Koster Social Social-Mechanics GDC2011

8/4/2019 Koster Social Social-Mechanics GDC2011

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Social Mechanics

The Engines Behind

Everything Multiplayer

Raph Koster

VP Creative Design


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Social Mechanics

The Engines Behind

Everything Multiplayer

Raph Koster

VP Creative Design


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GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games

What are we going to do?

Go very fast.

Over 160 slides.

I could not restrain myself.


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Go very fast.

Over 160 slides.

I could not restrain myself.


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The core 40 mechanics

of multiplayer games. Yes, all of them.

No further designrequired -- ever.*


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The core 40 mechanics

of multiplayer games. Yes, all of them.

No further designrequired -- ever.*

* For certain values of ever.


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Theyll be marked like this:

For your tweetingconvenience!


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9/189GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games


We will touch briefly ongamegrammar




and on economic theory




The famed psychologistStanley Milgram




1940s science fiction




a game called Werewolf

And




a somewhat lengthy

discursion into

structuralist

anthropology,

for which I apologize, but not asmuch as for the time spent on




a little

Derrida.



But first

A good game should focus entirely on it's single-playe

first and foremost. Then if it's a simple game like a shooteuse the remaining time and space to fit in a multi-player it In other words, multi-playing should never take awaysingle-player aspect of the game. Pure multi-player gam

should be few and far between.

-- the unfortunately named New Troll, Escapist Forum


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True single-player

1 v. self/system



Defining a single player game

A game that is not played in opposition to, or in pwith, or collaboratively with, someone els


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(In other words, hardly anything.)


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Boundaries

The boundary of a game is not the board, event, w


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Boundaries

Consider: is training part of the game?


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Boundaries

How abou


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Boundaries

The true boundary of a game is based on where actican legally affect gameplay stop. Training yes, dop


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Boundaries

The true boundary of a game is based on where actican legally affect gameplay stop. Training yes, dop


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Helping

The simplest form of multiplayer, present even

player games, is simple advice and assisAn outgrowth of spectating.


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Helping




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Helping




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Parallel symmetric

1 v system vs 1 v system


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Parallel symmetric games


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Status

Quantifying a players achievement against the syste

opponent.

Typically becomes multiplayer when relative status compared.


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Status

Quantifying a players achievement against the syste

opponent.

Typically becomes multiplayer when relative status compared.


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Races

The first user to reach a given status level wins.

(The basic boardgame, and basic sport)


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Races

The first user to reach a given status level wins.

(The basic boardgame, and basic sport)


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Leaderboards

Compete in asynchronous parallel with all historicaattempts.


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Leaderboards

Compete in asynchronous parallel with all historicaattempts.


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Parallel asymmetric

1 vs system, vs 1 vs another system


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A hypothetical arcade game

The player is playing nested games of

1. Steering the ship2. Hitting the asteroids with lasers

3. Dodging asteroids and bullets and UFOs

4. Getting advice from her friend over the shoulder

5. Getting as high a score as she can

6. To brag to her friend that she beat him7. And competing against everyone who has played this particul

machine

This nesting quality will be important


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Scaling parallel

Scaling parallel symmetric play to large numbers is

do in a time-bounded way. For example, a few people can play an arcade game on

other and compare

or an infinite amount can play against everyone everhigh score table

But how do you do a medium size number?


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TournamentsBrackets are often a game

of their own distinct

from the scoring orstatus comparison.


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Of course, tournaments

are often used for


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Opposition

1 vs 1


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Opposition

1 vs 1


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GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics fo Social Games

Rival and non-rival goods

A rival good is something that cannot be used

by someone else at the same time.

A non-rival good is stuff likeinformation, or the public par


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Flower-picking

Non-zero-sum resource consumption: You compete

stuff, but there is always more stuff.

Speed-up arrows on a race track even pickups in many games.


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Flower-picking

Non-zero-sum resource consumption: You compete

stuff, but there is always more stuff.

Speed-up arrows on a race track even pickups in many games.


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Dot-eatingZero-sum resource co

(also territory, in a grap

Players compete to get stuff, and whatever I get, you can


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Dot-eatingZero-sum resource co

(also territory, in a grap

Players compete to get stuff, and whatever I get, you can

f


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Tug of war

I can take your stuff, you can take my stuff.

Exactly like zero-sum status.

The engine behind all combat games.

f


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Tug of war

I can take your stuff, you can take my stuff.

Exactly like zero-sum status.

The engine behind all combat games.

H di i


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Handicapping

Artificially equalizing status in ordeprovide a tighter race.

S


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Secrets

In game theory terms, imperfect information as a rivalrous good.

Fog of war, hands of cards, etc.


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Multifront opposition

1 vs 1 vs 1 vs n

G h


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Gutscheras terms

At GDC 2009 K. Robert Gutschera used different terms tha

Orthogames: games with a statistical rating outcome

Parallel symmetric games: races (OK, same term here)

Brawls: gluing together 2 player orthogames.

Politics start when you have a choice of whom to interact

Ri l d h i


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Rival goods mechanics

Several forms of brawls depend on treating resour

within the game, such as

Health

as rival goods.

Ri l d h i


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Health

Survival

as rival goods.

Ri l d h i


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Health

Survival

as rival goods.

T k t f


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Take many tugs of war

L t t di


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Last man standing

Biddi


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Bidding

Mediate youtug of

via a rivalro

Biddi


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Bidding

Mediate youtug of

via a rivalro

S i l ff t d d h i ti


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Social effects depend on humanization

Numerous social science experiments have found thvariety of psychological effects only occur when wthe interlocutor is human, or like us.

The Milgram buzzer experiment

Zimbardos work

(Mirror neurons are all the rage.)

S i l ff t d d h i ti


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Social effects depend on humanization

Numerous social science experiments have found thvariety of psychological effects only occur when wthe interlocutor is human, or like us.

The Milgram buzzer experiment

Zimbardos work

(Mirror neurons are all the rage.)


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Deception and bluffing


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Once secrets are treated as goods, misinformation bform of tug-of-war.




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Once secrets are treated as goods, misinformation bform of tug-of-war.


3rd party betting


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3rd party betting

3rd parties play a bidding game against a rivalrous repool, based on the outcome of a multiplayer game

Prisoners Dilemma


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Prisoner s Dilemma

Teammates with secrets from each other who must independently to collaborate or both lose.

Except by dpla

Kriegspiel


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Kriegspiel

Credited to Von Reiswitz

First used around 1812 as a form of training for the Pru

Kriegspiel


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Kriegspiel

Credited to Von Reiswitz

First used around 1812 as a form of training for the Pru

Kriegspiel


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Kriegspiel

Popularized by science fiction writers H G Wells wrote Floor Games (1911) and Little Wars (1913)

Which led to Fletcher Pratt designing naval wargames in the 1940s

Kriegspiel


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Kriegspiel

Some of whom went on to invent the think tank.

Kriegspiel


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Kriegspiel

Some of whom went on to invent the think tank.

Gamesmaster pattern


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Gamesmaster pattern

A multiplayer game that relieson a third party to direct thegame an evolution of thenon-mechanic referee.

(U

Gamesmaster pattern


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Gamesmaster pattern

A multiplayer game that relieson a third party to direct thegame an evolution of thenon-mechanic referee.

Leads directly

to

(U


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Small groups

n vs n

Werewolf


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Werewolf

Aka Mafia, etc

A game where players have secret roles Villager, werewolf, various other small optional ones

Werewolf


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Werewolf

Aka Mafia, etc


Werewolf


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Werewolf

Aka Mafia, etc


Werewolf


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Werewolf

Wolves get to kill off villagers, Villagers get to lynch

Tons of these mechanics are present: deception, PrisonDilemma, brawls, gamemaster

Werewolf


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Werewolf

Wolves get to kill off villagers, Villagers get to lynch

Tons of these mechanics are present: deception, PrisonDilemma, brawls, gamemaster

Roles


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RolesSpecialization into different games within one group

Roles


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RolesSpecialization into different games within one group

Hot potato/ganging up


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Rotation of roles within a multiplayer game (often acreating ad-hoc groups.

Think of tag



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Rotation of roles within a multiplayer game (often acreating ad-hoc groups.

Think of tag

Tag


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Tag

Layering of multiplayer mechanics gives way to whole new

Add secrets: Blind Mans Bluff.

Add dot eating: Duck Duck Goose (compete for the chair)

Addflower-picking: Freeze tag.

Addgrouping: Cops and Robbers.

But then theres Olly Olly Oxen Free! (or whatever) whaabout?

Rituals


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Rituals

Ceremonies marking significant role transitions witsocial structure.

Rituals


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Rituals

Ceremonies marking significant role transitions witsocial structure.

Functionalism


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Functionalism

Sociology and anthropology used to see all of groupinteraction as being about structure: groups as orthat make the body work.

Today the field has moved on, but its a useful lens fmultiplayer game designers!

Ritualism and lifecycles


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Ritualism and lifecyclesCompare Robert Mertons theory of deviance to player lifec

1. First, users try to conform to the rules as they work to understa

2. Then they try to innovate and reach the goals in new ways.

3. Then they keep doing things the right way but stop caring abobjective. This is called ritualism, and he has a great Hopi rain example.

4. Then theyretreat and stop caring about the goal orthe metho

5. Finally, theyrebeland start doing their own thing.

Common rituals


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Common rituals Transitions of state (birth, marriage, death, levelling up)

Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of

transitions of state) Religious (requests for intervention)

These are often marked by mechanics such as

Changes of uniform

Gatherings But above allgifts.

Common rituals


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Common rituals Transitions of state (birth, marriage, death, levelling up) Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of

individual transitions of state) Religious (requests for intervention)

These are often marked by mechanics such as Changes of uniform Gatherings But above allgifts.

Common rituals


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individual transitions of state) Religious (requests for intervention, comfort)


Common rituals


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Common rituals


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C Transitions of state (birth, marriage, death, levelling up) Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of



Gifts are ubiquitous


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q

We give away the bride



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q


We give gifts at major holidays



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q


We give gifts at major holidaysWe gift the land with a bride at solstice



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q



We give gifts to the dead to take with them



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q




We give gifts at weddings



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q





We give gifts to babies



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q





We give gifts to babies

We throw t-shirts at hockey games

Gifts


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Transferring a rivalrous good to another actor in ordincrease their status.

Gifts


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Transferring a rivalrous good to another actor in ordincrease their status.

Gift theory


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y

Marcel Mauss in Essai sur le Don Gifts are never free to either party.

Reciprocal exchange is typical. Failure to return a gift in Polynesia costs you mana.

There are three steps: give, receive, reciprocate. Each ceach can have consequences.

Gifts are inalienable they always retain their sourc

Kashmiri anecdote


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A Kashmiri tale tells of two Brahmin womtried to fulfill their obligations for alms-

simply by giving alms back and forth toanother. On their deaths they were traninto two poisoned wells from which no drink, reflecting the barrenness of this wsimulacrum of giving.

--Wikipedia, summarizing an anecdote itself summarized in Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Property,who got it

Reciprocity


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p y

In an iterativesimulation, the social

expectation of afuture return of a gift.

Reciprocity


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p y

In an iterativesimulation, the social

expectation of afuture return of a gift.

Tiers of economy


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y

Non-market economies: no concept of price

Generalized reciprocity:just give, whee, no expectations! Reciprocity resides in satisfaction, social closeness. In western society this te

gifting between family members, etc

Balanced reciprocity: expectation of a return gift at an undefined futu Still pretty informal. This is where social game gifting tends to reside.

Negative reciprocity: barter systems, which enable transactions betwe

strangers. A way to establish friendly relations when meeting strangers.

Mentoring & twinking


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Onboarding and socializing group members via the giftinnon-

Giving a

Or Mwhen

Anex

soci

y



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Giving a

Or Mwhen

Anex

soci

y



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Giving a

Or Mwhen

Anex

soci

y

Identity


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Means of displaying status and role via rivalrous goo

Extremely important with groups, from skins vs shirts

gear, etc.

Ostracism


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Group removal via denial of common resources.


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Networks

Scale-free social structures

Clustering


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Until now we have talked about groups, which kindlike this:

In social networking theory, these are called cluster And they often have weak ties to other clusters.

Clustering


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Clustering


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Networks


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Technical term: scale-free networks.

A very particular sort of structural pattern and unhuman society.

Networks


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Technical term: scale-free networks.

A very particular sort of structural pattern and unhuman society.

Oddly, social network gamesmakevery poor use of social

network theory

Preferential attachment


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Rich get richer syndrome

A new person coming into a network tends to pick the

popular node to connect to.

Preferential attachment


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GDC 2011: Raph Koster Social Mechanics for Social Games

Rich get richer syndrome

A new person coming into a network tends to pick the

popular node to connect to.

Power laws


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The mathematical distribution of popularity of link destin

There are consequences to this distribution. Median lower than the mean Unknowability of the network Unequal information dissemination Network longevity and hub vulnerability

Bose-Einstein condensate


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Aphase transitionwhere a networks power law getsextremely kinked that a single hub dominates:

Windows operating system

Tiger Woods win-loss record earlier in his career

The winning kingdom in Shadowbane

Channel capacity & sympathy group


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Lots of evidence to suggest that your

knowable part of the network is limited Robin Dunbar, monkeysphere etc

This leads to special mechanics when

dealing with nodes at different graphdistances.

Trust


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Trust up close and its non-transitive!

Reputation at midrange

Faith at a distance (aka social contract)

Trustl d


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Trust up close and its non-transitive!

Reputation at midrange

Faith at a distance (aka social contract)

Homogeneity


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Tightly linked nodes tend to be homogeneous likinsame things

This also introduces interesting liabilities in gameplay

As those with kids know, ones peer group carries msocial weight than authority

Combined with trust and other network characterisget

Guilds/tribes


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Association of self-similar nodes into a multi-clustenetwork with its own social identity

Guilds/tribes


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Association of self-similar nodes into a multi-clustenetwork with its own social identity

Guilds vs Neighbor Structures


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T. B. Naik specifies these as the identifiers oftribes:

social distance from other tribes

frequency of contact

community of interests

scale

compactness and self-sufficiency

politically organized

customary laws multifarious economic pursuits

Impact of scale


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Different social structures at different scales:

BandsNo fixed home

"Egalitarian" leadership

No real bureaucracy

No lawsUnstratified culture

TribesA single home

"Egalitarian" or "big-man"

Organized resource extraction

Still unstratified

ChieMan

Castes

Cronyism

Bureau

Taxes, indens

Public

Luxuri

Dozens Hundreds Th

Impact of scale


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Different social structures at different scales:

BandsNo fixed home

"Egalitarian" leadership

No real bureaucracy

No lawsUnstratified culture

TribesA single home

"Egalitarian" or "big-man"

Organized resource extraction

Still unstratified

ChieMan

Castes

Cronyism

Bureau

Taxes, indens

Public

Luxuri

Dozens Hundreds Th

Segregation and genocide


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Mathematical simulations show that given a petri dstructures always

Self-segregate

Annihilate each other

Exclusivityh f d d h


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The use of identity and otherearlier mechanics tomanipulate the value ofrivalrous and non-rivalrous

goods.

Also known as velvet rope.

ExclusivityTh f id i d h


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The use of identity and otherearlier mechanics tomanipulate the value ofrivalrous and non-rivalrous

goods.

Also known as velvet rope.


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Massive groups

Designing games at the societal level

OK, I have to stop and say this.


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Massive groups

Designing games at the societal level

Social games have the largest game canvasin all of HISTORY.

And yet social games are designedprimarily at the single-player level, with

minor multiplayer mechanics.

From here on up, its uncharted territory.

But it is also the potentialand the future

and the GLORY of social games.

Swapping models


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The functionalist way to look at things is:

Game systems that are problems of control andcoordination at a societal level

-- Herb

Resource distribution, goods production, etc.

Structuralism


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The sequel to functionalism! More of an emotional

also now out of favor:

Meaning produced and reproduced via practiceactivities that are systems of signification

-- Claude Lvi-Strauss

(Such as games)

Guild vs guild


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Large-scale interactions using available systems to ccompetition between social entities

Trade and contract


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Formalized means of allowing mutually beneficialinteractions between overly-distant nodes on the

Trade and contract


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Formalized means of allowing mutually beneficialinteractions between overly-distant nodes on the

MMOs versus social games


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MMOs developed stronger social structures than sogames, because they had shared economic particip

despite not having constancy.

Social games usually have constancy without sharedeconomic participation!

Anthony Giddens


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Social structure as game rules

Ant farming or goldfish bowl

Structure, Modality, Interaction Structure is the rules and resources

Modalityhow structures become action.

Interactionwhat the actor actually does

This analogizes directly to the forms of rules in Ruleor to the MDA framework.

Post-structural thinking


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A challenge:

A lot of post-structural thinking is about seeing pastand to shades of gray.

Moving beyond dualities such as neighbor and not,

not.

Games do this poorly. But

The PASES model


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Five general ways of building large, shades-of-gray social structmultiplayer games:

PoliticsArts

Science

Economics

Sociology


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Politics

Influence and social control

Actors of any distance from the

Elections


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Actors of any distance from the

interaction apply a rivalrous good towards

an objective metric that applies

network-wide.

orA

the

Reputation, influence and fame


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Quantified signifiers for social currency, and formalspending of this rivalrous good.

Conflict theory


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The European post-structuralism:

Structures are developed out of conflict betweenwith differing interests and resources.

Bartle


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Structure vs agency


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The big question: are we locked into the game desig

Structure creates habitus a structure of mind, a set o

schemata what goes without saying for a group -- PBourdieu

The same question as socialization vs autonomy.

Structuration


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Anthony Giddens in 1984 had an answer:

Social life is both the small andthe big

People constantly reinforce and extend the structure tactions

And the structure constrains what they can do

So theres a reflexive action that makes things changoverall, slowly.

Which leads to interesting game problems such as

Public goods


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Like a multiple player prisoners dilemma. Public gonon-rivalrous, so there is a temptation to enjoy th

with no contribution. For example, breathing. Pubparks.

Tragedy of the Commons


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Flip side of public goods: if they are rivalrous, then tget used up. Classic example, the commons in a v

Or spawns, territory, etc. The game is insolving the

unsolvable.

Tragedy of the Commons


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Flip side of public goods: if they are rivalrous, then tget used up. Classic example, the commons in a v

Or spawns, territory, etc. The game is insolving the

unsolvable.

An

Community

h l O


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Where we start playing games on YOU.

A properly managed community is structuration and becomes the ultimate political game


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Science

Figuring out how things work

ARGs and Puzzles


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Ridiculously complex puzzles can be solved by hive brains.

ARG puzzles such as image-based steganography hidden innoise in a poster. Combat system algorithms in an MMO

Underlying logical rules discovered via experimental mequals

Strategy guidesThe transformation of rule-based secrets into a pub


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The transformation of rule based secrets into a pub


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Sociology

The guts of sociability

MLS


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Multilevel Selection Theory

Natural selection can be affected by cooperationgroup level.

-- David Sloan Wilson

TeamworkThe aggregation of social mechanics leading to the emergen


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The aggregation of social mechanics leading to the emergengreater across-the-board competence.

Wisdom of Crowds, DPS system

Interdependence and scaling issue

S l f k hi hl i l d f f il


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Scale-free networks are highly insulated from failure.

But collapse occurs if hubs are suddenly removed.

If your game design has hubs and one breaks

(cfStar Wars Galaxies, Pirates of the Burning Sea)


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Economics

Fundamental multiplayer dilemma


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The game equivalent of psychologys Fundamental Attribu

The basic premise of economics is mutual improvemoptimal distribution of resources.

Its a way for a group to level up.

This is anathema to games.

Veblen goods

A d h l f f b i h i


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A good where peoples preference for buying them ibecause of their price.

Luxury cars Limited Edition virtual items

See also: soulbinding, level limits, etc.

Services

Cl d l b f f t i


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Classes and roles can be seen as forms of asymmetri

Even mechanic #1, helping is a service!

So are numerous others on the list.

In other cases, mechanics are premised in unequalcontributions.

All of these aregenerally non-quantifiable.

Therefore, cheating

R d F KidT d l


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Randy Farmers KidTrade proposal Gifting Twinking

Gifting + Multiple Chars/ServerMuling

Gifting + Messaging + Trust Trading

Trading Messaging Trust + In World Machinery Robust Trading

Robust Trading + Scarcity+ Liquidity External Market (eBay)

External Market Trust + In World Machinery GOM

Gifts inevitably cause Real Money Trade, which is a

Allowing unequal quantified valuations of the same

Arbitrage


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g q qarise within the system, and permitting trade thatthem.

Allowing unequal quantified valuations of the same

Arbitrage


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g q qarise within the system, and permitting trade thatthem.

Supply chains


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Cascading inequal valuations of goodsin sequence.


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Arts

The act of invention

Games Are


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Games Are

solving statistically varied challenge situations present

opponent who may or may not be algorithmic within a fthat is a defined systemic model.

-- me

Statistical variations are handcrafted, randomized o

User generated content


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Forums.

Character art.

Roleplay narratives. Fan fiction.

Player conventions.

Weddings.

Game maps.

The game has to be designed to encompass and permit this so

User generated content


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Forums.

Character art.

Roleplay narratives. Fan fiction.

Player conventions.

Weddings.

Game maps.

The game has to be designed to encompass and permit this so


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Deconstruction

Taking it all apart

Remember the quote?


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A good game should focus entirely on it's single-playefirst and foremost. Then if it's a simple game like a shoote

use the remaining time and space to fit in a multi-player it In other words, multi-playing should never take awaysingle-player aspect of the game. Pure multi-player gam

should be few and far between.

-- the unfortunately named New Troll, Escapist Forum

DerridaAs a turning toward the presence, lost or impossible, of the absent o


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g p , p ,structuralist thematic of broken immediateness is thus the sad, nenostalgic, guilty, Rousseauist facet of the thinking of freeplay of whNietzschean affirmation-the joyous affirmation of the freeplay of t

without truth, without origin, offered to an active interpretation-wother side. This affirmation then determines the non-center otherwloss of the center.And it plays the game without security. For therefreeplay: that which is limited to the substitution of given and existpieces. In absolute chance, affirmation also surrenders itself togenindetermination, to the seminaladventure of the trace.

-- Structure, Sign, and Play in the H

DerridaAs a turning toward the presence, lost or impossible, of the absent o


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g p , p ,structuralist thematic of broken immediateness is thus the sad, nenostalgic, guilty, Rousseauist facet of the thinking of freeplay of whNietzschean affirmation-the joyous affirmation of the freeplay of t

without truth, without origin, offered to an active interpretation-wother side. This affirmation then determines the non-center otherwloss of the center.And it plays the game without security. For therefreeplay: that which is limited to the substitution of given and existpieces. In absolute chance, affirmation also surrenders itself togenindetermination, to the seminaladventure of the trace.

-- Structure, Sign, and Play in the H

Griefing


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Griefing can be an act of game literacy: engaging in

ultimate transgressive play with the system,Or the act of virtual soc

For brawls and races, see Characteristics of Multiplayer Games: Lessons from the World of Paper Gam

Hidden info


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, f p y f f pGutschera, GDC2009.

The MDA framework is described inMDA: A Formal Approach to Game Design and Game ResearchLeBlanc, and Zubek.

I recommend Linkedby Albert-Lazslo Barabasi for an intro to social networks, and Influence by Robmore on influence structures. And of course you read Rules of Play and Designing Virtual Worlds rig

For more on network structures, I refer you to my GDC2003 presentation Small Worlds: CompetitivStructures in Online Worlds and its extensive bibliography. Theres a series On Trust on my blog a

I would start with Wikipedia for reading up on sociology and anthropology.

You can read Randy Farmers KidTrade: A Design for an eBay-resistant Virtual Economy on his webshttp://habitatchronicles.com/Habitat/KidTrade.pdf

More on interdependences issues at http://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirate

You can read Derridas Structure, Sign and Play at http://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-p

Writing and Difference. If you really, really, really want to.

All the art came from http://icons.mysitemyway.comin the royalty-free Rounded Glossy Black Icons set.

Special Thanks to John Donham & Jenny Kropko and Patrick Ferland (for PASES)

This presentation and dozens more are available in various formats on my website:

http://www.raphkoster.com
http://habitatchronicles.com/Habitat/KidTrade.pdfhttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.htmlhttp://icons.mysitemyway.com/http://www.raphkoster.com/http://www.raphkoster.com/http://icons.mysitemyway.com/http://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.htmlhttp://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.htmlhttp://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.htmlhttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmohttp://habitatchronicles.com/Habitat/KidTrade.pdf


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Koster Social Social-Mechanics GDC2011