P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e h o s t ' s d a i l y l i f e where and when p o s s i b l e o r d e s i r a b l e (common meals, e t c . ) w i t h even tua l " a p p r e n t i c e s h i p " i n t h e h o s t ' s t r a d e if a p p l i c a b l e .

4. The r e c e i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n

Cont ra ry t o Europe o r t o North-Amer ica, p o t e n t i a l hos ts , whether urban o r r u r a l , a r e n o t easy t o p i n p o i n t i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h a l e s s e r r a t e o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .

F a m i l i e s who have s u f f i c i e n t l i v i n g area t o e a s i l y accommodate t o u r i s t s do n o t g e n e r a l l y need t h a t a d d i t i o n a l (and, f o r t h e i r means, r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r ) reve- nue. Those f a m i l i e s who most b a d l y need t h e e x t r a income do n o t d ispose o f d w e l l i n g space t h a t wou ld be r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e n t i n g o u t . T y p i c a l m i d d l e c l a s s f a m i l i e s who i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s cou ld , i n a l l r e s p e c t s , e a s i l y q u a l i f y t o r e c e i v e t o u r i s t s a r e e i t h e r scarce o r l e s s i n t e r e s t e d .

B i g v a r i a t i o n s may e x i s t i n t h e h o s t ' s c i rcumstances. The h o s t can be a s i m p l e " u n i t c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , a " n u c l e a r " f a m i l y , a " p a t r i a r c h a l " household (an extended f a m i l y ) , o r i t can be a f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n o f independent i n d i v i d u a l s ("commune"), a fo rma l c o o p e r a t i v e u n i t , o r a hamle t - t ype smal l community (see rooms and r e s t a u r a n t s i n t h e K i b u t z ) .

A survey o f p o t e n t i a l hos ts wou ld have t o i n c l u d e m i d d l e and l o w e r c l a s s f a m i l i e s as w e l l as t h e co r respond ing households i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l domain. Obviously , t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s (and some o f t h e s o c i a l ones) o f t h e dwel- l i n g s h a l l be n o t e d and where n e c e s s i t y and p o s s i b i l i t y i s the re , home reno- v a t i d h , r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o r even e x t e n s i o n be envisaged.

It i s these l a t t e r f i e l d s where l o c a l and/or f o r e i g n f i n a n c i n g i s expected t o i n t e r v e n e thus o f f e r i n g a fo rmu la t o improve housing c o n d i t i o n s ( w h i l e a l s o p r o v i d i n g complementary revenue t o t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n ) . F i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e (home improvement loans o r g r a n t s ) c o u l d be combined here w i t h t a x reba tes o r concessions t o promote t h e o p e r a t i o n . Techn ica l and manager ia l a d v i s o r y s e r - v i c e m i g h t f u r t h e r a s s i s t t h e " e n t e r p r i s e " .

Spec ia l ca re c o u l d be extended t o l o o k a t hous ing problems o f f a m i l i e s who would be w i l l i n g t o accommodate t o u r i s t s b u t l a c k l i v i n g space o r a r e a l ready numerous f o r t h e i r d w e l l i n g u n i t s .

F u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n can be made a c c o r d i n g t o p r a c t i c e s i n f u l l y independent hand l ing , l o o s e l y o r g a n i z e d systems (e .g . j o i n t pub1 i c i t y by h o s t s ) and com- m u n i t y o r s t a t e suppor ted networks. F inanc ing , too, may vary f rom persona l t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l (banks) t o government subven t ion .

Var ious types o f geograph ica l zones may be cons idered f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s program: c i t i e s , towns and v i l l a g e s , seaside, r u r a l and mounta in areas.

5. The c l i e n t e l e

I n f o r m a t i o n from e x i s t i n g market s t u d i e s c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o l o c a t e and d e t e r - mine t h e c l i e n t e l e .

P o t e n t i a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g groups o f p o p u l a t i o n s m i g h t be considered:

- s tuden ts ,

- low income and/or young f a m i l i e s w i t h n o t more than one o r two c h i l d r e n ,

- o l d e r o r r e t i r e d persons o r couples, s e l e c t i v e l y , because o f h e a l t h con- d i t i o n s , l i v i n g h a b i t s , e t c . ,

- p r o f e s s i o n a l s f rom v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e exper ience o r i n t h e soc io logy /pscho logy o f t h e con tac ts , e t c . ,

- p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , f a m i l i e s , f rom a l l age groups, s o c i a l c lasses of p r o - f e s s i o n a l s who a r e a t t r a c t e d by t h e n o v e l t y o f t h e exper ience o r would w ish t o have an o u t - o f - t h e - u s u a l vaca t ion , e t c .

The l e v e l o f c o m f o r t t o be p r o v i d e d ( o r t h a t can be f u r n i s h e d ) s h a l l a l s o con- t r i b u t e t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c l i e n t e l e . I n a general sense i t i s expected t h a t t h e l e v e l o f c o m f o r t as f o r the s l e e p i n g accommodation and t h e hygenic i n s t a l l a t i o n s wou ld n o t exceed t h e t w o - s t a r t y p e o f s e r v i c e s b u t i n t h e ma jo r - i t y of cases i t w i l l s t a y below t h a t s tandard.

6. Loca l i n s t i t u t i o n s

An i n i t i a t i v e as t h i s p r o j e c t , should, i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d , be sponsored by, o r a t l e a s t be under t h e umbre l la o f t h e n a t i o n a l o r r e g i o n a l government and suppor ted by t h e l o c a l community admini s t r a t i o n .

I f f o r e i g n f i n a n c i n g i s i n v o l v e d (as assumed i t w i l l ), t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l ( c e n t r a l , f e d e r a l ) government i s i n e v i t a b l e . O ther t h a n t h e f o r e i g n a f f a i r s , m i n i s t r i e s such as t h a t o f tou r i sm, commerce, housing, urban a f f a i r s , p u b l i c works, you th , s p o r t s , a g r i c u l t u r e , f i s h e r i e s , e t c . m i g h t be i n v o l v e d o r i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e program.

à U n i t s o f l o c a l and/or r e g i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , s i m i l a r t o t h e above, w i l l p r o b a b l y have t o be i n c l u d e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n .

Loca l ( o r even i n t e r n a t i o n a l ) r e 1 i g i o u s , benevo len t and c h a r i t a b l e o rgan isa - t i o n s , t r a d e unions, i n t e r n a t i o n a l t o u r i s t agencies c o u l d a l s o have a f i n a n - c i a l o r o t h e r i n p u t i n t h e program.

I t w i l l p r o b a b l y be a d v i s a b l e t o found a l o c a l p u b l i c o r s e m i p u b l i c agency t h a t wou ld l o o k a f t e r the program i n f u l l t ime .

7. Loca l e n q u i r y

I n o r d e r t o accommodate A.T., a number o f i n q u i r i e s a r e t o be c a r r i e d o u t l o c a l l y and abroad. The l a t t e r a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t a market research a i m i n g t o de te rmine t h e p o t e n t i a l c l i e n t e l e . The fo rmer wou ld c o n s i s t o f v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l surveys.

COMG P R G D U C I R S U S P R O P I O S ALIMEN L A E X P E R I E N C I A D E L A C A S A ECOLOG

1 / por Juan Robert -

TOS EN LA C 1 UDAD I CA

Ante l a c r i s i s mundial de atimentos se hace imprescindibte e n c o ~ t r a r nuevas a l t e rna t i vas de producci6n y conswo , en t r e l a s que c7 cuZzivo d o d s t i c o de vegeta tes t i e n e urn par t icu lar importancia.

El Filosofo Ivan I l l i c h e s c r i b i 6 que "desde 1970 e1 niimero de personas que f a l l e c e anualmente por hambrs aumenta a un ritmo t r e s veces mayor que e l c r ec i - miento de l a poblaci6n t o t a l de l a t i e r r a " . Y aiiadi6 que cada vez son mSs 10s s e re s humanos imposibil i tados para con t r ibu i r en algo a su propia alimentacibn. Esto s i g n i f i c a que e l hambre nos amenaza; que l a situation nutr ic ional s e de t e r i ora gravemente.

DOS f enhenos combinan sus e f ec tos para producir e s t a c i rcunstancia que empeora cada aiio:

1 . El encarecimiento acelerado de todos 10s alimentos comercializados.

2. E1 hecho de que 10s habi tantes de l a s ciudades son cada vez menos capaces de producir una pa r t e de sus nu t r i en t e s s in r e c u r r i r a1 comercio.

Para i l u s t r a r e l segundo punto podemos menacionar que 1as viviendas const ru i - das , e n t r e o t ros por organismos o f i c i a l e s , para s e r habitadas por 10s t raba- jadores , carecen de pa t io , por pequefio que s e a , donde 10s inqui l inos podrian t ene r una ho r t a l i za o c r i a r aves de c o r r a l .

La absurda situation de l a s ciudades

Mucha gente piensa que 1as grandes ciudades siempre han rec ib ido sus alimentos de "afuera": del campo o e l mercado nacional . E n l a ciudad de Chandigarh, en l a India , por ejemplo, s e 11ega a 10s l imi t e s de e s t a f a l s a creencia . La po l i c f a persigue a 1a gente pobre que siembra ce rea l e s en sus p a t i o s , y e l e j e r c i t o a r r a sa con muchos campos de cul t i v o declarados " i legales" . La raz6n e s muy s e n c i l l a . Se t r a t a de proteger a aquel los que controlan l a producci6n de alimentos, especialmente a 10s dueiios de grandes extensiones de t i e r r a y l as compah'as t ransnacionales .

Pero en rea l idad l a h i s t o r i a s e encarga de desmentir l a idea de que e l campo e s e l productor Gnico y l a ciudad un cen t r e de d i s t r i buc ion y consumo.

En su ce lebre Enciclopedia, publicada en t r e 1751 y 1772, Denis Diderot menciona que en e l s i g l o XVIII 10s habi tantes de Par is obtenian sus alimentos aplicando e l metodo franc& de cul t i v o in tens ivo. La mayor pa r t e de l a s famil ias poseian pequefios ja rd ines en l a s afueras de l a ciudad, per0 dentro de l a misma se aprovechaba cada pedazo de t e r r eno cu l t i vab le , inc l uyendo bal- cones y azoteas. "En aquellos tiempos - esc r ibe Diderot - 1a ciudad de P a r i s , l e j o s de importar al imentos de o t ros municipios,era uno de 10s mayores cent ros

I / Juan Robert, Apartado 698, Cuernavaca, Mexico. -

produc to res d e l p a i s y p r o v e i a 10s mercados de 1as pob lac iones vec inas" .

La c iudad dependiente, ? a c iudad que impor ta l a c a s i t o t a l i d a d de sus a l imen- t o s , es, entonces, una c r e a c i o n muy r e c i e n t e desde e l p u n t o de v i s t a h i s t o r i c o . Es, de hecho, - como n u e s t r a c i u d a d de Mexico - un s e r monstruoso cuya p o s i - b i l i d a d de sobrev ivenc ia es muy escasa.

La c i u d a d como t e r r e n o de c u l t i v o

S i n embargo, 10 a n t e r i o r no s i g n i f i c a que en l a c iudad no puedan p r o d u c i r s e a l imentos o t r a vez. For e l c o n t r a r i o , e x i s t e n metodos s imp les y e f i c a c e s para h a c e r l o . Aun produciendo t a n s o l o e l d i e z p o r c i e n t o de su a l i m e n t a c i o n "en casa" c u a l q u i e r f a m i l i a puede me jo ra r rad ica lmente su d i e t a , ya que 10 que se c u l t i v e se ra r i c o en elementos n u t r i t i v o s y no tendra problemas de contamina- c i On.

Los a l i m e n t o s que comemos son una forma de energ ia ; son energ ia s o l a r alma- cenada en forma de s u s t a n c i a v e g e t a l . Es d e c i r , que se c o n s t i t u y e n en r e s e r - vas que son l i b e r a d a s cuando 10s comemos. F o r e l l 0 10s a l imentos pueden medi r s e en c a l o r i a s . Con 10 antes d i c h o podemos c o n c l u i r que para p r o d u c i r a l imentos sanos y n u t r i - t i v o s 10 p r i m e r o que se n e c e s i t a es s o l . Una s u p e r f i c i e expuesta a 1a l u z de l a s t r o r e y , combinada con aqua para r i e g o y un sue10 p r o p i c i o , son 10s f a c t o r e s e s e n c i a l e s para un buen c u l t i v o .

Pero antes que nada, e s t e a r t i c u l o q u i e r e d i s c u t i r dos cosas: p r imero , l a r e - l a c i o n e x i s t e n t e e n t r e l a c a n t i d a d de a l i m e n t o s que come una persona d i a r i a - mente y l a s u p e r f i c i e n e c e s a r i a para ob tener e s t o s a l imentos " s o l a r e s " .

Segundo, l a manera de c r e a r t i e r r a f 6 r t i l donde no e x i s t e .

La r e l a c i o n a l i m e n t o - s u p e r f i c i e

Conociendo l a r e l a c i o n a1 i m e n t o - s u p e r f i c i e uno puede de te rminar 1a e x t e n s i o n necesar ia para p r o d u c i r todos sus a l imentos o b i e n c a l c u l a r qu6 proportion de su comida puede c u l t i v a r en e1 t e r r e n o de que d ispone. Sabiendo c6mo t r a n s - f o n n a r l a basura o r g a n i c a en t i e r r a c u l t i v a b l e , c u a l q u i e r c i t a d i n o e s t a en p o s i b i l idades de p r o d u c i r a1 imentos en p a t i o s , l o t e s b a l d ios , balcones, ventanas y azoteas.

Un a d u l t o r e q u i e r e aproximadamente e n t r e dos y t r e s m i l c a l o r i a s d i a r i a s y en cada metro cuadrado de t i e r r a expuesta a1 s o l caen cada atio un m i l l f i n y medio de l a s mismas, es d e c i r , una c a n t i d a d de e n e r g i a que c o r r e s ~ o n d e a 1a n e c e s a r i a para a l i m e n t a r dos personas duran te un aiio.

L S i g n i f i c a e s t o que en una j a r d i n e r a de un met ro cuadrado se puede c u l t i v a r e l a l i m e n t 0 anual de dos personas? No exactamente. En r e a l i d a d l a s p l a n t a s s o l o pueden t r a n s f o r m a r en n u t r i e n t e s una pequefia f r a c c i o n de l a s c a l o r i a s r e c i b i d a s , p o r 10 que en un ar7o p r o d u c i r a n unas t r e s m i1 c a l o r i a s comes t ib les p o r metro cuadrado, c a n t i d a d s u f i c i e n t e para a l i m e n t a r a una persona ... p o r un d i a .

Una casa urbana in tegra l

Para ubicar mejor e l problema mencionemos un ejemplo concreto. Recientemente visi tamos e l I n s t i t u t e de 10s Farallones de Berkeley, Ca l i fo rn i a , en 10s Estados Unidos. Se t r a t a de un pequeiio predio urbano s i tuado en un ba r r io pobre de 1a ciudad. En e l l uga r , un reducido grupo de gente comprometida, contando con sus propios recursos y un escaso subs id io o f i c i a l , inves t iga l a s pos ib i l idades de c u l t i v a r alimentos en l a s ciudades. Oesarrolla metodos de production de abono, control de plagas y c r i a de animales de granja con 10s cuales 10s habi tantes de cualquier ciudad del mundo pueden proporcionarse una pa r t e importante de sus alimentos.

La casa urbana in tegra l de Berkeley es una t i p i c a casona suburbana de madera, comprada en un es tado de ruina avanzado y reconstrui'da pop sus ac tua l e s habi- t a n t e s . Cuatro personas viven habitualmente en e111a; cul t ivan verduras, f ru - t a s y f o r r a j e ; c r ian conejos, ga l l i nas y peces. Cada miembro otorga a 1a comunidad diez horas semanales de su tiempo. Cabe dec i r que 10 que in t e r e sa a 10s Farallones por e1 moment0 no e s tanto 1a cantidad de alimentos produci- dos, s ino 1a divulgacion de m6todos de cul t i v o apl icables en ter renos margi - na le s , en t i e r r a s consi deradas "no cul t ivables" , y en cualquier supe r f i c i e que rec i ba l a l uz del so1 . E1 predio consta de un t o t a l de s e t ec i en tos cuarenta metros cuadrados, r epa r t i - dos de l a s igu ien te manera: -

casa 1 40mL

cu l t i vo de verduras y f r u t a s 300m2

c u l t i v o de f o r r a j e , c r i a de animales, composta y senderas 300m2

740m" E1 sistema de cu l t i vo in tens ivo

Pero s e requiere d i s c u t i r mas detenidamente l a re lac ion persona-superficie de cul t i vo . En l a casa urbana de Berkeley 1as zonas plantadas ocupan 300 metros cuadrados, de 10s cuales 200 reciben sol durante todo e l d i a y 100 solo unas s e i s horas. La ex i s t enc i a de sombra reduce l a cantidad de energia a l iment ic ia que s e pueda obtener. En s i n t e s i s , 10s Farallones so lo cuentan - tomando en consideration e1 e fec to de l a sombra - con 250 metros cuadrados para c u l t i v a r . La cantidad de energia s o l a r que recibe diariamente esa supe r f i c i e e s de aproximadamente un mi lion de ca lo r i a s . Se obtienen 1,235 c a l o r i a s alimen- t i c i a s a1 d i a , 10 que equivale a1 12.5 por c i en to de promedio requerido por 10s cuat ro hab i t an t e s de l a casa. De todo 10 a n t e r i o r podemos deducir que s e neces i ta una supe r f i c i e soleada de 500 metros cuadrados de cul t ivos para toda l a alimentacion de un adul to vegetariano. 0 desde o t r o punto de v i s t a , s i s e dispone de 250 metros cuadrados se puede producir e l 40 por c i en to de 10s a l i - mentos de una persona, siempre y cuando se cul t iven verduras segun e l metodo de cul t i v o in tens ivo, e s deci r , aiiadiendo constantemente nuevas capas de humus sobre e1 ter reno 10 cual impide e l crecimiento de hierba mala.

La composta y 1a r eu t i l i zac ion de l a basura organica

La basura s e puede considerar como algo muerto o algo patogeno. En cambio, e l sue10 e s vivo y sano. Recic lar , desde e1 punto de v i s t a de 1a ag r i cu l tu ra ,

s i g n i f i c a c r ea r t i e r r a viva a p a r t i r de basura. Cualquier desecho organic0 - bagazo vegeta l , desperdicios de l a cocina, sobrantes de l a comida, hierba mala, lefia podrida, zacate , v i ru t a s de rnadera, e t ce t e r a - puede r e c i c l a r s e .

Quien sabe r e c i c l a r puede c r e a r un sue10 cu l t i vab le a p a r t i r de nada. Tec- nicamente, e s t o s i g n i f i c a amontonar l a basura organics en var ias capas sepa- radas por hojas s ecas , a se r r in o zacate , y cons t ru i r un sistema de vent i lac i6n a t raves de 1a composta. Asi s e producira una fermentation de 1as materias organicas cuyo ca lo r terminara con 10s mi crobios pat6genos.

Existen var ies metodos para r eu t i l i z a r tambien 10s excrementos humanos (ve r NATURA No. 35) y 10s mas cfimodos no requieren ninguna manipulaci6n. Como 10 previera Victor Hugo, e l excrement0 humano puede volverse una gran riqueza. Todo e s t h en saber emplearlo correctamente.

En f i n , que 1a experiencia de l a Casa Ecol6gica de Berkeley debe s e r apoyada y seguida con atencifin por todos aquellos na tu r i s t a s que se preocupan por e l autoabastecimiento y e l desa r ro l lo de nuevas tecnicas a l t e r n a t i v a s de produc- ci6n no comercial de alimentos.

Figure 1 - 1 The Integral Urban House, Site Plan

THE. f A M L L O N E S NSTITUTE INTEGHAL law*-! *USE- 51T6 1='L/M\1

INTERROGATIONS SUR LE DETERMINISME DU DEVELOPPEMENT

par P i e r r e Pasca l lon 11

Le developpement p e u t - i 1 6 t r e symbol ise p a r une l i g n e ascendante c o n t i n u e e t chaque n a t i o n peut-e11e 6 t r e s i t u e e en un p o i n t donne, a un moment donne ( "de- g r 6 " ou "n iveau" de developpement d ' a p r e s son p r o d u i t n a t i o n a l ) , en a t t e n d a n t de s ' e l e v e r s u r l a courbe? E x i s t e - t - i l un c e r t a i n processus d D 6 v o l u t i o n l o g i - que, unique, que d o i v e n t s u i v r e , avec de l e g e r e s v a r i a n t e s , t o u t e s l e s s o c i e t e s q u e l l e s que s o i e n t l e s ressources a p a r t i r desque l les ce developpement peu t 6 t r e e d i f i e , j u s t i f i a n t l a presence d ' u n e seu le t h e o r i e de 1a c ro issance? Bref y a - t - i l un determin isme du developpement, avec des "sequences d ' i n d u s t r i a l i - s a t i o n " , un deve l oppement necessai rement " inharmonique", pas un seul develop- pement h i s t o r i q u e ne p a r a i s s a n t s ' 6 t r e p r i v e de p o l a r i s a t i o n ?

La t e n t a t i o n d ' u n e reponse p o s i t i v e a ces d i f f e r e n t e s q u e s t i o n s e s t l a t e n t e chez de nombreux economistes p a r t i s a n s d ' u n e v i s i o n d e t e r m i n i s t e du developpe- ment. A i n s i Marx p a r a i s s a i t admet t re que l ' a n a l y s e de l a s i t u a t i o n des pays l e s p l u s i n d u s t r i a l i s e s p o u v a i t s e r v i r de modele aux pays 1es moins i n d u s t r i a - l i s e s . P a r e i l lement, l 'Eco le h i s t o r i q u e al lemande d e c r i v a i t 1es etapes i n e l u c - t a b l e s de r e a l i s a t i o n d 'une economie complexe depuis 1 'economie p a s t o r a l e j u s - q u ' a l 'economie d i v e r s i f i e e contemporaine. Mais c ' e s t 2 ce j o u r encore 1e modele r o s t o w i e n 2.1 q u i demeure 1 ' i l l u s t r a t i o n l a p l u s t y p i q u e des theses de- t e r m i n i s t e s en m a t i e r e de developpement.

On a b i e n en e f f e t avec l e schema r o s t o w i e n un schema d ' e v o l u t i o n unique, 1 i - n e a i r e , mecaniste.

On s a l t que pour c e t a u t e u r l e processus de c ro issance s ' e s t t o u j o u r s t r a d u i t p a r l e passage d ' u n e economie a g r a i r e a une economie i n d u s t r i e l l e . De l a , i 1 c o n c l u t que l a c ro issance e s t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t un phenom@ne d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n en vue d ' a t t e i n d r e l a s o c i e t e d'abondance OII l e s s e c t e u r s des b i e n s de consom- m a t i o n d u r a b l e e t 1es s e r v i c e s dev iennen t dominants. A i n s i , "on peu t d i r e de t o u t e s 1es s o c i e t e s q u ' e l l e s passent p a r des etapes d l @ v o l u t i o n determinees" (Rostow) : s o c i e t e t r a d i t i o n n e l l e , c o n d i t i o n s p r e a l a b l e s au demarrage, d6- marrage, marche vers l a m a t u r i t 6 , @ r e de l a consommation de masse.

11 f a u t s o u l i g n e r l ' i m p o r t a n c e de ce schema d e t e r m i n i s t e ros tow ien . En accord avec ce schema, on t r o u v e en e f f e t des economistes pour s o u t e n i r :

1 ) que l e developpement s ' e f f e c t u e p a r f ranch issement "d16 tapes" , passage par une s e r i e de "phases" (Fur tado) necessa i res .

1 Directeur du Centre des Hautes Etudes Internationales pour le d&veloppement, (ISMEA - Paris). * W.W. Rostow, Les &tapes de la croissance Gconomique (Paris : Seuil, 1963).

. Dans c e t t e voie, l e "sous-developpement" d o i t e t r e compr is comme un s imp le " r e t a r d " de c ro issance , r e t a r d ch rono log ique e x p l i q u e p a r l ' i n s u f f i s a n c e d ' u n f a c t e u r e s s e n t i e l de p r o d u c t i o n (c ro issance l i m i t e e p a r l e manque de t r a v a i l - l e u r s q u a l i f i e s , p a r l e manque d ' e s p r i t d ' e n t r e p r i s e , de c a p i t a l , d16pargne ( c f . J.H. Fei e t G. Ran is ) .

. 11 f a u t s o r t i r du sous-developpement en comblant ce " r e t a r d " , c ' e s t - a - d i r e en c r e a n t 1es c o n d i t i o n s p r e a l a b l e s au demarrage p u i s au demarrage ( p a r mo- b i l i s a t i o n des "propensions fondamentales") .

2 ) q u ' o n a 1es m6mes c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s s t r u c t u r e l l e s e t l e s m6mes p o l i t i q u e s de developpement necessa i res pour tous 1es pays q u i se t r o u v e n t au m6me n iveau , a 1a m6me etape du developpement.

. Les m6mes c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s s t r u c t u r e l l e s se r e t r o u v e n t pour tous 1es pays au m6me niveau, a l a m6me etape du developpement :

- m6mes s t r u c t u r e s moneta i res e t f i n a n c i e r e s (A. Chabert, R.W. Goldsmith, J.P. Khazzoom, M. Saint -Marc, . . . ) ,

- m6mes s t r u c t u r e s des depenses p u b l i q u e s ( i n t e r p r e t a t i o n de l a l o i de Wagner en termes d ' e t a p e s ) e t m6mes s t r u c t u r e s f i s c a l e s ( theses du de te rmi - nisme f i s c a l de Colm e t Helzner , H i n r i c h s , Musgrave, . . .) ,

- m6mes s t r u c t u r e s de commerce e x t e r i e u r (Lewis ) e t de balances des p a i e - ments ( c f . schemas de Boggs, K ind leberger , White, . . . ) ,

- m6mes d e f i c i t s en ressources (H.B. Chenery e t A.M. S t r o u t ) .

. Les m6mes p o l i t i q u e s de developpement s ' imposen t pour tous ceux q u i son t a l a m6me e tape de l a c ro issance . Exemple : pour 1e demarrage, t h e o r i e de l a c ro issance e q u i l i b r e e i n s i s t a n t s u r l a n e c e s s i t e de r e a l i s e r dans l a p e r i o d e de demarrage des inves t i ssements dans d i v e r s sec teurs t o u t en assuran t 1a c o n s t i t u t i o n d ' u n c a p i t a l s o c i a l minimum; p u i s , pour e tape u l t e r i e u r e , apres l a c r e a t i o n des i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s minimum e t apres l a c o n s t i t u t i o n de l a le vague d ' i n d u s t r i e s , avantage de 1a c ro issance d 6 s e q u i l i b r e e .

3 ) q u ' a u f i n a l , dans c e t t e p e r s p e c t i v e , on peu t e t on d o i t admett re 1 ' i d e e de "convergence" des systemes i n d u s t r i e l s de m6me n i v e a u (R. Aron, . . .) .

. Que penser de ce schema d e t e r m i n i s t e ros tow ien?

On p e u t d i r e t o u t d ' a b o r d que ce schema r o s t o w i e n s ' e f f o r c e de s a i s i r l a ' c r o i s s a n c e en s o i " , l a " p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e ( a g r i c o l e ) en s o i " , en dehors de t o u t e s t r u c t u r e p a r t i c u l i e r e , c ' e s t - a - d i r e que l que s o i t l e systeme econo- mique e t s o c i a l en cause.

La "c ro issance en s o i " ? Dans l e schema ros tow ien , l e s s t r u c t u r e s 6conomiques ne son t pas d e f i n i e s d 'une maniere theor ique , mais e l l e s son t seulement s t a t i s t i - quement reperees (1e terme s t r u c t u r e e s t un s imp le synonyme de "compos i t i on" ) . La p l a s t i c i t 6 des s t r u c t u r e s e s t apprec iee empir iquement en s u i v a n t l ' e v o l u t i o n des i n d i c e s e t r a p p o r t s . La c ro issance se p resen te comme e t a n t c e t t e e v o l u t i o n .

Chacune des etapes de c e t t e c ro issance e s t determinee de facon n e u t r e par l ' i m - por tance de chaque t y p e d ' a c t i v i t e s p a r t i c u l i e r e s e t son o r i e n t a t i o n : a g r a i r e s e t p r i n c i p a l e m e n t o r i e n t e e s vers 1e march6 e x t e r i e u r dans l e s premieres @tapes; i n d u s t r i e l l e s e t pour une l a r g e p a r t fondees s u r l e marche i n t e r n e dans 1es d e r n i e r e s .

L a p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e ( a g r i c o l e ) en s o i " ? L 'accumula t ion e s t cons ideree p a r Rostow comme une s imp le accumulat ion de machines, i n s i g n i f i a n t e s s o c i a l e - ment. L ' a u t e u r s ' a t t a c h e 2 s a i s i r l a p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e comme un s imp le i n d i c e . L ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n e s t concue comme une a c t i v i t e f o n c t i o n n e l l e e t , en t a n t que p roduc t ion , comme un s imp le mouvement technique. On s ' a r r e t e p a r e i l - lement a un s imp le mouvement techn ique de f o r m a t i o n b r u t e de c a p i t a l f i x e , avec une re fe rence i m p l i c i t e au c a p i t a l concu comme une "chose" ( e t j ama is comme un r a p p o r t s o c i a l ) .

En r e a l i t @ , ce schema r o s t o w i e n e s t un schema de c ro issance c a p i t a l i s t e l i b e - r a l e i n s p i r e de l ' e x p e r i e n c e des pays a c t u e l l e m e n t i n d u s t r i a l i s e s .

Un schema i n s p i r e de l ' e x p e r i e n c e des pays ac tue l lement i n d u s t r i a l i s e s ? Le ca- r a c t e r e " e u r o p ~ c e n t r i s t e " (J. Aus t ruy ) de ce schema de c ro issance e s t en e f f e t m a n i f e s t e . Rostow s ' e s t fo r tement i n s p i r e de l ' e x p e r i e n c e europeenne de deve- loppement des XIXe e t XXe s i e c l e s , m6me s i on peu t c o n t e s t e r l a r e a l i t 6 h i s t o - r i q u e concre te de c e r t a i n e s des etapes que l ' a u t e u r a c r u p o s s i b l e de " t h 6 o r i - s e r " a p a r t i r de c e t exemple des pays du v i e u x c o n t i n e n t .

Un schema de c ro issance c a p i t a l i s t e ? Le modele de Rostow e s t en r e a l i t 6 une t h e o r i e de l a c ro issance p a r l e c a p i t a l , ou mieux une t h e o r i e de 1a c ro issance p a r l ' a c c r o i s s e m e n t du c a p i t a l : l ' a u t e u r r e t i e n t en e f f e t 1e t a u x de l ' i n - ves t i ssement ( p r o d u c t i f ) comme c r i t e r e fondamental du passage d 'une e tape 2 1 ' a u t r e .

Un schema de c ro issance l i b e r a l e ? Dans "Les etapes de 1a c ro issance economique" Rostow i n d i q u e q u ' i l entend c o n s t r u i r e une t h e o r i e d e s t i n e e a combler l ' a b s e n c e de t h e o r i e a l t e r n a t i v e du marxisme. L 'ouv rage "Les etapes de l a c ro issance" a comme s o u s - t i t r e "Man i fes ts non-communiste". 11 e s t v r a i que pour Rostow l a c r o i s s a n c e repose - i 1 s ' a g i t de propensions fondamentales - s u r " l ' a p t i t u d e 8 rechercher 1es avantages m a t e r i e l s " , a "accep te r l e s i n n o v a t i o n s " mises en oeuvre p a r l ' e n t r e p r e n e u r schumpeter ien p r i v e . L ' o p t i q u e ros tow ienne s ' a p p u i e s u r une concep t ion i n d i v i d u a l i s t e de l a s o c i e t e . Son approche ne cons idere pas en e f f e t des c lasses e t des couches s o c i a l e s , mais des i n d i v i d u s - s u j e t s de p r a t i q u e s economiques : consommateurs, en t repreneurs , p r o p r i e t a i r e s des f a c - t e u r s de p roduc t ion , que seu l l ' e c h a n g e r e u n i t e t q u i , d ' u n e maniere ou d ' u n e a u t r e , en s u i v a n t c e r t a i n e s r e g l e s de r a t i o n a l i t 6 , a r r i v e n t dans l e u r s r a p p o r t s 8 un e q u i l i b r e harmonieux.

. On v o i t done b i e n q u ' i l e s t i m p o s s i b l e d ' a b s t r a i r e 1a c ro issance d ' u n sys- teme economique e t s o c i a l q u i determine l a v i e q u o t i d i e n n e de chacun sous tous ses aspec ts . I 1 n ' y a pas de "c ro issance en s o i " , l a "c ro issance comme t e l l e " n ' e s t qu 'une a b s t r a c t i o n . On ne peut d i s s o c i e r l e "n iveau" (ou "degre") de developpement des f o r c e s p r o d u c t i v e s du t y p e de d6veloppement que c e l l e s - c i conna issen t e t q u i ne sera pas l e meme s e l o n l e s r a p p o r t s soc iaux au s e i n des- q u e l s i 1 s ' i n s c r i t . On ne peu t pas penser 1a techn ique "comme un en s o i " ( R o s i e r ) .

11 faut en effet se garder des categories "pures" et "universelles", soi-di- sant detachables des pratiques individualo-sociales qui leur ont donne nais- sance, car 1es categories n'ont aucun sens en dehors des types d'organisation economique et sociale dont elles expriment le mouvement; les "m@canismes" et 1es "processus" n'ont aucun sens en dehors de la reference 3 des conditions techniques, economiques et sociales de production determinees.

Ce qui est decisif pour la comprehension des categories, des mecanismes, des processus, c'est bien la mise 3 nu de leur enracinement "systemique" qui leur donne leur pleine signification. Qu'on pense, par exemple, pour s'en persuader a un investissement au Yemen dans la production de khat (drogue analogue au haschisch). 11 est clair que 1 'investissement, en tant que creation de moyens de production, ne prend sa signification reelle qu'au sein du regime qui lui donne naissance. 11 n'est done pas possible "d'autonomiser" 1e developpement des forces productives vis-a-vis des rapports economico-sociaux de production. La technologie n'est pas neutre; elle est le "support du code genetique de la societe qui 1'a produite" (A.K.N. Reddy).

Mais s'il n'y a done de croissance que dans un systeme economique et social qui constitue le cadre de son existence, i1 y a par suite differents types de developpement qui expriment chacun la rationalite de modes de production diffe- rents, pluralite des formes de developpement avec les diverses modalites possi- b l e ~ d'organisation de la vie de l'homrne, tout a 1a fois individuel et social dans sa lutte contre la nature. Oui, i1 n'y a pas de voie royale, unique du developpement, mais pluralisme du developpement qui est la reconnaissance du droit pour chaque pays - compte tenu de son originalite - de choisir librement le chemin qui correspond a ses aspirations et a ses objectifs.

I S THE "ARUSHA I N I T I A T I V E " THE ANSWER? (Extractsfrom 'Some thoughts on the International Monetary Fund's relation with Third World countries')

*/ by Ali Abdalla Ali -

Thanks to the recent experience with the IMF of two small Third World coun- tries, namely Tanzania and Jamaica, the IMF philosophy and its prescriptions to needy members were brought into the open, analysed and criticised by Third World countries' economists and social scientists. Their consensus of opinion on issues related to the IMF was reflected in "The Arusha Initiative: A call for a United Nations Conference on International Money and Finance". l/

* / Ali Abdalla All is Economic Advisor to the Central Planning Organization - (CPO), Sana'a, Yemen Arab Republic.

l/ See IFDA Dossier 19; Development Dialogue 1980:2. -

Al though one tends t o agree w i t h t h e d iagnos is o f t h e IMF i s s u e as presented i n t h e Arusha documents, t h e r e a r e two aspects o f t h e IMF's r e l a t i o n s w i t h T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s t h a t have n o t been f a i r l y h i g h l i g h t e d i n those docu- ments:

( a ) Whi le a g r e a t deal o f emphasis was l a i d on t h e IMF and t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f i t s med ic ine t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t h e course and n a t u r e o f develop- ments w i t h i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s which l e d some o f them t o r e s o r t t o t h e IMF were n o t touched upon. The IMF, t h e r e f o r e , appears t o be t h e on1 y s i n n e r .

( b ) The recommendations o f t h e "Arusha I n i t i a t i v e " seem t o over look an impor- t a n t b u i l t - i n aspect o f t h e IMF, i . e . t h a t i t i s a f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n where those who h o l d t h e m a j o r i t y shares (quo tas ) h o l d a l s o t h e power t h a t goes w i t h i t .

( a ) IMF n o t t h e o n l y s i n n e r

A l l t h e documents presented and d iscussed i n Arusha r e f l e c t e d a c l e a r a n a l y s i s o f t h e IMF, b u t meanwhile ve ry l i t t l e ment ion was made o f t h e course o f p o l i c y and economic management i n some T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s t h a t o f t e n r e s o r t e d t o t h e Fund. I f d i s c i p l i n e , economic r a t i o n a l i t y and prudence were t h e guide t o p o l i c y making i n such T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , a number o f them migh t n o t have needed t o r e s o r t t o IMF o r any o t h e r sources o f f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e .

However, a q u i c k l o o k a t t h e scene i n many T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s w i l l be enough t o t e l l us how p u b l i c funds have been squandered i n use less ventures; how p u b l i c monies went t o e n r i c h t h e few and t h e power fu l , r a t h e r than g o i n g t o improve a g r i c u l t u r e where t h e h e l p l e s s m a j o r i t y s u b s i s t ; how i n p l a c e of

u s e f u l and p r o d u c t i v e p r o j e c t s , one cou ld see a s e r i e s o f " w h i t e e lephan ts " ; how i n genera l , economic p o l i c i e s a r e man ipu la ted and geared toward t h e i n t e r - e s t s o f t h e few r a t h e r than t h e m a j o r i t y ; and how, i n many T h i r d World coun- t r i e s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f l a t i o n and t h e h i k e i n o i l p r i c e s have become t h e scapegoat f o r a11 t h e wrong-doing and bad management.

Therefore, i t i s o n l y f a i r t o p u t t h e i n i t i a l blame n o t on t h e wrong med ic ine p r o v i d e d b y t h e IMF, b u t on those i n charge o f t h e economic and f i n a n c i a l a f f a i r s o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s needing Fund resources. Th is i s because, i n some T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , d e c i s i o n s a r e n o t based on r a t i o n a l choices among a l t e r n a t i v e courses o f a c t i o n b u t on a narrow s u b j e c t i v e b a s i s e i t h e r i n t e n - t i o n a l l y o r because o f inadequate i n t e l l e c t u a l unders tand ing o f what i s good f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r economy and s o c i e t y . I f p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s and s t r a t e g y cho ices had been r a t i o n a l , many T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s would n o t have needed t o r e s o r t t o Fund resources w i t h a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c o u l d be imposed on them Some m a i n t a i n t h a t T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s norma l l y f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o r e f u s e Fund medic ine, l e s t t h e y m i g h t thus be d e p r i v e d o f access t o o t h e r f i n a n c i a l resources. I f t h i s i s the case, then t h i s i s where t h e a t t e n t i o n o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s (as a group) shou ld be d i r e c t e d , i . e . t o t r y t o h e l p each o t h e r t o c h a r t a course away f rom t h e Fund, s i n c e - as w i l l be e x p l a i n e d - t h e Fund w i l l n o t change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n d e s i r e d by T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s .

( b ) The IMF as an i n s t i t u t i o n where t h e p o w e r f u l d i c t a t e t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y

The Arusha I n i t i a t i v e s t a t e s t h a t ,

"Money i s power. Th is s i m p l e t r u t h i s v a l i d f o r n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a - t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . Those who w i e l d power c o n t r o l money. Those who manage and c o n t r o l money w i e l d power. An i n t e r n a t i o n a l monetary system i s b o t h a f u n c t i o n and an i n s t r u m e n t o f p r e v a i l i n g power s t r u c t u r e s ."

Then t h e "Arusha I n i t i a t i v e " goes o n t o demand t h a t t h e IMF s h o u l d u r g e n t l y t a k e s teps t o dea l w i t h t h e immediate problems o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . I t goes on t o recommend t h a t t h e "IMF shou ld be equipped and p repared t o f i n a n c e those d e f i c i t s which a r e t h e n a t u r a l consequences o f s e r i o u s and d i s c i p l i n e d e f f o r t s a t development and s t r u c t u r a l change. The c o n d i t i o n a l i t y o f such f i n a n c i n g must r e f l e c t t h e s o v e r e i g n r i g h t o f s t a t e s t o choose t h e i r own s o c i a l and economic models and development p a t h s " . The Arusha I n i t i a t i v e goes on t o demand v a r i o u s s t e p s , which i n t h e i r t o t a l i t y a r e a complete r e j e c t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y g u i d i n g t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e IMF, more p r e c i s e l y t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f i t s power fu l members.

What one would l i k e t o emphasise h e r e i s t h a t , a1 though one i s i n f u l l agree- ment w i t h t h e Arusha a n a l y s i s o f what t h e IMF stands f o r , one i s compel led t o re fuse t o b e i l l o g i c a l and i n c o n s i s t e n t . The T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s have t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e IMF o f which t h e y a r e members i s a f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n , a lmos t a " p r i v a t e bank" , where t h e m a j o r i t y , gu ided by common mot i ves . d i c t a t e t h e p o l i c y . S ince "money i s power", why shou ld T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s expec t t h e s t r o n g e r members o f t h e IMF t o r e 1 i n q u i s h t h a t power t h a t goes w i t h t h e i r money?

Moreover, t h e funds t h a t a r e made a v a i l a b l e t o needy members o f t h e IMF a r e n o t g i v e n t o them a g a i n s t s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s , b u t i n " t r a n c h e s " of l i q u i d

f o r e i g n exchange t o s u p p o r t t h e i r ba lance o f payments a g a i n s t t h e acceptance o f c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . P r e s i d e n t Nyere re s t a t e d :

B u t we expec ted those c o n d i t i o n s t o be n o n - i d e o l o g i c a l , and r e l a t e d t o e n s u r i n g t h a t money l e n t t o us i s n o t wasted, pocke ted by p01 i t i c a l l e a - de rs o r b u r e a u c r a t s , used t o b u i l d p r i v a t e v i l l a s a t home o r abroad, o r d e p o s i t e d i n p r i v a t e Swiss bank accoun ts " .

What P r e s i d e n t Nyerere was r e f e r r i n g t o i s n o t always o v e r t i n IMF 's t r a n s - a c t i o n s w i t h T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , b u t t h e way t h e y i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n wh ich such loaned f o r e i g n exchange i s t o be u t i l i s e d may i n d i c a t e such h i d d e n f e a r s t h a t p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s and b u r e a u c r a t s may i n d u l g e i n such p rac - t i c e s . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e ma jo r i s s u e t h e Fund seeks t o d i c t a t e .

The m a j o r p o i n t i s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y shareho lde rs i n t h e Fund, a l t h o u g h they have v a r i e d i n t e r e s t s , a r e g e n e r a l l y gu ided by f r e e marke t t h i n k i n g wh ich t h e y b e l i e v e i s s u p e r i o r t o any a l t e r n a t i v e t h i n k i n g . Tha t i s why the moment a T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r y becomes a member o f t h e IMF, i t r e c e i v e s an annual sermon, under t h e g u i s e o f " a r t i c l e XIV consul t a t i o n " , on t h e v i r t u e s o f a b o l i s h i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s on i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e and inves tmen t e t c .

As l o n g as t h i s i s the case, T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s need ing f i n a n c i a l resources

t o suppor t t h e i r balance o f payments have e i t h e r t o accep t t h e med ic ine p res - c r i b e d by t h e power fu l m a j o r i t y o r o t h e r w i s e c h a r t a course away f rom t h e IMF. I n s t e a d o f u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y demanding t h e v o t i n g arrangement i n t h e IMF t o be i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f t h e UN, i . e . one c o u n t r y one v o t e , o r i n s t e a d o f demanding the IMF t o change i n favour o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , these c o u n t r i e s have t o e x p l o r e avenues o t h e r t h a r t h e IMF.

The power fu l members o f t h a t i m p o r t a n t i n s t i t u t i o n a r e n o t v e r y keen t h a t T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s ' economies s h o u l d be r e s t r u c t u r e d o r t h a t n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y over n a t i o n a l p o l i c y mat te rs shou ld be assumed. A l o o k a t t h e v a r i o u s UNCTAD and o t h e r w o r l d conferences show how these i ssues have g e n e r a l l y been vetoed by i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e U.S .A. The power fu l IMF members do n o t y e t r e a l i s e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e and importance o f m u t u a l i t y between them and t h e weaker ones. I f t h e power fu l and wea l thy members o f t h e IMF do n o t see t h e p l i g h t o f t h e poor, t h e poor shou ld t r y t o t h i n k f o r themselves. They shou ld n o t a l l o w themselves t o be pushed around. The "Arusha I n i t i a t i v e " i s , t h e r e f o r e , n o t enough; monetary and f i n a n c i a l problems a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f deep ly - roo ted s t r u c t u r a l problems, which cannot be s o l v e d th rough pure monetary a c t i o n and which can o n l y be s o l v e d w i t h i n T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s ' economies. What i s t h e outcome o f a l l these conferences? The more these conferences p ro - duce a h i g h degree o f r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e p l i g h t o f t h e poor , t h e wea l thy and power fu l become more and more i n s e n s i t i v e t o human s u f f e r i n g .

There have been v a r i o u s proposals t o make t h e IMF more a p p r e c i a t i v e o f t h e problems o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s and t o enhance and o r i e n t i t s c a p a b i l i t i e s t o suppor t t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . Most o f these p r o - posa ls , appear u n r e a l i s t i c . Even some o f the a p p a r e n t l y s e n s i b l e ones w i l l n o t be e a s i l y accep tab le . F o r example, t h e r e has been a proposal towards r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c r i t e r i a o f quota d i s t r i b u t i o n i n o r d e r t o d i l u t e t h e s t r o n g p o s i t i o n o f t h e USA and t h e Western European c o u n t r i e s . Here two fac- t o r s a r e r e l e v a n t , t h e e n t r y i n t o t h e IMF o f t h e Peop le ' s Repub l i c o f China and t h e a c q u i s i t i o n by a few T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s o f massive f i n a n c i a l r e - sources, e s p e c i a l l y through o i l revenues.

The admiss ion o f China t o t h e IMF and t h e Wor ld Bank i s seen by some as a p o s i t i v e s i g n o f a p o s s i b l e change i n t h e power s t r u c t u r e i n t h e IMF and suJsequently a p o s s i b l e f a v o u r a b l e change i n i t s p o l i c y towards needy T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . Th is w i l l n o t be e a s i l y achieved, as China i s j u s t r e c e n t l y resuming c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Western w o r l d . China needs Western techno logy b a d l y t o modernise i t s economy; i t a l s o needs US wheat t o supplement t h e f o o d needs o f i t s ever -g row ing p o p u l a t i o n . I t w i l l , t h e r e f o r e n o t be easy f o r China t o s a c r i f i c e i t s own n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t f o r t h a t o f needy T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , a t l e a s t f o r some y e a r s t o come. The IMF 's power fu l members w i l l always make s u r e t o remain p o w e r f u l . The sweet smel l o f power cannot be e a s i l y r e l i n - quished.

I f on t h e o t h e r hand t h e quotas i n t h e IMF can be changed t o g i v e more r e l a t i v e power t o some o f t h e o i l - r i c h T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , whether they a r e Arab, A f r i c a n , As ian o r L a t i n American, t h i s w i l l n o t have s i g n i f i c a n t impact i n changing t h e b a s i c p o l i c y premises o f t h e IMF towards needy T h i r d World coun- t r i e s . Th is i s so because most of t h e o i l - r i c h T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s w i l l a t

(85) l e a s t n o t be a t v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e b a s i c ph i losophy o f t h e IMF. They, too , w i l l n o t r e l i n q u i s h t h e power t h a t goes w i t h t h e i r money, n o r t h e p h i l o s o p h y t h a t t h e i r money can d i c t a t e .

Moreover, i f t h e r e i s a g l impse o f hope t h a t Western European c o u n t r i e s , rea - l i s i n g t h e i r v i t a l i n t e r e s t w i t h many T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , m i g h t i n d i v i d u a l l y o r as a group a t t e m p t t o i n f l u e n c e IMF p o l i c i e s i n f a v o u r o f needy T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t h i s hope may n o t be fo r thcoming . Each European c o u n t r y has i t s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f how Fund p o l i c i e s m i g h t be shaped. I t w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , be a l o n g t i m e b e f o r e Europe c o u l d evo lve a reasonab le consensus as t o how t h e IMF shou ld h e l p T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . Even i f Europe were t o succeed (as one hopes) i n e v o l v i n g such a p o s i t i v e p o l i c y , i t m i g h t have t o o b t a i n t h e b l e s s i n g o f t h e U.S.A. f o r suchaconsensus t o be o f va lue i n t h e s u p p o r t and development o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . The b a s i c o b j e c t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s towards d i l u t i n g o r do ing away w i t h t h e o r thodox na tu re o f IMF po- l i c i e s , i s t h a t t h e r e s u l t o f such demons t ra t ion c o u l d be i n f l a t i o n a r y and f a t a l t o t h e development o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . What T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s need i s n o t easy u n c o n d i t i o n a l money b u t r e a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e i r econo- mies f rom w i t h i n , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e p l i g h t o f t h e i r poor .

It, t h e r e f o r e , appears t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e t h a t can be done i n t h e immediate f u t u r e b y way o f changing IMF p o l i c i e s , by changing i t s b a s i c s t r u c t u r e . I t s r i c h and power fu l members w i l l l e g i t i m a t e l y n o t r e l i n q u i s h t h e i r h o l d on t h a t power and over what t h e y m i g h t t h i n k s e n s i b l e . I f t h e r i c h and power fu l do n o t themselves r e a l i s e t h e importance o f m u t u a l i t y and e q u i t a b l e in te rdepen- dence, then i t w i l l be q u i t e a task t o make them aware o f these f a c t s .

I n any case, w h i l e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s may proceed i n t h e i r f u t i l e e x e r c i s e s and endeavours, t h e y shou ld a l s o make a cho ice . I f some o f them which need Fund resources b e l i e v e i n t a k i n g IMF med ic ine , they a r e f r e e t o do so. B u t

if o t h e r s re fuse , on t h e s t r o n g b e l i e f t h a t t h e l o c a l w i t c h d o c t o r i s b e t t e r and more e f f e c t i v e than t h e IMF p r e s c r i p t i o n , then they have t o c h a r t t h e i r p o l i c i e s i n such a manner as t o enab le them t o remain away f rom t h e IMF. I t i s a l s o here t h a t " toge therness" among T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s i s o f v i t a l s i g - n i f i c a n c e . I t i s w i t h i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld forum t h a t a deeper a n a l y s i s and i n t e l l e c t u a l unders tand ing i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t . I t i s w i t h i n ourse lves t h a t t h e r e a l s o l u t i o n l i e s . The H o l y Koran i s i n f a c t v e r y emphat ic i n t h i s regards ; i t says:

' L o - A l l a h changeth n o t t h e C o n d i t i o n o f a f o l k u n t i l t hey ( f i r s t ) change t h a t which i s i n t h e i r h e a r t s ; " ( X I I I : 11 ) .

S i m i l a r l y , John S t u a r t M i l l s t a t e s t h a t ,

l ' . . . . . no improvements i n t h e l o t o f mankind a r e p o s s i b l e , u n t i l a g r e a t change takes p l a c e i n t h e fundamental c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e i r modes o f though t . "

One would n o t l i k e t o be pushed i n t o such extreme n o t i o n s as t h a t expressed b y a s t a f f member o f t h e Fund who s a i d t h a t i t w i l l n o t be p o s s i b l e t o change t h e IMF except a f t e r a t h i r d w o r l d war. A f t e r a t h i r d w o r l d war, t h e r e wou ld n e i t h e r be ano ther B r e t t o n Woods n o r a n y t h i n g e l s e i n t h i s Un ive rse , p o s s i b l y o n l y bugs.

( 8 6 )

ALTERNATIVE P O S S I B I L I T I E S FOR HANDLING BALANCE OF PAYMENTS W D DEBT C R I S E S : A T H I RE !lORLD MONETARY FUND by R i c h a r d L . K i t c h e n -\-I

F i v e groups o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s have e s t a b l i s h e d mutual a s s i s t a n c e a r - rangements t o p r o v i d e each o t h e r w i t h balance o f payments c r e d i t s . U s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " c r e d i t agreements", these a re mechanisms t o p r o v i d e mu1 t i- l a t e r a l ba lance o f payments s u p p o r t t o i n d i v i d u a l members who f i n d themselves i n d i f f i c u l t i e s . As such, t h e y may be cons ide red as a l t e r n a t i v e s o r supp le - ments t o the e x i s t i n g IMF f a c i l i t i e s . F i v e such groups e x i s t o f which two, t h e C e n t r a l American Monetary S t a b i l i z a t i o n Fund and LAFTA's F i n a n c i a l A s s i s - tance Agreement opera te i n p a r a l l e l t o those reg ions ' payments c l e a r i n g a r - rangements. The agreements a r e l i s t e d i n t h e annex, and cover a t o t a l 47 c o u n t r i e s . Accord ing t o Gonzalez de l V a l l e , " . . . a common denominator appears t o be t h e i n t e n t i o n t o supplement t h e ba lance o f payments f i n a n c i n g p r o v i d e d by t h e IMF i n o r d e r t o a v o i d r e s t r i c t i o n s on c o n v e r t i b i l i t y a n d l o r exchange r a t e i n s t a b i l i t y . Except i n t h e case o f t h e ASEAN Swap Arrangement, t h e e x i s t i n g c r e d i t agreements e x p l i c i t l y l i n k such ba lance o f payments s u p p o r t t o t h e b roader economic i n t e g r a t i o n and f r e e t r a d e expansion o b j e c t i v e s o f the s u b r e g i o n a l groups formed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s " 7-1':

Members have some au tomat i c d raw ing r i g h t s ( r e l a t e d t o s u b s c r i p t i o n s ) a f t e r which any f u r t h e r bo r row ings a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n d i t i o n s l a i d down by o t h e r members. I n so f a r as t h i s fo rm o f a s s i s t a n c e avo ids t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f im- p o r t r e s t r i c t i o n s and c o m p e t i t i v e d e v a l u a t i o n s , i t suppor ts t h e c l e a r i n g arrangements b y a v o i d i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s on r e g i o n a l t r a d e .

An i n t e r e s t i n g example i s p r o v i d e d by the C e n t r a l American S t a b i l i z a t i o n Fund, which i s f i nanced 40% by members s u b s c r i p t i o n s , and 60% by f o r e i g n bo r row ing . Th is Fund w i l l p r o v i d e l o a n s up t o 1 y e a r m a t u r i t y f o r s h o r t t e r m problems, loans up t o 5 y e a r s f o r c y c l i c a l problems, c r o p f a i l u r e s , d i s a s t e r s , e t c . , and up t o 8 years t o a l l o w f o r s t r u c t u r a l ad justments i n cases o f p e r s i s t e n t ba lance o f payments d i s - e q u i l i b r i u m . The A r t i c l e s o f Agreement o f the Arab Monetary Fund a l s o p r o v i d e f o r " s h o r t and medium t e r m loans t o members f o r a p e r i o d n o t exceed ing 7 y e a r s " ( A r t i c l e 1 9 ) . Such f l e x i b i l i t y can be c o n t r a s - t e d f a v o u r a b l y w i t h t h e s h o r t te rm l e n d i n g and d e f l a t i o n a r y p o l i c i e s o f t h e IMF, wh ich sometimes appear t o be adhered t o r e g a r d l e s s o f the n a t u r e o f t h e problem faced by the c o u n t r y .

The f i v e e x i s t i n g agreements p r o v i d e ba lance o f payments c r e d i t s amounting t o US$1,700 m i l l i o n 2 / . These may be s m a l l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e va lue o f t r a d e

l / Richard L . K i tchen i s a l e c t u r e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Bradford , P r o j e c t - Plann ing Cent re f o r Developing C o u n t r i e s , Bradford West Yorksh i re BD7 lDP, England.

2/ Gonzalez d e l V a l l e , P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t on the f e a s i b i l i t y of g l o b a l pay- - ments arrangements among deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s (Geneva: UNCTAD, 1978, doc . TD/B/C.7/26).

and reserves o f t h e members, b u t f o r i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s they may p r o v i d e s i g n i f i c a n t a d d i t i o n s t o , o r a l t e r n a t i v e s t o , IMF c r e d i t s l/. They a l s o have a s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l r o l e t o p l a y i n t h a t they enable c o n d i t i o n s t o be imposed by o t h e r ne ighbour ing T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s r a t h e r than t h e IMF which i s dominated by the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . W i t h i n t h e agreements t h e r e may be scope f o r expanding t h e volume o f c r e d i t s a v a i l a b l e t o members, w h i l e t h e r e s h o u l d a l s o be scope f o r expanding t h e groups, and f o r co -opera t ion between, o r merging of, groups. As the f i n a n c i a l s t r e n g t h o f T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s inc reases , one can envisage t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r own e q u i v a l e n t s of t h e IMF and t h e Bank f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Se t t lements . If t h e p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l and economic r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e w o r l d t e n d t o remain much as a t p resen t , t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s may f i n d the es tab l i shment of t h e i r own supra -na t iona l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o be an a t t r a c t i v e a1 t e r n a t i v e t o e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and a s t r a t e g y which forms a coheren t p a r t o f t h e NIEO.

The es tab l i shment o f a new T h i r d World Monetary Fund (TWMF) c o u l d be approached by merging the e x i s t i n g arrangements, o r b y s e t t i n g up a new i n s t i t u t i o n . If t h e fo rmer were t h e case, t h e l e a d i n g r o l e would p robab ly f a l l on t h e Arab Monetary Fund, as t h e l a r g e s t and w e a l t h i e s t group. I f a new i n s t i t u t i o n i s t o be e s t a b l i s h e d f rom s c r a t c h , then i t i s l i k e l y t o be v e r y dependent f i n a n - c i a l l y on s u b s c r i p t i o n s o r l o a n depos i t s f rom t h e c a p i t a l s u r p l u s o i l expor- t i n g c o u n t r i e s . E i t h e r way, t h e f i n a l r e s u l t i s l i k e l y t o be b r o a d l y s i m i l a r .

I n o r d e r t o be a l e n d e r which can p r o v i d e s u b s t a n t i a l funds over 5 y e a r s o r longer , a TWMF would r e q u i r e g r e a t e r funds than a r e borrowed a t p r e s e n t f rom t h e IMF. A r t h u r Lewis s t a t e d t h a t " t o f u l l y r i d e a Kuznets depression would r e q u i r e access t o reserves e q u i v a l e n t t o 75% o f a y e a r ' s e x p o r t s . O i l im- p o r t i n g c o u n t r y e x p o r t s l a s t y e a r (1976) amounted t o $118 b i l l i o n . If t h e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s k e p t t h r e e months reserves on t h e i r own, they need stand- by f a c i l i t i e s o f , say, $60 b i l l i o n over 4 y e a r s " 21. However, a Fund c o u l d c e r t a i n l y be s t a r t e d on a much s m a l l e r s c a l e thanP$60 b i l l i o n o v e r 4 years , and a ve ry s i g n i f i c a n t s t a r t c o u l d be made w i t h a fund o f $5-10 b i l l i o n .

T o t a l n o n - o i l T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s ' uses o f IMF c r e d i t a t the end o f A p r i l 1980 amounted t o about SDR 8.5 b i l l i o n ($11.0 b i l l i o n ) . A t t h e end o f 1979, t h e t o t a l reserves o f n o n - o i l e x p o r t i n g T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s amounted t o SDR 85 b i l l i o n ($110 b i l l i o n ) . I n a d d i t i o n , o i l e x p o r t i n g T h i r d World coun- t r i e s h e l d reserves o f SDR 59 b i l l i o n ($76 b i l l i o n ) . C e r t a i n l y the funds a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a c t i n g t o g e t h e r t o p ledge a t o t a l o f up t o $10 b i l l i o n i n i t i a l l y , t o be a v a i l a b l e f o r mutual suppor t a t t imes o f c r i s e s . Such a Fund would p robab ly r e q u i r e quotas and l e n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , b u t such c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d be made a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e problems o f bo r rower and funds c o u l d be p r o v i d e d f o r a l o n g e r t e r m than by t h e IMF. Lending c o n d i t i o n s

I / Nicaragua took the f i n a n c i a l e s tab l i shment by s u r p r i s e i n l a t e 1978 when i t - demonstrated some independence by borrowing $20 m i l l i o n from the Central American Monetary S t a b i l i z a t i o n Fund, a f t e r exper ienc ing some d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h the IMF.

2 / W.A. Lewis, "The l e s s developed c o u n t r i e s and s t a b l e exchange r a t e s " , - Third World Quarterly (Vol . 1 , No. 1, January 1 9 7 9 ) .

would be p r o v i d e d by t h e management o f t h e fund, b u t as the board and manage- ment would come f rom o t h e r T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s may be more accep tab le p01 i t i c a l l y than i f they come f rom t h e e x i s t i n g , North-based IMF. The TWMF shou ld s p e c i a l i s e i n l o n g e r - t e r m l e n d i n g , and i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s c o u l d r e s o r t t o i t a f t e r u s i n g up t h e i r u n c o n d i t i o n a l IMF c r e d i t . (Some T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s may p r e f e r t o leave t h e e x i s t i n g IMF, though.) The TWMF wou ld a l s o be a b l e t o s e t up s p e c i a l funds t o deal w i t h s p e c i a l causes o f payments d e f i c i t s , such as t h e impact o f c l i m a t e (e .g . h u r r i c a n e s ) , o i l p r i c e inc reases , c rop f a i l u r e and crop r e s t r u c t u r i n g , o r t h e impact o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m i n t h e N o r t h .

A f u r t h e r a t t r a c t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e p r e s e n t r e g i o n a l groupings, and u l t i - m a t e l y f o r a TWMF, i s t h a t a p a r t o f members' s u b s c r i p t i o n s may be made i n l o c a l c u r r e n c i e s , and bor row ings may consequent ly be made i n p a r t i n cu r ren- c i e s o f o t h e r members. The use o f each o t h e r ' s c u r r e n c i e s i n t h i s way wou ld encourage i n t r a - T h i r d Wor ld t rade , and p r o v i d e a u s e f u l s t e p p i n g s tone towards e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e u l t i m a t e c o n v e r t i b i l i t y o f T h i r d Wor ld c u r r e n c i e s .

A case can a l s o be argued f o r a mechanism t o enable t h e TWMF t o borrow on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l money markets so t h a t i t can p r o v i d e n o t o n l y medium te rm f i n a n - c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o enable member c o u n t r i e s t o r i d e t h e t r a d e c y c l e , b u t a l s o l o n g te rm f i n a n c e t o enable borrowers ' debts t o be f u l l y r e s t r u c t u r e d l/. There i s c u r r e n t l y no mechanism f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n . The l o n g t e r m f i n a n c e i s l i k e l y t o come f rom t h e Eurocurrency market by bor row ing medium and l e n d i n g long, o r perhaps f rom OPEC. The TWMF would r e q u i r e v e r y sound f i n a n c i a l back ing and guarantees, p r o b a b l y f rom OPEC, so t h a t i t would have t h e c o n f i - dence o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l commercial banks, as does t h e IMF. I t would p r e s e n t a f u r t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r OPEC t o i n c r e a s e i t s commitments t o t h e r e s t of t h e T h i r d World.

The a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e above scheme wou ld be t o r e f o r m t h e IMF so t h a t i t c o u l d p r o v i d e medium and l o n g t e r m f inance , i n much g r e a t e r volume than a t p resen t , and i n t h e s p i r i t o f a development f i n a n c e i n s t i t u t i o n . I n v iew o f t h e apparen t d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a c h i e v i n g these ends w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g IMF T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s m i g h t p r e f e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r own i n s t i t u t i o n . Such an i n c l i n a t i o n was u n d e r l i n e d b y t h e Arusha South-North Conference on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l monetary system. I t c a l l e d f o r a r e - n e g o t i a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r - n a t i o n a l monetary o r d e r and t h e replacement o f t h e IMF b y a new w o r l d monetary body 2/. I f t h e "Arusha I n i t i a t i v e " f a l l s on s t o n y ground, T h i r d Wor ld coun- t r i e s c o u l d work f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a T h i r d Wor ld Monetary Fund.

l/ See, for example, the proposal for a World Development Fund made by the - Brandt Commission.

2 1 See "Arusha Initiative" in IFDA Dossier 19 (September/October 1980) and - Development Dialogue (1980:Z).

Annex Credi t arrangements among developing countr ies as of Ju ly 1918

Of f i c i a l name of e n t i t y and date of establishment

Pa r t i c ipa t ing countr ies

1 . Arab Monetary Fund (1977)

2 . Andean Reserve Fund (1976)

3 . ASEAN Swap Arrangement (1977)

4. Central American Monetary S t ab i l i zation Fund (1974)

5 . Latin American Free Trade Associa t ion ' s Financial Assistance Agreement (1 969)

Alger ia , Bahrain, Egypt, I r aq , Jordan, Kuwai t , Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, People 's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Q a t a r , Saudi Arabia, Somali a , Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen Arab Republic.

Bol iv ia , Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuel a.

Indonesia, Malaysia, Phi l ippines ; Singapore and Thai l and.

Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.

Argentina, Bol iv ia , Braz i l , Colombia, Chi le , Dominican Republ i c , Eq uador, Mexi C O , Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.

US$5OO, 000,000,000 AT OUR- R I S K S AND EXPENSES

The SIPRI Yearbook 1981 shows, with facts and figures, that:

0 World military spending in 1980 was in excess of US $500 thousand million (valued at 1980 prices). The bulk of the expenditure is by NATO and the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO), and they will no doubt continue to dominate during the coming decade.

0 Military spending is more of a burden on the world economy than ever before, since it is now rising nearly as rapidly as the rate of global output.

0 Countries in the Third World have by 1980 nearly doubled their 1971 share of total world spending on the military. Their share is now 16 per cent of the total, as opposed to 9 per cent at the start of the previous decade.

0 International transfers of major weapons continue to increase dramatically. New suppliers and recipients are entering the market and the weapons are becoming more sophisticated and expensive. Most transfers are to Third World countries, and these countries now even export to others in Third World regions.

The United States and the Soviet Union together accounted for 71 per cent of all exports of major weapons during the period 1977-80. The most noticeable rise in this period is that of French arms exports. The largest Third World importing regions were the Middle East and the Far East, two conflict-ridden areas now very heavily armed.

Qualitative developments in strategic and tactical nuclear weapon systems pose an ever greater threat of nuclear war. Their increased accuracy and greater number of warheads per launcher make them more likely to be seen as suitable for fighting a nuclear war than deter- ring one. With the development of nuclear war-fighting capabilities, the concept of 'stable deterrence' has been shown to be unworkable. Although it is tempting to attribute this trend to blind technological momentum, it must in fact be seen as a conscious attempt to exploit nuclear weapons for coercive political ends. The enormous danger inherent in such a deve- lopment is obvious.

0 Nuclear weapon testing continued again in 1980: 49 tests were carried out. From 1945 to the end of 1980, 1 271 nuclear explosions had been carried out by the USA, the USSR, the UK, France, China and India.

0 A significant new weapon trend for the 1980s is indicated by the current revival of interest in the USA and USSR in ballistic missile defence (BMD). Laser beams or interceptors will be directed towards enemy ballistic missiles to destroy them after they are launched. Deploy- ment of such BMD systems would have major ramifications for the stability of the strategic nuclear balance.

0 75% of all satellites orbited since the start of the Space Age have beenfor military purposes. 103 satellites were launched in 1980. Anti-satellite (ASAT) systems will be the most impor- tant space development in the next decade. The USA and the USSR are devoting much rese- arch to high-energy lasers for application in ASAT weapons based both on earth and in space.

The main arms control event in 1980 was the Second Conference to review the operation of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), a multilateral treaty which prohibits the transfer of nuclear weapons and the acquisition of such weapons by countries that do not possess them. The conference stressed the vital role the NPT plays to prevent further nuclear-weapon proli- feration, but it did little to strengthen the Treaty.

0 The second follow-up meeting of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe opened in 1980 to review the Helsinki Final Act and discuss proposals for more effective confidence-building measures and a European Disarmament Conference.

(S tockho lm P e a c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , Sveavagen 166, S-113 46 Stockholm, Sweden. The Yearbook i s p u b l i s h e d by T a y l o r and F r a n c i s L t d , London, WC2B 5NF, UK) .

PLANETARY NETWORKING 1 / by Hazel Henderson -

There a r e many o f us who f e e l t h a t we have been rehears ing f o r a new r o l e as ' p l a n e t a r y networkers ' .

For the p a s t 15 years I have been one o f coun t less thousands b u i l d i n g networks and c o a l i t i o n s , n a t i o n a l l y and a t t h e comnunity l e v e l . The main t h r u s t o f a l l these o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s t o b r i n g about an e q u i t a b l e t r a n s i t i o n t o more human - and more e c o l o g i c a l l y s u s t a i n a b l e - s o c i e t i e s .

Today, as networkers, we a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y c a l l e d on t o embrace t h e p l a n e t a r y dimensions o f complex i ssues : t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c imbalances between c o u n t r i e s o f t h e n o r t h e r n and sou thern hemispheres; t h e r i s i n g r a t e o f e c o l o g i c a l des- t r u c t i o n ; nuc lear p r o l i f e r a t i o n .

I ' m n o t speaking o f some h e r o i c a b s t r a c t e f f o r t a t ' w o r l d o r d e r mode l ing ' o r ' c r i s i s management'. These a r e impor tan t , b u t t o o grand and t h e o r e t i c a l f o r me. We need r e a l models o f a c t u a l s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . The t ime f o r a c t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n has come. Real people a11 over the p l a n e t a r e t e s t i n g new/old values and i n v e n t i n g the techno log ies and s o c i a l i n n o v a t i o n s o f t h e dawning S o l a r Age.

My d e s i r e - shared w i t h o t h e r s i n t h i s persona l , t r u s t i n g network o f ' E a r t h - keepers ' - i s t o t r a n s m i t t h e good news o f these e x c i t i n g , b rave exper iments . I ' v e been f o r t u n a t e enough t o v i s i t many o f these l o c a l i n n o v a t i o n s . I ' m hear tened a t what I f i n d wor ldwide: t h e resurgence o f l o c a l l e a d e r s h i p and s e l f - r e l i a n c e as peop le t a k e back t h e power t h e y once de lega ted t o impersonal governments and huge c o r p o r a t i o n s .

Th is resurgence can be seen i n many areas: t h e tough p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s t o ban n u c l e a r power and h a l t t h e arms race; t h e ' s w e a t - e q u i t y ' p r o j e c t s t o r e v i v e d y i n g urban areas and r u r a l ghos t towns; t h e many c o o p e r a t i v e and neighborhood-based e n t e r p r i s e s t o produce and d i s t r i b u t e goods l o c a l l y ; t h e i n s p i r i n g e f f o r t s t o r e s t o r e the s o i l s , r e f o r e s t and ' re -g reen ' t h e e a r t h and improve n u t r i t i o n and h e a l t h .

A t t h e same t ime, many c o n t i n u e t o e x p l o r e t h e i n n e r dimensions of human p o t e n t i a l .

I n n o v a t i v e c i t i z e n s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e beg inn ing t o use t h e g l o b a l mass media t o amp1 i f y t h e sanc t ions o f pub1 i c o p i n i o n . Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l , f o r exam- p l e , uses such techn iques i n i t s e f f o r t s t o p r o t e c t human r i g h t s .

l / Hazel Henderson, an adv i se r to lLead ing Edge ~ u l l e t i n ' , i s an au tho r i ty on - "a l t e rna t ive economics". She i s the author o f , Creating Al ternat ive Futures (Putnam, 1978) and, The P o l i t i c s of the Solar Age (Doubleday, 1981). Reproduced from Leading Edge Bu l l e t i n , December 22, 1980.

P l a n e t a r y ne twork ing i s s t i l l exper imenta l , pe rsona l , i n t u i t i v e - because E a r t h k e e p i n g ' i s s t i l l a novel i dea . So i s t h e n o t i o n o f s h a r i n g o f i n f o r - m a t i o n i n h e t e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s r a t h e r than h i e r a r c h i e s . So i s t h e concept o f empowering people r a t h e r than w i e l d i n g power over them.

P l a n e t a r y ne twork ing i s t h e o p p o s i t e o f t r a d i t i o n a l ' o l d boys ' ne tworks ' based on g l o b a l e x p l o i t a t i o n and power p o l i t i c s . I n t h e p a s t such groups r u l e d through r o y a l a l l i a n c e s , t h e ' r i g h t ' c lubs , e l i t e u n i v e r s i t y c i r c l e s . They s t i l l c o n t r o l t h e l i v e s of m i l l i ons through m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l domina t ion and by t h e ' p r o t e c t i o n r a c k e t s ' c r e a t e d by our competing n a t i o n - s t a t e s .

Those i n power have s a i d , "You must r e - e l e c t us because we have c r e a t e d such a dangerous w o r l d t h a t you must keep us i n power t o manage t h e dangers we have c r e a t e d " .

A g a i n s t t h i s insane l o g i c , p l a n e t a r y networkers - whose numbers a r e growing - respond by weaving webs o f more h o l i s t i c awareness and emphathet ic conscious- ness. T h e i r webs a r e more i n c l u s i v e , more t r u l y s c i e n t i f i c models o f p l a n e t a r y processes. T h e i r webs a l s o e n f o l d t h e c rumb l ing i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e d y i n g i n d u s t r i a l age i n t h e emerging, s e l f - o r g a n i z i n g p l a n e t a r y c u l t u r e s of t h e S o l a r Age.

WHAT W I L L I T TAKE TO PREVENT NUCLEAR WAR?

You a r e i n v i t e d t o respond t o t h e ques t ion , "What W i l l I t Take t o Preven t Nuc lear War?" f o r a book i n p r e p a r a t i o n which w i l l c o n s i s t o f b r i e f c o n t r i b u - t i o n s f rom a wide v a r i e t y o f persons.

S ince no one seems t o have " the" answer t o t h a t v i t a l q u e s t i o n o f human sur - v i v a l , perhaps everyone has t h e answer. Tha t i s , perhaps c o l l e c t i v e l y we can d i s c o v e r how t o p reven t nuc lear war,

The d e a d l i n e f o r responses i s October 1, 1981. Responses shou ld n o t exceed 300 words, o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f one page. C o n t r i b u t i o n s may be prose, poe t ry , photograph, l i n e drawing o r o t h e r fo rm o f expression. C o n t r i b u t i o n s shou ld i n c l u d e a one-sentence b i o g r a p h i c a l note. A11 responses w i l l be acknowledged; responses accompanied by r e t u r n postage w i l l be re tu rned .

There w i l l be a s p e c i a l s e c t i o n o f responses. f rom c h i l d r e n .

Fac ts , f e e l i n g s , i deas and o u t c r i e s a r e s o l i c i t e d , as a r e t h e vo ices of those who a r e d iscouraged abou t p rospec ts f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e human race.

D o n ' t h e s i t a t e t o speak ou t . Each person i s an e x p e r t i n t h e a r t o f l i v i n g and want ing t o p reserve l i f e . What s e t o f c i rcumstances o r f o r c e s o r peop le o r i n c a n t a t i o n s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o t u r n us f rom t h e b r i n k o f n u c l e a r ho locaus t ; o r i s it, i n y o u r view, v i r t u a l l y t o o l a t e ?

Send y o u r response t o Pa t Farren, 2161 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, M 02140.

IFDA DOSSIER 25 , SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1981

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS

LOCAL SPACE

. E,J, Hobsbawm, W. Ku la, Ashok M i t r a , K . N , Raj and Iqnacv Sachs (eds ) , Peasants i n h i s t o r y , ~ s s a i s i n honour o f ~ a n i e l ~ h o r n e i (Del h i : 0 x f o r d ~ n v e r s i t y Press, 198U), 320 pp.

, Wol f S c o t t , Concepts and measurements o f p o v e r t y (Geneva: UNRISD, 1981 62 PP.

. Aye16 A n t o i n e t t e F o l y e t A l a i n L a f f i t e , An imat ion femin ine dans des com- munautes v i l l a g e o i s e s du Moyen-Chari, M (Douala: I n s t i t u t p a n a f r i c a i n pour l e developpement, 1981), 76 pp.

, Baudouin J u r d a n t , Hommes e t langues du T i e r s Monde (S t rasbourg : 1981), 72 pp. OU i 1 e s t q u e s t i o n des r a i s o n s d ' u n e i n i t i a t i o n a l a d imension humaine des ' r e a l i t e s ' du T i e r s Monde dans l e s e c o l e s p r i m a i r e s s u i v i d 'une p r o p o s i - t i o n pour c r e e r une a s s o c i a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e pour 1a r e a l i s a t i o n de c e p ro - j e t .

. Ken Darrow, Kent K e l l e r , R i c k Pam, A p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g l sourcebook, z, I 1 ( S t a n f o r d : Vo lun tee rs i n As ia , 1981), 496 pp. A g u i d e t o p r a c t i c a l books - and p l a n s f o r v i l l a g e and smal l community techno logy (FOB 4543, S t a n f o r d , Ca 94305, USA). As t h e Ceylon D a i l y News p u t i t , ' a goldmine on a p p r o p r i a t e techno logy ' . , Ke lga 01 kowski and t h e s t a f f o f t h e F a r a l l o n e s I n s t i t u t e , The i n t e g r a l u rban house, S e l f - r e l i a n t l i v i n g i n t h e c i t y (San F ranc isco : S i e r r a Club Books, 1979) , 494 pp.

, W a l t e r S tahe l and Genevieve Reday-Mulvey, Jobs f o r tomorrow, The p o t e n t i a l f o r s u b s t i t u t i n g manpower f o r energy (New York: Vantage Press, 1981 ) , 116 pp.

. E m i l i o Lebre La Rovere, Energ ie, env i ronnement e t s o c i e t e : une bibliographic s e l e c t i v e ( P a r i s : CIRED, 1981), 84 pp.

. B u l l e t i n o f Peace Proposa ls , s p e c i a l i s s u e on Peace e d u c a t i o n (211981) . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Peace Research I n s t i t u t e , Radhusgaten 4, Os lo 1, Norway,

, C h a k r a v a r t h i Raghavan, ' W i l l t h e Brand t Repor t k i l l p r i m a r y h e a l t h c a r e ? ' , Wor ld H e a l t h Forum (Vo l . 2, No, 2, 1981), pp. 281-283.

NATIONAL SPACE

. J u s t i n i a n F, Rweyamamu, 'The f o r m u l a t i o n o f an i n d u s t r i a l s t r a t e g y f o r Tanzania ' , A f r i c a Development ( V o l . V I , No. 1, 1981), pp, 5-19.

P.N. Haksar, Premoni t ions - I m p e r a t i v e s o f change (Bombay: I n t e r p r e s s , 1979), 252 ppi A h i g h l y educa t ing c o l l e c t i o n o f essays, and a fo rward - l o o k i n g p o s t s c r i p t , by t h e eminent I n d i a n p lanner , d i p l o m a t and Prime M i n i s - t e r ' s a d v i s o r ,

Frank Long, ' C a p i t a l goods p r o d u c t i o n i n a smal l deve lop ing economy, t h e g e n e r a t i o n of i n t e r m e d i c t e technology i n food p rocess ing : A case s t u d y o f Guyana, Man and Development ( V o L 11, No. 4), pp. 47-60.

O l i v i e r Godard, Aspects i n s t i t u t i o n n e l s de l a g e s t i o n i n t e g r e e des r e s - sources n a t u r e l l e s e t de l ' env i ronnement ( P a r i s / E d i t i o n s de l a Maison des Sciences de 1 'Homme, l98O), 110 pp.

0 ; Godard, J. B a i l l o n , J.P. Ceron, S u b s t i t u t i o n s e t economie s o c i a l e des ressources n a t u r e l l e s ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s de l a Maison des Sciences de llHomme, 1980), 264 ppi

THIRD WORLD SPACE

. T h i r d Wor ld Forum/United Nat ions U n i v e r s i t y , Arab a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s (Ca i ro : T h i r d World Forum, 1981). A p r o j e c t d e s c r i p t i o n o f a new ma jo r under- t a k i n g d i r e c t e d by I s m a f l - S a b r i Abdal la . Copies o f t h e b rochure c o u l d be o b t a i n e d f rom t h e TWF, P d . Box 43, Orman, Ca i ro , Egypt) , 36 pp.

CEPAL Review, December 1980 i n c l u d e s papers b y Osvaldo Sunkel ( 'The i n t e r - a c t i o n between s t y l e s o f development and t h e envi ronment i n L a t i n America ' ) , Ignacy Sachs ( 'Development s t r a t e g i e s w i t h moderate energy requ i rements l ) ,

Fernando Henr ique Cardoso ( 'Development and Environment: t h e B r a z i l i a n c a s e ' ) .

, UN Economic and S o c i a l Commission f o r A s i a and t h e P a c i f i c , I n t e r - C o u n t r y i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r economic and t e c h n i c a l co -opera t ion among deve lop ing As ian and P a c i f i c c o u n t r i e s , Vol. 11, Non governmental and n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s (Bangkok: U n i t e d Nat ions , 1980), 182-

. P e t e r W i l l e t t s , The Non-Aligned Movement, The o r i g i n s o f a T h i r d World a l l i a n c e (London: Frances P i n t e r Ltd. , 1978), 310 pp.

L Gamini Senev i ra tne , Economic Cooperat ion among deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s , @ dimensions i n t h e t h r u s t f o r c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e (New York: U n i t e d Nat ions , 1980), 48 pp.

. Ken Laid law, Roy L a i s h l e y , Fund f o r t h e f u t u r e , UNCTAD's Common Fund f o r Commodities (Brookdale, E. Sussex: Development Press Serv ice , 19801, 48 pp.

K h a d i j a Haq (ed) , A g l o b a l agenda f o r t h e E i g h t i e s (Washington DC: SID N o r t h South Roundtable, 1981) S e c r e t a r i a t ' s address: 1717 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington DC, USA), 128 pp. W i t h papers by Ken Dadzie, Mahbub u l Haq, Jan Pronk, Enr ique I g l e s i a s , Don M i l l s , Salah AI-Shaikhly , J u s t i n i a n Rweyemamu, I s m a f l - S a b r i Abda l la and J u d i t h H a r t p resen ted a t t h e Ottawa meet ing o f t h e NS Roundtable, November 1980.

Guia d e l Tercer Mundo 1981 (Mexico: Cuadernos d e l Tercer Mundo, 1981) H i s t o r i a , geogra f ia , economia, p o l i t i c a , e s t a d i s t i c a s y mapas de mas de 160 pa ises . 632 pp.

. I s t v a n Dobozi (ed ) , The economic cho ices of sma l l c o u n t r i e s i n a changing w o r l d envi ronment (Budapest: Hungarian S c i e n t i f i c Counc i l f o r Wor ld Economy, 1981), 192 pp,

. Bohdan Hawrylyshyn, Road maps t o t h e f u t u r e , Towards more e f f e c t i v e s o c i - e t i e s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1980), 194 pp. A new r e p o r t t o t h e Club o f Rome.

. A u r e l i o Peccei , 100 pages pour 1 ' a v e n i r ( P a r i s : Economics, 1981 ) , 174 pp. R e f l e x i o n s du p r e s i d e n t du Club de Rome.

, C o l i n Norman, M i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s a t work: P r o d u c t i v i t y and jobs i n t h e w o r l d economy (Washington: Worldwatch papers 39, 1980), 64 pp.

. A l a i n Revel e t Chr i s tophe Riboud, Les E ta ts -Un is e t 1a strategic al imen- t a i r e mond ia le ( P a r i s : Calmann-Levy, 1981), 300 pp,

, Douglas Wi l l i ams, Roger Young, T a k i n s tock : Wor ld food s e c u r i t y i n t h e E i g h t i e s (Ottawa: North-South I n s t b , 76 pp.

. The Great M i l k Robbery (Brusse ls : Agenor, 1981), 22 r u e de Toulouse, 1040 Brusse ls . A r e p o r t on EEC's d a i r y p o l i c y , why i t c o s t s so much, who b e n e f i t s and what t h e l e f t c o u l d do about it. 32 pp,

. Jorge Loyoza (ed) , A s i a and t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order (Ox fo rd : Pergamon Press, 1981 ).

. Comision sobre l a p a r t i c i p a c i o n de l a s I g l e s i a s en e l d e s a r r o l l o , La t r a n s - n a c i o n a l i z a c i o n de America l a t i n a y l a m i s i o n de l a s i g l e s i a s (Ginebra: Consejo Mundia l de I g l e s i a s , 1981). Docurnento de l a c o n s u l t a l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a sobre empresas t ransnac iona les . 60 pp. Vease IFDA Doss ie r 23, 'The I t a i c i Message on t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , pp. 71-73.

CO-OPTING FREI RE

Two mis takes were made i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Ross K idd and Kr i shna Kumar paper, Co-op t ing F r e i r e : a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f pseudo-Frei rean a d u l t e d u c a t i o n (IFDA D o s s i e r 24, pp 25-39). C o n t r a r y t o what has appeared, none o f t h e au thors i s a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l f o r A d u l t Educat ion. K r i shna Kumar i s w i t h t h e I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Educa t ion (128/2 Karve Road, ~ o t h r u d , Pune 411 029, I n d i a ) , whereas Ross K i d d ' s address i s 35 Char les S t . W 414, Toronto, M4Y 1R6, Canada. The Secre ta ry General o f t h e ICAE i s Budd L , H a l l , Anoloqies t o a l l .

Ignacy Sachs e t a l ,

INITIATION A L'ECODEVELOPPENENT

La n o t e p u b l i e e dans l e Doss ie r FIPAD Grenobl e comme l 'adresse de 1 ' @ d i t e u r (14, r u e des A r t s ) . Nos excuses.

24, p. 40, au s u j e t de c e t ouvrage donne P r i v a t , a l o r s q u ' i l s ' a g i t de Toulouse

PEOPLE AHEAD OF GOVERNMENTS 1 / by James Grant -

Structural change is certainly a most difficult thing to accom- plish, but on the other hand we have had a remarkable amount of structural change in the past 30 years. The significant thing is that most of this change has been brought about by public pres- sure, with people being ahead of governments.

A series of revolutions of this kind have had a major impact in recent decades. The outstanding example is the national libera- tion movements, which have all been against governments. The civil rights movement in the U.S. was another case of people being ahead of the government and forcing change. And the en- vironmental and women's movements have been other recent examples.

So we do see a lot of structural change by people-led movements, and - at least in democracies - people-led movements then stimu- late parliamentary-led movements.

l/ Excerpted from Compass, Newsletter of the Society for International - Development, Palazzo Civilits del Lavoro, 00144 Rome, Italy, v. 8, January-April 1981.

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