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EDITORIALBOARD

Editor-in-Chief

BernardMcGinn-NaomiShenstoneDonnellyProfessorofHistoricalTheologyandtheHistoryofChristianity,DivinitySchool,UniversityofChicago,Chicago,Ill.

EditorialConsultant

EwertH.Cousins-ProfessorofTheology,FordhamUniversity,Bronx,N.Y.

---------------------

JohnE.Booty-ProfessorofAnglicanStudies,SchoolofTheology,UniversityoftheSouth,Sewanee,Tenn.

JosephDan-ProfessorofKabbalah,DepartmentofJewishThought,HebrewUniversity,Jerusalem,Israel.

LouisDupre-T.L.RiggsProfessorofPhilosophyofReligion,YaleUniversity,NewHaven,Conn.

RozanneElder-ExecutiveVice-President,CistercianPublications,Kalamazoo,Mich.

MichaelFishbane-NathanCummingsProfessor,DivinitySchool,UniversityofChicago,Chicago,Ill.

KarlfriedFroehlich-ProfessoroftheHistoryoftheEarlyandMedievalChurch,PrincetonTheologicalSeminary,Princeton,N.J.

ArthurGreen-ProfessorofJewishThought,BrandeisUniversity,Waltham,

Mass.

StanleyS.Harakas-ArchbishopIakovosProfessorofOrthodoxTheology,HolyCrossGreekOrthodoxSeminary,Brookline,Mass.

MosheIdel-ProfessorofJewishThought,DepartmentofJewishThought,HebrewUniversity,Jerusalem,Israel.

BishopKallistosofDiokleia-FellowofPembrokeCollege,Oxford,SpaldingLecturerinEasternOrthodoxStudies,OxfordUniversity,England.

GeorgeA.Maloney-SpiritualWriterandLecturer,SealBeach,Calif.

SeyyedHosseinNasr-ProfessorofIslamicStudies,GeorgeWashingtonUniversity,Washington,D.C.

RaimonPanikkar-ProfessorEmeritus,DepartmentofReligiousStudies,UniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbara,Calif.

JaroslavPelikan-SterlingProfessorofHistoryandReligiousStudies,YaleUniversity,NewHaven,Conn.

SandraM.Schneiders-ProfessorofNewTestamentStudiesandSpirituality,JesuitSchoolofTheology,Berkeley,Calif.

MichaelA.Sells-EmilyJudsonBaughandJohnMarshallGestProfessorofComparativeReligions,HaverfordCollege,Haverford,Penn.

HustonSmith-ThomasJ.WatsonProfessorofReligionEmeritus,SyracuseUniversity,Syracuse,N.Y.

JohnR.Sommerfeldt-ProfessorofHistory,UniversityofDallas,Irving,Tex.

DavidSteindl-Rast-SpiritualAuthor,BenedictineGrange,WestRedding,Conn.

DavidTracy-GreeleyProfessorofRomanCatholicStudies,DivinitySchool,UniversityofChicago,Chicago,Ill.

TheMostRev.andRt.Hon.RowanD.Williams-ArchbishopofCanterbury.

FOUNDATIONSOFISLAMICMYSTICALTHEOLOGY

TRANSLATEDANDINTRODUCEDBYJOHNRENARD

PREFACEBYAHMETT.KARAMUSTAFA

PrefacebyAhmetT.Karamustafaxi

Foreword1

IslamandtheClassicsofWesternSpirituality1

ChoiceofThemeandTextsinthePresentVolume2

PrioritiesandPracticalities4

Acknowledgments8

Introduction11

One:

FoundationalSourcesandtheIslamicReligiousDisciplines12

EarlyConceptionsofKnowledge:Pre-IslamicPoetry,Qur'an,Hadith13

EvolutionoftheIslamicReligiousDisciplines16

Two:

ExperientialKnowledgeofGodinClassicalandMedievalSufiTexts19

NinthCentury:Dhu`n-Nun,Muhasibi,Kharraz,Tirmidhi,Hallaj20

TenthCentury:Niffari,Sarraj,Kalabadhi,Makki27

EleventhCentury:Hujwiri,Qushayri,Ansari,Ghazali38

TwelfthandThirteenthCenturies:Ibnal-lArif,'Aynal-Qudatal-Hamadhani,

Sam'!,`Attar,Rumi,Ibnal-Arabi,AbuHafs`Umaras-Suhrawardi50

Three:

BeyondtheClassics60

TextsinTranslation

One:

AbuNasras-Sarraj:TheBookofFlashes(Kitabal-luma')65

Two:

AbuBakral-Kalabadhi:TheExplorationofSufiTeachings(Kitabat-ta`arruf)100

Three:

AbuTa1ibal-Makki:TheBookofKnowledge(Kitabal-`ilm):PartThirty-OneofTheSustenanceofHearts(Qutal-qulub)112

Four:

'Aliibn`UthmanHujwiri:TheRevelationofRealitiesVeiled(Kashfal-mahjub)264

Five:

Abu`1-Qasimal-Qushayri:TheTreatiseonSufism(Ar-Risalatal-qushayriya)286

Six:

'AbdAllahAnsari:TheHundredFields(Sadmaydan):RestingPlacesoftheWayfarers(Manazilas-sa'irin)294

Seven:

AbuHamidMuhammadal-Ghazali:TheElaborationoftheMarvelsoftheHeart

(KitabsharhIaja'ibal-galb):Book21oftheRevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplines(Ihya`ulumad-din)298

Eight:

Ibnal-IArif:TheBeautiesofSpiritualSessions(Mahasinal-majalis)327

Nine:

AbuHafs`Umaras-Suhrawardi:TheBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge(`Awarifal-malarif)332

AbbreviationsinNotesandBibliography375

NotestoIntroductionandTranslations377

SelectedBibliography405

IndexofQur'anicCitations413

GeneralIndex420

JOHNRENARDreceivedaPhDinIslamicStudiesfromtheDepartmentofNearEasternLanguagesandCivilizationsatHarvardUniversityin1978.HehastaughtintheDepartmentofTheologicalStudiesatSaintLouisUniversitysincethen.AmonghispublicationsareadozenbooksinIslamicStudiesandComparativeReligion.TheyincludethesePaulistbooks:Ibn~AbbddofRonda-LettersontheSufiPath(alsointhisseries);volumesonIslam,Buddhism,Hinduism,andDaoism,andConfucianismandShintointhe101Questionsseries;andUnderstandingtheIslamicExperience.HeiscurrentlywritingAHistoricalDictionaryofSufismforScarecrowPressandbeginningworkonathematicoverviewofIslamicHagiographyfortheUniversityofCaliforniaPress.

AuthorofthePreface

AHMETT.KARAMUSTAFA(PhD,McGillUniversity,1987)isassociateprofessorofHistoryandReligiousStudiesatWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis,wherehealsodirectstheReligiousStudiesProgram.HeistheauthorofGod'sUnrulyFriends(SaltLakeCity:UniversityofUtahPress,1994),amonographonasceticmovementsinmedievalIslamicmysticism,andVahidi'sMenakib-iHvoca-iCihanveNetice-iCan(929/1522):CriticalEditionandAnalysis(Cambridge,Mass.:TheDepartmentofNearEasternLanguagesandCivilizations,HarvardUniversity,1993),astudyofasixteenth-centurymysticaltextinOttomanTurkish.HeisalsotheassistanteditoraswellastheauthorofseveralarticlesinCartographyintheTraditionalIslamicandSouthAsianSocieties(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1992).ProfessorKaramustafa'smainareaofresearchispremodernIslamicthought;heiscurrentlyworkingontwobookprojects,oneonIslamicPerspectivesonReligionandtheotherahistoricalsurveyofSufism(undercontractwithEdinburghUniversityPress).AtWashingtonUniversity,ProfessorKaramustafateachescoursesonallaspectsofIslam,Islamichistory,aswellasgeneralcoursesinReligiousStudies.

JohnRenard'sKnowledgeofGodinClassicalSufismisatreasurechestthatcontainsthemostpreciousjewelsofIslamicspiritualwisdom.InanearliervolumeintheClassicsofWesternSpiritualityseriestitledEarlyIslamicMysticism,MichaelSellseffortlesslyopenednumerouswindowstothestunningandbewilderingvistasofthelandscapeofspiritualityspunbyearlySufimasters.Inthepresentvolume,Renardtakesuptheopportunitytoexplorethislandscapefurtherbycraftinganexquisiteanthology,whereheguidesreadersoftheClassicsofWesternSpiritualityseriesonafascinatingtourofalushgardenthatislocatedattheverycenterofthespiritualterrainofclassicalIslamicmysticism.ThisisthegardenofmysticalknowledgeofGod,thegardenofma'rifa.

Ma`rifa,translatedbyRenardalternativelyas"experiential,infused,intimate,ormysticalknowledge,"isarguablythequintessentialSuficoncept.Thetermma'rifadoesnotappearintheQur'an;nordoesitfigureprominentlyinthepropheticreportsknownasHadith.InbothofthesebasicsourcesofIslam,thewordWmisusedforallknowledge,withnodistinctionmadebetweendifferentkindsofknowing.However,alreadywithinthesecondandthirdcenturiesofIslamichistoryspecificdisciplinesofintellectualinquirybegantotakeshape,andthetermWm,thoughitneverlostitsholisticsensealtogether,graduallycametomeanprimarily"discursive,received,oracquired"knowledgeofthetypecultivatedwithinthenewdisciplinesofQur'anandHadithstudiesaswellastheological,legal,andphilosophicalinquiry.Inthemeantime,spirituallyinclinedMuslimsstartedtocarveoutanalternativeapproachtothequestionofknowledge,onethatforegroundedtheexperientialandessentiallypersonal,evenprivate,dimensionsofallknowing.TheyfoundvalidationofthisapproachinselectQur'anicverses,suchas(andthespeakerisGod),"IcreatedthejinnandhumankindjustsothattheymightworshipMe"(51:56)where,followingtheearlyQur'ancommentatorIbnAbbas,theyunderstoodthewords"worshipMe"(ya<huduni)tomean"knowMe"(ya`rifuni).AspecialcategoryofHadith

knownas"SacredHadith"wasalsopressedtoservice,sothatGodwasreportedtohavesaid,"IwasahiddentreasureandIdesiredtobeknown,soIcreatedtheworld,"and"WhoeverknowshimselfknowshisLord."Thuscharacterizedasnothinglessthantheultimatepurposeofcreation,thisspecialkindofknowledgewasdubbedma<rifa,perhapsforthefirsttimebyDhu'n-NunofEgypt(d.860),incontradistinctionto`ilm,whichhadcometoacquireundesirableconnotationsofintellectualism.

Inaveryrealsense,thesubsequenthistoryofIslamicmysticismcanbesaidtobethehistoryofma'rifa.IfthecentraloccupationofthemysticwastheefforttoknowGodexperientially,thenallotherhumanactivitywastobesubordinatedtothiscentralgoal.Moreproperly,allspecificallySuficonceptsanddoctrines(e.g.,thespiritualpath,theprimordialcovenantwithGod,Muhammadanreality,andthehierarchyofthefriendsofGod)aswellasdistinctivelySufipractices(e.g.,theinvocationknownasdhikr,theforty-dayseclusion,keepingthecompanyoftheinitiated,andcontemplationoftheDivineinHiscreation)canbeseenassomanydifferentmanifestationsoftheoverarchingattempttoattainma'rifa.Themystic,inshort,wastheseekerofexperientialknowledgeofGod,the`arif.

Theastonishinglysingle-mindedconcentrationofSufisontheconceptofma<rifaandtheirunceasingattemptstoattainsuchintimateknowledgeofGodinsuredthatIslamevolvedasatraditionwithexceptionallystrongspiritualdimensions.ThisiswhatpromptedCarlErnsttoobserve,inhisprefacetoMichaelSells'sEarlyIslamicMysticism,"Islamicmysticismisoneofthemostextensivetraditionsofspiritualityinthehistoryofreligions."Theabundance,aswellasthespiritualdepth,ofSufitextsavailableindifferentIslamiclanguagesisindeedstaggering.Yet,theultimatemeasureofthesignificanceofSufismliesperhapsnotinitspervasivenessandsheermagnitudebutinthedynamicanddialecticalrelationshipithaswiththelegalisticandethicaldimensionsofIslam.ThroughoutthehistoryofIslam,Sufiinsistenceon"experiencing"GodservedasapowerfulcounterbalanceonthetendencytounderstandworshipofGodprimarilyinalegalisticsensetomeantheattempttoliveinaccordancewithGod'swill.Thatwill,commonlyknownastheshari'a,wasenshrinedintheQur'anandtheexampleoftheProphetMuhammad,andmanylearnedMuslimsspenttheirlivesdistillingGod'swillfromthedivinesourcesofIslamintoanormativeframeworkfortheconductofhumanlifeonEarth.Theresultwasa

majesticandspaciousmansionofmoral,legal,andtheologicalprecepts,advice,andattimessheerspeculationthatdazzledtheeyes.Thismansionofmanyrooms,theculminatingachievementoftheethical/legalisticdimensionofIslam,was,however,builtalmostsolelyoutofWm,ofdiscursive,acquired,receivedknowledge,anditcarriedwithinitselftheveryrealpitfallsofunbridledintellectualism,scholarlyarrogance,andscholasticdesiccation.Theonlyantidotewasma'rifa.Thenormativeneededtobeleavenedbythespiritualtoachievefullrigorandvitalityandtogaintruemeaning,justasthespiritualcouldonlygrowontheislandofsecurityprovidedbythenormative.Themansionoftheshari'aachieveditsfullbeautyonlywhenadornedbythesurroundinggardensofspiritualdelightandnourishedbythedeepwellspringsofspiritualwisdomdugoutbymystics.

Ma`rifa,therefore,isakeyIslamicconcept.ItisthecoreingredientofIslamicspiritualityandtheflipsideofnormativeIslam.When,aftertheinitialformativephaseofpioneeringmysticalspeculationduringtheninthandtenthcenturies,someliterarymindedSufisbegantotakestockandreflectontheachievementsoftheirforebearsinaseriesofcomprehensive,encyclopedicmanualsofmysticalknowledgeandlore,theywerekeenlycognizantofthecentralityoftheconceptofma'rifaandincludedwholesectionsonitintheirsurveys.Theseworks,startingwithSarraj'sBookofFlashes,Kalabadhi'sExplorationsofSufiTeachings,andMakki'sSustenanceofHearts,allcomposedduringthetenthcentury,toHujwiri'sRevelationoftheVeiledandQushayri'smasterfulsummationsimplyknownastheTreatiseofthefollowingcentury,setthepatternforalllatermanuals.Attheendoftheeleventhcentury,GhazalibasedthemysticalsectionsofhissprawlingRevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplinesinlargepartonMakki'sSustenance,andmorethanacenturylater,SuhrawardiharnessedtheteachingsfoundintheearlymanualstothecauseofspiritualtraininginhisBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge,whichissometimesseenasthelastringinthislongchainofSufimanualsinArabic(oftheworkslistedonlyHujwiri'sRevelationoftheVeiledisinPersian).

ItisregrettablethatoftheseseminalsurveysofIslamicmysticism,onlytheworksofHujwrriandKalabadhiaswellaslargeportionsofQushayri'streatiseareavailableinusableEnglishtranslation.ThesignificanceofthepresentvolumecomesintofullviewwhenRenard'sprojectisseeninthislight.ThisanthologyisthefirstofitskindinEnglishthatbringstogetherthewritingsof

nineeminentSufitheoristsontheconceptofexperientialknowledgeofGod.FullyfiveoftheseselectionsaretranslatedintoEnglishhereforthefirsttime,whilealloftheotherfourhavebeenthoroughly"refreshed"forinclusioninthisvolume.PracticallyallofthetextsexcerptedaredifficultanddenseintheiroriginalArabicandPersian(theimpenetrablestyleofMakkiinparticularislegendary),andtheypresentuniquechallengestothemoderntranslator.Inaremarkablefeatofadaptation,however,JohnRenardmeetsthesechallengeswitherudition,dexterity,andverve,producingextremelysmoothandfreshtranslationsthatcapturethemeaningoftheoriginaltextswithoutmakinganymajorsacrificesalongtheway.TheresultisarichcompilationofSufitheoreticalwritingsonthemostfundamentalconceptofIslamicmysticismthatisnowreadilyavailabletoabroadreadership.ThepublicationofthisvolumemarksamajoradvanceinthescholarshiponIslamicmysticismintheEnglishlanguage,andJohnRenardandPaulistPressaretobecongratulatedforthisaccomplishment.

AhmetT.Karamustafa

IslamandtheClassicsofWesternSpirituality

Overthepastquarterofacentury,thePaulistPressClassicsofWesternSpiritualityserieshaspublishedninevolumesrepresentingselectionsfromoveradozenimportantsourcesoftheIslamicmysticaltradition,commonlycalledSufism.TheyspannearlyeightcenturiesandprovideanoverviewofmanyimportantthemesandliteraryformsthroughwhichMuslimauthorshavearticulatedtheirconvictionsabouttheinteriorlife.ThepresentvolumeismeanttocomplementMichaelSells'sEarlyIslamicMysticism(1996),whichdescribestheoriginsandgrowthofthemysticaltradition,beginningwiththeQur'anandHadithandproceedingthroughfoundationalissuesinanumberofclassicalandearlymedievaltexts.Bothvolumesaremini-anthologieswhosetextswereselectedfromacrossseveralcenturiesforthepurposeofmakingavailableprimarysourcesonclassicthemesinIslamicspirituality.InadditiontopresentingsomematerialthatoverlapschronologicallywithEarlyIslamicMysticism,thepresentvolumetracesacentralthemeinIslamicmysticaltheologyfromseverallateclassicalandearlymedievalSufimanualsintothetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,includingexcerptsfromseveralPersiantexts.

TheotherIslamicvolumesintheseriesoffercompletetextsfromvariousmajorauthors.Takentogether,theycoverawideexpanseofspaceandtimeandarepackedwithprimarysourcesamplesofthemostimportantliterarygenresproducedbySufiauthorsinArabicandPersian.AtinygemofpersonalprayerbytheeleventhcenturyKhwaja'AbdAllahAnsari(d.1089)calledIntimateConversations(W.Thackston,1978,includedinthefirstIslamicvolumepublishedintheseries,alongwithTheBookofWisdommentionedbelow)isafinesampleoftheheartfeltexpressionofastill-popularPersian-writingSufi.Fourvolumesarededicatedtoindividualmajorthirteenth-centurySufis.PoemsfromtheworkofCaireneIbnal-Farid(d.1235),oneofthegreatestmysticalpoetsoftheArabictongue,arecollectedin'UmarIbnal-Fdrid:SufiVerse,

SaintlyLife(Th.EmilHomerin,2001).Anunusualworkofmysticalprophetology,TheBezelsofWisdom(R.W.J.Austin,1980)oftheSpanish-bornIbnal-Arabi(d.1240)givesreadersausefulintroductiontothethoughtofoneofIslam'smostprolificandinfluentialmysticaltheologians.Fakhrad-DinIraqi's(d.1289)DivineFlashes(W.ChittickandP.Wilson,1982)putthereaderincontactwithoneofIslam'smosteloquentpoetsofmysticallove.

Ibn'Ata'AllahofAlexandria(d.1309)belongedtooneofNorthAfrica'slargestandmostimportantSuficonfraternities,theShadhiliOrder.HisaphoristicBookofWisdom(V.Danner,1978)becameafavoriteofSufisallacrossthewesternMediterraneanduringthefourteenthcenturyandmanycenturiesthereafter.AfellowShadhili,theIberian-bornIbn'AbbadofRonda(d.1390),wroteamajorcommentaryontheBookofWisdombutisperhapsbestknownforhislettersofspiritualdirection.TheClassicsvolumeLettersontheSufiPath(J.Renard,1986)translatesacollectionofsixteenofthoselettersandgivesinsightintotheordinaryspiritualconcernsofIbn'AbbadandhisMoroccanandIberiancorrespondents.Fromthesametimeperiod,buthalfwayaroundtheworld,TheHundredLetters(P.Jackson,1980)ofSharafad-DinManeri(d.1381)representspartofthelargeoutputofanIndianSufimasteroftheFirdawsiOrder.ManeriwroteinPersian,asdidhiscontemporaryfromanotherOrder,Nizamad-DinAwliya'(d.1325).Thelatter'sPersian-languageMoralsfortheHeart(B.Lawrence,1992)representsstillanotherdistinctliterarygenremadepopularbySufiauthors,the"conversationalutterances"attributedtoagreatteacher,largelyinprosebutpepperedwithpoeticverse,aseditedandpublishedlaterbyhisdedicateddisciples.

ChoiceofThemeandTextsinthePresentVolume

TherehasbeenagreatdealpublishedinrecentyearsonIslamicspirituality,includingnewlyavailableprimarysourcesintranslation.MuchofthatmaterialhasfocusedonSufipsychology,epistolography,hagiography,andthe"historiography"ofthetradition.ButrelativelyfewofferingshavefocusedonathemeoffundamentalimportancetoabroadersystematicappreciationofthetheoreticalunderpinningsofIslamicmysticaltheology.Thepresentvolumegrewoutofatwofolddesire:tomakeaccessibleselectionsofmajorworksbyhighlyinfluentialauthorsstillrelativelylittleknownoutsideIslamicStudiescircles;andtoassembleasubstantialselectionoftextsonathemethatrepresentsafoundationaldevelopmentinIslamictheology,namely,theconceptof

experientialknowledgeanditsrelationshiptoothermodesofknowing.IthasbecomecustomarytospeakofIslamictheologyasrestrictedtoarelativelynarrowveinofthegreatertradition,aveinknownaskalam,speculativeorsystematictheology.ButtheSufitraditionof"manuals"orcompendiarepresentsanequallyimportant,evenifnotalwayssoclearly"systematic,"lodeofcrediblytheologicalsignificance.Hencethesubtitleofthisvolume.

Ofthenineprincipaltextselectionstranslatedhere,fourincludeexcerptsfromlargerworkspreviouslytranslatedintoEnglisheitherintheirentirety(Kalabadhi,Hujwiri,andIbnal-,Arif)orinlargepart(Qushayri).Kalabadhi'sKitabat-ta'arrufhaslongbeenwell-representedinA.J.Arberry'svenerabletranslation(1935),butthesectionsonknowledgeneededarefreshertodemonstratemorecrisplyKalabadhi'scontributiontothetheme.R.A.Nicholson'sequallyvenerablerenderingofHujwiri'sPersianKashfal-mahjub(1911)requiredanewlookforthesamereason,butalsobecauseNicholsonwasoftenquiteselectiveinhistranslation,atleastoftheexplicitlyepistemologicalsections.BarbaravonSchlegell'sfinerenderingofsectionsonseveraldozencentralSuficonceptsfromQushayri'sRisala(1990)isquiteusefulandavailable,butIdecidedforthesakeofcompletenesstoincludeaversionofthebriefsectiononmacrifa.Ibnal-lArifsunusualtreatiseMahasinal-majalisrepresentsaninterpretationofthethemebyanauthorwholivedandwroteatthewesternendoftheMediterranean.French(1933)andEnglish(1980)translationshaveappeared,but,likethetranslationsoftheotherthreeworks,theyhewedtothetraditionofcharacterizingthecoreofSufiepistemologyas"gnosis."Ihavesoughttorecastthatinterpretationinthesenewtranslationsofexcerptsfromallfourofthoseworks.

NoneoftheotherfiveselectionspresentedherehasappearedinfullEnglishtranslation.Keyworksbytwotenth-centuryauthors,AbuNasras-SarrajandAbuTalibal-Makki,havebeentranslatedintheirentiretyonlyinGerman.ThatofSarrajhasappearedinsubstantialEnglishexcerptsonlyinSells,EarlyIslamicMysticism,inthisseries,whileMakki'sverylargeworkhasnotyetbeenrenderedintoEnglishatall,exceptperhapsinsmall,far-flungbits.Relevantselectionsareprovidedherefromtwoworksof'AbdAllahAnsari.Sectionson`ilmandmwrifafromhisPersianTheHundredFieldsarejuxtaposedwiththoseinhisArabicRestingPlacesoftheWayfarers.Tothebestofmyknowledge,thesearethefirstfullEnglishrenderingsofthoseexcerpts.Variousselectionsof

AbuHamidal-Ghazali'sworkswithepistemologicalimplicationshavemeritedEnglishversions,includingthefirst"book"ofhismasterpiece,RevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplines,onacquiredortraditionalknowledge(seebibliography).PerhapsGhazali'ssinglemostimportantfocusonthecoreofSufiepistemology,thatofthetwenty-firstsectionofthatsamelargerwork,iscalled"TheAnalysisoftheMarvelsoftheHeart."ApartialGermantranslation,nowvirtuallyinaccessible,iswelloverahalf-centuryoldinanycase;andalong-promisedreissuingofanequallyoldEnglishrenderinghasnotmaterialized.SelectionsoftheworkarereadilyavailableinRichardMcCarthy'sFreedomandFulfillment(1981),andIhavetranslatedhereonlythesectionsnotincludedinthatvolume.

Strictlyspeaking,Suhrawardi'sworkdoesnotfitneatlyinthecategoryof"classicalSufism,"but,sincehiswasarguablythelastofthegreat"manuals"ofSufispirituality,thereissufficientwarrantforincludingitsfirstthreechaptershere.NoworthwhileEnglishrenderingofthisworkhasyetbecomeavailable,butacompleteGermantranslationappearedtwenty-fiveyearsago.

PrioritiesandPracticalities

Severalconcernshavedeterminedtheshapeandpresentationofthisvolume.Myfirstprioritywastomakeasmuchofthismarvelousmaterialaccessibleaspossible,givenspacelimitations.Second,Iwantedtomakethematerialpedagogicallyuseful,whilepresentingitinawaythatwouldengageabroaderreadershipaswell.Ihavegenerallysteeredawayfromapurelyliteraltranslationinfavorofreadability.AthirdpurposewastomakethisvolumeusefulasacompaniontoMichaelSells's1996Classicsvolume,EarlyIslamicMysticism.Thesethreeconcernsledtoaseriesofpracticaldecisions.

First,SellsoptedtoretainthroughoutanEnglishrenderingofthecompletetraditional"epithets"usuallyattachedtothenamesofGod,Muhammad,themostimportantearlyMuslims,significant"FriendsofGod"ofallgenerations,andfinally,toallMuslims(as,forexample,intheinstanceofsomeonedeceased).Ihaveretainedthoseepithetsinthefirstselectiononly,deletingthemthereafter,partlyintheinterestofsmoothingoutthereading,andpartlyintheinterestofspace.Therefore,letthereaderkeepinmindthroughoutthattraditionalIslamicliteraryandconversationaletiquetterequirethatvirtuallywheneveronementionsthenameofGod,itisfollowedby"exaltedand

glorified,""mosthigh,""praisedbeHe,"or"mayHismajestybemagnified."AfterthenameofMuhammad,thewords"God'sblessingandpeaceuponhim"typicallyfollow;otherprophets'namesusuallyhave"uponwhombepeace"attached.ThenamesofimportantMuslimleadersmeritsuchdevoutwishesas"Godbepleasedwith..."while'Alioftenmeritsuniquely"MayGodennoblehisperson(literally,countenance)."ThemostcommonphraseforalldeceasedMuslimsis"Godbecompassionateto..."

Ihaveretainedfullchainsoftransmitters(isnad)-listsofthenamesofindividualscreditedwithpassingalongHadiths(So-and-sotoldsuch-and-suchapersonthatheheardso-and-sosaythattheProphetsaid...)-inthetextofthefirstselectiononly(Sarraj).Mypurposewastoprovidethereaderoneexampleoftextthatretainsthefullrangeofformalitiesareaderwouldencounterintheoriginallanguage.Thereafter,Ihavegenerallyputintoendnotesthosechainsoftransmittersthatincludetwoormorenames,leavingthathistoricalinformationreadilyavailable,whileattemptingtoleavetheflowofthetextunimpededbydatanotessentialtoitsimmediatemeaning.

IhaveincludedboththetraditionalIslamic,orHijri,datesandthemorefamiliar"Western"solardates,forexample,1/622,whenprovidingsuchinformationasdeathdates.

IhavedeletedtheinitialArabicdefinitearticle(al-)fromsinglewordnames,suchasHallaj,Junayd,butretainedthearticlewhentheindividual'ssecondnameisincluded,asinHasanal-Basri.

Philologicalandtext-criticalnotesIhaveslighted(forreasonsofspace)infavorofhistoricaldataonasmanyindividualsmentionedinthetextsaspossible.Myhopeisthataddingthiskindofinformationwillfacilitatethereader'sappreciationofhistoricalcontexts.InthehistoricalnotesIhaveordinarilynotlistedsourcesfortheidentifications;thebibliographylistsallthesourcesonwhichIhavereliedforsuchinformation.IhavealsooftendispensedwithparenthesesaroundEnglishwordsimpliedintheoriginallanguages.Similarly,IhaveoptedingeneraltominimizeinclusionofArabicorPersianequivalentsinparentheseswithinthetext.

Attemptsatabalancedapproachedtogender-inclusivelanguageintextslikethesearedifficultatbest,andIconfessthatIwasunabletoprovidea

satisfactorysolution.IhaveleftallpronominalreferencestoGod/Allahinthemasculine,but,tosetthemapartasoutoftheordinary,Ihavemadethemuppercase.AndIaskthatthereaderrecognizethattheuseofthemasculinepronountomeanbothmaleandfemalebestreflectstheoriginalwritings,althoughitconflictswithcurrentinclusive-languagepractices.Exceptwheretheoriginallanguagerefersexplicitlytomales,ofcourse,itwasnotmyintent,northeintentoftheoriginalwriters,touseitinanythingbutaninclusivesense.

Parentheses()servefourpurposes:Qur'aniccitations(Sara#:verse#);myinterpolatedtext,includingoccasionaladditionaltopicheadings;fulloralternatenamesofindividuals;anddatesofindividualsonwhomIfoundinsufficientotherinformationtowarrantanendnote.Italicsareused,asinSells'sEIM,tosetoffintroductoryandunincluded-textsummarysectionsinthetranslations.

Brackets[]servetwopurposes:bracketedtranslatedtextrepresentssignificantvariantmaterial;bracketednumbersindicatethepageoftheprincipaltextfromwhichItranslated.IhavegenerallydeletedthetermSection(fall),whichappearsoccasionallyintheoriginallanguages,buthaveretainedfullerheadingsgivenintheoriginaltext.

FollowingSells'svariousspecificimplementationsoftheprincipleof"familiarization,"IhaveonoccasionleftcommonArabictermsinthetext.Thatisparticularlythecaseinrespecttofourepistemologicallysignificanttermsandcognates:

Wm,renderedvariouslyas"discursiveknowledge,""acquiredknowledge,"or"traditionalknowledge";

ma'rifa,variouslytranslatedas"experientialknowledge,""infusedknowledge,""intimateknowledge,"or"mysticalknowledge"(thoughthePersianuseofthistermisusuallytransliteratedasmwrifat,Ihavegenerallyusedthetermwithoutthefinal"t");

fiqh,atermnowmostwidelyrecognizedas"jurisprudence"or"positivelaw,"butusedinthesetextsmoreoftentorefertoalevelofpenetrating,insightfulknowledgebeyondtheordinary,heregenerallyrendered"deeperunderstanding";anditscognatefaqih,referringtotheindividualendowedwithsuchunderstanding;

fahm,atermgenerallyrenderedhereas"comprehension,"or"profoundcomprehension."Sincethesetextsoftenattempttodefineandgivescopetothesetechnicalconcepts,Iaskthereader'sindulgenceinthiseffortto"enrichthetargetlanguage";

TominimizeparentheticalinsertionofkeyArabictechnicaltermsinthetext,herearesomeadditionalcommontermsandtheEnglishequivalentsIhaveusedmostoften:

Asfortransliteration,IhaveemployedthesameconventionsfordiacriticalmarksusedinSells,exceptthatIhaveincludedthemthroughoutthebookrather

thanonfirstappearanceonly.

Acknowledgments

Firstofall,thisworkowesagreatdealtothemeticulousscholarshipandprodigiouseruditionoftheGermanJesuitIslamicistRichardGramlich.HisarestilltheonlycompleteEuropeanlanguagetranslationsofthetextsofSarraj,Qushayri,Makki,andSuhrawardiexcerptedhere.Moreimportant,Gramlich'stext-criticalannotationprovidesthevirtualequivalentofcriticaleditionsofthemajorworksofthesefoursources.Ihaveoftenfollowedhissuggestionsconcerningvariantreadings.Inaddition,Gramlich'scommentaryonthecontentoftheworks,alongwithhismassivelydetailedindexes,provideawealthofinformationunavailableelsewheresoconcisely.

Next,Iwishtothankanumberoffriendsandcolleagueswhokindlyreadportionsofvariousdraftsandofferedinvaluablesuggestions:FatemehKeshavarzandNargisVirani,ofWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis;HayrettinYucesoyofSaintLouisUniversity;PeterHeath,provostoftheAmericanUniversityinBeirut;AronZysow,oftheHarvardIslamicLawprogram;andMashhadal-AllafofSt.Louis.IamparticularlyindebtedtoKennethHonerkamp,oftheUniversityofGeorgia,forhisdetailedcommentaryonextensiveportionsofthetext;toMichaelSells,ofHaverfordCollege,forcarefulreadingof,andsuggestionson,portionsofeachofthemajorArabictexts;andtoAhmetKaramustafa,ofWashingtonUniversity,forgraciouslyagreeingtowritethePreface.IamgratefultoserieseditorBernardMcGinn,oftheUniversityofChicago,fordeemingthisprojectappropriatefortheClassicsseries;andtoPaulisteditorChrisBellittoforhisresponsivenessandsupportthroughouttheproject,aswellastoLynnElseofPaulistPress,forherattentivenesstotheaddedcomplexitiesofputtingthistextintoprint.MythanksalsotoJulietMousseauandIntaIvanovska,ofSaintLouisUniversity,fortheirableresearchandeditorialassistanceatvariousstagesoftheproject.IamindebtedtoSaintLouisUniversityforsupportingthisworkintheformofaGraduateSchoolSummerResearchAward,aMellonSummerStipend,andaSLU2000FacultyResearchLeave.Tomyspouse,MaryPat,Iexpressmydeepestgratitudeforherpatience,encouragement,andgoodhumoracrossthelonghaul.

Finally,comingtotermswithmaterialofsuchantiquityandcomplexityisanoftenhumblingexperience,andIaskthereader'sindulgencewiththe

shortcomingsofthisattempttomakethesemarveloustextsmoreaccessible.

BetweenthetenthandthirteenthcenturiesanumberofimportantMuslimauthorspennedsubstantialproseworks,bothinArabicandPersian,thatsupplymuchofwhatweknowabouttheevolutionofIslamicmysticalthought.Theircompendiaofferavastarrayofinformation,fromtheanecdotaltothemoretheoretical.Thesemanualistshaveaddressedtheproblemofexperientialknowledgefromvariouspointsofview.Theconceptofm&rifa,traditionally-andinadequately-translatedas"gnosis,"doesimplyprivilegedconnectionbetweencertainhumanbeingsandthedivine.Butitalsosuggestsmuchmorethanmereintellectualknowing.Itmeansaccesstothedivinepresence,perhapsevenaninvasionorbeingovercomebytherealityofGod.Itincludesboththeexperientialdimensionandknowinginawaythat"gnosis"cannotquiteconvey.Aquinas'scognitioexperimentalismorecloselyapproximatesthemeaningofm&rifaastheSufisdevelopedit.

Asanentreetounderstandingthedistinctionamongtherational,discursive,acquired,ortraditionalknowledgeexpressedbythetermWm,andtheexperiential,infused,ormystical/apophaticmodesofknowingexpressedbythetermma'rifa,ananecdoteattributedtothephilosopherLudwigWittgensteinmaybeusefulhere.HeremarkedthatonewouldfinditsurprisingifanindividualwhoknewtheelevationofMontBlancwereunabletoarticulatethatknowledgeverbally.Itwould,however,notbesurprisingifanindividualwhoknewthesoundofaclarinetwereunabletoputthatknowledgeintowords.'

Ihavedividedthisintroductionintotwomajorsections.Inthefirst,bywayofbackground,IdiscusstheevolutionoffundamentalconceptsofknowledgeinrelationtothefaithtraditioncalledIslam.ThatwillsupplythebroadercontextwithinwhichtosituatelaterdevelopmentsinSufiepistemology.Afterabriefhistoricalsurveyofkeytermsfor,andnotionsof,knowledgeinearlyIslamictimesasevidencedespeciallyintheQur'anandHadith(theprimaryrecordofMuhammad'sownwordsanddeeds),IprovideasummaryofthevarioussubdisciplineswithinthelargercategoryofIslamicreligiousepistemology.

Thesecondsectionaddressesspecificallythematerialtranslatedhere,

discussingthestructure,majorthemes,andsignificanceofthemanualsorcompendiaofSufispiritualitythatremainsuchanessentialsourceofourunderstandingoftheIslamicmysticaltradition.InthatsectionIdiscussthemajorworksfromwhichIhaveselectedtheprincipaltextsonknowledge.Inaddition,Isummarizetherelevantconcernsofseveralotherauthorsofsimilarworksthatasinglevolumelikethiscannotaccommodate.Notallofthosemajorfigureshavepennedmanualsofspiritualityassuch,buttheynonethelessdeservementionbecauseoftheirbroadinfluenceinthedevelopmentandcommunicationofSufimodesofknowing.Intheinstanceofseveralauthorswhowrotemanual-likeworksbutwhosespecificanalysesoftherelevantepistemologicalthemeswerelesssustainedorsystematic,IhaveincludedshortexcerptsintranslationwithintheIntroduction.Finally,Iverybrieflyalludetosomemajorpostclassical,postmedievalSufisourcesonourtheme.Ifnotforconsiderationsofspace,dozensofotherinfluentialfigureswouldhavehadaplaceinafullersurvey.

PartOne:FoundationalSourcesandtheIslamicReligiousDisciplines

FranzRosenthal'sKnowledgeTriumphant:TheConceptofKnowledgeinMedievalIslampresentsacomprehensiveoverviewofmanyofthemajorelementsnecessarytoestablishthebroadercontextofourtopic.Hereinbrieffollowthemainoutlinesoftheearliestdevelopmentsinthepre-Islamicunderstandingofwhatandhowhumanbeingsknow,andwhatwouldbecomedistinctivelyIslamicapproachestotheissue,beginningwiththeQur'anandHadithandevolvingintotheformativereligiousdisciplines.

ThemostcommonlyusedArabictermforknowledge,Wm,seemstoderivefromarootfromwhichalsogrowwordsfor"marker,sign,indicator"('clamand`aldma)and"world,universe"(`alam).3"Knowledge"inpre-Islamictimes,asevidencedespeciallybythehighlyevolvedpoetryoftheageknowntoMuslimsastheJahiliya,mayhavebeenintimatelyboundupwiththepracticalacumenneededtosurviveandfindone'swayinanoftenunforgivingphysicalenvironment.Knowingmeantnavigating,negotiatingalandscapethattothe

untutoredeyemusthaveappearedbewilderinglyundifferentiated.Bycontrast,thewordnowcommonlytranslated"ignorance"(jahl)mayhavebeenassociatedwitharoot(j-w-l)thatmeanttowanderaimlesslyincircles,unabletodiscernthemarkersnecessarytomakeforahospitabledestination.Inaddition,anearlyArabicwordforpoetry(shi`r)wasrelatedtoaverbalroot(sh-r),whichmeant"toknow"inthemorespecializedsenseofbeingabletoexpresscomplexandsubtlefeelingsandunderstandings.

EarlyMuslimscalledthetimebeforeIslamal-Jahiliya,theagebeforegenuineknowledge,becausethenew`ilmthattheQur'anbroughtrenderedbanalallwaysofknowingpreviouslyconsideredimportant.AccordingtotheQur'an,whenMuhammad'scriticswantedtodamntheProphetwithfaintpraise,theydismissedhimasa(mere)poet(sha`ir)(forexample,21:5,52:30,69:41).Still,theQur'anoftenusesverbsfromtherootmeaning"torealize,beaware,perceive,"usuallyreferringtopeople'sfailuretograspsomefundamentaltruthsuchasmortality,finalaccountability,ortheirownself-destructivetendencies(see,forexample,2:9,6:26,7:95,16:26).Termsderivedfromthisrootarevirtuallynonexistentintheepistemologicalvocabularyofthetextstranslatedhere.

TheQur'anfrequentlyjuxtaposesGod'sWmwithhumankind'slackthereof,oftensuggestingthat"knowledge"meansfamiliaritywitheventsofsacredhistory,asin3:65-66:"YouPeopleoftheBook-whydoyouargueaboutAbrahamwhentheTorahandInjilwerenotsentdownuntilafterhistime?Doyounotunderstand?Youaretheoneswhoarguedwitheachother(even)aboutthingsofwhichyoupossessed(some)`ilm.Whydoyouargueaboutthingsofwhichyouhaveno`ilm?ItisGodwhopossesses`ilm(ofthosethings),whileyoudonot."OneofthemostfrequentlyusedQur'anicnamesofGodisal-'alim,theall-knowing.Onthewhole,theconsistentimplicationofMuhammad'spreachingwasthat`ilmwasrepresentedasanadvancedformofknowing,onethatdidnotcomenaturallytohumankindandwhosecontentwasthesubstanceofdivinerevelation.Onewhodidnotattainthisknowledgeduringhisorherearthlylifewouldinanycasedoso,thoughtoolate,atthejudgment:"(Whenallthesignsoftheendareevident)...thenwilltheindividualattain`ilmastotheimplicationsofhisdeeds"(81:[1-]14).TheQur'anuseswordsbasedontheroot'-1-mwithreferencetosomeaspectofknowledgeapproximately750times,accountingforjustunder1percentofthescripture'sseventy-eightthousand

wordsandmakingthisoneofitsmostfrequentlyexpressedclustersofmeaning.Surprisingly,perhaps,theroot'sfrequencyissomewhatgreaterthanthatofwordsassociatedwith"faith,

Farlessoftenused(fewerthanseventyoccurrences),butofequalsignificanceforpresentpurposes,arewordsfromtheroot'-r-f,includingmostprominentlyma`rifa.AsseveralSufiauthorspointout,itispropertocharacterizeGodaspossessing,orbeingthesourceof,Wm,butonedoesnotspeakofGodthatwayinrelationtoma'rifa.Inmanyinstancesthisroothastodowith"recognition,"sometimeswithaseeminglyordinarysenseofidentifying(asin12:58,whereJosephrecognizeshisbrothers).Mostimportant,itisusedwhenpeoplerecognizethetruthofdivinesignsandrevelation,asintheoft-cited"YouwillseetheireyesoverflowwithtearsastheylistentowhatisrevealedtotheMessenger,fortheyrecognize(`arafu)thetruth..."(5:86).Or,again,"ThosetowhomWehavegiventhescripturerecognizethis(ya'rifunahu)(propheticrevelation)asintimatelyastheyknow(ya`rifuna)theirownsons"(6:20).

Twoothertermsofimportanceforthepresentstudyarethosederivedfromtherootsf-q-h(nineteenoccurrences),andh-k-m(justovertwohundred).Verbsrelatedtotherootf-q-htypicallyrefertoan"understanding"(orlackthereof)ofthedeepersignificanceofdivinesigns(forexample,4:78,6:65,98).Themostcommonnounderivedfromthatroot,figh,longagocametobeidentifiedwithreligiouslaworjurisprudence,butitdoesnotoccurintheQur'an.Sufitextsoftenusefiqhanditscognatesnotasatechnicaltermreferringtolawassuch,butinitsmorefundamentalmeaningof"penetrating,deeperunderstanding."Permutationsoftherooth-k-mintheQur'anaregenerallyassociatedwithwisejudgmentinthe"practical"implementationofwhatoneknows.WhenourSufiauthorsuserelatedterms,suchas"statutes,"theyoftendosoinreferencetotheobjectsofoutwardknowledgerelatingtoreligiouslaw.Finally,anumberofimportantpassagespairtheconceptoffaithwithkeytermsforknowledge;forexample,withwordsrootedin'-l-m(e.g.,2:26,30:56,58:11)andf-q-h(6:98).Aswewillsee,thisidentificationoffaithwithknowledgebecameanimportantthemeforseveralSufiauthors.

VirtuallyeverymajorcollectionofHadith,sayingsattributedtoMuhammad,includesasectiondedicatedto"knowledge"(`ilm).5TheMuwatta'ofMalikIbnAnas(c.91/710-179/795)isperhapsthemostnotableexception,inthathissolitaryHadith(whichinanycaseconcernstheSageLugmanandnotthe

ProphetMuhammad)relatingtoknowledgeisvirtuallylostina"bookofmiscellaneoussayings"attheveryendofhiscollection.Rosenthalsuggeststhatinthisearlyscholar'stime,"`ilmapparentlyhadnotachievedthestateofaproblemintraditionistreligiousthoughtandscholarlymethodology."'

InsomelatercollectionsofHadith,itappearsthattheprovisionofasectioninwhichtoplacesayingsonthesubjectwaslargelyaformality,sinceseveralcollectorsseemtohavecomeupwithonlyafewrelevantHadiths.Suchisthecase,forexample,withtheSahihofMuslim(c.202/817-261/875),includingonlyasmallhandfulofsayings.Helocatesthesectiontellinglyjustafterthe"BookofPredestination"(qadr),thusunderscoringthatwhatGodhasinmindfortheindividualisfarmoreimportantthanwhatoneattainsbywayofknowledge.Bukhari(194/810-256/870)locatesamuchmoresubstantial"BookofKnowledge"veryclosetothebeginning,justafterchaptersonrevelationandfaith,thus,evidently,initiatingapatternevidencedinseveralofthemajorSufiworkspresentedintranslationhere.

Thepopulareleventh-centuryanthologyofHadithcalledMishkatal-masabihalsolocatesitssectiononknowledgetowardthefront,immediatelyaftertheoneonfaith.'Whateverthescopeandplacementofchaptersonknowledge,theyincludematerialwithfourcommonconcernsfrequentlyexpressedintheSufimanuals:awarningagainstspeculationanddisputationconcerningthemeaningofthesacredscripture;theimportance-indeed,thereligiousduty-ofseekingknowledge;thesuperiorityoftheindividualwhopossessesgenuineknowledgeoverthepersonwhoisdevoutbutignorant;andthedangerofallowinggenuineknowledgetobecorruptedbyentrustingittothoseunworthyofit(thatis,thosewhouseknowledgeonlyforworldlygain).

EvolutionoftheIslamicReligiousDisciplines

EarlyinIslamichistory,scholarsspecializedinseveralaspectsofreligiousstudythatsooncametobereferredtoas"disciplines"or"sciences."Theseincluded,forexample,the'filmsoftheHadith,ofQur'anicexegesis(tafsir),ofthegrammaticaleruditionneededtosupportexegesis,andofreligiousjurisprudence(generallycalledfiqh).Notsurprisingly,thedisciplineor`filmofHadithincludesagreatdealmorethanmerelyHadithsabout`film.InadditiontotheHadithcollectionsthatorganizedtheirmaterialthematically(asdiscussedabove),anumberofspecialistsoptedforotherorganizationalprinciplesaswell.

Athematicapproach(calledmusannaf,fromarootthatmeans"tocategorize")gaveprioritytothecontentorthetext(matn)ofeachHadith.Anotherapproach,usedespeciallyintheearliercollections,gaveprioritytoevaluatingtheintegrityofthechainsoftransmission(isnad,"supports").

AcollectionthatarrangedHadithsbygroupingtogetherthosetracedbacktooneofMuhammad'sCompanionswascalledamusnad.Worksofthistype,however,weregenerallyfarlessusefulthanthethematicworks.Sixofthelatter,nowaccordedvirtuallyuniversalauthority,appearedduringtheninthcentury.Veryearlyon,anessentialingredientinthedisciplineofHadithstudywasthecarefulscrutinyofindividualsmentionedinisnad,evaluatingeachone'sveracityandcredibility.ThismadeitpossibletojudgemorepreciselytherelativereliabilityoftheHadithitself.ScholarsthendevisedaspectrumofreliabilityandasetoftechnicaltermswithwhichtheylabeledeveryHadith,providingspecialistsinotherreligiousdisciplineswithaconvenientstandardagainstwhichtodecidehowmuchweighttogivetoaparticularsayingastheyelaboratedspecificissuesthataroseinthecourseoftheirexegeticalorlegalwork.SeveralofourSufiauthorsmakespecificandextendedreferencestothedisciplineofHadithstudies,SarrajandMakkiofferingthemostdetaileddescriptions.

Exegesis,likeHadithstudies,coversmuchmorethanmerelyQur'anictextsaboutknowledge.AsacredtextaboutWmwillbeinstructiveindescribingthefunctionofknowledgeofthesacredtext.AQur'anicversethatbearsonboththebedrockprinciplesofexegeticaltheoryandthecentralityofreligiousWmisQur'an3:7:

ItisHewhohasrevealedthescripturetoyou(Muhammad),containingversesofcertainmeaning.Theyarethe"motherofthebook,"whileothersaresusceptibletobroader(or:metaphorical)interpretation.Therearesomewhoseperversityofheartcausesthemtopursuethoseversesthatmaybemorebroadlyinterpreted,inthedesiretofomentdiscordandeagernesstoderiveesotericmeaningsfromthetext.None,however,isendowedwith`ilmofitsesotericinterpretation(ta'wil)butAllah.Whilethosefirmlyrootedin`ilmsay,"Weputourfaithin(thescripture),allofwhichistheworkofourLord."Onlythosewhopossessunderstanding(ulu`l-albab)willmasterit.

Thistranslationalreadyimpliesimportanthermeneuticaljudgments.Oneof

theminvolvesamatterofpunctuationthatmayappear,onthesurfaceatleast,quiteminor.Ifintheversethatbegins"None,however,..."oneshouldchangetheperiodafterAllahtoacomma,andthenchange"While..."to"and...,"thesenseofthepassagewouldtakeadramaticturn:"None,however,isendowedwith`ilmofitsesotericinterpretation(ta'wil)butAllahandthosefirmlyrootedin`ilm.Theysay,`Weputourfaithin(thescripture)...."'NolongerarethosescripturaltextswhoseambiguityleavestheirinterpretationfraughtwiththepotentialdangerofseriousmisunderstandingsubjecttoGod'sjudgmentalone.Nowthesacredtextitselfsanctionsflexibleexegesis,providedtheinterpretersare"thosefirmlyrootedin`ilm."Suddenlyitisaquestionofdeterminingwhothosepeopleareandhowonerecognizesthemassuch.ItisonquestionssuchasthisthattherelationshipofSufiexegesistothebroaderMuslimexegeticaltraditionhinged,andinthoseissuesallofourauthorswerekeenlyinterested.Inthis,asinmanyothertexts,exegeteswouldnaturallyhaverecoursetoHadithsonthesubjectofknowledge,insearchofextra-scripturalcommentarywiththeweightofpropheticauthoritytosupportoneoranotherslantintheirinterpretationofchallengingtexts.8

Amoregeneralconnectionofourthemewiththescienceofexegesisistheearlydistinctionbetweenexegesisonthebasisoftraditionalknowledge(tafsirhi`l-`ilm,alsoknownastafsirhi`l-ma'thur,thatwhichis"attestedbytradition)"andthatbasedonindividualjudgmentoropinion(tafsirbi`r-ra'y,orbi`l-hawd,"onthebasisofwhim").Somereligiousauthorities,particularlyduringthesecondIslamiccentury(c.720-820),opposedanyformofexegesisonthegroundsthatallsuchinterpretationsuggestedtheinappropriateappealtopersonaljudgment.However,themajorityofscholarsgavetheirapprovaltoexegesisbasedon`ilm,bywhichthemoreconservativescholarsmeantinterpretationbasedontheQur'anitself,theHadith,sayingsattributedtotheCompanionsandFollowers,andJewishandChristiansources.Inotherwords,themostreliableinterpretationisonethatcitesearlierauthoritiesratherthanventurea"new"reading.

Religiouslaw,includingboththestudyoftheprinciplesofjurisprudence(usulor"roots"offiqh)andtheelaborationofspecificinjunctions(furu`,"branches"),hasbeenacriticalIslamicdisciplinesincetheearlyMuslimgenerations.AnissuewithlegalimplicationsthatelicitedconsiderableattentionfromourSufiauthorswastheoneraisedbyaHadith(foundonlyinIbnMajah10amongthe

sixauthoritativecollections)inwhichMuhammadsaidthatthe"questfor`ilmisadutyforallMuslims."BriefastheHadithis,legalscholars,aswellastheSufiswhoseworksareexcerptedhere,havefoundagreatdealinitthatneedsinterpretation.Threeobviousissueshavetodowiththescopeoftheterm`ilm;thelegalweightoftheword"duty"anditsrelationshiptootherreligiousobligations;andthesignificanceofthephrase"forallMuslims."Onthefaceofit,onemightbeinclinedtoassumethat`ilminthisHadithsimplyreferstothe"traditional"knowledgethatistheobjectofthesethreereligiousdisciplines.However,thatisnothoweveryonehasinterpretedthematter.AlthoughtheSuficompendiararelyengageddirectlyinthekindofthinkingthatwasthestock-in-tradeoflegalscholars,theydidtalkagreatdealaboutreligiousdutiesandincludednumerousnarrativeswhoseprotagonistsaremuftis(scholarsauthorizedtoissuelegaladvisoriesorfatwas)andjudges.

Asisabundantlyclearfromthegreathandbooksofspirituality,thesethreereligiousdisciplines(exegesis,Hadith,andreligiouslaw),whoseWmconstitutesavastbodyof"traditional"knowledge,wereverymuchthebackdropagainstwhichtheirauthorstookupthetaskofdefiningSufismasacrediblebranchofIslamiclearning,avalidandnecessaryreligiousdiscipline(Wm)initsownright.AsRosenthalobserves,"Sufismattemptedtoaddsomethingofitsown,somenewtwistasitwere,tothegenerallyacceptedconceptofWm.Itwasthereforeunableandunwillingtoidentifyitselfwithitwithoutreservation.""

PartTwo:ExperientialKnowledgeofGodinClassicalandMedievalSufiTexts

SeveralofthemajorSufitheoristsgotosomelengthstodistinguishbetweenordinary,traditional,discursive,acquiredor"scientific"knowledge(Wm)andmoreintimate,infused,experientialor"mystical"knowing(ma'rifa),explaininghowthelatterbothpresupposestheformerandtranscendsit."Intermsofoverallmethod,thelargertreatisesfallintotwogeneralgroups.First,fourofthesources,ofwhichexcerptsarepresentedhereintranslation(Sarraj,Hujwiri,Ghazali,andSuhrawardi),establishastheirfirstorderofbusinessthatSufimodesofknowinghaveacredibleplaceinthelargercontextofreligiousknowledge.Thesesameauthorseventuallymoveontoconsiderhigherformsofknowledgespecifically,developingma'rifaasadistinctivelymysticalmodeofknowing.Second,threeofthemajorauthorsexcerptedhere(Kalabadhi,Makki,andQushayri),aswellasthosewhowrotelessextensivelyonthetopic(Ansari

andIbnal-lArif),locateexperientialknowledgewithintheirtreatmentsofspiritualdevelopmentbutdonotmakeknowledgefunctionasastructuralbasisfortheiroverallapproachestothespirituallife.HereIintroducetheseauthorsandtheirprincipalworksinmoreorlesschronologicalorder,insertinginseveralplacesbriefsummariesofhowsomeotherimportantauthorshaveunderstoodanddevelopedepistemologicallysignificantconcepts.Ihaveplacedinboldtypethenamesofauthorsselectionsofwhoseworksaretranslatedhere.

Dhu`n-Nun

ThawbanibnIbrahim,betterknownasDhu`n-NunofEgypt(c.180/796-245/860),istraditionallyacknowledgedasthefirstSufitomakeasignificantdistinctionbetween`ilmandma'rifawithrespecttotheirspecificfunctionsinthespiritualquest.Heidentifiedtheindividualendowedwithma'rifaasthepersonwhoseentirebeinghasbeentakenoverbythedivinepresence,asinthefamousSacredHadithofSupererogatoryDevotions.Accordingtothattradition,GodsaysthatwhenaservantlovesGodheorshedoesnotceasetoperformdeedsofdevotion,sothatGodlovesthatpersontosuchadegreethatGodbecomestheperson'sears,eyes,tongue,andhand.13

ItwasAbu'AbdAllahal-Harithal-Muhasibi(c.165/781-243/857)whoproducedtheearliestin-depthsystematicanalysesofthevariouspermutationsofknowledgeinrelationtotheSufipath.MuhasibiwasborninthesouthernIraqicityofBasraandspentmuchofhisadultlifeinBaghdad,wherehedied.HebecameaspecialistinreligiouslawaccordingtotheShafilischool.LikeDhu`n-Nun,Muhasibigothimselfintotroubleinconnectionwiththemid-ninth-centurydebatesovertheMultazilidoctrineofthecreatednessoftheQur'an.14Ironically,however,MuhasibiranafoulofthetraditionistsfordaringtousethedialecticalmethodoftheMultazilaagainstthem-asortofguiltbyassociation,perhaps-whereasDhu`n-NunhadbeenimprisonedbytheMultazilathemselvesfordenyingthecreatednessoftheQur'an.Inhismostinfluentialwork,TheBookontheObservanceoftheRightsofGod(Kitabar-ri`ayalihuquqAllah),Muhasibiorganizesthestepsinhismethodforrootingoutallformsofego-

centeredness.Here,inthismanualforthediscernmentofspirits,aswellasinseveralofhisotherworks,Muhasibiemphasizestheimportanceofadepthofgenuinema'rifa,whichalonecanestablishthefoundationforrightaction.HeregardsactionbasedonmaTifaasablendofpuredivinegiftandthejudiciousapplicationofrationalunderstanding(~agl).15

InatreatisecalledTheAnalysisofma'rifaandtheGivingofAdvice(Sharhal-ma'rifawabadhlan-nasiha),Muhasibielaboratesonthefourfundamentaltypesofknowledge:ofGodthroughcontemplation;ofthedevilthroughspiritualdiscernment;oftheego-soulthroughself-scrutiny;andofGod'sactionthroughexaminingthepowerunderlyingallthathappens.Muhasibitookaslightlydifferenttackinanotherworkwidelyattributedtohim,TheBookofKnowledge(Kitabal-`ilm).Therehearguesthatthethreefundamentalformsofknowledgehaveastheirrespectivegoalstheoutwardunderstandingofthingslawfulandunlawfulinthislife;theinwardunderstandingofmatterspertainingtothenextlife;andastillhigherlevelofawarenessofGod(macrifa)andHisplansforallofcreation.Aswillshortlybecomeclear,anumberoflaterauthorsdevelopedthedistinctionbetweenthosewhoareknowledgeableaboutthisworldonlyandthosewhoareendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlife.OnecanacquireMuhasibi'sfirsttwoformsofknowledgeboththroughacceptanceoftraditionallearninghandeddownfromreliablesourcesandthroughcarefuluseofintelligent,rationalreflection(tafakkur),withoutwhichonecannotbetrulyawareofthequalityofone'sdeedsofservicetoGod.Forthethird,however,onereliesentirelyonGodandthekindsofintimateexperiencepossibleonlythroughapersonalrelationshipwithGod.

Muhasibiwasinclinedtobelievethatthepotentialforsuchknowledgeisinherentineveryperson,buthecautionedthatlackofclarityintheheartpreventsmostfromadvancingtothatstage.Onlythosewhoarewillingtoundergothedisciplineofpolishingthemirrorofthehearthavehopeofattainingma'rifaastheyawaitGod'sgoodpleasureingrantingit.UltimatelyitistheethicalimplicationsofknowledgethatareofthegreatestconcerntoMuhasibi.LikeMakkiandotherlaterSufiauthors,Muhasibiemphasizes"useful"knowledge;unlikemanyofthosewhocameafterhim,Muhasibireservedahighplacefortheroleofintellectualunderstandingintheacquisitionandimplementationofthelowerlevelsofknowledge.Hedid,however,makeacriticaldistinctionbetweenrationalunderstanding('aql)and`ilm,onthegrounds

thatwhatoneknowsrationallyisnotalwaysconvertibleintomoralaction,andbecause(asotherSufiauthorsteach)genuineunderstandingdemandsacertainkindofattentiveness.Healsodistinguishesbetweenfaithandma'rifa.WhatismostimportantforpresentpurposesisthatMuhasibi'sworkrepresentsperhapstheearliestmajorsystematicefforttoestablishthefoundationsofSufithoughtasalegitimatereligiousdisciplinethatcouldrespectablytakeitsplacealongsideoftheothertraditional"sciences"ofthefaith."

AbuSaidal-Kharraz

AbuSaidal-Kharraz(d.277/890or286/899)ofBaghdad'sonemajorsurvivingwork,TheBookofSpiritualAuthenticity(Kitabassidq),isamongtheearliestextantinstructionaltexts."Itsintentwastolayoutoneversionofthespiritualpathbyarticulatingsixteenaspectsofspiritualexperiencevariouslyreferredtoasstationsorstoppingplacesalongthepath.Kharrazdoesnotelaborateonthenatureofmarifaassuchinthecourseofhisdevelopment,buthedoesdescribethreeessentialfeaturesofitspraxisinaspectsfour,five,andtwelveofthesixteenhediscusses,concerningintimateknowledgeoftheegosoul(marifatan-nafs),ofthe"enemy"calledIblis,andofGod'sgraces,respectively."KharrazisechoingheretheviewsofMuhasibi.InthelattersectionKharrazcitesastoryinwhichMosesacknowledgedinprayerthathisveryabilitytobegratefultoGodwasitselfagrace,andtowhichGodrespondedthatMoseswastherebydemonstratingthathehadattainedthemostfundamentalformofknowledge(`ilm).

Kharrazisnotconcernedwiththetheoreticaldimensionsofma'rifa,butonlywiththeabsoluteneedforanyonewhoisintentonspiritualprogresstoseekalevelofknowledge,bothtacticalandstrategicinitsrequirementsandimplications,thattranscendsthetraditionalandmoreordinarylearningcalledWm.HereKharrazoffersanearlyMuslimanalogytowhatChristiantraditionhascalled"discernmentofspirits,"apracticalknowledgeoftheoftensubtleforcesatworkuponandwithinthepsyche.KnowledgethereforefitsintoKharraz'sschemeofspiritualdevelopmentasoneelementamongmany.Notuntilhis"epilogue"-afterhehasexaminedinturntheimplicationsofauthenticityinsincerity,patience,repentance,knowledgeoftheego-soulandthedevil,spiritualreticence(wara'),usingonlywhatisreligiouslyacceptable,renunciation/asceticism,trustinGod,fearofGod,shame,knowledgeofandgratitudefordivinefavors,love,spiritualcontentment,desire,andintimacy-does

Kharrazcommentmorepointedlyonthenatureofknowledgeasanessentialelementinspiritualpedagogy.Hereonefindsthebeginningsofathemethatlaterauthorswoulddevelopinmuchgreaterdetail,namely,thesuperiorityofma'rifaover`ilm.'9Heemphasizestheethicalandaffectivedimensionsofthishigherlevelofknowledge,butKharraz'sobservationsreflectthekindofambivalenceandapparentimprecisionintheuseofterminologyevidentinQur'anandHadith,anambiguitythatlaterSufiswouldseektoaddress.ThreebriefexcerptswillsummarizeKharraz'sviewsonthesubject:

Accordingtoanon-canonicalHadith:"Godsays,`Whenapersonofacquiredknowledgereliesonthisworld,themostimmediate(orpossibly:theleast)effectIbringaboutinhimistoextractfromhisinmostbeingthesweetnessofintimateconversationwithMeandleavehiminconfusioninthisworld.'Anothertraditionhasitthatwhenthegodservantreliesonthisworldoncehehasattained`ilmandma'rifaalongwithspiritualinsight,GodsaystoGabriel,`StriphisinmostbeingofthesweetnessofintimateconversationwithMe,leavinghimwiththisworld'sscrapssothathecandistracthimselffromMewiththem.ii2'

Iwillcalltomindforyouanotherstation,sodirectyourattentiontoit,alongwiththatofanyotherpersonyounoticeadvertingtoma'rifaand`ilmandrestinginGod.Ifyouhaveimbibedfromthecupofma'rifaofGod,sothatGodhascausedpurecertaintytodawnonyouastowhathasbeensetasideforyoueternallyinGod'spresence-forHewantedyoubeforeyoueverwantedHim,andwasfullyinformedaboutyoubeforeyousoughttoknowHimintimately,andrememberedyoubeforeeveryoubroughtHimtomind,andlovedyoubeforeyoueverlovedHim-thenasaresultyouwillnowswellwiththankfulnessforHisgiftsandyourheartwillbemovedwithloveofHimforthose

Bestiryourmindnowandfocusyourintent.Donotattendto`ilm,foryourprofoundcomprehension(fahm)hasturnedasidefromwhatthatknowledgepresentstoyou.Youthereforehavenoexcusenow,onceyouhave`ilmandexposition,fortheproofhasbeenimpresseduponyou.ActthereforewithsinceritytowardGod,andperhapsyouwillberescuedandrejoiceinthema'rifaofHiminthistemporarydwellingplacethatprecedeseternity.Yes,thenyoursadnesswillbeunendingandyourdistressintensified,andeachspiritualstateinwhichyoufindyourselfwillbedoubledoverwhatyouhad

experiencedpriortoma'rifaand(mystical)attainment(lit.arrival).God'sBookandtheSunnaofHisMessengerprovideproofofthat.Godsaid,"AmongGod'sservantsthosewhopossess`ilmfearHim"(Q35:28).SaidtheProphet,"Iamendowedwithgreater`ilmofGodthanyou(pl.),andIfearHimthemostintensely."Hesaid,aswell,"Ifyoupossessedthekindof`ilmwithwhichIamendowed,youwouldlaughlittleandweepprofusely,andyouwouldsetoutriskingallonthehighroadstowardGod."ThisistheProphet'sapproach,andtheonewhohasma'rifaofGodlivesaccordingly:unlikeothers,suchapersoneveninthemidstofworldlythingsfindssupportineveryspiritualstateheexperiences.22

at-Tirmidhi

Totheeast,inCentralAsia(onthenorthernborderofAfghanistan),amajorninth-centurySufiauthorcalledMuhammadibn'AliAlHakimat-Tirmidhi(d.c.295/908)furtherdevelopedthedifferentiationofmodesofknowingbegunbythelikesofMuhasibi.23Tirmidhiwasawell-knowntraditionistaswellasalegalspecialisteducatedintheHanafischoolofjurisprudence.InashortworkcalledTheBookoftheElucidationofKnowledge(Kitabbayanal-ilm),Tirmidhirespondedtothecriticismofscholarswhoidentified`ilmsolelywithfiqh,atermwhoserootconnotes"deepunderstanding"butwhichhadcometobewidelyassociatedwithjurisprudence.Tirmidhiarguedthat`ilmismuchbroaderinscopeandencompassesthreeobjectsofknowledge,which,heexplains,arerootedintheHadith,"Knowledgeconsistsofthreethings:aclearverse(oftheQur'an),awell-establishedsunna,andafairreligiousduty.""Thefirst,whichTirmidhielsewherecallssimply`ilmortraditionallearning,hasasitsobjectfamiliaritywiththeoutwarddimensionsofreligiouscommandandprohibitioninthisworld;thesecond,whichheelsewherecallshikma(wisdom),encompassesinwardfamiliarityofmatterspertainingtothenextworldwhatlaterSufiauthorswoulddetailasthevariousstationsandstates;andthethird,whichTirmidhicharacterizesasma'rifa,referstoexperientialknowledgeofGodanddivineactionintheworld.

UnlikeMuhasibi,Tirmidhiconsideredfaithandma`rifavirtuallyinseparable.AsSarrajandotherswoulddevelopfurtherlateron,thosewhoattainthethirdlevelhave,afortiori,masteredthefirstandsecondaswell.Tirmidhiassociatedma'rifaintimatelywithGodmindfulness(dhikr),callingdhikrthe"sustenance"ofma`rifa,whichis"sweetandagreeable"andwhosevesselistheheart.

"Ma`rifahasvariousbranches:one(God's)sublimity,anotherHisgrandeur,thethirdHiscompassion,thenextintimacy,stillanother(divine)magnificence,followedbymight,andfinallythe(divine)beauty.Therootofthesebranchesis(divine)omnipotence,andtheybranchofffrom

Hallaj

HusaynibnMansural-Hallaj(d.309/922)wasamongthemostinfluentialoftheearlySufis,andismostfamousasSufism'sfirstmartyr-mystic.Hewasexecutedostensiblyforblasphemousutterancesinwhichheseemedtoarrogatedivinityuntohimself(especially"IamtheTruth").Hisviewsonknowledgetookadifferentturnfromthoseofhiscontemporaries-especiallyhismentors,Sahlat-Tustan(d.283/896)andJunayd(d.c.297/910),andpredecessors,especiallyHasanal-Basri(d.110/728)-inthatHallajinsistedonthesuperiorityofma'rifaover`ilm,whereasJunayd,forexample,cededpriorityto`ilm.AsMassignonnotes,Hallajbelievedthepurposeofknowledgewas"tofindRealityitselfandtopartakeofitforeverbydistinguishingitfromwhatisfleeting,fromtangibleandpossiblethings,conceivablethings,andbyconformingourintentionsfromwithintothedivineCommand."`Jimmeansself-scrutinythattranscendssimpleassenttoreligiouscustom-itisthe"scienceofhearts."But,Massignoncontinues,"itexcludesneithertheuseofrationaldialecticstoconductdiscussionnorrecoursetotraditionalauthoritytodefineitslimits;butitsubjectsbothtoatestofinteriorexperimentationinordertochecktheirdataandtheconclusivenessofevidenceby

InHallaj'sview,faithisthebedrockofdeeperunderstanding(fiqh)ofGod'sprovidentialgifts,andthememoryofthosegiftsconstitutesthesubstanceofone's`i1m.27Hallaj'sbriefenigmatictextTheBookofTd-Sins(Kitabat-tawasin)furtherclarifieshisepistemologyinchapters2,"TheT.a-SinofFahm,"and11,"TheOrchardofMa`rifa."Theformerdistinguishesbetween"Wmofultimatereality"and(therealizationof)"theultimaterealityofultimatereality."Usingthemetaphorofthemoth'sself-destructiveattractiontothecandle'sflame,helikensgeneralknowledgetoseeingthelightfromacandle,anditsfullrealizationtofeelingtheheatintheprocessofbeingconsumedinthefire.InthelattersectionHallajdescribes`irfan,knowledgeoftheobjectofma'rifa(God),asfullawarenessofone'stotalignorance.Justasthemothcannotreturntodescribetoitsmatestheultimateencounterwiththeflame,neithercanthehumanbeingclaimcommunicableknowledgeofGod.The"how"and"where"ofGodare

nowirrelevant.Ma`rifatranscendsallfact,boundaries,consciousness,andtradition.Hallajthengoesontorespondtonearlyadozentheologicalviewsofvariousofhiscontemporaries,refutingtheirclaimsto"possessing"somethingknownwhenallissaidanddone.Ma`rifaremainsarealmbeyondallclaimsto

TenthCentury:Niffari,Sarraj,Kalabadhi,Makki

Niffari

TheIraqi'Abdal-Jabbaran-Niffari's(d.354/965)BookofStandings(Kitabal-mawagif)issurelyoneofmostimportantcontributionstoIslamicmysticalthought.29Niffari'shighlyallusiveandconsistentlytheologicalapproachtothetopicofknowledgeisinmanywaysquitecongenialwiththatofHallaj.Niffari'slanguageisrelentlesslyelusive,andhis"standings"arecouchedintheformofclusteredaphorismsratherthanthatofshorttreatises.Inthe"Standingofstanding"hecomesascloseasheevergetstoadescriptionofwhathappenswhenGod"stands"orpositionstheindividualinaparticularaspectofspiritualexperience,andhisinterpretationofWmandma'rifaarecrucial.

"Standing"isthesourceofWm,sothatapartfromstanding,one'sknowledgerestsoutsideoftheself.Ontheotherhand,ifonehasma'rifaoftheexperienceofstandingitself,ma'rifaisnolongerapossibility-presumablybecausetheindividualisenthralledwiththeexperienceitselfratherthanwiththeOnewhoaloneistheobjectofintimateknowledge.StandingobliteratesbothWmanditsopposite,jahl;andwhileinherentineverystandingthereisavantagepoint(muttala')30overWm,Wmhasnovantagepointovertheexperienceofstanding,whichisasclosetotruema'rifaofGodasahumanbeingcanget.This"vantagepoint,"or"mysticalperception"inArberry'srendering,introducesarangeoflightimagerybecausetheterm(muttala')derivesfromarootassociatedwiththerisingofthesun.GainanenlightenedvantagepointonbothWmandma'rifa,saysNiffari,andyouseeeachintheother.Failingthat,youcanbesurethatneitherisgenuine.OneneedstosetupabarrierofWmasaprotectionagainstignorance,butonealsoneedsabarrierofma'rifaasdefenseagainstWm.'JimmaybethedoortoGod,butma'rifaisthedoorkeeper.

Paradoxically,however,standingisthespiritofma'rifa,butma'rifaisthespiritofWm,whichinturnisthespiritoflifeitself.Similarly,standingupholdsma'rifaasma'rifaupholds`ilm;asma'rifadevours`ilm,sostandingdevours

ma'rifa.Andwhileeverystanderisendowedwithma'rifa,theconverseisnotnecessarilytrue,fortheoneendowedwithma'rifaseesthelimitsofhis`ilm,whereasthestandertranscendsalllimits.Peoplewhopossess`ilmtalkaboutit;thoseendowedwithma'rifadwellonit;onewhostandstalksaboutGod.As`ilmisaveilbeforeGod,ma'rifaishowGodspeaks,andstandingisGod'sverypresence.

Niffari'spithyparadoxesarelikeathousandfacetsofagem,eachrevealingsubtlevariationsincolorandbrilliance.EachremovesoneofcountlessgossamerveilsoverwhatNiffariunderstandstobetheineffableexperienceofknowing,whichtranscendsalltheboundariesofbothWmandma'rifa.Gettingbeyondthebasictermswiththeirlimitations,heplungesintothema'rifaofma'rifas(ma'rifatal-ma'arif),whichhedefinesasthe"ignoranceofallthingsthrough"God,inwhichonemakesWmabeastofburdenonthejourneytoenjoyingGod'sownhospitality.Toentrustone'sveryunknowingtoGodistoenterintoGod'sfriendship,buttopresentoneselftoGodasonepossessedofWm-andproudofit-isallloss.TheproblemwithWmisthatitmasqueradesasastraight,unobstructedtrajectory,whereasinfacttherearefalseexitsanddetoursallalongit.Onlybylettinggoofconventionalmeaningscanonearriveatma'rifa.

Spiritualprogressissomethinglikeacontinualcyclingfromignoranceto`ilmtoma'rifa,onlyateachsuccessivelevelthethreeaspectsofknowingandunknowingtakethewayfarerintonewterritory.Beyondallthestandingsliesignorance,buttofleethatignoranceistoabandonknowledge.Perhapsbywayofveiledreferencetotheaxiomthatthingsareknownbytheiropposites,Niffariobservesthatma'rifadevoidofignorancegoesunmanifest.Onewhopossessesaknowledgewithnooppositebelongstoneitherheavennorearth.Thedilemmaofoneendowedwithma'rifa,however,isthatonewhogoesoninquiringaboutma'rifaofGodtrulyhasnoexperientialknowledgeofGod,butonewhoiscontentwithstatus-quo`ilmdoesnotbelongtoGod.

Niffari'sintenselyallusiveandimaginativeworksetshimapartfromothermajortenth-centurySufiproseauthors.Sarrajandhisfellowmanualistsspoke,moredirectlyandpedagogically,toaverydifferentaudience.

Sarraj:TheBookofFlashes

AbuNasras-Sarraj(d.378/988)wasborninTus,inthenortheasternIranianprovinceofKhurasan.Fewdetailsaboutthecourseofhislifearewellestablished.JudgingfromhisreferencestoanumberofmajorcitiesinthecentralMiddleEast,includingBaghdad,Basra,Damascus,andCairo,hetraveledwidely.TraditionalaccountssuggestthatseveralmajorteachersinfluencedSarraj'sthought.SarrajoftenmentionsJalfaral-Khuldi(d.348/959),whohadbeenadiscipleofvariousimportantSufis,includingJunayd(d.297/910),RuwaymofBaghdad(d.303/915),Ibrahimal-Khawwas(d.291/904),towhomalostworkcalledTheBookoftheMa`rifaofMa`rifaisattributed,andSamnunal-Muhibb("TheLover,"d.c.298/910).DuringanextendedvisittoDamascus,SarrajcametoknowAbuBakrad-Duggi(d.c.366/977),acompanionofthefamedAbu'Aliar-Rudhbari(d.322/934).AndAbu`1-HasanibnSalimofBasra(d.356/967)wasthesonofadiscipleofSahlat-Tustari,whoseQur'anichermeneuticsIwilldiscussbrieflybelow.ThoughSarrajiscelebratedforonlyonewrittenwork,hisfellowSufisregardedhimhighlyenoughtodubhimthe"PeacockoftheSpirituallyPoor."

InhisKitabal-Luma'(TheBookofFlashes),SarrajleadsoffwithaseriesofshortchaptersdesignedtosituateSufimodesofknowingsquarelywithinthecontextofIslamicreligiousdisciplinesgenerally.HearguesthatacompleteunderstandingofreligioussciencesmustincludeSufiapproachesalongwiththoseofthetraditionistsandjurists.Inthisrespecthesetsanexamplelaterfollowedmostnotably(amongtheauthorstranslatedhere)byHujwIri,Ghazal,andSuhrawardi;allfourbeginwithexpositionsofacquiredortraditionalknowledge(`ilm)asareligiousdutyforallMuslims.

Sarrajdedicatesmostofthefirsttwelvechapters(outof152chaptersinall)tosettingupSufiknowledgeasafulfillmentofthisfoundationalreligiousvocation,withchapter9arguingforSufiknowledgeasa"specialreligiousdiscipline."Hisargumentturnsontheprinciplethatjustasonewouldnotseekadvicefromanon-juristconcerningamatteroflaw,sooneoughtnothaverecoursetoapersonunfamiliarwiththelifeofthespiritconcerningquestionsofinnerexperience.AfterexamininginturnthedomainsofHadithspecialistsandjuristsasdiscretesciences,hebuildsacaseforunderstandingtheuniquelySufiapproachestoknowledgeandactionasanecessaryandrespectablescience,refutingalongthewaycomplaintsthattheSufisareaknow-nothingrabble.AsSuhrawardididmuchlater,Sarrajargues(chapter8)thattheSufisarethereal

fuqaha',fortheirsistheauthenticfiqh,"profoundcomprehension,"ofreligiousmatters.Hisopeningfoundationaldiscussionculminatesinchapter12,whereheexplainsthatcompetenceintheinwardaspectsofreligious`ilmistheresponsibilityoftheSufis.

AfterlayingthegroundworkforhiscasethatSufishavealegitimateclaimtoexpertiseintheinwardaspectsofreligious`ilm,SarrajaddressesthespecificnatureofSufiknowingasma'rifa.Chapters16through18offerageneroussamplingofcitationsoffamousSufis'definitionsofexperientialknowledge.Sarrajaddshisownglossesmoreextensivelythan,forexample,Qushayriseemsinclinedtodo.PerhapshismostimportantglossexpandsonNurri'sreferencetoa"directencounter"(bi`l-mubdshara)withGod,whichhesays"referstotheheart'sunmediatedexperienceofcertitudeandwitnessingoftherealitiesoffaithintherealmofmystery"[38].UnliketheordinarybelieverwhoseesbythelightofGod,themysticseesdirectlythroughGod.

Asbackgroundnecessaryforadeeperunderstandingofma'rifa,Sarrajthendetailssevenmysticalstations(magamat).31Heindicatesthattherearethreelevelsineachstation,thethirdbeingthatofthepersonendowedwithma'rifa(thatis,the`arif).Aseriesofchaptersontenconditions,eightofwhichheexplicitlycalls"spiritualstates,"isfollowedbytwochaptersontheSufiunderstandingoftheProphet'sembodimentofthesespiritualvalues.Twomoresubstantivechapters(51and52)describehow,becauseoftheirexperientialknowledge,Sufiscanarriveat"deeperinterpretations"(mustanbatat)ofQur'anandHadith.Sarrajexplainshowtheirdisparityofviewsinthisrespectisactuallyanadvantageratherthanaproblem,giventheimmensevarietyofpeoplewaitingtobenefitfromtheirfindings.

Inasection(chapter88)dealingwiththediversityofconceptsheldbyvariousSufis,Sarrajnotesthat,whenaskedaboutultimatespiritualreality,'AbdAllahibnTahiral-Abhariresponded,"Spiritualrealityisaltogether`ilm."Whensomeoneproceededtoaskhimabout`ilm,heansweredthatitwas"entirelytheultimatespiritualreality."Shibli,however,madeanintriguingdistinction,saying,"Therearethreemodesofspeaking:thetongueof`ilm,thetongueofultimatespiritualreality(hagiga),andthetongueoftruth(al-hagq).Thetongueof`ilmisthatwhichcommunicatestousinmediatedfashion;thetongueofhaqiqaisthatbywhichGodgivesaccesstomysterieswithoutuseofanintermediary;butthereisnopathtothetongueofthetruth"[216].Later,Sarraj

explainsanaspectoftheuseoftheterm"tongue"aspartofalargersectiondevotedtoidiosyncraticSufiterminology.TherehegivesaslightvariationonShibli'ssayingandcomments,"Whenheuses(theterm)`tongue'hemeanstheelucidationofthe`ilmofHimanddisclosureaboutHimthrough(meansof)expression"[354].

Finally,afterdevotingthebulkoftheremainderofthebooktocountlessspecifichagiographicalexamplesoflivesbasedonsuchknowledge,andondefinitionsofhundredsofkeyterms,Sarrajreturnstothesubjectofma'rifa.Chapter122acknowledgesthatthecommunicationofSufiknowledgeisdicey.TheQur'anicSuratal-kahf's(Sara18)storyofKhidrprovidestheparadigmof`ilmminladunn(knowledgefromthedivinepresence).HereSarrajmakesanimportantdistinction:Muhammadwascommissionedtocommunicatewhathadbeensentdowntohim,butnotthatwhichheknewexperientially-thatis,theprivateknowledgethat,accordingtothefamousHadith,iscauseforweepingratherthanlaughter.UponthisfoundationSarrajbuildshisdefenseofecstaticutterance(shath).Ma`rifathusstandsabovealltheotherreligiousscienceswithoutinanywayabrogatingthem.

Kalabadhi:TheExplorationofSufiTeachings

AbuBakral-Kalabadhicame,ashisfullnameindicates,fromtheKalabadhquarterofthecityofBukhara,inpresent-dayUzbekistan.Hisbirthdateisunknown,butitappearsthathediedaround384/994-95,32andheisknowntohavebeenburiedinBukhara.VirtuallyallthatisknownofhiseducationandprofessionalbackgroundisthathestudiedIslamiclawwithaHanafijuristnamedMuhammadibnFadl(d.319/931).AsaSufi,KalabadhiwasastudentofamannamedFarisibn1IsaastaunchallyofSufism'smostcelebratedmartyr,Hallaj.

KalabadhiisbestknownforhisBookoftheExplorationoftheTeachingsofThoseWhoSubscribetoSufism(Kitabat-ta'arruflimadhhabahlat-tasawwuf),hereafterreferredtoastheExploration.KalabadhiremarksthatthedualpurposeofhisrelativelybriefArabictreatiseisbothtodefendSufisagainstunjustifiablecensureandtopreservethekernelofSufiteachingduringatimeinwhich,hebelieved,itwasatriskofbeingdilutedand,perhaps,evenirrevocablylost.Insupportofhisfirstpurpose,KalabadhifollowsvirtuallypointforpointanearlyMuslimcreed,knownasFiqhAkbarII,demonstratingineachinstancehowthe

SufishewscrupulouslytomainstreamIslamicbeliefandpractice.Farfrombeingheretical,heinsists,theSufisareinfacttheveryparagonsofstrictconformitytoeveryelementofthecreed.33

Kalabadhi'sExplorationcontainsseventy-fiveconcisechaptersarrangedinfivesections:generalbackgroundonSufism,includingseverallistsofauthorsandfamousSufis(proemiumandchapters1-4);sometwodozenchaptersonthevariousdoctrinalorcreedalelements(5-30);analysisofprincipalfeaturesoftheSufipedagogyofspiritualexperienceandprogress(31-51);discussionsofaroundadozendistinctivelySufitechnicalterms(52-63);andfinally,asetofpraxis-orientedchaptersdetailingevidenceofSufiteachinginaction(64-75).34

TheworkisnotstructuredprimarilyaroundtheconceptofknowledgeandisthuslesssystematicepistemologicallythanSarraj,forexample.KalabadhiismoreinterestedinprovidingabroadoverviewofSufidoctrines,and,althoughhiscatalogueofwhatotherwriterscallstationsandstatesseemstosuggestaprogress,hedoesnotconnectknowledgeexplicitlytothatdevelopment.Instead,heinsertstwoofhisfourchaptersonexperientialknowledge-chapter21:OnMa`rifa,andchapter22:DifferencesofOpiniononMa`rifa-inthemidstofanotherwiserathermeanderinglistingof"doctrines"oftheSufis.InthefirstofthosetwochaptersKalabadhiemphasizestheinsufficiencyoftheintellectandtheneedofGodastheonlyguidetoGod.Againstthatbackground,hefollowsJunayd'sdistinctionbetweentwolevelsofexperientialknowledgeofGod.Thehigherresultsfromdivineselfdisclosure(ta'arruf),suchasthatwhichGodgrantedAbrahamwhenHeshowedhimthemalakut(realms)oftheheavensandearth(Q6:75-79),andthelowerfromdivineinstructionortutelage(ta`rif),wherebyallbelieversarriveatma'rifathroughtheirawarenessofthe"signsonthehorizonsandintheirselves."Kalabadhiisevidentlyuniqueinthisrespectamongthetheorists.Abrieffollow-upchapterlistsaseriesofopinionsanddefinitionsofmarifa.

WhenKalabadhirevisitsthesubjectnearlyfortychapterslater(chapter60:OntheRealitiesofMawrifa),heleadsoffwithanotherinterestingdistinctionbetweentwotypesofma'rifa:thatofatruth,whichinvolvesaffirmingGod'stranscendentunity;andthatofanultimatespiritualreality(hagiga),whichinvolvestherealizationthatsuchaknowledgeispuregiftandcannotbeachievedthrougheffortofintellect(adistinctionreminiscentofthatwhichSarrajhadattributedtoShibli,citedabove).Finally,chapter62discusses

"DescriptionsoftheOneEndowedwithMa`rifa,"emphasizingthequalityofbewildermentandtheinsufficiencyoftheintellect,butitdoesnotexpressanypreferenceforoneoranotherdescription."

AbuTa1ibal-Makki:TheSustenanceofHearts

AbuTalibal-Makki(d.386/996)wasoneofthemostinfluentialearlymedievalMuslimspiritualwriters.ThroughouttheMiddleEastandfromSpaintoIndiahismonumentaltreatiseTheSustenanceofHearts[inOne'sConducttowardtheBeloved,andtheDescriptionofthePathoftheSeekertowardDivineUnity](Qutal-qulubTimu'amalatal-mahbubwawasftaraqal-muradildmagamat-tawhid])waswidelyreadandrecommendedformanycenturies.Arabicpublishinghouseshavecontinuedprintingtheworkrightdowntoourtime,thoughacriticaleditionhasyettoappear.SurprisinglylittleisknownaboutsoimportantafigureinthehistoryofIslamicspirituality."

PreciselywhenAbuTalibwasbornisnotcertain,buthegrewupinearlytenth-centuryMeccainafamilythatoriginatedintheJibalregion,amountainousareaalongsoutheasternIraq'sborderwithpresent-dayIran.MedievalsourcessuggestthatAbuTalibstudiedunderthreeprominentMeccanscholars,eachofwhomAbuTalibhimselfcalled"ourshaykh":AbuSaidibnal-Arabi(d.341/952),'Abidash-Shattal-MuzaffaribnSahl,andAbu'Alial-Kirmani.ThefirstofthesehadbeenastudentoftheprominentBaghdadi"sober"mysticJunayd,anditislikelythatMakkilearnedprinciplesofJunaydiSufismthroughAbuSaid.

DuringhisMeccaneducationalcareer,MakkialsostudiedatsomedepthsubjectsotherthanSufism.UnderthetutelageofscholarsfrombothShafiliandHanbalischoolsoflaw,hesteepedhimselfinHadithstudiesandearnedtherighttorelatetraditionsfromatleastthreeauthoritativescholars.Inaddition,Makkireportsthathiswarinessofusingpersonaljudgment(ray)andanalogicalreasoning(giyas)intheabsenceof"sound"Hadithsonwhichtobaseinterpretationsofsacredtextsledhimtoaccordgreaterthanusualcredenceto"weak"Hadiths(thatis,thosenarratedbylittle-knownindividualsorhavingdefectivechainsoftransmission).HesupportedhisviewbyappealingtonolessanauthoritythanIbnHanbalhimself,whoarguedinfavorofacceptingaweakHadithsolongasitdoesnotcontradictQur'an,Sunna,ortheconsensusofbelieversandscholars.Heheldthatifatraditioniscertainlynotaforgery,itis

bettertoputone'strustinthesaying'ssurvivalinthecommunitythanriskhavingrecoursetomethodsofreasoningthatmightinappropriatelyreflectone'spersonalbiases.

Probablybetween330/942and356/967(andmorelikelytowardthelatterpartofthatperiod),AbuTalibtravelednorthtoBasra,anIraqicitythathadgrownuparoundamid-seventh-centurymilitaryencampmentestablishedduringtheearlyyearsofIslamicexpansionintothecentralMiddleEastfromtheArabianpeninsula.ByAbuTalib'stime,BasrahadlongbeenknownasacenterofimportantdevelopmentsinIslamicspirituality.IthadbeenhometoHasanalBasri(d.110/728),amanknowntothisdayforhisrigorousasceticism,andtoawomanoftenhailedasthefirstauthenticallymysticalMuslim,Rabilaal-,Adawiya(d.185/801).InBasra,AbuTalibbecameassociatedwiththecircleofAbuAhmadibnSalim(d.c.356/967),whowassaidtohavebeenthelastlivingdiscipleofSahlat-Tustariandafterwhosefather,Abu'AbdAllahMuhammadibnSalim(d.297/909),anearlyschoolofthoughtcalledtheSalimiyatookitsname.

Agroupofmysticallyinclinedspeculativetheologians(calledmutakallimun)linkedwiththeMalikischoolofreligiouslaw,theSalimiyawasactuallyfoundedbySahlat-Tustarihimself.SincemuchoftheinformationextantontheSalimiyawaswrittenbyHanbaliauthors,includingHujwiri,'Abdal-Qadiral-Jilani(d.561/1166),andIbnal-Jawzi(d.597/1200),whoweredecidedlycriticaloftheschool,anunbiasedpictureoftheirteachingsisdifficulttoreconstruct.Still,Sahl'simpactonAbuTalibisevidentintheapproximatelytwohundredcitationsofSahlinMakki'swork.AbuclaimstohavemettheyoungerIbnSalimpersonally,andcertainstatementsinTheSustenanceofHeartssuggestthathewasintimatelyfamiliarwiththebeliefsandpracticesoftheSalimiya.

Abu`1-HasanAhmadibnSalimwasnotedforhisasceticalbent,aftertheexampleoftheearlierparagonofBasranasceticismHasanalBasri,whomAbuTalibal-Makkilaudsashis"imam"inspiritualdiscipline.ForMakki,HasanrepresentedanessentiallinktotheProphet,sinceHasanhad"seen"Muhammad'sCompanions`Uthmanand'Ali.DuringhissojourninBasra,andundertheinfluenceofIbnSalim,AbuTalibengagedinastrictregimenofasceticalpractice,particularlywithregardtohiseatinghabits.Apreferenceformeagerintakeseemstohavebeenasignificantasceticalthemeinhislife.Itisreportedthatheatenothingbutgrassorherbsforsuchatimethathisskin

assumedaverdanthue.Andhewasparticularlywaryofeatingfoodswhosestatusinreligiouslawwasambiguous.Ashismasterwork'stitlesuggests,Makkiwasfarmoreinterestedintheneedforinnernourishment.

AtanuncertaindateAbuTalibtraveledfurthernorthtoBaghdad,alreadylongacenterofSufism.Verylittleisknowabouthisyearsthere,butcrediblereportssuggestthatheranafoulofreligiousauthorities,ashadanumberofSufisbeforehistime,forstatementsjudgedtobetheologicallyunacceptable.Heisbelievedtohavehadason,`UmaribnMuhammadibn'Ali(d.444/1053),andtohavelivedmostofhisremainingdaysinsolitude.AbuTalibdiedinBaghdadin386/996andwasburiedthere.

BeforedescribingAbuTalib'smysticalepistemologyingeneralandhisspecificapproachtoexperientialknowledge,asummarycharacterizationofhisintellectualstancewillbehelpful.HisbackgroundinreligiousstudiesfamiliarizedhimwiththefundamentalsofthreeofthefourprincipalSunnischoolsofjurisprudence(Shafili,Maliki,andHanbali),withtheirdistinctiveviewsontheusesofevidencefromQur'anandHadith.HisunderlyingconcernwastogivethePropheticSunnaprecedenceoverbothcustomaryvaluesandculturaltraditionsontheonehand,anddoctrinalinnovation(bid`a)ontheother.AbuTalibwasespeciallyadamantaboutthedangersinherentintherationalistmethodsofvariousgroupsofspeculativetheologians.'Atthesametime,hedidnotexemptfromcriticismthoseSufiswhosepracticeshejudgedincompatiblewiththePropheticexampleandtheRevealedLaw.OnthelatteraccountMakkitookasomewhatinconsistentpositionconcerningtheecstaticutterances(shatahat,pl.ofshath)forwhichSufissuchasHallajandBayezidal-Bistamiaremostfamous.Ontheonehand,hecondemnssuchbehaviorasextremist,while,ontheother,heexcludesthetwomostcelebratedecstaticsfromhiscriticismonthegroundsthatHallajandBistamihadattainedalevelofspiritualdevelopmentthatputthembeyondreproachinthismatter.

Surelyoneofthegreatclassicsofworldspirituality,TheSustenanceofHeartsoffersacomprehensiveviewofvirtuallyalltheissuesofmajorconcerntooneimportantsegmentoftenth-centuryMuslimsocietyinthecentralMiddleEast.Makkiisfarmoreconcernedaboutpraxisthantheory.Inkeepingwiththatorientation,heplungesimmediatelyintodetaileddiscussionofthespiritualseeker'spracticesofprayerandfastingineveryconceivablecircumstance,emphasizingtheneedforproperinnerdisposition.Subsequently,hemovesinto

acloserconsiderationofspecificaspectsofself-scrutiny,"witnessing/vision,"andofthemorerefinedfacetsofspiritualdiscernment(tafsalal-khawatir).

Makkiproceedstoananalysisofthe"stationsofcertitudeandthestatesofthoseendowedwithcertitude,"includingpatience,gratitude,hope,fear,self-discipline,trust(afairlylengthysection),spiritualcontentment,andlove.ThencomesatreatisethatmanyreaderswillbeaccustomedtoseeingastheveryfirstitemintreatmentsoftheIslamicfaith,namely,theso-calledfivepillars.Placingthemhere,Makkimakesitclearthatheregardsafullengagementinthese"basics"asinnowaymerelypresumed,butratherastheresultofconsiderableprogressonthespiritualpath.Afterdiscussingindetailandfromvariousanglestheconfessionoffaith,ritualprayeranditsattendantduties,almsgiving,fasting,andpilgrimage,Makkiburrowsintotheinnerdimensionsoftheseactionsas"devotionaldeedsoftheheart."FirstheexaminesthevariousconditionsrequisiteforengaginginthemaccordingtoRevealedLaw,alongwiththetelltaleandoftensubtlesignsofunbeliefthatcanmanifestthemselvesinone'sreligiouspractice.Hethenreturnstothefundamentalissuesofsincerityandrightintentionbeforeintroducingmoreadvancedasceticalpracticesrelatingtohungerandspiritualpoverty.Thelattersectionsdealwithavarietyofsocialissues,includingtravel,marriage,companionship,commerce,andafinaldiscussionoftheimportanceofspiritualreticenceandcareinattendingtothedifferencesbetweenforbiddenandpermittedpractices.

Makki'sBookofKnowledge:KnowledgeplaysacentralroleinMakki'sthought,asthegoalofthespirituallife,buthisapproachtoknowledgeisonethatwilllikelystrikethereaderasunconventional.TheonlyknowledgeworthseekingisknowledgeofGodbasedonhearingratherthanonseeing.AbuTalibentitlesthewholeofPart31,oneofthelargestsinglesectionsinTheSustenanceofHearts,"TheBookof`ilm."Inthecourseofthatsegment,hesituatesma'rifawithinthelargercontextofseekingknowledge,buthedoesnotmakeepistemologicalconcernstheoverallfoundationofhiswork,as,forexample,hiscontemporarySarrajdid.

Makki'streatmentiscertainlyoneofthemoredifficultofitskind,sinceheisgenerallyconcernedwithexploringthesubtlestdetailsoftheinteriorlifeandmotivationandsomewhatlesswithreportingontherangeofopinionsexpressedbyfamousSufis.Heisanextraordinarilyshrewdobserverofthehumancondition,andhisanalysisisoftendenseandconvoluted.Likeseveralother

authors,MakkibeginswiththeHadithonthedutyofseekingknowledge,butthenheproceedsonatrackunlikeanyotherSufimanualist:hementionsonlyinpassingotheraspectsoftheIslamicquestforknowledge,arguingfromtheoutsetthattheknowledgethatallareduty-boundtopursueisinwardknowledge.HeusesWmconsistentlyatfirst,butsaysitsobjectis,variously,spiritualstates,mysticalmoment,sincerity,innermovementsofspirit-inshort,hecallsforthesubtleandsophisticatedself-knowledgeknownasthe"scienceofhearts"(Wmal-qulub).

Oneoverridingthemeisthatofbeneficialorusefulknowledge,whichhedefinesasanyknowledgethatassistsoneinnegotiatingthedifficultjourneyinward.Hestartswithknowledgeofthefivepillarsasthebedrockofallknowledge,sinceknowledgemustleadtoactionandthefivepillarsaretheessentialrequirementsforaction.Makkiidentifiesthetwosourcesofmwrifaashearing(bywhichonebecomesaMuslim)andseeing(orcontemplativewitnessing,mushahada).Ma`rifacanoccureitherthroughdemonstrativeproof,consistingofvariouslevelsofinstructionassociatedwithhearing,orthroughmoresubtlesignsassociatedwithvision,whichcanincludeecstasy.

AnotherthemeisMakki'stacticofidentifyingknowledgewithfaith,fearofGod,andahostofotherspiritualqualities.Forexample,heestablishestherelationshipbetweenfaithandknowledgebyidentifyingtheQur'anwithknowledgeandlight,andfaithintheQur'anasthebedrockofIslam.ThroughthisandotherdevicesMakkiseekstodemocratizeknowledge,thustakingadifferenttackthan,forexample,SarrajorKalabadhi.Hedoes,however,maintainthattherearenumerousranksdistinguishingthequalityofknowledgeamongindividuals-themanystationsofcertitude-andhighlightingthesuperiorityofinwardknowingoveroutward,knowledgeofthenextworldovermundaneknowing,andthescienceofheartsoverthatoftongues.Toafargreaterdegreethananyoftheothermanualists,Makkioffersanelaborate"sociologyofexperientialknowledge,"describingatlength,forexample,thespiritualstatusandsocialfunctionoftruescholars,theirrelationshiptotheprophets,andthecomeuppanceawaitingthosewhoabusetheirknowledgeforworldlygain.Finally,Makkipraisesspiritualreticencewithrespecttoknowledge,aqualityofwhichanyonewhotacklesQutal-qulubisremindedoften.

EleventhCentury:

Hujwiri,Qushayri,Ansari,andGhaz511

Hujwiri:TheRevelationofRealitiesVeiled

'Aliibn`UthmanHujwiri(d.c.465/1071)iswidelyknownasthefirstauthorofamajorSufiworkinPersian.OriginallyfromGhazna,inAfghanistan,HujwirieventuallysettledinLahore,inpresent-dayPakistan,whereheisstillknownbythehonorificDataGanjBakhshandwherepeoplestillmakepilgrimagetohistomb.Hujwiri'sKashfalMahjub(TheRevelationofRealitiesVeiled)beginswithachapter"On41m."Itturnsonthecriticalrelationshipbetweendiscursiveknowledgeandaction,emphasizingtheethicalcomponenttoagreaterdegreethanperhapsanyoftheotherauthorsdiscussedhere.Heneverthelessbeginstoventureintoadescriptionofahighertypeofknowledge(still`ilm)bymakingadistinctionbetweendivineknowledgeandhumanknowledge,assertingthatthelinkishumanunderstandingofdivineessenceandoneness,ofGod'sattributes,andofGod'sdeeds.Hujwiriintroducestheconceptofexperientialknowledgetowardtheendofthechapter.Therehesituatesitatthepinnacleofatriadoftypesof`ilm:first,knowledgefromGod(includingalloftheRevealedLaw);second,knowledgewithGod(presupposingtheexperienceofthespiritualstationsandarisingtothelevelofGod'sFriends);third,knowledgeofGod,whichhecallsma'rifat(hereafterIwilluseastandardArabictransliteration,ma'rifa,ratherthanthePersianequivalent).Heconcludesthechapterwithawarningtoavoidthecompanyofthosewhofallshortofthehighestlevelsofknowledge.Intheend,therealizationofone'sveryincapacitytoachievefullknowledgeisitselftheattainmentofsalutaryknowledge.

Hujwiritakesupthesubjectofhighermodesofknowinginchapter15ofTheRevelationofRealitiesVeiled:"OntheFirstVeil,Ma`rifa."Amongauthorsdiscussedthusfar,histreatmentisunusualinseveralrespects.First,healonesituatesmacrifaatthebeginningofatypology.Hedoesso,however,notbecausehethinksofma'rifaasastartingpoint,butbecauseexperientialknowledgeisthelaunchpadfortheupperreachesofthespiritualquestandalreadypresupposesagreatdealofspiritualacumen.Second,Hujwirigivesgreatattentiontothecausesofexperientialknowledge,rulingoutthedeductiveinferenceofistidlal,theformofinspirationcalledilham,andnecessarycause,ontheonehand,whilespotlightingGod-givenperplexity,ontheother.Third,heunderscorestheimmeasurablechasmbetweenrationalandexperientialknowing.

Fourth,heisuniqueinhisdescriptionofma'rifaasatwofoldphenomenon.AcknowledgingtheambiguityoneencountersoccasionallyintheSufiusageofthetermma'rifa,Hujwiridistinguishesbetweendiscursiveorconceptual(cilmi)andspiritualoraffective(hdlg)types.Hedistinguishesthetwobyassociating`ilmimacrifawithreligiousscholarswhopossesssound`ilmaboutGod,andhaltma'rifawithSufisforwhomsoundnessofspiritualoraffectiverelationshipwithGodisparamount.Hujwiri'sprincipalworkingdefinitionofaffectivema'rifaisthis:"ExperientialknowledgeisthelifeoftheheartthroughGod,andtheinnermostbeing'srefusaltoattendtoanythingbutGod."

Finally,inchapter24,amidalistofmorefocuseddefinitionsofkeytechnicalterms,HujwirisumsupfundamentalmeaningsofWmandma'rifaandthedifferencebetweenthem:

Specialistsinreligiousprinciples(`ulamd'-iusul)havenotdistinguishedbetween`ilmandma'rifa,indicatingthatthetwoaresynonymous.However,theyassertthatonecanrefertoGodas"possessingknowledge"('slim)whereasoneoughtnotcallGod"experientiallyknowledgeable"(`drif)becausethatimpliestheneedofdivinelywroughtcompletion."Ontheotherhand,theshaykhsofthis(Sufi)Pathapplythetermma'rifatoknowledgeassociatedwithspiritualdeedsandaffectivestateswhentheknowercommunicateshisownaffectivestate.Suchaknowertheycallamystic(`drif).Theycall`ilmanylearningnotinherentlycharacterizedbyspiritualmeaningandaction,andtheycallonewhopossessessuchknowledgealearnedperson('slim).Inotherwords,theycallalearnedpersononewhopossessesacquiredlearningthatispurelyintellectualandlacksspiritualdepth,whiletheyrefertoapersonwhoseknowledgeischaracterizedbyspiritualdepthandrealityasendowedwithma'rifa.Asaresult,whenSufiswanttoindicatealesseropinionoftheirrivals,theycallthem"learned"(danishmand).Mostpeoplefindthisunacceptable,buttheirintentisnottochidesomeoneforbeinglearnedbutrathertofaultsuchapersonfordisregardingdeedsofpiety.Forthepersonpossessedof`ilmreliesonhimselfwhiletheoneendowedwithma'rifareliesonhisLord.[498]

TranslationspresentedhereincludefulltextsofHujwiri'schapterson`ilmandma'rifa.

Qushayri:TheTreatise[onSufism]

Abu`l-Qasimal-Qushayriwasbornin375/986inthenortheasternIranianprovinceofKhurasan,inthetownofUstuwa.ThenameQushayriindicatesthathisfamilydescendedfromtheArabtribeofQushayr,whichhadmigratedintoIranprobablyduringtheseventhcentury.Asayoungman,QushayritraveledtothecityofNishapur,capitaloftheprovinceofKhurasan,wherehestudiedaccounting,math,andfinance.ItwastherealsothathemetAbu'Aliad-Daggaq(d.412/1021),whowastobecomehisprincipalteacherinSufismaswellashisfather-in-law.Qushayrialsoappliedhimselftothestudyoftraditionalreligioussciences.HebecameanauthorityonHadithandsteepedhimselfinShafilijurisprudenceunderAbuBakrMuhammadibnBakrat-TUsI(d.419/1029),thechiefjuristoftheprovincialcapital.Inaddition,QushayripursuedfurtherstudiesinHadith,law,andAshlarisystematictheologywithAbuBakrMuhammadibnal-HasanibnFurak(d.406/1015-16)andAbuIshaqal-Isfara'ini(d.418/1027).39

AfterQushayri'sprincipalshaykh,Abu'Aliad-Daggaq,died,thestudentspentashortwhileunderthetutelageofAbu'Abdar-Rahmanas-Sulami(d.412/1021),whoisperhapsmostfamousforhishagiographicalanthologyTheGenerationsoftheSufis(Tabagatas-sufiya).QushayriisalsothoughttohavehadsomecontactwiththecolorfulandcontroversialAbuSaidibnAbi`l-Khayr(d.441/1049),wholivedinNishapurandwhosepenchantforextremebehaviorrenderedhimsuspecttomorecautiousSufislikeQushayri.AsHamidAlgarnotes,someNishapurSufisattendedthesessionsofbothmen,butQushayrinevermentionsAbuSaidintheTreatise.`DuringthefirsthalfofQushayri'slife,NishapurhadbeenruledbyadynastycalledtheGhaznavids,namedaftertheAfghancityofGhaznainwhichtheyrosetopower.WhenthenewlyascendantSaljugiddynastysupplantedtheGhaznavids,thetheo-politicalclimateturnedagainstQushayri.SaljugidSultanTughril'ssecond-in-command,Amidal-MulkalKunduri,consideredhimselfaHanafiinlawand(somesay)aMultaziliintheologicalmethod.Hehadtakenituponhimselftomakelifedifficultforreligiousrivals,chiefamongwhomwereadherentsoftheShafililegalandAshlaritheologicalpersuasions.Qushayrispokeoutagainstthechiefminister'saccusations,wasjailedbrieflyin1054,andthenmadehiswaytoBaghdad.

InBaghdad,QushayritookapostasreligiousscholarintheCaliph'spalaceforafewyears.AfterthefirstSaljuqidsultan,Tughril,died(455/1063),Sultan

AlpArslaninstalledNizamal-Mulkashisprimeminister.NizamsupportedtheShafiliandAshlarischoolsoflawandtheology,allowingQushayritoreturntoNishapur,wherehelivedandworkedtillhisdeathin465/1072.TheTreatiseofal-Qushayri,alsoknownasTheLettertotheSufis,ishismostfamousandinfluentialwork.LikeSarrajandKalabadhiinthepreviouscentury,QushayriwasconcernedwithestablishingthattheauthenticteachingsofSufismwereentirelyconsistentwiththeAshlaridevelopmentoffundamentalMuslimbeliefandpractice.

Writtenin437/1045,theTreatisebeginswithabitofgeneralbackgroundonthesolidlyIslamicbasisoffundamentalSufibeliefs,thenprovidessketchesofnearlysevendozenfamousSufis,includingrepresentativesayingsofeach.Followingthehagiographicalsection,whichoccupiesapproximatelyone-sixthofthetotalwork,theTreatiseoffersdefinitionsofoverthreedozenSufitechnicaltermsneededtounderstandthePath.Inthelargestsinglesegmentofthework,Qushayrianalyzesjustunderfiftycategoriesofspiritualexperiencecalledstationsandstates.Heconcludes,asdoesKalabadhi,withissuesofSufipraxis.41

AlthoughQushayridoesnotexplicitlyaddressthetopicof`ilmasadistinctcategoryintheRisala,hedoesmakeaninstructivecommentaboutitinabriefpedagogicalworkcalledProvisionforTravelers(Tartibas-suluk).ItconsistsofaseriesofreflectionsonvariousdimensionsofGod-recollectedness(dhikr).InthesecondofthemheobservesthatwhenanindividualrecollectsGodcorrectlywiththetongue,theexperiencewillsoonbecomerecollectednessoftheheart.If,inthecourseofexperiencingthevariousenticing"states"thatGodsendsinthisprocess,theindividualisseducedawayfromrecollectionbythesealluringdistractions,hewillforfeitanyfurtherspiritualprogress.Qushayricontinues:

Ifhestillpersists,heispunishedasecondtimebybeingreturnedtoaconditionofmere[`ilm]ofthesestates,andthenheexperiencessuchanabundanceofknowledgethathethinksallmankind'streasuresofknowledgehavebeenrevealedtohim.Butifhepaysattentiontotheknowledgewhichcomestohim,againthisisanoffenseagainstproperbehavior,andoncemorehedeservestobepunished.Herehispunishmentconsistsinbeingreturnedtoastateofmereunderstanding[fahm].Thedifferencebetweenunderstandingandknowledgeisthatknowledgeisastateofbeingwhichcomesovertheheartasknowledge,whereas

understandingisgazingatthisknowledge,asiftosayknowledgethatonehasknowledgeofthemattersinquestion.Againifhelooksatunderstanding,heoncemoreoffendsagainstproperbehavior,andhispunishmentisthatheisreturnedtothestateofreligiousindifference.'

IntheTreatise,Qushayriincludesasingle"ChapterontheMa`rifaofGod"aspartofhisdiscussionofsomefourdozentermsthatrefertomajorexperientialaspectsoftheSufiPath.Helocatesma'rifathirdfromlastinthelist,afterchaptersonacknowledgmentofGod'stranscendentunityandspiritualstatesthataccompanyone'sdeparturefromthisworld,andaheadofthoseonloveandlonging.Hedescribesanumberofspiritualandpsychologicalcharacteristicsofexperientialknowledgesuchasaweandtakingleaveofone'sego.Qushayrioffersalongandapparentlyunsystematiclistofcitations,almostentirelywithoutanalyticalcomment,ofdozensofmajorSufis,oftenoverlappingwithsimilarcitationsinKalabadhiandotherauthors.Ifthereisanoverridingtheme,itisperhapshisemphasisonthemystic'sperfectattentivenesstoGodandcompletelackofinterestinanythingthatisnotGod.Finally,whilehisaccountmightseemtocontributetheleastamongthemanualstoatheoreticalunderstandingofma'rifa,Iwouldpointtohisstrongidentificationofexperientialknowledgewithfang',lossofone'sego,asadistinctiveaspectofQushayri'sdiscussion.AsheseemstoimplyinthebriefselectionfromProvisionforTravelers,theego'sneedfortheflashinessofspiritual"states"canthreateneventhelesserattainmentof`ilm.

Ansari:TheHundredFieldsandRestingPlacesforWayferers

AbuIsmail'AbdAllahAnsari(396/1006-481/1089)ofHerat,inpresent-dayAfghanistan,receivedhistraininginIslamiclawintheHanbalischool.ThatschoolwassometimesattheologicaloddswiththeAshlari-ShafilischolarsofCentralAsia-ofwhomQushayriwasone.Ansari'smuch-belovedwritingsontheSufipathincludetwoofparticularinterestinthiscontext.Around448/1055-56hedictatedTheHundredFields(Sadmaydan)inPersianasahelpfulhandbookforastudent.Sometwenty-fiveyearslaterthenow-blindshaykhdictatedtheArabicRestingPlacesoftheWayfarers(Manazilas-sa'irin).TheHundredFieldswas,alongwithHujwiri'swork,oneoftwoimportanteleventh-centuryPersiantextsofsignificancehere.Itsoverallstructureandcontenthavepromptedonescholartocallita"Persianroughdraft"ofRestingPlaces,althoughthesimilaritiesarerelativelysuperficial.Bothemploystandardmnemonicdevices,

suchasaternarystructurealignedwithatraditionalSufitripledistinctionamongthegeneralityofbelievers,thosemoreadvancedinthespirituallife,andthespiritualelite.Accordingtothatdistinction,seekersonthespiritualpathparticipateinthevariousspiritualstatesinproportiontotheirindividualcapacitiesandlevelsofattainment.

RestingPlacespresupposesastillmoreadvancedlevelofspiritualgrowththandoesTheHundredFields.Itsonehundredstagesarearrangedingroupsoften,eachclusterrepresentingaparticularaspectofspiritualdevelopmentfrombeginningstodestinations.Inaddition,thelaterworkarrangesthevariousstepsandlevelsinaverydifferentorder.Ansari'spedagogicallyorientedworksdifferfrommanyotherSufitreatisesinthattheyhavedeliberatelyomittedthekindofoftencopiouscitationofSufisayingssocharacteristicofmanyclassicalworks.Ansariwantedthematerialasaccessibleandeasytorecallaspossible.

Inathirdrelevantwork,GenerationsoftheSufis(Tabaqatassufiya),Ansarisetsthewholetopicofknowledgeinthebroadestpossiblecontext.GivingabriefsurveyofallthevariouscredibledisciplinestowhichMuslimshavededicatedtheirefforts,hearguesimplicitlyforthevalidityofthe"discipline"ofSufism.Hereheliststen"sciences"or"formsof`ilm,"firstwiththefollowinggeneralstatementandthenwithaslightlymoredetaileddescriptionofeach:

Theknowledgeofdivinetranscendentunityisa(wayoflife);theknowledgeofjurisprudenceisameansofhealing;theknowledgeofexhortatorypreachingissustenance;theknowledgeofdreaminterpretationisamatterofone'spointofview;thescienceofmedicineisaskill;theknowledgeofastronomyisexperimental;thedisciplineofspeculativetheologyisatotalloss;theknowledgeofmakingalivelihoodistheuniversalconcernofallhumankind;theknowledgeof(divine)wisdomisamirror;andtheknowledgeofultimaterealityissomethingtobediscovered."

AgainstthatgeneralbackdropAnsarisituateshisviewsontheexplicitlyspiritualdimensionsofknowledge.TranslatedbelowareAnsari'sshortsectionson`ilmandma'rifainbothTheHundredFieldsandtheRestingPlacesforWayfarers.

TheRevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplines

AbuHamidMuhammadal-Ghazal!(450/1058-505/1111)isamongthetoweringfiguresofIslamicthoughtingeneralandoftheliteratureofspiritualityinparticular.Ghazaliwasaboveallapastoraltheologianwho,likeMakkiinanumberofimportantways,setouttoprovideanoverallstructureofreligiouslivingforspiritualseekers.HewasborninTusinthePersianprovinceofKhurasan.InNishapur,notfaraway,hestudiedreligiouslawintheShafilimethod,andthetheologyoftheschoolofAshlariastaughtbytherenownedJuwayni(d.478/1085).(AnsarihadalsobeenastudentofJuwayni'sbeforetransferringhisintellectualallegiancetotheHanbalischooloflaw.)AfterJuwayni'sdeath,GhazalimovedtoBaghdad,whereheassumedaprestigiousprofessorshipunderthepatronageoftheSaljuqidVizierNizamal-Mulk.ButsometimeduringtheensuingtenyearsGhazaliexperiencedaperiodofcrisisthatledhimtoreexaminehispersonalconvictionsandmotivation.Whenhelefthisprofessorshipin488/1095,hedepartedforMeccatomaketheHajj,nevertoreturntohisteachingpostinBaghdad.Duringasparselydocumentedhiatusofnearlyelevenyears,heapparentlytraveledaboutthecentralMiddleEast,visitingJerusalemandHebron(siteofAbraham'stomb)andspendingperhapsseveralyearsinDamascus.WhileinrelativeretirementGhazal!composedhiscomprehensivemasterwork,TheRevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplines(Ihya'~ulumad-din).In499/1106hewentbacktoNishapurandresumedteachingthereattheinsistenceofNizamalMulk'sson.Afteraboutfiveyearsoflecturingandwriting,thegreatteacherreturnedtohishometownofTus,whereheliveduntilhisdeath."'

OneofthedevelopmentsofGhazal!'sdaythatpromptedhimtodevoteconsiderableattentiontoepistemologicalconcernswasthegrowinginfluenceofaschoolofthoughtthathecalledtheBatinlya("esotericists").Theirteachingturnedonthecentralityofanesotericknowledgewhosetruthwassubjecttonoothercriteriabuttheauthorityofateacherwhodemandedunquestioningacceptance(taqlid)fromhisfollowers.Ghazal!regardedsuchpassivelearningasuselessatbestandhazardoustothesoulatworst.OftheSuficompendiathatdevelopafullerepistemology,Ghazali'sopeningtreatiseintheRevitalization,"TheBookof1lm,"isamongthemostextensiveanddetailed.ItssevensectionsincludemuchofthekindofmaterialSarrajdiscusses,butGhazal!isnotyetconcernedwithsituatingSufiknowingassuchinthiscontext.Hechoosesrather

toretainthebroadercontextualapproach,focusingondistinguishingpraiseworthyfromblameworthyknowledge,withtwosectionsdedicatedtoteacher-studentrelationshipsandattendantethicalresponsibilities.

FromthestartGhazal!makesitveryclearthatbecomingapersonofknowledgeisafoundationalreligiouscalling,onethatoutranksevendevotionandmartyrdom.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatknowledgeisaninfinitelyworthiergoalthanwealth,foritisthegloryofhumanityandmakesthoseauthenticallyendowedwithit"heirstotheprophets."(Hedoesacknowledge,however,thatthechoiceofknowledgeissometimesrewardedwithwealthandpower.)Thequalityofone'sknowledgedirectlyaffectsone'sspirituallife,forGhazal!isinterestednotinthemereacquisitionofinformationbutindeeplytransformativelearning.LikeMakkl,towhomheisbeholdenforagreatdealofhismaterialonthesubject,Ghazal!underscorestheessentiallinksofknowledgetofaithandaction.Hedividesthe"Wmofthepathtothenextlife"intothesciencesofrevelation,whichencompassesallpropheticallymediatedbeliefs,andofreligiouspractice,whichembracesprofoundawarenessoftheessentialstatesoftheheartthatarethebellwetherofanindividual'srelationshipwithGod.GhazalinotesthatwhiletheacquisitionofthesetwoaspectsofknowledgeareadutyforallMuslims,thepursuitoftheologyitselfisadutyonlyfora"sufficientrepresentation"oftheMuslimcommunitywhoareentrustedwiththetaskofdefendingthefaith.

Ghazal!carefullydistinguishesbetweenpraiseworthyandblameworthyvarietiesofknowledge.Knowledgeisblameworthywhenitdirectlyharmsanyperson,whenithaslimitedutilitybutispredominantlydeleterious(aswithastrology),andwhenitencouragesthepursuitoftriviaforitsownsake.Heconcludesonesectionofthebookwiththetellingcommentthat"whatisacceptableamongthewiseistoassumethatyouarealonewithGodinthisuniversewhilebeforeyouliedeath,resurrection,judgment,ParadiseandHell.Considerthenwhatconcernsyouofalltheseandignoretherest."45Hethussituatesthislife,asSaintAugustineputit,"subspecieaeternitatis."Ghazal!thendetailsthedangersofdisputationasanintellectualpastime,arguingthatitcanleadtoahostoflessthanvirtuousattitudesandactions,andthatitisinvariablyanarcissisticpursuit.

TwosubstantialsectionsofBook1addressquestionsrelatedtothedutiesofteachersandstudents,andtheawarenessneededtodiscernateacheroftruth

fromonewhopeddlesbanalitiesintheguiseoferudition.Thisfinallyturnsontheperspectivearticulatedinthetextquotedabove:Ifateacherdoesnotfocusthestudent'sattentionwhereitbelongs,namely,onthelifetocome,therelationshipbodesnogood.Theauthenticteacher,bycontrast,modelsessentialvirtuesandspeaksfromadepthofexperienceratherthanaboutwhathehasheardfromothers.Ghazali'sfinalsectioninBook1setsthestageforhissecondmajoroccasionforspeakingofknowledge,whichwillcomeinBook21onthe"MarvelsoftheHeart,"withitsfocusonma'rifa.PartsevenofBook1describestheintellectanditsstrengthsandfunctions,asabackgroundagainstwhichhewilllaterdiscusstheroleoftheheartastheseatofgenuineknowledge."Intellect"('aql)canrefertothefacultythatdistinguishesthehumanfromthenonhuman;understandingofaxiomaticfundamentals(forexample,acknowledgingpossibilityinthingsthatarepossible);learningthroughexperience;andfinally,theintelligencebywhichoneclearlydeterminesthegoalofanyundertakingandthusgivesone'sunderstandingpriorityovercravings."

Book21ofGhazal!'sRevitalizationoffersarguablythemostsystematicandcomprehensivetreatmentofmWrifafoundinanyofthemanuals."TheElaborationoftheMarvelsoftheHeart"setsforththeessentialsofGhazali'spsychologyandoftheepistemologythatundergirdshismysticaltheology.FaridJabrehasproducedtwocriticalstudiesofGhazali'sepistemology.Henotesthat,although,likemanyotherSufiauthors,Ghazal!regardsma'rifaashavingbothintellectualandpracticaldimensions,hedoesnotidentifyitessentiallywithmysticalunionorillumination.InGhazal!'sview,ma'rifadoesindeedsignifyahigherlevelofcognition,namely,animmediateexperientialknowledgeofGod.47

OneofGhazali'smostimportanttheologicalcontributionsinthiscontextisthepriorityheaccordstothedivinelyinstilledhumanpredisposition(isti`ddd)tomwrifaofGod.Hehighlightsexperientialknowledgeashumankind's"beauty,perfection,andglory"inthisworldandthesubstancethatwillsustainhumanbeingsinthenextlife.Itistheinherentqualitiesofthehumanheart-mostnotably,itsdesireforGod,itsabilitytodrawneartoGod,anditspotentialforaffinitywithandcapacityofstrivingforGod-thatconstitutethispredisposition.InGhazali'sview,asinthoseofmanyofhisfellowtheologiansoftheinnerlife,theheartisatthecenterofthemostsignificantmodesofhumanknowing.Onlyindividualsendowedwithmwrifaoftheirownheartscanenjoyexperiential

knowledgeofGod.But,paradoxically,itisGodwhosometimesstandsbetweenindividualsandtheirownhearts,thusforeclosingtheirabilitytoknowHim.Onehasfirst,therefore,toacknowledgeGod'sgracebeforegainingaccesstoone'sownheart,throughwhichGodthenopensfortheindividualseekertheinfinitevistasofthedivineworldscape.

MostpeopleneverarriveatthefundamentalstageofselfknowledgethatismaTifaoftheheart,andstillfewermovebeyondthebasicsofself-knowledgetointimatefamiliaritywithGod.AshebeginsthesecondhalfofhisRevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplines,Ghazal!notesthatthefirsthalfdealtwithoutward`ilmandthathewilldedicatealltwenty"books"ofthesecondhalftoasystematicexpositionofinward`ilm.Sincethatwillconsistofananalysisofallofthecircumstancesthatoccurwithintheheart,positiveandnegativealike,Ghazal!sayshemustbeginparttwowithacarefulinvestigationofthenatureandqualitiesoftheheart(Book21)andofthearduoustaskofdiscipliningandrefiningtheheartstillfurtherastheseatofexperientialknowledgeofGod(Book22).48

Inthefifteen"clarifications"orexpositions(bayan)ofBook21,Ghazal!beginswithabroadercontextualdescriptionoftheprincipalinternalorspiritualhumanfaculties-ego-soul,spirit,intellect,andheart.Quicklyfocusingontheheart,hedevotessectionstwoandthreetoamoredetaileddescriptionofthefunctionsoftheheartastheinnerbattlegroundofthehumanstruggle.Theheartisaidedbyits"soldiers,"theinternalpowersofappetiteordesire(including,forexample,irascibilityandotheraspectsofmotivation),thecapabilityofacquisitionortakingactiononwhatitdesiresorfears,andperception(idrak).InsectionsfourandfiveGhazal!focusesstillmoresharplyonthequalitiesoftheheartthatdistinguishhumansfromanimals:knowledgeandwill.49

Clarification6,ontheheartinrelationtothesciences(culum),showsthemasteroftheextendedsimileathisbest.Hebeginsbyexaminingfiveconditionsunderwhichthemirroroftheheartcannotreceiveimagesclearly,therebypreventingmacrifa.Hethenidentifiesma'rifaasthe"trust"fromGodthatheaven,earth,andthemountainsdeclinedtoacceptatcreation(33:72-73).Ma`rifaisthethirdandhighestleveloffaith,equivalenttoknowingthatZaydisinahousebyactuallyenteringandseeinghim-ratherthanacceptingsomeoneelse'sassurance(taglld)orhearingZayd'svoicefromoutside(theistidlalofthetheologians).Clarification7discusses"theStateoftheHeartinrelationtothe

varietiesofknowing,"arguingthattheheartishometotwokindsofknowing:therationalandthedivinelyrevealed.Therationalincludesboththeintuitiveorinnateandthatwhichisacquiredthroughbothinstructionandinference.Rationalknowinghastodolargelywiththisworldandislikethenourishmentasickpersonneedsafterbeingcured.Thecure,however,requiresdivinelyrevealedknowledgeconcerningthenextworld.InClarification8,Ghazal!analyzesthedistinctionbetweeninspiration(ilham)andinstruction(tacallum),andbetweenSufiepistemologyandtheacquisitionofreason-basedknowledge.

Clarification9,"Explainingthedifferencebetweenthetwosituationsusingananalogywithsensation,"discusseshowtheheartiscapableofreceivingdirectinformationfromthePreservedTablet.Theuniversebeganinprototype,orperhapsarchetype,onthePreservedTabletpriortoGod'sbringingitintoexistence.Justasanimageoftheuniverseremainsaccessibletotheimaginationevenwhentheindividualisnotactuallygazinguponit,theheartremainsabletoaccessthePreservedTabletdirectlywhentheveilbetweenthetwo-namely,preoccupationwithsensoryinput-islifted.Theheartthushastwodoors:oneopenstothesuprasensibleRealmofLordlyDominion('clamalmalakut)andthePreservedTablet,andoneopenstotheRealmofEarthlySovereignty(`clamal-mulk)andsenseknowledge.50ReligiousscholarsareliketheGreekswhopaintedtheirwall,whiletheFriendsofGodareliketheChinesewhopolishedtheirwallintoamirror.InClarification10,"TestimoniesoftherevealedlawconcerningthesoundnessofthepathoftheSufiswithrespecttotheacquisitionofexperientialknowledgeotherthanthroughinstructionandtheaccustomedpath,"Ghazalicompleteshisdiscussionofma'rifa.ProphetsandFriendsofGodreceiveimagesorsimilitudesthroughangels,butspiritualstruggle(mujahada)canalsoopenadoorofthehearttoma'rifa.

Ghazali'sepistemologicalthinkingnaturallysuffuseshiswork,sothatonecanhardlydojusticetoitbymeansofexcerptsalone.AnotherimportantdocumentbyGhazaliishisTreatiseExplainingtheExperientialKnowledgeofGod(Risalafibayanma'rifatAllah).'Yetanotherwork,whoseauthorshiphasbeendebated,thatfocusesonthethemeofmysticalknowledgeisGhazali'sTreatiseon(Knowledge)fromGod(Ar-Risalatal-laduniya).52ReadersinterestedinafullertreatmentmaywishtoconsultthoseprimarysourcesaswellastheworksbyFaridJabrealreadymentioned.

TwelfthandThirteenthCenturies:

Ibn al-'Arif, 'Ayn al-Qudat al-Hamadhani, Sand'!, Attar, Rum-1, Ibn al-Arabi,andAbuHafs`Umaras-Suhrawardi

Bythetwelfthcentury,theageofthecomprehensivehandbooksofspiritualitywasallbutover.Buttheworksofseveralauthorsofmanuals,allhighlyinfluentialintheirrespectiveculturalcontexts,deservementionhere.AtthewesternendofthegreaterMediterraneanworld,religiousstudieswereavitalingredientintheIslamiccultureoftheIberianpeninsula.AmajorcontributortooneimportantcenterofIberianSufispiritualitywasIbnal-lArif.Meanwhile,fartotheeast,'Aynal-Qudatal-Hamadhani'sanalysisofspiritualdevelopmentplayedasignificantroleparticularlyinPersianSufism.ThemostimportantofthelaterhandbookswasSuhrawardi'sTheBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge(`Awarifal-mwarif),excerptsofwhicharetranslatedhere.Inaddition,thissectionacknowledgesthecontributionsofthreePersianpoets,Sana'i,Faridad-DinAttarandJalalad-DinRum,aswellasthatoftheenormouslyinfluentialIberian-bornIbnal-Arabi.

Ibna1-`Arif,TheBeautiesofSpiritualSessions

Abu`I-AbbasIbnal-Arif(d.536/1141)wasaSufiofAlmeria,inAndalusiaontheIberianpeninsula,andmemberofagroupledbyashaykhfromSevillenamedAbu`l-HakamIbnBarrajan(d.536/1141).Ibnal-lArif'ssolesurvivingworkisTheBeautiesofSpiritualSessions(Mahasinal-majalis).Thisbriefsystematictreatiseonthemysticalquestdiscussesinordertenstagesofthespiritualpathonwhichseekersalreadywellalonginthespirituallifemaketheirway.Theten,whichhecalls"dwellings"(manazil)arem&rifa,will,asceticism,trustinGod,patience,sadness,fear,hope,gratitude,andloveanddesire.HelateraddedpenitenceandfamiliaritywithGod.Hisanalysisofthestagestendstowardelitism,pitchedasitistowardthosewhohavealreadyprogressedthroughmorefundamentallevelsandhaveattainedma'rifa.Ibnal-Arifthuslocatesma'rifaatanadvancedstageofthecontemplativelife.ThisexplainswhyhisfirststageisonethatmostotherSufipsycho-spiritualtypologiessituatelater,orhigheronthelist.

Ibnal-lArif'sworkwasheavilyinfluencedbythetwoshortbutverypopularworksofShaykh'AbdAllahAnsari.Infact,apartfromthesectionsonknowledgetranslatedhere,Ibnal-lArifapparentlyusednearlyverbatimsomeof

thematerialfromAnsari'sRestingPlacesoftheWayfarers(Manazilas-sa'irin).53Ansarri'sworkarrangesonehundred"stages"ofthespiritualjourneyintenclusters,thelastofwhichbeginswithhisconsiderationofexperientialknowledge.Ibnal-lArif'sworkthussuggestsaconcentrationonwhatAnsariregardedasthemosthighlydevelopedaspectsofthespiritualjourney.Theorderandnamesofthe"restingplaces"inIbnal-lArif'sworkareidenticaltothoseofAnsari'sTheFlawsoftheSpiritualStations('Ilalalmagamat),exceptthatIbnal-lArifplacesma'rifa(absentfromthatworkofAnsari)attheheadofthelist.AttheendofhislistIbnal-lArifsumsupbysayingthattheseare"restingplacesofpeopleoftheRevealedLawwhoarewayfarerstowardtheessenceoftheultimatespiritualreality,"clearlyalludingtoAnsari'sformulation(asindicatedbymyitalicshere).Amostinstructiveaspectofthisrelationshipisnotthatonewriterdependedsoheavilyonanother-arelativelycommonoccurrence-butthatwehavehereafineexampleoftherapidspreadoftheworkofaSufiauthorfromCentralAsiaallthewaytothewesternlimitsofmedievalIslamdominarelativelyshorttime.'

InhisthirteenthandfinalchapterIbnal-lArifsummarizesbyindicatingthat,intheend,allthestagesdisappearintheseeker'sunionwithGod.Hethenreflectsmorebroadlyonthespiritualprojectingeneralanddescribesaseriesoffortymarvels(kardmat),twentytobeexperiencedinthislifeandtwentyinthenext,instorefortheservantwhoseentirelifehasbeendedicatedtoservingGodalone.Helocatesma'rifaofGodsecondamongthetwentymarvelsbestowedinthenextlife.HethendescribeswhathebelievesarefourfundamentalneedsoftheservantofGod,allrelatedtoknowledgeinvariousformsanddegrees.Theselectionstranslatedhereincludehissectiononmwrifaasthefirstofaseriesofstagesontheadvancedspiritualquest,followedbyhisdiscussionofexperientialknowledgeasamarvelawaitingtheservantinthenextlife.

'Aynal-Qudatal-Hamadhani

'Aynal-Qudatal-Hamadhani(492/1098-526/1131)establishedhimselfprofessionallyasamagistrateinthenorthwesternIraniancityofHamadhan.HestudiedGhazali'sRevitalization,becameadiscipleofGhazali'syoungerbrotherAhmad(d.520/1126),andsooncametobeknownasanauthoritativeteacherofSufism.Hisideaswerecontroversialenoughtogethimexecuted,buthisteachingsonknowledgewerenotamongtheissuesforwhichhedrewthecondemnationofreligiousauthorities.HismostmatureworkishisPreambles

[toSufiMysticalTheology](Tamhidat)inPersian.Anearlier,lessimportantArabicwork(writtenwhenhewasonlytwenty-four)entitledCreamofSpiritualRealities(Zubdatal-haga'iq)hadendeavoredtoreconcileSufismwithphilosophy.InthePreambles'Aynal-Qudatoffersacreativeandoriginalinterpretationofthesecrets,symbolism,metaphysics,andepistemologyofSufism.HedivideshisanalysisoftheSufipathintotensegments(preambles),includingdevelopmentofseveralofSufiepistemology'scentralthemes.55

ToshihikuIzutsuobservesthat'Aynal-Qudat'sepistemologyrestsontheprincipleof"asharpdistinctionbetweenknowingtherealityofathingthroughanimmediatepersonalexperienceofitandknowingsomethingaboutthething....ThustoknowsomethingaboutGodiscompletelydifferentfromknowingHimbycomingintodirectcontactwiththedivineorderofthings.""Morespecifically,twoofHamadhani'skeyepistemologicalthemesarethedirectrelationshipbetweenintimateknowledgeofoneselfandma'rifaofMuhammad'sveryself,andtheconnectionbetweenmwrifaofone'sownselfandthevisionofGodinthenextlife.Heexplainsthatastheindividualmysticattainsthestationofinebriationwiththe"wineofm&rifa,"heorshecomesintopossessionofthe`ilmandma'rifaofthesoulofMuhammadhimself.HamadhaniiselaboratinghereonthemeaningoftheHadith"WhoeverhasseenmehasseenGod,"suggestingthatexperientialknowledgeofMuhammadisintegrallylinkedtotheindividual'spotentialtoattainma'rifaofGod.

'Aynal-Qudatexplainsindetailtheimplicationsofthisconceptfortravelersonthespiritualpath.Thewayfarerwhoisadvancedonthejourneyconfrontstheparadoxofbewildermentandincapacityinthemidstofabundantgrace,forhehasbeengranted

somuchself-knowledge,somuchma'rifaofhimselfthroughknowledgeofhisLordthatheneitherknowshimselfasoneendowedwithm&rifanor(Himas)theObjectofma'rifa.DidnotAbuBakrsayconcerningthisthat"theinabilitytoapprehendtheprocessofapprehensionisitselfapprehension?"Thismaximmeansthatma'rifaandapprehensionarewhatentirelyconsumethemystic,sothathecannotapprehendwhetherheistheone-who-apprehendsornot.(Andhence,theHadith):"GlorybetoHimwhohasnotappointedanyotherwaytoma'rifaofHimbutincapacitytoknowHim!"

Notjustanyoneisgivenaccesstoma'rifaofHisineffableEssence.Forwhoeverdesirestoacquireknowledgeandma'rifaoftheDivineEssencemustmakethesoulofhisself-realityintoamirror,sothatgazingthereupon,hewillrecognizethesoulofMuhammad.ThenhewillmakethesoulofMuhammadintoamirror.(TheHadith)"AndIsawmyLordduringtheAscensioninthefairestofforms,"signifiesthismirror.Withinthismirroryoushouldfind"facesonthatdayresplendentlookingtowardstheirLord"(75:22-23).Thensendupthecrythat"theymeasurenotthepowerofGodwithatruemeasure"(6:91)outintotheworld,for(astheProphetsaid)"wehavenotknownGodasHetrulydeserved."...

...Edifyyourselfthroughm&rifaofyourself,forma'rifainthisworldistheseed(thatripensinto)theVisioDeihereafter.Whathaveyouheard?Isay:whoeverpossessesma'rifatodaywillperceivethedivineVisiontomorrow.57

Sana'iofGhazna

ThreeofthemanygreatSufipoetswhowroteinPersianhavealsoputtheirdistinctivestampontheevolvingnotionsof`ilmandma'rifa.'Abu`l-MajdSana'i(512/1118-548/1152),originallyfromGhaznainpresent-dayAfghanistan,wasamongthemostinfluentialPersianmysticalpoets.Hisdidacticpoeticmasterwork,TheEnclosedGardenofUltimateReality(Hadigatal-hagiga),beginswithashortsectiononma'rifa,whichfunctionsaspropaideutictohistreatmentofacknowledgingthedivinetranscendentunity(tawhid).Sand'!saysthatreasoncantakeoneonlyasfarasthedoortoknowledgeofGod,afterwhichonlygracecancarryoneforward.Sincemosthumanbeingsfailtoattain`ilmevenofthemselvesatanydepth,howmuchhopecantherebeofattainingma'rifaofGod?Inanycase,evenattheirbestforexample,evenattheloftyrankoftherevealingarchangelGabriel-neitherintellectnorimaginationcanknowGodapartfromintimacywithGod.AsGabrielisreducedtoamerefinchinGod'spresence,intellectmustsurrenderitssenseofcontrolifthereistobeanyhopeofma'rifa.58

Faridad-Din

Faridad-DinAttarwasaPersian-writingpoetfromNishapurinnortheasternPersia.Heismostfamousforthemystical-didacticepicTheConferenceofthe

Birds(Mantiqat-tayr).Althoughhisworkisclearlynotatheoreticaltreatise,muchlessamanualofSufispirituality,ittellsitsstoryofspiritualprogressanddiscoveryinlargepartasajourneythroughaseriesofsevenvalleys:quest,love,mwrifa,detachment,acknowledgmentofthedivinetranscendentunity,bewilderment,andpoverty/annihilation.Attardescribesthevalleyofmwrifaascontainingauniqueroadforeachwayfarerpreciselytailoredtothatindividual'sneedsanddegreeofspiritualattainment.Paradoxically,however,itisnotindividualitythatcomestotheforeinthisvalley,forthatdependsonrelativelysuperficialdistinctions.Thevalleyofma'rifaismostofalllikeanocean(of`irfan,acognateofma'rifa)intowhichallplungeandinwhichalllosetheseparatenessthatispartandparcelofrationalprocesses.Unlikeordinarythought,whichisself-motivated,ma'rifarequiresawillingnesstobeguided.Herethepoetseemstoassociatema'rifadirectlywithWm.BywayofillustrationoftheHadlth"Seekknowledge(Wm)evenasfarasChina,"AttartellsthestoryofamaninChinawhohasturnedtostoneandwhogrievescontinuallybecausesofewseekhimout.HeisKnowledge.Butthosewhodonotpossessknowledgeliveindarkness,forknowledgeistheonlytruelight.HefurtherassociatesWmwithlove.59

Jalalad-DinRum!

OneofthemostcelebratedSufiauthorsofthethirteenthcenturywasthepoetJalalad-DinRum!(d.672/1273).BorninBalkh,inpresent-dayAfghanistan,Rum!spentmostofhislifeinthecentralAnatolian(modernTurkish)cityofKonya.AlthoughRumwasnotprimarilyasystematicthinkerandneverproducedthekindofcompendiaforwhichtheauthorspresentedhereintranslationaremostfamous,hemadeauniquecontributiontoissuesrelatingtoknowledge.InRumi'sviewtheprophetsmodelboththeinnateknowledgeofwhichIbnArabi(seebelow)spokeagreatdeal,andthema'rifathathasthrownofftheyokeofimaginationandattainstoprimarycauses.Rumiidentifiesma'rifaasgenerallysuperiorto`ilm,fortheformerisavailableonlythroughdirectexperiencewhereasthelatteristypicallymediated.Heneverthelessaccordsaveryimportantroleto`ilm:Ifanindividualcombinesfundamental`ilmwithself-discipline(zuhd),Godwillgrantthatpersona"second`ilm,"whichRumiseemstoconsidersynonymouswithbothma'rifaandlove.

ThekindsofcomplexteachingsthatIbnArabicommunicatesthroughthemediumofhighlyallusivebutverysystematicprose,Rum!expresseslargely

throughpoeticnarratives.Ineverycaseheemphasizestheneedfor"utilitarian"knowledgeofthesortthataloneproceedsfromarelationshipwithGod.Derivativeknowledgeatwhichonearrivesbydependenceonintellectislossratherthangain,forreasonisahighwayrobber.ReferringtothekindofinnateknowledgeofwhichIbnArab!speaks,Rum!observesthatappealingtotheintellectislikeaskingforaladderafteronehasclimbedtotheroof.60

Muhyiad-DinIbnal-Arabi

Muhyiad-Dinibnal-Arabi(560/1165-638/1240)wasoneofIberia'smostfamousMuslimsand,alongwithAbuHamidal-Ghazali,oneofthemostinfluentialMuslimtheologiansofalltime.ThoughIbn'Arabi'sworkisofsuchamassivescopethatonecanscarcelybegintohintatthebreadthofhisachievement,atleastsomebriefmentionofhimisessentialhere.Histhoughtisalsonotoriouslydifficult,butitismuchmoreaccessiblethankstotheworkofscholarslikeWilliamChittick.61ThroughouthisextensivewritingsIbnArabiusestheterms`ilmandma'rifa,alongwiththeirvariouscognates.Thoughheisfamiliarwiththeeffortsofearlierauthorstoclarifydifferencesbetweentheseconcepts,heisnotgenerallyconcernedwithupholdingthedistinction.Heis,nevertheless,keenlyawareofamajordifferencebetweenknowledgeofoutwardrealitiesandtheprofoundunderstandingofinwardtruths.Likemostofhispredecessors,IbnArabiregardstheheartasthelocusofknowing.LikeMakkiandotherSufiauthors,IbnArabiemphasizesthattheonlyknowledgeworthpursuingisthe"useful"knowledgethathasGodandthesignrevealingcosmosasitsobjects.Suchknowledgeisbeneficialpreciselybecauseitoffersamapforthespiritualwayfarer.Thatalwayspresupposesanessentialethical-ritualdimensioninformedbyasubtleappreciationofthemetaphoricalandspiritualimplicationsofallaction.

ReadersofChittick'stwosuperbanthologiesofIbn'Arabi'swritingswillfindthemselvesoverwhelmedatthepervasivenessoftheshaykh'sconcernwithknowledge.OneofIbn'Arabi'sfavoriteQur'anictextsisthatinwhichGodcommandsMuhammad,"Say:MyLord,increasemeinknowledge"(20:114).Muhammadisnottoasksimplyforthegiftofknowledge,because,inIbn'Arabi'sinterpretation,GodhasmadeknowledgeofHimselfinnateineverycreature.Onecan,however,acquiremoreknowledge,boththroughthemorerestrictiveandlimitedintellect(~aql)andthefreer,moreprocess-orientedheart(galb).Whereastheintellectknowsthroughreflection,theheartknowsthrough

divinedisclosure.IbnArabiranksknowledgeonthreelevelsthathavemuchincommonwiththosedistinguishedbysomeofhispredecessors:rationalsciencethatisprovenorself-evident;knowledgeofthespiritualstatesthatonecanattainonlyexperientially;andtheinfusedknowledgeofdivinesecrets,towhichonlyProphetsandFriendsofGodaregivenaccessthroughrevelation.Whatseparatesthegeneralityofreligiousfolkfromthosefurtheradvancedspirituallyisthatthelatterpossessauthenticknowledgethankstodivineself-disclosure,whereastheformerknowonlythelevelofbeliefshandedontothembyothers.SeveralthousandmileseastofIbn'Arab-i'snativeIberia,oneofhiscontemporarieswasresponsibleforasomewhatlesscosmicbutnonethelessmajorsynthesisofmysticalspirituality.

Abu`Umaras-Suhrawardi:TheBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge

AbuHafsUmaras-Suhrawardi(539/1145-632/1234)wasborninthePersiancityofSuhraward.Atabouttheageoffifteenorsixteen(555/1160),hetraveledtoBaghdad,wherehespenttheremainderofhislifestudyingandteaching.HislegaltrainingfollowedtheShafilschoolofjurisprudence.Hisuncle,Abu`n-NajibDiya'ad-Din'Abdal-Qahiribn'AbdAllahas-Suhrawardi(490/1097-536/1168)hadaribat(aninstitutionoftenidentifiedasaresidentialfacilityforSufis)onthebankoftheTigris,towhichanumberofimportantSufisattachedthemselves,including,mostnotably,theyoungerbrotherofAbuHamidal-Ghazali,Ahmadal-Ghazali(d.520/1126).TraditionsofvaryingcredibilitysuggestthatAbuHafshadimportantconnectionswithhisuncleaswellaswithanumberofotherinfluentialSufis,'Abdal-Qadiral-Jilani(d.561/1166),Mu`inad-DinChishti(536-37/1141-43-633/1236),IbnArabi,Najmad-Dinad-Dayaar-Razi(d.654/1256),andtheconsummateEgyptianSufipoetIbnal-Farid(576/1181-632/1235),amongthemostfamous.62

Suhrawardii'smajorwork,TheBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge(~Awarifal-mwarif),isoftenacknowledgedasthelastoftheclassicalSuficompendia.Assuch,itshowssignsoftheinfluenceofmanyoftheearlierworks,excerptedintranslationbelow.IntheoriginalArabicthetextbecameamuch-citedsourceamongSufisasfarwestasSpainandMorocco.TranslatedintoPersianaroundthelastthirdofthethirteenthcentury,thebookbecameastandardtextbookforSufisofvariousorganizationsasfareastasIndia.TheworkshowsevidenceofSuhrawardi'sfamiliaritywiththemanualsofSarraj,Kalabadhi,Makki,and

Qushayri.

Suhrawardiopens'Awarifal-ma'arifwithoneoftheloveliestandmostpoeticchaptersofitskind,"OntheOriginsoftheDisciplinesoftheSufis."HeplungesdirectlyintoadiscussionofexplicitlySufimodesofknowing,nolongerconcernedwitharguingthattheydeserveaplaceinthelargerpictureofreligiousknowledge,butvirtuallypresumingthat.Hedoesdealwiththeproponentsofotherlevelsofknowledge-scripturalexegetes,Hadithspecialists,andjurists-butcutsrighttothechase:Noneofthosespecialistspossessesthehighestformsofknowledge.Throughoutthechapterhesustainsmostremarkablythemetaphorofknowledgeaswaterflowingthroughthewadis(seasonalriverbeds)ofvariouskindsofpeople,accordingtotheirrespectivecapacities.Butthewatercoursesofthosewhorenouncethisworldarewidenedtosuchadegreethattheirheartsbecomecisterns.HerehemayhaveborrowedsomeimageryfromGhazali's"BookoftheMarvelsoftheHeart."Suhrawardithendevelopsanelaboratesecondarymetaphor,thatofthecreationofMuhammadduringwhichknowledgeandwisdomwerekneadedintohisclay,fromwhichhumankindthenbecameheirstothatknowledge.Hethenreturnstothewater/cisternmetaphorandslipsinareferencetotheheartasamirror.

Thecruxofhisargument,insofarashefeelstheneedtodefendSufimodesofknowingatall,istoidentifyhigherknowingasatrootthemostfundamentalformoffiqhft`d-din,deeperreligiousunderstanding,andfahm,profoundcomprehension.SuhrawardifollowshisgeneralintroductionwithachapterthatfocusesonSufisasknowers,butwithoutyetintroducingtheconceptofma'rifa.Inchapter2,"OntheSuperiorityoftheSufisinKeenAttentiveness,"hedevelopsthenotionthat,becauseoftheirheightenedabilitytolisten,Sufisaremorereceptivetoknowledgethanothers.Theirelevatedreceptivityresultsfromtheirextinguishingthefiresoftheego.Herehediscussesma'rifasignificantlyforthefirsttime,suggestingthatexperientialknowledge,comprehension,andattentivenessareintegrallyconnected.

Suhrawardibeginstodeveloptheconceptofma'rifatwo-thirdsofthewaythroughhissecondchapterinTheBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge.Helaunchesthatdevelopmentwithadiscussionofthedifferencesbetweentafsirandta'wil,notingthatwhereasaccuracyintheformerdependsonscientificknowledge(`ilm),accuracyinthelatterisdirectlyproportionaltotheleveloftheinterpreter'smacrifa.HeprovidesafairlydetailedcommentaryontheHadith

thatsayseverywordhasahadd(theprescriptiveorethicalsense)andamatla'(ormuttala',thespiritualsense),whichhedescribesasthepointatwhichunderstandingofthewordthathasbeenrevealedbecomesanexperientialknowledgeoftheRevealerHimself.Suhrawardiplacesgreateremphasisonhermeneuticalprinciplesthananyoftheothermanualists,andtheissuedeservesfurthercommenthere.

IbnAbbas(d.c.68/687),anearlyexegete,distinguishedfourlevelsofmeaningintheQur'anroughlyanalogoustotheancientChristian"fourfoldsenseofscripture"-literal,allegorical,moral(ortropological),andspiritual/eschatological(oranagogical).LaterSufiauthors,suchasMuhasibi,Sahlat-Tustari,andnowSuhrawardi,adaptedthedistinctionforthepurposesofmysticalexegesis.TheSufiexegeteSulamiattributesasayingaboutthefoursensesto'Ali,whereasSuhrawarditracesasayingreferringtothetwolevelsofmeaningandtwo"higher"sensesofscripture-haddandmatla'toMuhammadhimself.Theaforementionedsayingindicatesthatthewholeofscripturewasrevealedaccordingtoseven"readings,"thateveryverseofthescripturehasanoutwardandinwarddimension,andthateach"reading"hasahaddandamatla'.b3Inanycase,Suhrawardiconcernshimselfwithonlythehaddandmafa',associatingthemwithaspectsoftheinterpreter'sspiritualexperience.Ihaveoccasionallyrenderedthetwoterms,respectively,as"fundamentalmeaning"and"apexofinsight."

Chapter3,"OntheExcellenceoftheSciencesoftheSufis,"delvesingreaterdetailintotheconceptofmacrifaassuch,explainingthatitisintegrallyconnectedwiththedegreetowhichoneactsupon,andischangedby,whatoneknows.SuhrawardiarguesthattheHadith"KnowledgeisadutyforallMuslims"actuallyreferstoexperientialknowledgeandspiritualdiscernment.FollowingSarraj,hepointsoutthatsinceinallmattersthatrequirespecificknowledge,anyreasonablepersonwillseektheadviceofthosewhospecializeintherelevantscience,soonewhoneedshelpwithexperientialknowledgeandspiritualdiscernmentmustseekoutexperts.Tothatthemehereturnsinchapter56,"OntheSufiDisclosuresconcerningIntimateSelf-knowledge,"whereSuhrawardidevelopsessentialelementsofhispsychology.Finally,inchapter57,"OntheExperientialKnowledge,Analysis,andDiscernmentofMovementsoftheSpirit(khawatir),"hedevelopsindetailthewaysinwhichmacrifaallowsonetosortoutandneutralizediabolicallystimulatedproclivities.Theselattertwochapters

arenotpresentedintranslationhere,bothforlackofspaceandbecause,althoughtheydodealwiththeconceptofma'rifa,theydevelopitinaveryspecificwayrelatedtodiscernmentofspiritsandarethusmovingoffontoanewtackfromthatofepistemologyingeneral.

PartThree:BeyondtheClassics

Suhrawardiwasnotthelastauthorofanimportantpedagogicalworkthatdiscussedepistemologicalthemesof`ilmandma'rifa.Thelanguageofknowing,usingbothofthosetechnicalterms,remainscentraltocontemporaryspiritualseekerswhopursuetheSufipathacrosstheworldtoday.14InfluentiallatemedievalandearlymodernauthorsfromMoroccotoMalaysiahaveproducedpedagogicalworksthatreflectsignificantinfluenceoftheclassicalSufimanuals.Herearebriefexamplesofthreeverydifferentauthorsfromseveralcenturiesandacrosstheglobe.

Thesixteenth-seventeenth-centuryHamzaFansuri(d.1035/1625)ofAcheh(nowontheIndonesianislandofSumatra),forexample,composedseveralworksthatsethimapartasprobablythefirstauthortotranslatethefullspectrumofSuficonceptsintotheMalaylanguage.HisSecretsofThoseEndowedwithMa`rifa(Asraral-arifin)meditatesontheattributesofGodandemphasizesthatitisonlythroughmwrifathatonecomestoknowthemtruly.SayingsofMuhammadthathequotesquiteoftenare,"OnewhoknowshimselfintimatelyknowshisLordintimately,"and"Withoutma'rifa,theritualprayerisnotvalid."LikeearlierSufiauthors-hecitesKalabadhi'smanualinparticularanumberoftimes-HamzainsiststhatthereisnodistinctionbetweenRevealedLawandtheSufiPath,betweenthePathandtheultimatespiritualreality,andbetweenthattruthandmacrifa.65Hamzaalsopennedacollectionofthirty-twolyricpoems,inwhichthethemeofknowledgeisprominent,forknowledgeisthewayforward.Ma`rifaistheultimategoal,andHamzatellshisfollowersitisnotdifficulttoattainifonlytheyfollowfromonespiritualstation(magdm)tothenext.Heappearstoconsider`ilmofunionwithGodvirtuallysynonymouswithmacrifa,andsaysthatsuch`ilmiscloseathand,forGodiscloserthanthejugularvein(50:16).Everywhereintheuniverseonecanfindsignsthatyieldma'rifa,andonewhofailstofinditthereshouldconcentrateon

AtthewesternendoftheMediterranean,theeighteenth-centuryMoroccanAhmadibn'Ajiba(1160/1746-1224/1809),oftheDargawiSufiorder,wrotea

"glossary"of143Sufitechnicalterms,arrangedmoreorlessinascendingorder,calledtheBookoftheAscensioninPerceivingtheRealitiesofSufism(Kitahal-mi`rajat-tashawwufilahaga'iqat-tasawwuf).HeacknowledgesthathehasfollowedQushayri'sTreatiseinprovidingalistoftechnicaltermsbywayofconvenientsummaryofthe`ilmofSufism.Healsoacknowledges,throughfrequentcitation,theinfluenceoffellow"Westerner"Ibnal-lArifonhiswork.Ibn'Ajibalocateshisbriefentryonma'rifaatnumber19,justaftercontemplationandessentialvision,andbeforereverentialpiety.Ma`rifa,heobservesconcisely,isthe"permanentandsolidmatrixofcontemplation,aperpetualvisionwitharavishedheartthatseesonlyitsLordandMasterandturnstonothingbutHim."Curiously,Ibn,Ajiba'sentryonmWrifaiseasilyoneoftheshortest,andhedevotesmuchgreaterattentiontoothermoretechnicalterms.Onlytowardtheendoftheglossarydoesheagainalludetomwrifa,andthatisinareferencethatsuggeststhatheallbuttookthisconceptforgranted.ThereIbnAjibaclusterstogetherthreetermsusedsynonymouslytorefertopractitionersoftheSufiPath-devotees('ubbad),ascetics(zuhhad),andthoseendowedwithma'rifa(`arifun).b7

Ahmadalsowroteamostinterestingandextensive"autobiographical"document,whoseeighteenthchapterisdedicatedtotheshaykh'ssurveyofknowledge,or,ashecallsthem,"theexotericandesotericdisciplines."IbnAjibadiscussesthesemattershereinthecourseofhisautobiographybecause,heclaims,thisiswhathehasmasteredinhisquestforlearning.Hedividesthedisciplinesintothesciencesofintellectualoperations(forexample,logicandarithmetic),linguistics(includinggrammar,poetics,andbelles-lettres),thephysicalsciences(especiallymedicineandanatomy),andthereligiousdisciplines(includinglaw,theology,andSufism).Muslims,heobserves,havebuiltuponthesciencesoftheancientsinnonreligiousfieldsandthendevelopedfreshapproachestothereligiousdisciplines.Allinall,thisisastrikinglybroad-mindedsurveyofknowledge,sharingwithearliermanualistssuchasSarrajaconcernforlayingoutthewidestpossiblecontextwithinwhichtosituatethedisciplinesoftheSufis.OnlyattheveryendofhissurveydoesIbnAjibadescribewhathetakestobethesummitoftrueknowledge.ReferringtoSufismas"my"discipline,healludeswithconsiderablesubtletytothegoalofthespiritualquest:contemplativevision."

Finally,twentieth-centuryIranianscholarJa'farSajjadi(d.1417/1996)

publishedaPersianDictionaryofMysticalVocabulary,TechnicalExpressions,andTerminology,inwhichheincludedalengthyarticleonmacrifa.Muchoftheworkistakenupwithdirectcitationsfromtheworksofthegreatmedievalmysticalauthors.BeforecitingSufiauthoritiesforseveralfullpages,Sajjadibeginswithabroadersetofdefinitionsofthevariouswaysonecanunderstandma'rifaincontemporaryterms.Itcanmeanaformofperceptionthatincludesconceptionandcognition.Occasionallypeopleexplainma'rifaasimageformation,inwhichcasetheyrefertothecognitionoftheresultofperceptionasWm.Itcanevenoccurinadeductiveorinferentialform,ameaningquitedifferentfromthatoftheclassicalSufitexts.Ma`rifamightalsorefertotherenewedperceptionofsomethingknownoncebutlaterforgotten.HethenproceedstoofferahostofdefinitionsofthetermbyleadingSufis,muchthewaythemedievalsourcesdid,butdrawingheavilyfromPersianpoets.69

Afullersurveyofmystical-epistemologicalthemeswouldhaveexaminedtheworksofdozensofothersignificantfigureswhoretainplacesofhonorintheranksofthegreatSufis.MypurposeherehasbeenprimarilytoofferaninitialsenseofthepersistentissuesandunderlyingconcernsofthosemedievalSufisbestknownfortheirmanualsofspirituality,allinthelargercontextofongoingdevelopmentsinclassicalandmedievalMuslimtreatmentsofknowledgeinrelationtothespirituallife.WiththatgeneralbackgroundIhopethattheprimarysourceswillbebetterablenowtospeakforthemselves.

InthetranslatedmaterialofferedherethereaderwillencounteranextraordinarybreadthofthemesandpersonalitiesfrommedievalIslamictradition.Thesetreatisesonmysticalspiritualityareconcernedwithfarmorethanarcanemetaphysicalargumentandrarifiedtheoreticaldiscussion.Theirsubjectsincludethefullrangeoftraditionalreligiousdisciplines.TogethertheyofferathematicoverviewofthedevelopmentofSufithoughtinrelationtothebroaderhistoryofthetraditionalsciences,andoftheroleofIslam'smostfundamentalsourcesinthatlargerstory.InthatsenseonecanfindinthesetextsasolidprimarysourceintroductiontothegreaterIslamicreligioustradition.Asforthecolorfulpersonalitiesdescribedanecdotally,whosesayingsandthoughtsaresooftencitedinthesetexts,theyrepresentanequallyexpansivespectrumofviewsandbiases.WhateverSufism'scriticsoverthecenturiesmayhaveconsideredsufficientreasonforcondemningSufismoutright,areadingofthese

textswouldsurelyhavechallengedtheircriticisms.

Herearefifteenbriefchapters-somewhatlessthan10percentofhiswholework-inwhichSarrajsetsouthisunderstandingoflegitimateSuficlaimstocredibilityamongtheotherIslamicreligiousdisciplines.Thefoundationofhisargumentrestsonthe"sociology"ofIslamicreligiousknowledgethatSarrajdiscussesinmostofthefirstdozensectionsofthebook.AfteraffirmingSufismasanauthenticreligiousdiscipline,hedelvesintothefinerpointsofSufimodesofknowinginlaterchapters.Wheregapsoccurbetweenchaptersdevotedtoepistemologicalissues,Iwillsummarizesectionsnottranslatedhere.'

Chapter1: [4]Explanationof thedisciplineofSufism, themethodof theSufis,andtheirrelationshiptoscholarsofunassailablecredibility

ShaykhAbuNasrsaid:SomeoneaskedmetoexplainthescienceofSufismandthemethodoftheSufis.Hearguedthatpeopleareofvariousopinionsaboutit.Somepraiseitexcessivelyandelevateitaboveitsrightfulplace;someconsideritbeyondthelimitsofrationalandscientificinvestigation.Othersregard[5]itaslittlemorethanapastime,atriflinggameforthefeeble-minded.Stillothersassociateitwithpiety,asceticism,woolengarments,affectationintheuseofidiosyncraticjargon,habitsofdress,andothersuchthings.SomegosofarastoimpaletheSufisonthegibbetoftheirownterminologybyaccusingthemoffreethinkinganddoctrinalerror.

SoheaskedmetoexpandonhowIunderstandthesoundnessoftheprinciplesoftheSufis'method,assupportedandsanctionedbyadherencetotheBookofGod,theexaltedandglorified,byimitationoftheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,byethicalconductmodeledonthatoftheCompanionsandFollowers,'andbybehaviorconsistentwiththatofdevout

servantsofGodMostHigh.Heaskedmetorecordthatinwritingwithproofthatwouldcorroboratethetrueanddiscreditthefalse,separatetheseriousfromthefrivolous,thesoundfromthesickly,andsettherecordstraightaboutallthesevariantopinionsastowhethertheirsisacrediblereligiousdiscipline.

Isay,therefore-andfromGodalonecomessuccess-thatGod,blessedandexalted,haslaiddownthefoundationsofreligionandhasremoveduncertaintyfromtheheartsofthefaithfulconcerningHiscommandthattheyadheretoHisBookandbecommittedtotheimplicationsofthewordsHeaddressedtothem,mayHismajestybemagnified,"AndholdfasttotheropeofGodalltogether,anddonotbreakintofactions"(3:103);and"Assistoneanotherindevotionandpiety"(5:3).Next,GodMostHighmentionedthosewhomHelistsamongthemostexcellentbelieversandtheloftiestinreligion,rankingthemjustafterHisangels.HetestifiedtotheirwitnessingtoHistranscendentoneness,placingHisangelssecondonlytoHimself,saying-mayHebeexaltedandglorified-"GodhastestifiedthatthereisnodeitybutHe,ashaveHisangelsandthoseendowedwithknowledgeofunassailablecredibility"(3:18).

TraditionhasitthattheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"ThosewhopossessWmaretheheirsoftheProphets."Iamoftheopinion-andGodknowsbest-thatthoseendowedwithknowledgeofunassailablecredibilityaretheheirsoftheprophets;itistheywhoaredevotedtotheBookofGodMostHigh,whostrivetofollowGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,andwhoemulatetheCompanionsandFollowersintravelingtheroadofGodMostHigh'sdevoutFriendsanduprightservants.Theyareofthreecategories:scholarsoftheHadith,jurists,andSufis.Thesearethethreegroupsendowedwithknowledgeofunassailablecredibilitywhoaretheheirsoftheprophets.Thus,ofthemanyvarietiesofknowledge,thesethreearereligiousdisciplines:knowledgeoftheQur'an,knowledgeoftheSunna,andtheexposition[61andknowledgeoftherealitiesofthefaith.Thesethreegroupstogethersharetheaforementionedreligiousdisciplines,whichrepresentthesumofthereligioussciences,andnoneofthemdepartsfromthethreeabove-citedversesoftheBookofGod,exaltedandglorified,orfromthesayingsofGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,orfromtheprofoundwisdomthathasmovedtheheartofanyoftheFriendsofGodMostHigh.

That[stateofaffairs]isrootedinthe"Hadithoffaith,"inwhichtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,askedGabriel,peacebeuponhim,about

thethreeprinciples,surrender(islam),faith(iman),andspirituality(ihsan)-theexternal,theinternal,andtheultimatespiritualreality.Islamistheoutward,imanbothoutwardandinward,andihsantheoutward,theinward,andtheultimatespiritualreality!TheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,saidthatihsanisservingGodMostHighasthoughyousawHim,butevenifyoudon'tseeHim,Heseesyou,andGabrielconfirmedthat.11mislinkedtoaction,andactiontosincerity.SinceritymeansthattheservantseeksthefaceofGod,gloriousandmighty,inhisknowledgeandhisaction.Thesethreegroupsmentionedabovedifferinboththeoryandpracticeandareorganizationallydisparate.GodMostHighalludedtotheirdisparityandtheirrespectivelevelswhenHe,mayHebeexaltedandglorified,said,"(Godwillraise)inrankthosepossessedofknowledge"(58:11);and,"allhaveranksaccordingtowhattheyhavedone"(46:19);and,"ObservehowWehavemadesomeexceloverothers"(17:21).TheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"Peoplearealike,linedupliketheteethofacomb,nonemoreexcellentthananotherexceptinknowledgeandpiety."

Anyonewhohasaquestionconcerningoneoftheprinciplesofthereligionanditsramifications,legalimplications,spiritualmeanings,sanctions,orstipulations,whetherexternalorinternal,hasnochoicebuttohaverecoursetothesethreegroups-thetraditionists,thejurists,andtheSufis.Eachofthesegroupshasitsdistinctivebrandoftheoryandpractice,spiritualrealityandspiritualstate,eachitsowninterpretationofknowledgeandaction,spiritualstationandexpression,profoundcomprehensionandplace,deeperunderstandingandapproachtointerpretationofthesources.Thosewhoarelearnedinithaveknowledgeofit,andthosewhoarenotschooledinitdonot.Noonegroupcanachieveacomprehensivegraspoftheoriesandpracticesandspiritualstates;eachonehasitsspiritualstationwhereGodMostHighhasplacedit,anditsspiritualstatewhereGod,exaltedandglorified,hassituatedit.Iwillexplaintoyou,GodMostHighwilling,tothebestofmyability,howeachofthesegroupspursuesoneoranothertheory[7]andpractice,inwhataspecteachexcels,andwhichofthemisofthehighestlevel.Iwilldosoinawaythatyouwillfindintellectuallyappealingandunderstandable,ifGodMostHighwishes.

Chapter2:[7]Characteristicsanddistinguishingfeaturesofthetraditionistswith regard to transmission and insight into the Hadith and their unique

waysofknowingthesubject

Saidtheshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim:ThetraditionistsareconcernedwithunderstandingtheoutwardmeaningofthesayingsofGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim.TheyhaveassertedthatthisisthefoundationofthereligionbecauseGodMostHighsays,"TakewhattheMessengergivesyouandrefrainfromwhatheforbidsforyou"(59:7).Therefore,whenmaterialofthissortcametotheirattention,theywouldtravelfromonelandtoanotherinsearchoftransmittersofHadith.TheywouldstaywiththemuntiltheyhadreceivedfromthemthetraditionsofGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim.CollatingwhathadbeentransmittedfromtheCompanionsandFollowers,theythenanalyzedcarefullywhattheyhadgatheredabouttheCompanions'andFollowers'lifestoriesandsayings,theirviewsanddifferencesofopinionasevidencedintheirdecisions,utterances,deeds,character,andpersonalspiritualqualities.Thescholarswouldthenassesstheauthenticityofwhattheyhadtransmittedorally,committedtomemory,andwrittendown-materialhandedonfromonetrustworthypersontoanother,oneindividualofintegritytoanother.Theythencarefullypreservedthatmaterial.Theydeterminedthewhereaboutsofthetransmitterswhowereinvolvedincompilingeachreportandentry,notingtheirnames,theirsurnames,andrecordingpreciselytheirbirthanddeathdates.Asaresult,theygathereddataonhowmanyHadithseachofthoseindividualshadtransmitted,fromwhomtheyhadreceivedeachHadith,andtowhomeachtransmitterhadrelatedtheHadith.TheywereabletodeterminewhohadcommunicatedaHadithinaccurately,whichindividualshaderredbyeitherinsertingaletterordeletingaword,whichindividualshaddonesointentionally,andwhichhadsimplymadeanhonestmistake.

TheseHadithscholarsthusascertainedthenamesofsuspecttransmitterscaughtinalieaboutGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim.Theyidentifiedwhosetransmissionsweresoundandwhosenot,andwhohadtransmittedHadithsotherwiseunattestedorwhoseprecisewordingwasuniqueandnotfoundinothers.Bythismethodtheymadenoteofhowmanyindividualshadtransmittedeachvariantandindicatedtheweaklinksinitschainoftransmission.Thustheyorganizedcategories,classifyingthesunnas4intochapters.Theydistinguishedbetweenthosethatwerejudged"sound,"thoseofquestionablereliability,andthosewhosechainoftransmissionincludedan

untrustworthyindividual.ThescholarsnarrowedtheirattentiontothoseHadithsthatweretransmitted,respectively,bythefewest[8]andbythegreatestnumber.TheyidentifiedHadithstransmittedbyleadingfiguresinthecities,andcategorizedlesser,derivativetransmittersasdistinctfromthegreater,leadingfigures.Thesescholarspossessedcomprehensiveknowledgeoftheflawsevidencedinthedisparityofviewsamongtransmitters,whetherintheformofadditionordeletion,andoftheirplaceinthechainoftransmissionofsunnasandtraditions;forthesethingsformthebasisofreligiouspractice.

InthatmattertheseHadithscholarsaresuperiortothe(generalist)religiousscholars,sothatbydintofgreaterlearning,oneofthemcanlayclaimtoaccuracyandcapacityofmemoryinhandlingtheevidence,whenitcomestoimpartialityandcriticalassessment,ofrejectionandacceptanceoftraditions,onthegroundsthatatext'stestimonyisconsistentwithwhatGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,saidanddid,commandedandforbade,enjoinedandprayedfor.GodMostHighhassaid,"ThusdidWefashionyouasamorallybalancedcommunitysothatyoumightbearwitnesstohumankindandsothattheMessengermightbeawitnesstoyouall"(2:143).ThetraditionistsaresaidtobethecustodiansofwhattheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,andtheCompanionsandFollowers,saidanddid.Thescripturaltext"andsothattheMessengermightbeawitnesstoyouall"thereforereferstotheirtestimonytotheProphet'sdeeds,words,spiritualstates,andmoralcharacter.TheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,hassaid,"Whoeverknowinglyliesaboutmewillsitonhisowncouchinhell."AndtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"MayGodmakeradiantthefaceofonewhohasheardaHadithfrommeandspreadsitabroad,"andsoon.ItissaidthateverytraditionistbearsonhiscountenanceaglowasaresultoftheProphet'sprayer.

Thetraditionistshaveproducedwrittensourcescontainingthefindingsoftheirresearch.Ashasbeenwidelyattested,famousmastersamongthemhaveenjoyedtheacknowledgmentoftheircontemporariesfortheiroutstandinglearning,surpassingintellect,andexemplaryreligiouspracticeandfaith.WhatIhavesaidissufficientforthosewhoknow,anditisGodwhograntssuccess.

Chapter 3: [8]On the classifications of the legal scholars and the uniquefeaturesoftheirmethodologyamongthevariousdisciplines

SaidShaykhAbuNasr,Godbecompassionatetohim:Asacategoryofthosewhopossessknowledge,thelegalscholarsaresuperiortothetraditionists.Thetwogroupsarecomparablewithrespecttothegeneralimport[9]oftheirdisciplinesandtheirmethods.ButthelegalscholarspossessaspecializedunderstandinganddeeperinterpretationoftheHadith,steepingthemselvesindetailedinvestigationforsettingforthreligiousregulationsandsanctionsandtheprinciplesofRevealedLaw.Withthoseconcernsinmind,theydistinguishbetweenabrogatingandabrogatedtexts,'betweenprinciplesandparticulars,separatingthespecificfromthegeneral,withreferencetothescripture,theSunna,consensus(ijma`),andanalogicalreasoning(giyas).6TheythenexplaintothepeopletherequirementsoftheirreligiononthebasisofQur'anandtradition.Somerequirementsarenolongerinforcebutarestillonthebooks,whileothersnotattestedtoinwritingneverthelessretaintheforceoflaw.Someareexpressedingeneraltermsbutareunderstoodspecifically,whileothersarecouchedasspecificrulesbutareunderstoodmoregenerally.Someregulationsaddressacollectivityofpeoplebutareinterpretedasreferringtoindividuals,whileothersaddresstheindividualbutaretakentorefertogroups.

Legalscholarsmarshalintellectualargumentsagainsttheiropponents.Theydrawconclusionsonthebasisofevidenceinshapingtheirargumentsagainstthoseinerror,tobolsterthereligion.TheyadheretothetextofthescriptureorthetextoftheSunna,ortoanalogicalreasoningonthebasisofthetext,ortotheconsensusofthecommunity.Inresponsetoanyonewhodisagreeswiththem,theyarguebytherulesofrationalargument.Toanywhodisputewiththemtheyrespondwiththeetiquetteofdebate.Shouldanyonetakeissuewiththemcontentiously,theycounterwithequallytrenchantrejoinder,matchingoneimputedweaknesswithanotherinreturn.Thustheyputeverythinginitsplace,prioritizeeverydefinitionaccordingtoitscategory,distinguishingamongrationalanalogy,formalsimilarity,affinity,andparallelism.'Asforthingseithercommandedorforbidden,theydifferentiateastowhicharerequired,whicharerecommended,whicharetobeavoidedandcauseforalarm,andwhichareurgedandcalledfor.

Thesescholarsthusexplainobscurities,untieknots,illuminepaths,dispelambiguities,bringforthbranchesfromroots,expandthecryptic,unravelthedenselypacked,andevaluatereligioussanctionsjudiciously.Theydothissothat,intheexternalrequirementsandsanctionsoftheSharila,onescholardoes

notfollowanotherscholarblindly,northeignorantpersonanignorantperson,northesociallyeliteindividualaneliteperson,northecommonpersonacommonperson.LegalscholarskeepwatchovertheirordinancesfortheMuslims.GodMostHigh,mayHebeexaltedandglorified,referredtotheminHisBookwhenHesaid,"Letpartiesfromeverycontingentsetouttodedicatethemselvestounderstandingthereligion."8AndtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"WhenGoddesiresanindividual'sgood,Hegivesthatpersondeeperreligiousunderstanding."

Concerningtheirbranchoflearningandmethods,legalscholars,too,havetheirwrittensources,aswellastheirrenownedmasters,[10]whoseleadershiptheircontemporariesacclaimedunanimouslyfortheirgreaterlearning,insight,religiouscommitment,andtrustworthiness.Butafullexplanationofthatwouldbetoolengthy,andtheperspicaciousreaderwilldrawfullerconclusionsfromthesebriefhints.AndinAllahisoursuccess.

Chapter4:[10]OntheclassificationsoftheSufis,theirvariousapproachesto`ilmandaction,andtheiroutstandingvirtuesandexcellentqualities

SaidShaykhAbuNasr,Godbecompassionatetohim:TheSufisareanalogoustothelegalscholarsandthetraditionistsinthatthey,also,havetheirgroupswiththeirdistinctiveopinions.Theyagreewiththeothergroupsofreligiousspecialistsontheirdisciplinesandarenotatoddsontheirmeaningsandmethods,totheextentthattheyavoidinnovationandthepursuitofpersonalwhim,whileconformingtotheestablishedpatternandexampleoftradition.Theyarealliedintheirassenttoandaffirmationofallaspectsoftheirdisciplineanddonotdisagreeonthem.

AnySufiswhodonotmeasureuptothequalificationsofthelegalscholarsandtraditionistsinknowledgeandinsightandfailtoamassthebroadlearningtheycommandwillhaverecoursetothoseotherreligiousexpertsintheeventanydivinelyrevealedcommandmentorreligioussanctionshouldbecomeuncleartothem.Thus,whentheyareinagreementaboutsuchathing,theyareunanimousinwhattheyprofesstogether;andwhentheydisagree,theSufishaverecourse,accordingtotheirmethod,tothebest,thefirst,andthemostcompleteoptionoutofcareforthereligion.TheygiveprioritytowhatGodhascommandedHisservantsandavoidwhatGodhasforbiddenthem.Theirwaydoesnotincludestoopingtolicentiousbehavior,goinginsearchofesoteric

interpretations,thetendencytowardalifeofeaseanddissipation,andtheespousalofquestionableviews,allofwhichamounttoadisregardforthereligionandthrowingcautiontothewind.Onthecontrary,theirwayistoholdfasttowhatisfundamentalandmostcompleteinthematterofreligion.

ThisiswhatIhavecometoknowaboutthewaysoftheSufisandtheirmethodsintheiruseoftheexotericsciencesaspracticedbyandcurrentamongtheclassesofreligiousscholarsandtraditionists.Beyondthat,theyascendtohighranksandhaveapropensityfornoblespiritualstates[11]andelevatedspiritualabodes,whichconsistofvariousformsofworshipfulness,profoundobedience,andexquisitemoralcharacter.Theupshotofthatisauniqueanddistinctivequalitynotsharedbyotherreligiousscholars,jurists,andtraditionists.Afullanalysisofthatwouldrequirealengthierexplanation.Icanelucidateforyouonlyasampleofthewholereality,sothat,Godwilling,youmightinferfromwhatIhavesaidtowhatIhavenotsaid.

HereweskipChapter5:"OntheuniqueunderstandingswithwhichtheSufisconstrueconduct,spiritualstates,andknowledgeandwhichsetthemapartfromthegeneralityofreligiousscholars."Sarrajdoesnotadvancespecificallyhistreatmentofknowledgeinthischapterbutfocusesinsteadonmorepraxis-orientedwaysinwhichtheSufisdifferfromother"learned"people.

Chapter6:[13]OnthespecialqualitiesoftheSufisamongthecategoriesofthosewhopossess`ilmwithrespecttootherepistemologicalissues

SaidShaykh[AbuNasr],Godbecompassionatetohim:AnotheruniquefeatureoftheSufis,amongthecategoriesofthereligiouslylearned,istheiruseofversesrecitedfromtheBookofGodMostHigh,andoftraditionstransmittedfromGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,whichnoscripturalversehasabrogatedandwhoseauthoritynoprophetictraditionorreporthaspreempted.Thesecallforloftymoralconductandimpeltowardelevatedspiritualstatesandnobledeeds.TheyspeakofhighspiritualstationsinthereligionandexaltedstagesthatdistinguishonesegmentofbelieversandcharacterizeagroupoftheCompanionsandFollowers.ThoseversesandtraditionsembracethebehaviorandmoralvaluesoftheMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,ashesays,"IndeedGodhasinstilledinmegoodconductandhashighlyrefinedmybehavior."AndGod,exaltedandglorifiedbe

He,says,"Indeedyouareofexquisitemoralcharacter"(68:4).

Thesemattersaretobefoundinthedocumentsofthereligiousscholarsandjurists,butheretheylackthepenetratingunderstandingandinsightthattheydisplayintheotheraspectsoftheirdiscipline.ApartfromtheSufis,noscholarsofunassailablecredibilityhaveashareinthepresenttopicapartfromgeneralaffirmationandbeliefthatitistrue.Thesemattersincludesuchthingsastherealityandcharacteristicsofrepentance,theranksofthepenitent,andtheirspiritualrealities;thedetailsofpietyandthespiritualstatesofthegod-fearing;theclassificationsofthosewhotrustinGod;thestations[14]ofthosewhoexperiencespiritualcontentment;andtheranksofthepatient.Theyspeaksimilarlyofmodestyandhumilityandlove,fearandhope,desireandintrospection,contritionandtranquility,certaintyandspiritualsatisfaction.Thenumbersofthesespiritualstatesarevirtuallybeyondcounting,eachofthemwithitsownpractitionersandclassifications.Eachhasessentialdetails,including[contemplativemethod,spiritualstates,self-scrutiny,mysteries,innercombat,spiritualstations,discretelevels],uniqueintentionality,distinctivestrengthofwill,resistancetolassitude,andbeingoverwhelmedbyecstasy.Andeachofthesehasitsdefinition,spiritualstation,typeofknowledge,andanalysis,totheextentthatGod,exaltedandglorified,apportionsthem.

TheSufisarealsodistinguishedbytheirma'rifaofthespecificfeaturesofconcupiscenceandearthlyexpectation;andtheirinsightintotheego-soulwithitsimportunitiesandephemeralproclivities,andintothesubtletiesofconceit,disguisedlust,andcovertidolatry.SufisareuniqueintheirunderstandingofthemeansforliberationfromthesethingsandforturningtowardGodtheExaltedandGlorified,forsincerelytakingrefugeinGod,andforpersistinginspiritualneedfulness,surrender,handingallovertoGod,andadmittingone'slackofpowerandstrength.

Inaddition,theSufishavediscovereddeeperinterpretationsofknowledgethathaveeludedthejuristsandreligiousscholars.Theycouchthesesubtletiesinallusionandconcealthemintechnicalexpressionsbecauseoftheirsensitivityanddelicacy.Thatisthecasewiththeirtalkofobstacles,hindrances,obligations,concealments,arcanesecrets,thestationsofsincerityandthestatesofinsightintomystery,therealitiesofthoughtandthedegreesofnearnesstoGod,thelayingbareofacknowledgmentofdivinetranscendentunity,thestagesofacknowledgingthedivinesimplicity,therealitiesofservanthood,the

obliterationoftemporalexistenceinpre-eternity,theephemeralnatureofcreatedthingsbycontrastwiththeeternallyancient,thepassingawayofthevisionofwhatonemightacceptasasubstituteforGod,andtheperduranceofthevisionofthegiver[evenasthevisionofthegiftpassesaway],thefadingofthestatesandstations,theunitingof[theseparated],thepassingawayoftheexperienceofstrivingwhilethevisionofthegoalsurvives,[avoidanceofthevisionofwhatsubstitutesforGod,]lettinggoofresistance,ofraidingtravelersonobliteratedpaths,andofwanderingthrough[15]perilouswastelands.

Amongthereligiousscholarsofunassailableauthorityorintegrity,theSufisdistinguishthemselvesinuntyingtheseknotsandpenetratingtheproblematicaspectsofthesethings.Theypursuethesequestionstenaciouslyanddoggedly,andattackthemwithcompleteunselfishness.Theydonotdesistuntiltheyhavecommunicatedabouttheirflavorandtaste,decreaseandincrease.Theyinquireofanywholayclaimtooneofthesespiritualstatesastotheirevidenceforit,anddiscourseaboutthestate'ssoundnessorweakness.Thereismoreherethanasinglepersoncanmentionevenalittleabout,sinceitissovastthereisnowaytoencompassit.

KnowledgeofallofthisisfoundintheBookofGod,exaltedandglorified,andinthetraditionsofGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,andisfamiliartospecialists;andthereligiousscholarsdonotdisputethatwhentheydiscussthesematters.However,agroupofthosewhospecializeinexotericlearningdotakeissuewiththeSufisbecausetheexotericistsunderstandonlythoseaspectsoftheBookofGodMostHighandthetraditionsofGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,thatpertaintooutwardrequirementsandthatsupporttheirpolemicagainsttheiropponents.Peoplenowadaysaremoreinclinedtothatsortofthingbecauseitmorecloselyapproximateswhattheywantinleadership,gainingstandingamongthemasses,andachievingworldlyends.YouwillseepreciousfewoccupyingthemselveswiththelearningIhavebeendescribing,forthisisaunique`ilmalloyedwithbitternessandchokingtorment.Atthesoundofitkneesweaken,theheartgrowssad,eyesfillwithtears,thegreatbecomessmallandthesmallgreat.Butwhatanenterprise,whatanexperience,whatsavor,whatanencounterdoesthatknowledgebring!Egohasnoshareintheinwardencounter,fortheego-soulishemmedinbymortality,thefallibilityofthesenses,andtheephemeralnatureofobjectsofdesire.Asaresult,thereligiousscholarshaveeschewedthis

knowledge,engrossingthemselvesincultivatingaknowledgethatlightenstheirburdenandimpelsthemtowardpermissiveness,license,andfacileinterpretation,aknowledgethatiscongenialwithhumantendenciesandrestsmorelightlyonhumansouls,bentastheyaretowardyieldingtobaserproclivitiesandturningasidefromduty.GodMostHighknowsbest.

Inthenextchapter,SarrajseriouslyundertakestodefendtheSufis'detailedanalysisofelementsofthespirituallife.TheybasetheiranalysisontheoccurrenceofspecifictermsanddescriptionsfoundintheQur'anandHadith,andSarrajisconcernedwithdemonstratingthateveryaspectofSufipsychologyandepistemologyhasafirmbasisintraditionandrevelation.

Chapter7: [16]Arejoinder to theclaim that theSufisarean ignorant lotandthatthescienceofSufismhasnosupportfromtheBookandtradition

SaidShaykh[ImamAbuNasr],Godbecompassionatetohim:TheimamsagreeunanimouslythatGod,BlessedandExalted,refersinHisBooktouprightmenandwomen,tohumblemenandwomen,aswellastothesubmissive,thepious,thesincere,thosewhodogood,thefearful,thehopeful,theawestruck,theworshipful,thesojourners,thelong-suffering,thespirituallycontent,thegod-trusting,theself-abasing,theFriendsofGod,thegod-fearing,theelect,thechosen,thedevout,andthosewhoareclosetoGod.GodMostHighmentionedthosewhobearwitnesswhenHesaid,"oronewhogivesear,thatpersonisawitness"(54:37).AndGodMostHighreferstotheserenewhenhesays,"SurelyheartsbecomeserenewhentheyrememberGod"(13:28).GodMostHighalsospeaksofthosewhoarriveaheadofothers,thosewhoaretemperate,andthosewhohastentogooddeeds.

AndtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"Inmy(religious)communitytherearethosespokenaboutandthoseaddressed,and`Umarisoneofthem."AndtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"Manyarethedisheveled,dustyones,cladinapairofrags,whoseoathGodwouldhonor,andBara'(d.72/691)isoneofthem."ToWabisahesaid,"Seekadvicefromyourheart,"andhedidnotsaythattoanyoneelse.AndtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"Asaresultoftheintercessionofamanofmycommunity,peopleasnumerousasthetribesofRabilaandMudarwillentertheGarden.Thatman'snameisUwaysal-Qarani."10AndintheHadithwefind

also,"InmycommunitytherearethosewhomIknowtobegod-fearingwhentheyreciteQur'an,andTalqibnHabib(d.c.90/178)isamongthem."AnothersayingoftheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,goes,"SeventythousandofmycommunitywillentertheGardenwithoutbeingcalledtoaccount.""0MessengerofGod,"someoneasked,"whoarethey?"Hereplied,"Theyaretheoneswhodonotallowthemselvestobebranded"andputtheirtrustnotinsorcerybutrelyontheir

Therearenumeroustraditionsandaccountsofthissort,andeveryoneagreesthatallofthepeoplementionedinthesetextswereofthecommunityofMuhammad,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim.Hadtheynotbeenpartofthecommunity,andiftheycouldnothaveexistedineveryage,thenGodMostHighwouldnothavementionedtheminHisBook,norwouldtheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,havedescribedthem.Ontheonehand,wehaveseenthattheterm"faith"appliestothecollectivityofbelievers;[17]ontheother,thosepeoplestandoutfromthecrowdasindividualswithspecificnames.Thatisproofoftheiruniquenessamongthegeneralityofbelieversunitedundertheterm"faith."Notoneoftheimamsdisputesthattheprophets,onwhombepeace,areofhigherrankthantheseindividuals(mentionedabove)anddwellnearertoGodMostHighthanthese,andthattheywerehumanbeingssubjecttoallthesameneedsasotherhumanbeingsforfood,sleep,andordinarycares.Nevertheless,thereisavastdifferencebetweentheprophets,God'sblessingsbeonthemall,andtherestofthesepeopleIhavebeentalkingabout.ThatisduetotheexistenceofasecretbetweenthemandtheOnetheyserve,andtotheincreaseintheircertitudeandtheirbeliefinwhatGodMostHighhascommunicatedandapportionedtothem.Onlytheprophets,uponwhombepeace,aresetapartfromtheseindividualsbytheuniquefeaturesofpropheticrevelation,propheticmission,andproofsofprophethood.Nooneelsecancompetewiththeminthatrespect.AndGodistheonewhoknowsmostfully.

Chapter8:[17]OnthecounterargumentoftheSufistothosewhomakeaprofessionoflegalscholarship,andanexplanation,supportedbyevidence,ofdeepreligiousunderstanding

SaidShaykh[AbuNasr],Godbecompassionatetohim:ItisreportedthattheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said:"WhenGodwishesthebestforanindividual,hegrantsthatpersondeepreligiousunderstanding."IthascometomyattentionthatsomeonesaidtoHasanal-Basri,13Godbe

compassionatetohim,"So-and-soisafaqih."Hasanreplied,"Andhaveyoueverseenafaqih?Thefagihistheonewhohasforsakenthisworld,prefersthenext,andpossessesspiritualinsightintohisreligion."GodMostHighsays,"Sothattheymightgainprofoundreligiousunderstanding"(9:122)."Religion"isatermthatencompassesallrequirements,bothexternalandinternal.Eruditionintherequirementsofthesespiritualstatesandthemeaningsofthesespiritualstationsmentionedearlieriseverybitasusefulaseruditioninthelegalfinepointsofdivorce,thereleaseofslaves,thevowofabstinence,"retaliation,oath-taking,andlegalpunishments.Thatisbecausetheselegalissuesareunlikely,duringanentirelifetime,torequirespecificknowledgeofthem.Shouldsuchissuesarise,onewhohasaquestionaboutthemsimplyreliesonauthoritiesonthesubjectandabidesbytheopinionofone[18]ofthejurists.Thatobligationthenisnolongerbindingonthatpersonuntilsomeotherissueshouldarise.

However,believersareinneedofthesespiritualstates,stations,andinnerstrugglesthattheSufisseektounderstandandwhoserealitiestheydiscuss.Theymustgainanexperientialknowledgeofthesethings,andthesemattersarenottimerelated.Thesetopicsinclude,forexample,uprightness,sincerity,recollection,andavoidanceofheedlessness.Thereisnoprescribedmomentforthese.Onthecontrary,thegodservantmustineachmomentandatalltimesbeawareofhisorherintention,desire,andinteriorimpulse.Inthecaseofaduty,onemustattendtoit;inthecaseofpleasure,onemustfenditoff.GodMostHighsaidtoHispureProphetMuhammad,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,"DonotobeyanypersonwhoseheartWehaveallowedtostrayfrommindfulnessofUs,whorespondsonlytopassingdesireandwhosemanneroflifeisdissolute"(18:28).Anyonewhodisregardsoneofthesespiritualstatesdoessoatthecostofhavinghisheartovercomebyheedlessness.

Knowthattheinnersignificanceofwhattheylearn,andtheinsightintothedetailsandrealitiesofthatlearningthattheSufisdiscover,isnecessarilygreaterthanthemeaningsthatthelegalscholarsfindinexternalrequirements,forthisWmoftheSufisislimitless.Itencompassesallusions,manifestations,movementsofspirit,gifts,andblessings,whichitspractitionersharvestfromtheoceanofdivinelargesse.Theotherwaysofknowingareclearlycircumscribed.AllwaysofknowingculminateinthescienceofSufism,whiletheknowledgeofSufismleadsonlytosomefurtheraspectofthedisciplineofSufism.Thereisnoendtothatknowledge,forthereisnoendtothatscience'sobject,namely,

mysticalrevelations.BywayoftheunderstandingofHiswordandperceptionofHiscommunication,AllahMostHighrevealswhat,andas,HechoosestotheheartsofHisFriends.Godtheexaltedandglorifiedhassaid,"Proclaim:IftheoceanwereinkwithwhichtowritethewordsofmyLord,theoceanwouldbeexhaustedmorequicklythanthewordsofmyLord,evenifWesuppliedanotheritsequalinsize"(18:109).AndHesaid,"Ifyou(pl.)aregrateful,Iwillgiveyouanincrease"(14:7).IncreasefromGodMostHighislimitless,andgratitudeisitselfagracethatcallsforthankfulnessthat,inturn,ensuresfurtherinfiniteincrease.AndinGodisoursuccess.

Chapter 9: [19] Concerning the acceptability of unique qualifications inreligiouslearningandtheuniquenessofeachdisciplinetoitspractitioners,alongwitharefutationofthosewhodenytheexistenceofabranchof'ilmanddeclinetoreferamattertotheappropriatespecialists

Saidtheshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim:Quiteafewreligiousscholarsareaversetotheideaofspecializationswithinthescienceofthingsdivinelyrevealed.InthiscommunitythereisnodisputethatGodMostHighcommandedHisMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,tocommunicatewhatwasrevealedtohim,forHesaid,"0Messenger,communicatewhathasbeensentdowntoyoufromyourLord"(5:67).AndithasbeenreportedthattheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"IfyouknewwhatIknow,youwouldlaughlittleandweepmuch."Therefore,ifhehadknownwhattheydidnotknowoftheformsofknowledgethatGodhadcommandedhimtocommunicate,hewouldhavecommunicatedit.AndifhisCompanionshadbeenallowedtoquestionhimaboutthatknowledge,theywouldhavequestionedhim.

ScholarsagreethatamongtheCompanionsoftheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,therewerespecialistsincertainareasofknowledge.Hudhayfa,'5forexample,wasaspecialistinknowledgeofthenamesofthehypocrites,whichGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,hadimpartedtohiminsecret,eventothepointthat`Umar,Godbepleasedwithhim,askedHudhayfa,"AmIoneofthem?""Itisreportedfrom'AliibnAbiTalib,"Godbepleasedwithhim,thathesaid,"God'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,instructedmeinseventychaptersofknowledgethathetaughttononebutme."

Thissubjectisdiscussedfullyattheendofthisbook(chapter122below).I

haveraisedtheissuehereaswell,becausetheknowledgesharedincommonbytheHadithspecialists,thelegalscholars,andtheSufisisknowledgeofthereligion.Everyclassofscholarshaswrittenaccounts,treatises,books,andteachingscharacteristicofitsdiscipline.Everygroupofthemhasitsrenownedleaderswhosecontemporariesagreeunanimouslyontheirauthoritybecauseoftheirsuperiorlearninganddepthofunderstanding.NoonedisputesthatwhenthetraditionistshaveaproblemwithinthescopeofthescienceofHadithontheweaknessofatraditionoridentificationoftransmitters,theydonot[20]haverecoursetothelegalscholarsonthematter.Nordothelegalscholarshaverecoursetothetraditionistsiftheyencounteranobscurequestiononthelegaldetailsofsettingawomanfree,oradeclarationofinnocence,ordomiciles,orfinaltestaments.

Asimilarsituationobtainswhenadifficultquestionarisesinthescienceofthosewhodiscusstheheart'secstasy,thelegacyofmysteries,thedevoutdeedsofhearts,andwhodescribethesciencesandconducttheirinvestigationsintothemintermsofsubtleallusionsandsublimespiritualmeanings.Theyneednothaverecoursetoanybutascholarspecializinginthesematters,namely,someoneexperiencedinthesespiritualstates,onewhohasjourneyedthroughthemandhassoughttosteephimselfintheknowledgeoftheirspecificdetails.Anyonewhodoesotherwiseismakingamistake.Noonehasanybusinessdroningonabouttheexperienceofpeoplewhosespiritualstatehedoesnotunderstand,inwhosedisciplineheisnotwellversed,andwhosegoalsandmethodshedoesnotcomprehend.Suchapersoncomestoabadend,allthewhilethinkingheisamongthosewhooffersoundadvice.MayGodMostHighgrantusallprotectionfromsuchpeople.

Hereweskipchapters10and11,inwhichSarrajdigressesslightlytodiscusstheoriginofthenameSufiandtorefutetheargumentofsomethat"Sufism"isnotmentionedintheearliestsourcesandisthereforeanewfangledinnovationandthusunacceptable.

Chapter12: [23]Anaffirmationof inwardknowledgeandanexplanationprovingitssoundness

Saidtheshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim:OnefactionoftheexotericistswillhavenothingtodowiththeSufis,saying,"WerecognizeonlythedisciplineoftheRevealedLawinitsmanifestmeaningthattheBookandtheSunnahave

broughtus.YourtalkaboutknowledgeoftheinnerimplicationsandknowledgeofSufismismeaningless."Irespond-anditisGodwhograntssuccess:knowledgeoftheRevealedLawisauniquescience,andthisonetermencompassesthetwoconceptsoftransmission(riwaya)andcomprehension(diraya).TogetherthetwocomprisetheknowledgeoftheRevealedLaw,andthatinturngivesrisetobothoutwardandinwarddeeds.Torefertoreligiousknowledgeexclusivelyaseitheroutwardorinwardis,therefore,inappropriate.Forwhenknowledgeresidesintheheart,itisinward,untilitbecomesmanifestonthetongue.Oncegivenverbalexpression,itbecomesoutward.

Religiousknowledgeisbothmanifestandhidden,foritistheknowledgeoftheRevealedLawthatbothleadstoandcallsforthoutwardandinwarddeeds.Outwarddeedsinclude,forexample,themovementsofthebodilylimbsinvolvedinactsofworshipandjuridicalstipulations.Ritualpurification,dailyritualprayer,almsgiving,fasting,pilgrimage,supportingjustifiablestruggleagainstinjustice,andthelike,areknownastheactsofworship.Asforthejuridicalstipulations,theyincludesuchmattersasspecificpunishments,divorce,freeingslaves,commercialtransactions,inheritance,andretaliation.Allofthesepertaintotheexternalorgansorbodilylimbs.

Asfortheinwarddeeds,theyare,asitwere,theactsoftheheart.Theyincludesuchspiritualstationsandstatesasfaith'sassent,theactoffaithitself,certitude,authenticity,sincerity,insightintomystery,trustinGod,love,spiritualcontentment,recollectedness,gratitude,repentance,humility,aweofGod,contemplation,reflectiveness,introspection,fear,hope,patience,moderation,surrender,handingallovertoGod,nearnesstoGod,desire,ecstasy,dread,sadness,[24]contrition,shame,confusion,acknowledgingGod'ssublimity,acknowledgingGod'smagnificence,andreverence.Eachofthesedeeds,bothoutwardandinward,hasitsowntypeoflearning,"standing,""explanation,deepcomprehension,ultimatespiritualreality,andprofoundspiritualexperience(wajd).VersesfromtheQur'anandtraditionsfromtheMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,substantiatethesoundnessofeachofthesedeeds,boththeoutwardandtheinward.Onewhoislearnedinthisknowsit;onewhoisignorantofitisunawareofit.

WhenIrefertoinwardknowledge,therefore,Imeanknowledgeofinwarddeedsthatpertaintotheinteriororgan,theheart.AndwhenIrefertoknowledgeoftheoutward,Iamindicatingtheknowledgeofexternalactssuchaspertainto

theexteriororgans,thelimbsofthebody.GodMostHighhassaid,"AndHehasshowereduponyouHisgracebothoutwardlyandinwardly"(31:20).Inotherwords,theevidentgracesthatGodMostHighbestowsuponthephysicallimbsresultinactsofobedience,whilethehiddengracesthatGodMostHighlavishesupontheheartyieldthesespiritualstates.Theoutwardcannotgetbyindependentoftheinward,northeinwardapartfromtheoutward.God,exaltedandglorified,hassaid,"HadtheybutreferredthemattertotheMessengerorthecompetentauthoritiesamongthemratherthangossipingaboutitamongthemselves,thoseamongthemcapableofdeeperinterpretationwouldhaveknownaboutit"(4:83).Fortheknowledgethatisunderstoodindepthistheinwardknowledge,andthatistheknowledgeofthepractitionersofSufism,fortheirsisadeeperinterpretationofQur'anandHadithandothersources.Godwilling,Iamprovidinghereaglimpseofthat.

Knowledge,therefore,isoutwardandinward,Qur'anbothoutwardandinward,theHadithofGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,outwardandinward,Islamoutwardandinward.Tosupportthatunderstanding,ourcompanionsgatherevidenceandargumentsfromtheBookandtheSunnaandintellectualunderstanding.Butanexplanationofthatwouldbelengthyandwouldprogressfromsayingtoolittletosayingtoomuch,andIhavesaidenoughonthematter.InGodisoursuccess.

Inchapters13through15SarrajagaindigressestodiscussSufisminmoregeneralterms(chapters13and14)andthenoffersafairlylengthychapteronSufiviewsofthedivineunityandtheprocessbywhichahumanbeingbecomesunitedwiththedivine.HethenreturnstothesubjectofSufiepistemology,nowfocusingspecificallyontheexperientialaspectofmysticalknowledge,ma`rifa.

Chapter16:[35]ElaboratingonwhattheSufishavesaidaboutthespiritualreality of ma`rifa and the characteristics of one endowed with suchexperientialknowledge

SomeoneaskedAbuSaidal-Kharraz,'9Godbecompassionatetohim,aboutexperientialknowledgeofGod.Hereplied,"Experientialknowledgecomesfromtwodirections:fromabsolutelargesseandunstintingeffort."SomeoneaskedAbuTuraban-Nakhshabi,20Godbecompassionatetohim,todescribethemystic,andhesaid,"Thatisonewhomnothingvexesandbecauseofwhom

everythingispurified."Ahmadibn'Ata',21Godbecompassionatetohim,said,"Marifaisoftwotypes,insightintothedivinetruth(hagq)andinsightintoultimatereality(haqiqa).InsightintothedivinetruthentailsmarifaofGod'ssimpleunitytotheextentthatGodhasmanifestedtohumankindthedivinenamesandattributes.Asforinsightintotheultimatereality,thereisnopathtoitbecauseoftheinaccessibilityofthedivinelyeternal[36]andtheincomprehensibilityofdivinelordliness,assuggestedbythedivineword,`AndtheycannotencompassHimwiththeirknowledge'(20:110)."

Ahmad'ssaying,"Thereisnopathtoit,"meansthatthereisnomethodtotheexperientialknowledgeoftheultimatereality,becauseGodMostHighhasmanifestedtoHiscreaturesonlythosenamesandattributesthatHeknewtheywerecapableofgrasping.ThatissobecausecreaturescannotbearevenanatomofexperientialknowledgeoftheultimaterealityofGod.Creatureswouldbeannihilatedatthefirst,slightesthintofascintillaoftheoverwhelmingforceofthedivinesublimity.WhocouldsustainexperientialknowledgeofaBeingofsuchattributes?ForthatreasonsomeonehasobservedthatnonebutHecanknowHimexperientially,andnooneotherthanHecanloveHim,forthedivinetranscendenceisutterlybeyondhumancomprehensionandconsciousness.GodMostHighhassaid,"AndtheyencompassnoneofHisknowledge"(2:255).

Onthissubject,thestoryistoldofhowAbuBakras-Siddiq,22peacebeuponhim,said,"PraisedbetheOnewhofashionedforHiscreaturesnopathtoexperientialknowledgeofHimotherthantheirveryinabilitytoknowHimintimately."SomeoneaskedShibli,23"WhendoesthemysticcomeintoaplaceofexperiencingGod?"Hereplied,"Whenthe(singleexperienceof)witnessingcomesintobeingandits(multiple)evidencespassaway,whenthesensesdepartandsenseperceptionmeltsaway."Someonealsoaskedhim,"Whatmarkstheonsetofthisconditionandwhatisitsend?"Hereplied,"ItsonsetisexperientialknowledgeofHimanditendswithacknowledgmentofHistranscendentoneness."Hesaidfurther,"Asignofexperientialknowledgeisseeingoneselfinthefirmgraspofthedivinemagnificence,overwhelmedbythedivineomnipotence."Anothersignofexperientialknowledgeislove,foronewhoknowsGodintimately,lovesHim.

SomeoneaskedAbuYazidTayfuribnIIsaal-Bistami,2'Godbecompassionatetohim,Iamtold,aboutthequalitiesofthemystic.Heanswered,"Thecolorofwateristhecolorofitscontainer.Ifyoupouritintoawhite

container,youimaginethewateriswhite.Ifyoupouritintoablackcontainer,youthinkitisblack.Thesameistrueforyellowandredandtheothercolors.Thespiritualstatescomeandgoalternately,butthemasterofthespiritualstatesishisMaster."Theshaykhsaid,Allahbecompassionatetohim:Themeaningofthis,andGodknowsbest,isthattotheextentofitsclaritythewater[37]takesonthecolorofitscontainer.Thecontainer'scolormaychange,butnotbecauseofitspurityandspiritualstate.Thepersonwhoinspectsithastheimpressionofsomethingwhiteorblack,asifthewaterwereonewiththecontainer.SoitiswiththemysticandhischaracteristicsinrelationtoGodexaltedandglorified:thoughthespiritualstatesmaychange,themystic'ssecretselfinrelationtoGodremainsoneandthesame.

SomeoneaskedJunayd,25Godbecompassionatetohim,concerningwhatisunderstoodaboutthosewhopossessexperientialknowledge.Hereplied,"Theyeludethedescriptionofthosewhodescribethem."Someoneelserespondedtoaqueryaboutma`rifabysaying,"ItistheinsightofheartsintoGod'suniquenessarisingfromthesubtletiesofGod'sexperientialpedagogy."SomeoneaskedJunayd,Godbecompassionatetohim,"Abu`1-Qasim,whatdothemysticswantfromGodMostHigh?"Heanswered,"TheywantGodtowatchoverthemandtakecareofthem.""Tothecontrary,"saidMuhammadibnal-Fadlas-Samargandi(d.319/931),Allahbecompassionatetohim,"theyhavenowantsandnopreferences,sincetheyobtainwhattheyobtainapartfromwantsandpreferences.ThatisbecausethemysticsexistintheOnewhobringsthemintobeing,andsurviveintheOnewhobringsthemintobeing,andpassawayintheOnewhobringsthemintobeing."SomeoneaskedMuhammadibnalFadl,Godbecompassionatetohim,abouttheorientationofthedesireofthemystics,andhereplied,"Theirdesireisorientedtothequalityinwhichallthecomelyattributesculminateandthroughwhoselossallrepulsivequalitiesarerepugnant,andthatqualityisintegrity."

SomeoneaskedYahyaibnMuladh,26Godbecompassionatetohim,todescribethemystic,andhereplied,"Whoeverjoinsthemleavesthem.i"Anothertimesomeoneaskedhimtodescribeoneendowedwithexperientialknowledge,andheanswered,"Agodservantwhowashereandthendeparted."

SomeoneaskedAbu`l-Husaynan-NUri,28Godbecompassionatetohim,"HowisitthatintellectscannotreachAllah,whileAllahcanbeknownonlythroughtheintellect?"Hereplied,"Howcanabeingwithtemporallimits

comprehendonewhohasnosuchlimits?Howcanabeingbesetwithfrailtiescomprehendonewhohasnoweaknessorinfirmity?Orhowcanonewhosebeingisconditionalknowtheonewhohasfashionedconditionalityitself?Orhowcanonewhosebeingpresumesa`where'knowtheonewhohasgiven`where'aplaceandnamedit`where'?Inthesameway,Godhasmadethefirstfirstandthelastlastandnamedthem`first'and`last.'HadHenotmadethefirstfirstandthelastlast,therewouldbenowayofknowing`firstness'and'lastness."'Thenhesaid,"Andwhatreallyisbegininglessnesswithoutendlessness?Thereisnoboundarybetweenthetwo,justasfirstnessislastnessandlastnessfirstness.Likewise,outwardnessandhiddenness,exceptthatGodattimescausesyoutoexperiencedisconnectednessandattimesintenseconcentration,inordertorenewthejoy[38]andthevisionofservanthood.ForthepersonwhoknowsGodintimatelyincreationdoesnotknowHimthroughdirectencounter.ThatisbecausethecreationisthefullexpressionofGod'ssayingBe!,'whereasadirectencounterwouldmanifestaforbiddensacrednessnottobetrifledwith."

Isaythathisexpression"directencounter"referstotheheart'sunmediatedexperienceofcertitudeandwitnessingoftherealitiesoffaithintherealmofmystery.Theshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim,said:Themeaningofwhatheisreferringto-andonlyGodMostHighreallyknows-isthatAllahMostHighisneithertime-boundnorchangeable.WhatGodwasiswhatGodis,whatGodsaidiswhatGodsays.FromGod'sperspectivethenearestislikethefarthestandthefarthestlikethenearest.Humanbeings,however,canattainexperientialknowledgeonlyashumanbeings.Thevicissitudesofnearnessanddistance,ofdispleasureandcontentment,arehumancharacteristicsthatarenotamongGodMostHigh'sattributes.AndAllahknowsbest.

Ahmadibn'Ata',Godbecompassionatetohim,saidinoneofhiscommentsonthemeaningofma'rifa-somealsoattributethecommenttoAbuBakrMuhammadal-Wasiti,29Godbecompassionatetohim,butitismoreaccuratelyattributedtoIbn'Ata'-"ThingsthatappearrepugnantdosobyreasonofGod'shiddenness,andthosethatseembeautifuldosobecauseofHisdivinemanifestation.Thesearetwocharacteristicsthatwillcontinuewithoutendjustastheyexistedwithoutbeginning,forthetwocharacteristicswillbecomeknownbothtothosewhoareacceptedandthosewhoarerejected.TheevidenceofHisdivinemanifestationbecomesapparent,throughitsradiance,tothosewhoareaccepted,justastheevidenceofHishiddennessbecomesapparentthroughits

darknesstothosewhohavebeenrejected.Beyondthat,theyellowhueofanascetic'scomplexionandtheshortenedsleevesanddonningthearmoroftheSufihabitandthepatchedfrockareofnouse."

Isay:ThemeaningofwhatIbn'Ata'hassaidisclosetotheobservationofAbuSulayman'Abdar-Rahmaninwhichhesays,"ItisnotwithinthecapabilityofhumanbeingseithertoannoyortopleaseGodwiththeiractions.Onthecontrary,GodispleasedwithsomepeoplesothatHeinspiresthemtoperformthedeedsthatresultinspiritualcontentment,whileHeisdispleasedwithotherfolksothatHecausesthemtoperformthedeedsthatareassociatedwiththedivineanger."ThemeaningofIbn'Ata"ssaying,"ThingsthatappearrepugnantdosobyreasonofGod'shiddenness,"isthatGodremainsalooffromthosethings.Thesaying"thosethingsthatseembeautifuldosobecauseofHisdivinemanifestation"meansthatGodbecomespresenttothosethings[391andapprovesofthem.AnillustrationofthathascometousintheHadithaccordingtowhich"God'sMessengercameoutholdingtwobooks,oneinhisrighthandandoneinhisleft,andsaid,`ThisisthebookofthepeopledestinedforParadise,withtheirnamesandthenamesoftheirancestors,andthisisthebookofthepeopledestinedforhellfire,withtheirnamesandthenamesoftheirancestors."'

AbuBakral-Wasiti,Godbecompassionatetohim,said,"WhenGodmakesHimselfintimatelyknowntoHiselectones,theirsenseofselfisobliteratedfromtheirego-souls.Consequently,theyhavenoexperienceofalienationresultingfromproofsoftheFirstOne'sgrantingthemthesignsofprosperity.Itislikethatforeveryonetowhommeaningisgivenafterthefact."Whatthatmeans-andAllahismostknowledgeable-isthatonewhoexperiencesthefirstness,accordingtowhichheknowsintimatelywhattheobjectofhisworshiphasimpartedexperientiallytohim,experiencestherebyneitherlonelinessinhisknowledgeofwhatisotherthanGodnoranintimatebondwithHim.

Chapter 17: [39] On the qualities of one endowed with experientialknowledgeandwhattheSufishavesaidonthissubject

YahyaibnM&adhar-Razi,Godbecompassionatetohim,said,"Aslongasthegodservantseeksexperientialknowledge,Godwillsay,`Choosenothinganddonotinvestyourselfinyourfreedomofchoiceuntilyouhaveachievedexperientialknowledge.'Onceoneknowsexperientiallyandhasbecomea

mystic,thenGodwillsaytohim,`Chooseordonotchoose,asyouwish,forifyouchoose,youwilldosothroughOurfreedomofchoice,andifyouabandonchoosing,youwillhaveabandoneditthroughOurfreedomofchoice.Whetherinchoosingorintheabandonmentofchoice,youexistthroughUs."'YahyaibnMuladhlikewisesaid,"Thisworldisabride,andwhoeverseeksherisherhandmaid.Buttheonewhorejectsherthroughrenunciationblackensherfaceandpullsoutherhairandtearsherclothing.However,theonewhoknowsGodexperientiallyiscompletelypreoccupiedwiththeMasterandpaysnoattentiontoher."Hesaidfurther,"Whenthemysticabandonstheetiquetteassociatedwithhisexperientialknowledge,heperishesamongthosewhoareperishing."AndDhu`n-Nun,Godbecompassionatetohim,said,"Thesignsofthemysticarethree:Thelightofhismwrifadoesnotextinguishthelightofhispiety;hedoesnotclingtoinwardknowledgethatanoutwarddutynullifies;andtheabundanceofGodMostHigh'sgracesandGod'slargessedonotinducetheindividualtorend[40]theveilsofwhatGodMostHighhasforbidden."

Oneofthemysticshassaid,"Apersonwhodescribesexperientialknowledgeaccordingtothechildrenofthenextworldisnottrulyendowedwithexperientialknowledge;howthencouldonewhoactsinaccordwiththechildrenofthisworldbeendowedwithexperientialknowledge?"Healsosaid,"IfthemysticturnsfromhisaccustomedwaytowardcreatureswithoutGod'spermission,thatpersonwillbeabandonedamongGod'screatures."Andhesaid,"HowcanyouknowGodintimatelywhenaweofHimdoesnotruleyourheart?AndhowcanyoubemindfulofGodandloveHimwithoutexperiencingHisgraciousnessinyourheart,heedlessofwhatHehadinmindforyoubeforeHecreatedyou?"IhaveheardMuhammadibnAhmadibnHamdenal-Farra'(d.370/980-81)say,"Iheard'AbdarRahmanal-Farisisayinresponsetoaquestion,thatexperientialknowledgereachedperfection`whenmultiplicitybecomesunity,andwhenthe(various)spiritualstatesandrestingplacesareequalized,andwhentheappearanceofdistinctivenesshasvanished."'AndAbuNasr(as-Sarraj)said:Thatmeansthatthegodservant'smysticalmomentisbutasinglehomogeneousinstant,andthatinallhisspiritualstatesthegodservantisinGodandofGodandremovedfromwhatisnotGod.Whenthatoccurs,thisishisspiritualstate.

Chapter18:[40]Concerningthequestion"HowdidyoucometoknowGodintimately?"andthedifferencebetweenthebelieverandoneendowedwith

experientialknowledge

SomeoneaskedAbu`1-Husaynan-Non,Godbecompassionatetohim,"HowdidyoucometoknowGodMostHighintimately?"Hereplied,"ThroughGod."Someoneasked,"Sowhathasthattodowiththeintellect?"Hereplied,"Theintellectispowerlessinthatitcanshowthewayonlytowhatispowerlesslikeitself.WhenGodcreatedtheintellect,Heaskedit`WhoamI?'butintellectwassilent.SoGoddaubeditseyeswiththekohlofthelightofdivineoneness.Thentheintellectsaid,`YouareGod!'SoitisthattheintellectcannotknowGodintimatelyexceptthroughGod."Someoneasked(Abu`l-Husayn)whatwasthefirstreligiousdutyAllahMostHighrequiredofHisservants,sohereplied,"Ma`rifa,aswhenGodsaid`IhavecreatedthejinnsandhumanbeingsonlythattheymightworshipMe"'(51:56).Ibn~Abbas,31Godbecompassionatetohim,however,readthetextas"thattheymightknowMeintimately."Someoneaskedoneofthemystics,"Whatisma'rifa?"andhereplied,"Theheart'sverificationofthedivineonenessthroughallthedivineattributesandnames,affirmingthatGodisuniquelycharacterizedbymight,power,authority,andmagnificenceastheliving,[41]theeternal,`towhomnoneisequal,andHeistheall-hearingandall-seeing'(42:11),`withoutaskingwithoutlikenessorequal,withnoneparallelinoriginorstatus,banishingfromheartsallthoughtofcompetitorsandpeersandsecondarycauses."33Someonealsosaid,"Therootofexperientialknowledgeisagift.Ma`rifaisafire,whilefaithisalight;experientialknowledgeisathingdiscoveredasaresultofquest,whilefaithissomethinggrantedapartfromeffort."

ThedistinctionbetweenthebelieverandtheoneendowedwithexperientialknowledgeisthatthebelieverseeswiththelightofGod,whiletheonewhoknowsexperientiallyseesdirectlythroughAllah,glorifiedandexalted.Whereasthebelieverpossessesaheart,themysticdoesnot.Thebeliever'sheartarrivesatpeacethroughtherecollectionofGod,whilethemysticfindsnopeaceinanythingotherthanGod.Therearethreetypesofexperientialknowledge:theexperientialknowledgeofaffirmation,thatofultimatespiritualreality,andthatofcontemplation.Andtheexperientialknowledgeofcontemplationencompassesprofoundcomprehension,knowledge,articulation,andspeech.Manyaretheindicationsandwaysofdescribingma'rifa,butinbrevitythereissufficiencyandevenabundantwealthforthepersonwhoseeksdemonstrationandguidance.AndinGodissuccess.ItisreportedthatHasanibn'Aliibn

Hannuyaad-DamaghanisaidthatsomeoneaskedAbuBakraz-Zahirabadiaboutexperientialknowledge.Hereplied,"Ma`rifaisatermthatreferstothepresenceintheheartofanacknowledgmentofdivinesublimitythatpreventsyoufromeitherimaginingGodinhumanformordenyingGod's

Inthenextthirty-threebriefchaptersSarrajlaysoutvariousaspectsofadvancedspiritualdevelopment.Theseinclude,mostimportantly,hisanalysisofthevariousstationsandstates.HemovesthereaftertoadescriptionofhowtheSufisbasetheirapproachonthefundamentals.First,SarrajanalyzesSufihermeneuticsoftheQur'an;nexthedevotesfourchapterstotheirwayofinterpretingthelifeandmeaningoftheProphetMuhammadandofembodyingthepropheticvaluesintheirlives.InthetwochaptersbelowSarrajreturnstoadiscussionofhowthe"deeperinterpretations"(mustanbatat)oftheSufisrepresentadistinctive,credible,andreligiouslyauthenticdevelopmentinmysticalepistemology.

Chapter 51: [105] On how the elect derive sound deep interpretations inunderstandingtheQur'anandHadithandothersources,andtheirmethodsofexegesis

Theshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim,said,inresponsetothequestionofthemeaningof"deepinterpretations,"that"deepinterpretations"referstowhatthespecialistsamongthosewhoapproachultimaterealityderiveinaccordwithbothapparentandhiddenmeaningsoftheBookofGod,glorifiedandexalted,andwithboththeapparentandhiddenaspectsofemulatingGod'sMessenger,andthecorrespondingdeedsbothoutwardandinward.When,therefore,theyactaccordingtowhattheyknowofthesematters,GodMostHigh"bequeathstothemknowledgeofwhattheyhadnotpreviouslyknown."ThatistheknowledgeofmysticalallusionandtheknowledgeofthelegaciesofactionthatGodMostHighrevealstotheheartsofpeopleofintegrity.Thatknowledgeembracesdeeplyhiddenmeanings,subtleties,andmysteriesstoredawayforsafekeeping,raritiesofknowledgeandextraordinarywisdominunderstandingtheQur'anandtraditionsofGod'sMessengerfromtheperspectiveoftheirspiritualstates,theirmomentsofpeakspiritualexperience,andthepurityoftheirrecollectedness.AllahMostHighhassaid,"DotheynotstrivetointeriorizetheQur'an,oraretherelocksontheirhearts?"(47:24).TheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"TothosewhoactaccordingtowhattheyknowGodMostHighbequeathsknowledgeofwhattheyhadnotknownbefore."Thatisthe

knowledgeunavailabletotheotherreligiousscholars.Thelocksontheirheartsaretherustthathassettledontheirheartsbecauseofthemultiplicityofsins,pursuingpassionatedesires,loveofthisworld,protractedheedlessness,intensecupidity,loveofcomfort,addictiontoadulationandpraise,alongwithotherformsofinattentiveness,backsliding,intransigence,andfaithlessness.

When,asaresultofsincererepentanceandcompunctionforsin,GodMostHighdrawsbacktheseveilsfromthehearts,thelocksontheheartsopenandsuperabundantbenefitsarrivefromtherealmbeyondordinaryexperience.ThenGodgivesexpressiontoHissuperabundanceofbenefitsthroughHisinterpreter,[106]thetonguethatspeaksofthemarvelsofwisdomandawondrousknowledge.Onceithasstrewnitsgems,theaspirants,pursuers,andseekersgatherthesegemswithearsattentiveandheartsintentlypresent.Thustheyliveon,profitingfromthatandexperiencingnewlife.

Allah,glorifiedandexalted,said,"DotheynotseektointeriorizetheQur'an?HaditcomefromanybutGodtheywouldhavefoundinitcopiouscontradictions"(4:82).Godisindicatingthat,intheirinteriorizingoftheQur'an,theyarriveatdeepinterpretations.ButhadtheQur'ancomefromotherthanGod,theywoulddiscovernumerousconflictingstatements.ThenGodsaidinthenextverse,"Andwhenamatterofsecurityorfearcomestotheirattention,theypublicizeit.IfonlytheyhadreferredittotheMessengerandtothoseinauthorityamongthem,thoseamongthemwhoseekdeepermeaningswouldhavecomprehendedit"(4:83).Godisreferringheretothepeopleofknowledge,andtheexpression"thoseinauthority"heremeans"thoseendowedwith`ilm."HereGodisclarifyingaprecisedistinctionbetweenthegeneralityofthoseendowedwithknowledgeandthoseendowedwithknowledgewhoarriveatdeeperinterpretation.

ProphetictraditionincludesareportthatamancametotheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,andsaid,"MessengerofGod,teachmeofthewondersofknowledge."Sohereplied,"Whathaveyoulearnedofthefundamentalsofknowledge?Masterthebeginningsoflearning,thencomebacksothatIcanteachyouthewondersofknowledge"-ashehassaidelsewhereaswell.

Thejuristsandreligiousscholarsofimportantcitiesineverytimehaverenderedwell-knowndeeperinterpretationsoftheversesoftheQur'anand

familiarprophetictraditions.Theseinterpretationsarereadytobeadvancedinsupportofquestionstobedebatedamongthosescholars.OneofthemreferredtothisHadith,inwhichtheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"Actionspresupposeintentions,andeverypersonisresponsibleforwhatheintends.Whoevermigrates35towardGodandHisMessenger,"astheHadithrecords,"willenterthroughthreeofthegatesofknowledge."Andthiscomestopassonlyonthepathofdeeperinterpretation.Similarly,alltherationalargumentsoftheproponentsofspeculativetheologyaredeeperinterpretations.Thoseinvolvedinthatfieldconsiderallofthatgoodandacceptable,sinceitspurposeisvictoryforthetruthanddefeatofthefalse.Betterstillthanthat,however,arethedeeperinterpretationsthatthepeopleofknowledgebaseonknowledge,onexperienceofultimatereality,sincerityintheconductofspiritualcombat,asceticalpractice,andpiousdeeds.ThesearepeoplewhoseektobeneartoGodMostHighthroughallmannerofsurrender,thepeopleofultimatetruths.

Chapter 52: [107] On the reason for differences of opinion among thepeople of ultimate reality concerning the deeper interpretations of themeaningsoftheirdisciplinesandtheirspiritualstates

Saidtheshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim:Knowthis-andmayAllahconfirmyourunderstandingandremoveself-deceptionfromyou:Thosewhoexperiencespiritualstatesandthemastersofheartsarealsoendowedwithdeeperinterpretationsofthemeaningsoftheirspiritualstates,theirdisciplines,andtheirspiritualrealities.Theyhavedevelopeddeeperinterpretationsofthesubtle,hiddenmeaningsofthetextoftheQur'anandthetextoftheprophetictraditions,therebydisclosingfreshwisdomandhiddensecrets.Iwilldiscusssomefewaspectsofthat,GodMostHighwilling.Inaddition,theydifferintheirdeeperinterpretationsmuchastheexotericistsdo.However,thevariantviewsoftheexotericistsleadtoerroneousandmisleadingconclusions,whereasdifferenceofopinioninthescienceofinnerrealitiesdoesnot,foritisconcernedwithvirtues,excellentqualities,nobility,spiritualstates,moralconduct,andspiritualstationsandlevels.

Ithasbeensaidthatthebreadthofopinionofthereligiousscholarsisa[mercy.Thismeansthatdifferenceofviewsamongthereligiousscholars]inthescienceofoutwardmattersisamercyfromGodMostHigh.Fortheonewhoiscorrectcontradictsonewhoisinerroranddemonstratestothepeopletheerror

oftheonewhodisagrees,pointingoutthatperson'sdisagreementwiththeonewhosereligiousviewsarecorrect,sothattheymightkeeptheirdistancefromtheoneinerror.Ifthatwerenotthecase,thepeoplewouldperishastheirreligiondisappeared.ButthevarietyofviewsamongthepeopleofspiritualrealitiesislikewiseamercyfromGodMostHigh.Eachofthemspeaksfromtheperspectiveofanindividualspiritualmoment,respondsonthebasisofhisspiritualstate,andmakesallusionsinviewofhismysticalexperience.Whattheysay,therefore,isusefultoeveryoneofthepeopleofpiousdeeds,possessorsofhearts,seekersandmystics,andthatappliesaswellaccordingtotheirrespectivedifferences,individuality,andlevelsofspiritualattainment.

WhatisrecountedaboutDhu`n-Nun,Godbecompassionatetohim,willexplainwhatIhavesaid.Someoneaskedhimabouttheonewhotrulyembracesspiritualpoverty,sohereplied,["Thatistheonewhodoesnotfeelcomfortableinanythingbuttowhom(108)everythingfeelscomfortable."SomeoneaskedAbu'AbdAllahal-Maghribi(d.c.299/911-12)abouttheauthenticspirituallypoorindividual,]andheresponded,"Thetruespirituallypoorpersonisonewhoownsallthingsandisownedbynone."SomeoneaskedAbu`l-Harithal-Awlasi(d.297/909-10)thesamequestion,soheanswered,"Thatisanindividualwhoisintimatewithnothingbuttowhomallthingsarefamiliar."AndYUsufibnal-Husayn36answeredthequestionbysaying,"onewhoattendsseriouslytohisownspiritualmoment,butifduringthatmomentheshouldcastaglanceatasecondmoment,doesnotconsiderhimselfworthyofthenamepoorperson."HusaynibnMansur(al-Hallaj),Godbecompassionatetohim,respondedtothequestionbyreferringto"Onewhodoesnotchoosethecircumstancesofhislifewithaviewtosecuringhisowncontentment."Inresponsetoaninquiryaboutthetruepoorperson,Nun,Godbecompassionatetohim,said,"ThetruepoorpersonisonewhoisnotsuspiciousofGodMostHighasaresultofpersonalcircumstancesandwhogiveshimselfovertoGodineveryspiritualstate."Samnun,37Godbecompassionatetohim,answeredthatthetruepoorperson"isonewhofeelscomfortablewithwhathelacksasanignorantpersoniscomfortablewithwhathehas,andisdistressedoverwhathehasthewayanignorantpersonisdistressedoverwhathelacks."AbuHafsan-Naysaburi's,38Godbecompassionatetohim,[answerwas,"onewhoremainswithinthejudgmentofeachinstant,andwhendistractionovercomeshimandtakeshimawayfromthejudgmentofhisspiritualmoment,hefindsitdistasteful."Junayd,Godbecompassionatetohim,saidthetruepoorperson]is"onewhoissatisfied

withnothingbutinwhomallthingsaresatisfied."LikewisesomeoneaskedMurtalishan-Naysaburi(d.328/939),andheanswered,"Onewhomlicedevourandwhohasn'tsomuchasapegwithwhichtoscratchhimself."

Theseindividualsdifferedintheirresponsesmuchastheydidintheirpersonalspiritualmomentsandstates,andthatisallgood.Foreveryansweroftheirs,therearepeoplewhofindtheirresponsesfitting.Thoseanswersareabenefit,agrace,andanenrichmentandamercyforthem.

AtthisjunctureSarrajapplieswhathehasjustsaidabout"deeperinterpretations"todistinctivelySufireadingsoftheQur'anandSunna.Next,hedevelopsseveraldozenbriefpraxis-orientedchaptersthatdescribehowtheSufisputintoactiontheirinterpretationsoftherevelatorysources,aswellastheiremulationofMuhammad'sCompanions.Finally,beforemovingtowardanexpositionofastilldeeperlevelofSufithoughtasexpressedinarcaneandproblematicalsayings,SarrajreturnstoakeyaspectofSufiepistemology.

Chapter122:[377]Ontheinterpretationofthevariousdisciplinesandtheproblematical aspect of the "special disciplines" as religious scholarsunderstand them, and an affirmationofmystical knowledge supported byproof

Saidtheshaykh,Godbecompassionatetohim:Knowthat`ilmoutstripsthecomprehensionofthosewhoseektounderstandandtheintellectualcapacityofthosewhoapplytheirintellects.SufficientforyouisthestoryofMosesandKhidr,givenMoses'greatstatureandGod'ssinglinghimoutforconversation,39prophethood,propheticinspiration,andcommissionasdivinemessenger.40GodMostHighhasreferred,inthecleartextenunciatedbythetongueofHisveraciousprophetMuhammad,totheinabilityofMosestocomprehendtheknowledgeofoneofHisservants(thatis,Khidr),whentheMostHighsaid,"oneofOurservantstowhomWehadgivenmercyfromOurselves"andsoon(18:65),sothatMosesinquiredoftheservantsaying,"ShallIfollowyou?"andsoon(18:66).41ThestoryillustratesGod'sconfirmationofMosesandhiseminenceandprotectionagainstrejectionbyKhidr,thoughKhidrnevermeasureduptoMoses'statureasprophet,messenger,andGod'sconversant.

TheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,said,"IfyouknewwhatI

know,youwouldlaughlittleandweepmuch.Youwouldnottakepleasureinwomenordallyonyourcouches.YouwouldgooutintothebywaysandprayferventlytoGodMostHigh.ByGod,IwishIwereatreethathadbeenfelled!""ThiswasnarratedbyIsra'ilfromIbrahimibnMujahirfromMujahidfromMuwarrig4;fromAbuDharrA4fromtheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim.InthisaccountisanindicationofthemeaningofGod'ssaying,"0[3781Messenger,communicatewhathasbeensentdowntoyoufromyourLord"(5:67).Hedidnotsay,communicatethatofwhichWehavegivenyouintimateknowledge.AndiftheProphet'ssaying,"IfyouknewwhatIknow,"hadreferredtosomeoftheknowledgehehadbeencommandedtocommunicate,hewouldhavecommunicatedit.Haditbeenintheirbestinteresttoknowit,hewouldhavetaught

GodMostHighhassingledouttheProphet,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,forthreetypesof`ilm:First,aknowledgeevidenttotheelectandthegeneralpublicalike,thatis,theknowledgeoflegalstipulations,thecommandandtheprohibition.Second,aknowledgereservedforagroupoftheCompanionsexclusively,andthatistheknowledgeHudhayfaibnal-Yaman,Godbepleasedwithhim,possessed,sothat`Umaribnal-Khattab,46Godbepleasedwithhim,askedhim,"AmIamongthehypocrites?"Inthatveinalsoitisreportedthat,AliibnAbiTalib,Godbepleasedwithhim,said,"TheMessengerofGod,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,instructedmeinsevenchaptersofknowledgethatnonebutmehascometoknow."AndwheneveroneoftheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerhadaproblemwithsomething,hewouldhaverecourseto'AliibnAbiTalib,Godbepleasedwithhim,aboutthat.Third,aknowledgereservedforGod'sMessenger,God'sblessingsandpeaceuponhim,inwhichnoneofhisCompanionsshared,andthatistheknowledgeofwhichheremarked,"IfyouknewwhatIknow."ForthatreasonIhavesaidnooneshouldthinkthathepossessesalltypesofknowledge,sothatheismistakeninhisopinionofwhattheelectsay,proclaimingthemunbelieversandheretics.Hehimself,meanwhile,isentirelylackinginexperienceoftheirspiritualstatesanddirectcontactwiththeirspiritualrealitiesanddeeds.

TherearefourpartstothedisciplinesofdivinelyRevealedLaw.Thefirstpartistheknowledgeoftransmittingandtraditionsandpropheticnarratives.Thatistheknowledgehandeddownfromtrustworthypersontotrustworthyperson.Thesecondpartisthesystematicknowledgethatconstitutesthedisciplineof

jurisprudenceandlegalregulations,theknowledgesharedbyreligiousscholarsandjurists.Thethirdpartisthescienceofanalogicalreasoning,speculativethinking,andargumentationwithopponents.Thisistheknowledgeofdialecticandestablishingproofagainstinnovatorsandthoseinerror,insupportofthereligion.Thefourthpartisthehighestandmostnobleofthem,anditisthescienceofspiritualrealitiesandexperiencesandtheknowledgeofpiousdeeds.Thisincludesspiritualcombat,sincerityinobedience,andturningone'sfacetowardGodfromeveryquarter,[379]completeattachmenttoHimineachinstant,genuinenessofintentionsanddesires,purityofinnermostthoughtsfromcorruption,relianceontheall-sufficiencyoftheMakeroftheheavens,thedeathofthesoulasaresultofviolations,sincerityinexperiencingthespiritualstatesandstations,properdemeanorinsolitudebeforeGodbothinteriorlyandinexternalmatters,contentmentwithmeresufficiencywhenneedisoverwhelming,leavingthisworldasideandabandoningwhatitoffersinquestofhigherlevelsandofattainingwondrousbenefits.

Onewhoisinerrorconcerningthedisciplineoftransmissionoftraditionwouldnotinquireofaspecialistinthesystematicdisciplineofjurisprudenceabouthisfailing.Someonewhoismistakenaboutamatterofthetechnicaldisciplineofjurisprudencewouldnotinquireofaspecialistinthedisciplineoftransmissionoftraditionabouthislackofknowledge.Norwouldapersonwholacksknowledgeaboutanissueinthescienceofanalogicalreasoningandspeculativethinkinginquireofaspecialistinthedisciplinesoftraditionorsystematicjurisprudenceabouthisdeficiency.Inasimilarvein,onewholacksknowledgeofsomeaspectofthedisciplineofmysticalrealitiesandspiritualstateswouldinquireonlyofapersonknowledgeableinthosethings,onewhoseunderstandingofthemwascomplete.Itispossiblealsothatonemightencounterallthesedisciplinesamongspecialistsinmysticalrealities.Itisnotpossible,however,tofindknowledgeofmysticalrealitiesamongtheotherspecialistsexceptasGodwills,becauseknowledgeofmysticalrealitiesisthefruitofallthedisciplinesandtheultimateendofthesumtotalofthedisciplines.

Thefinalobjectiveofallthedisciplinesisknowledgeofmysticalrealities.Whensomeoneendsupthere,thatpersonfallsintoalimitlessoceanthatisthescienceofhearts,thescienceofexperientialknowledge,thescienceofmysteries,thescienceoftheinward,thescienceofSufism,thescienceofspiritualstates,andthescienceofpiousdeeds.Whateveraspectyouchoose,its

meaningisbutone.GodMostHighsaid,"Proclaim:IftheoceanwereinktowritethewordsofmyLord,theoceanwouldrunoutbeforethewordsofmyLord,evenifWeprovidedanotherlikeit"(18:109).

Doyounotseethatthesepeopledonotdisavowanyaspectoftheotherbranchesofknowledge,whereasthepractitionersoftheotherdisciplinesdevaluethedisciplinesoftheSufis,exceptasGodwills?Wheneveranyoftheseotherspecialistspenetratesdeeplyintohisbranchofknowledge,sothathebecomesamasterinunderstandingit,heistheleaderofhiscompanions.Theywillinevitablyhaverecoursetohimwithwhateverpuzzlesthem.Butwhenthesefourpartsofknowledgecometogetherinone[380]person,thenheisthecompleteimam,theaxis,theproof,andtheonewhosummonstothepathandthepilgrim'sgoal.Thusithasbeenreportedthat'AliibnAbiTalib,Godbecompassionatetohim,saidinaconversationhehadwithKumaylibnZiyad(d.c.82/701),"0God,theearthwillneverlackindividualswhostandfirmfortheproofsofGod,lestHissignsberenderedfalseandHisauthorityrefuted.ThesearethefewestinnumberbutofthegreateststatureinGod'seyes."47

Ihavecomefullcircletothemeaningoftheparadoxicalsaying48andtheinterpretationoftheparadoxicalsayings.Ecstaticutteranceistheleastofwhatonediscoversamongtheperfectedones.Thatisbecausethesepeoplearefirmlygroundedintheirspiritualperceptions,foronlythatpersonpenetratesthetheopathicutterancewhoisatabeginningandwhosedesireistoarriveatperfectionandthefinaldestination.Hisbeginningis,therefore,theendingofdesires,andthat,inturn,isinessencethebeginningofthegoalandtheperfectionandthecompletion.AndAllahknowsbestwhatiscorrect.49

First,Kalabadhisummarizesthecriticalaspectsofwhathetakestobethemostwidelyheldopinionsaboutthesubjectingeneral.ThenhefollowsupimmediatelywithaprecisofwaysinwhichmajorSufisdisagreedonthegeneralmeaningofma`rifa.FortychapterslaterKalabadhireturnstothetopic,nowfocusingingreaterdetailoncertainmorerefinedcharacteristicsofexperientialknowledgeandthemarksofindividualsendowedwithma`rifa.'

Chapter21:Their(theSufis')teachingonexperientialknowledgeofGod

[78]TheyareunitedintheviewthatGodaloneistheguidetoGod,andthattheroleoftheintellectistoprovideapathfortheintelligentpersoninneedofaguide.Sincetheintellectiscreatedintime,itcanprovideguidanceonlytoothertemporalrealities.Amanasked(Abu`l-Husayn)Nuri,"WhatistheguidetoGod?"Hereplied,"God."Themanthenasked,"Thenwhatabouttheintellect?"[79]Nurireplied,"Theintellectislimited,andthatwhichissubjecttolimitationcanleadonlytootherlimitedthings."Ibn'Ata'said,"TheintellectisameanstoservingGod,notforarrogatinglordlinesstooneself."Someoneelsesaid,"Theintellectenjoysfreerunofcreation,butwhenitgetsaglimpseoftheCreator,itmelts."AbuBakral-Qahtabisaid,"Whatintellectsmanagetomasterisundertheirsway,exceptwithrespecttothefundamentalevidence;'forifGodhadnotgraciouslydisclosedHimselftothem,intellectswouldneverhavenoticedthefundamentalevidenceinthefirstplace."SourcespassontousthewordsofaneminentSufi(Hallaj):

AneminentSufihassaid,"OnlytheindividualtowhomHehasdisclosedHimselfhasexperientialknowledgeofGod.OnlythepersontowhomHehasproclaimedHistranscendentunitycanaffirmthattranscendence.OnlytheonetowhomGodhasbeengraciouscanbelieveinHim.OnlythepersonwhohasexperiencedaninteriormanifestationofGodcandescribeGod.OnlytheindividualwhomGoddrawstoHimselfarrivesinGod'spresence.AndthatpersonalonewhomGodhasboundtoHimselfcanbeutterlydevotedtoGod."Thephrase"towhomHehasdisclosedHimself"means"towhomGodhasdisclosedHimself,"andthephrase"towhomHehasproclaimedHisunity"means"towhomGodhasshownthatHeisone."

Junaydsaid,"Ma`rifaisoftwokinds:thema'rifabornofselfdisclosureandthemacrifabasedoninstruction."'Experientialknowledgebornof(God's)self-disclosuremeansthatGodmakesHimselfknowntoindividualsandthroughthisgivestheminsightintothings,asAbrahamsaid,"Ilovenotthings(e.g.,heavenlyluminaries)thatset"(6:76)."Instruction"meansthatGodshowsindividualsthetracesofHispower"onthehorizonsandwithinthemselves"(41:53;seealso51:20-21),andtheninstillsagraceinthemwherebycreatedthingsdemonstratetothemthatthereisaCreator.4Thislatterexperientialknowledgeisthecommonheritageofbelievers,whereastheformeristhatofthefew,fornopersontrulyknowsGodexperientiallyexceptthroughGod'sdirectagency.

InthisconnectionMuhammadibnWasi"said,"IhaveneverseenanythingwithoutseeingGodinit."[80]Someoneelsesaid,"NeverhaveIseenanythingwithoutseeingGodbeforeit."Ibn,Ata'said,"GodhasdisclosedHimselftothegeneralityofpeoplethroughHiscreation,asHiswordsuggests,`Dotheynotobservehowthecamelisfashioned?"'(88:17).6Tothechosenfew,ontheotherhand,GodhasdisclosedHimselfthroughHisspeechandattributes,aswhenHesaid,"DotheynotreflectontheQur'an?"(4:82),and"AndWewillsenddownhealingandmercyforthebelieversfromtheQur'an"(17:82),and"itistoGodthattheMostBeautifulNamesrefer"(7:180).AndtotheprophetsGodhasdisclosedHimselfthroughHisverySelf,asHehassaid,"ThushaveWerevealedtoyouaspiritatOurcommand"(42:52),and"HaveyounotnoticedhowyourLordlengthenstheshadow?"(25:45)."Oneofthegreatestofthemystics(Hallaj)hassaid:

Oneofthegreatoneshassaid,"GoddisclosesHimselftousthroughHimself,andhaspointedustowardexperientialknowledgeofHimthroughHimself.Asaresult,testifyingtoexperientialknowledgearisesfromexperientialknowledgeaftertheOnewhodisclosesHimselfbestowsexperientialknowledgeonanindividual."ThatmeansthatthereisnocauseofexperientialknowledgeotherthanGod'sself-disclosuretothemysticsothatheexperiencesGodintimatelybymeansofthatdisclosure.Oneoftheleadingshaykhshassaid,"Theintellectiscapableofgraspingthemanifestationofcreatedthingsassuchbyapproachingthatevidencedirectly.God,ontheotherhand,transcendstheintellect'sdirectapproachandhasHimselfinfusedinustheawarenessthatHeisourLord,inthatHeasked,`AmInotyourLord?'(7:172).Hedidnotask,whenfirstHepresentedHimselfastheInfuserofKnowledge,`WhoamI?'-aquestionthatwouldhavegivenhumanintellectsoccasiontoapproachHimdirectly.Godis,therefore,separatefromintellects,transcendsapprehension,andisbeyondintellectualverification."

TheyagreethatonlyoneendowedwithintellectcanknowGod,sincetheintellectisthemeansbywhichthegodservantpossesseswhateverknowledgeofGodhehas,eventhoughonecannotarriveatknowledgeofGodonone'sown.AbuBakras-Sabbaksaid,"WhenGodcreatedtheintellect,Heaskedit,`WhoamITButtheintellectremainedsilent,soGoddaubeditseyeswiththekohlofthelightofdivineoneness,sothatitopeneditseyesandsaid,`YouareGodandthereisnodeitybutYou."'Inotherwords,theintellectwasincapableofknowingGodexperientiallyexceptwiththehelpofGod.

Chapter22:Their(theSufis')disagreementaboutma`rifa

Theyholddiverseviewsconcerningthenatureofma'rifaanditsrelationshipto`ilm.Junaydsaid,"Ma`rifameansawarenessofyourignorancewhenGod's`ilmarrives."Someonerequested,"Expandthisforusfurther,"sohereplied,"Godisboththesourceandgoalofexperientialknowledge."8Inotherwords,oneisignorantofGodsolongasoneregardsoneselfasadistinctentityandknowsHimexperientiallyonlywhenoneacknowledgesHimasallthatexists."OrasSahl(at-Tustari)9putit,"Ma`rifaistheintimateawarenessofone'signorance."[82]Sahlsaidfurther,"'Jimisconfirmedbyma'rifa,andtheintellectrestson`ilm,whereasma'rifaratifiesitself."WhatthismeansisthatwhenGodinfusesinagodservantthema'rifaofGod,sothattheindividualbecomesawareofGodthroughGod'sself-disclosure,Godsubsequentlymakes`ilmpossiblein

theindividual.Inotherwords,theindividualarrivesat`ilmbymeansofma'rifa,andtheintellectprocessesthe`ilmthatGodhasbroughtintobeinginit.

AnotherSufihassaid,"InvestigationoftheoutwardmeaningsofthingsyieldsWm,whileinvestigationoftheirinwardmeaningsbymeansofrevelatorydisclosureyieldsmarifa."Yetanotherhassaid,"GodhasmadeWmavailabletothegeneralityofpeoplebuthasreservedmarifaforHisFriends."Onthecontrary,accordingtoAbuBakral-Warraq,10"Marifameanscognitionoftheoutwardformsandnamesofthings,whereasWmreferstoknowledgeoftheinnerrealitiesofthings."AbuSaidal-Kharrazsaid,"GenericmarifaofGodistheWmofthesearchforGodpriortoactuallyfindingHim,whilethespecificWmofGodcomesafteronehasfoundHim.Therefore,thespecificWmofGodismorehiddenandrefinedthanthegenericmarifaofGod."(Abu`1-Qasim)Faris(d.after340/951),ontheotherhand,said,"Marifaistotalabsorptioninthebeingoftheoneknown."Someoneelsehassaid,"MarifameansholdingincontemptallassessmentsbutGod'sandacknowledgingnovaluesystembutGod's."

SomeoneaskedDhu`n-Nun,"HowdidyouattainexperientialknowledgeofyourLord?"Hereplied,"Wheneverthethoughtofdisobediencecrossedmymind,followedbythethoughtofGod'smajesty,Iexperiencedshameforit."Inotherwords,heinterpretedhisexperienceofthenearnessofGodasaproofofhisexperientialknowledgeofHim.SomeoneaskedUlayydn,"HowisyourrelationshipwiththeMaster?"Hesaidinreply,"IhavenotturnedawayfromHimsinceIattainedexperientialknowledgeofHim."[83]Thequestioneraskedagain,"Howlonghaveyoubeenendowedwithexperientialknowledge?""Sincetheydubbedme`Crazy,"'heresponded.Inotherwords,heinterpretedhisawebeforeGod'smightasanindicationofhisexperientialknowledgeofHim.Sahlsaid,"GlorybetotheOneaboutwhomgodservantscanpossessexperientialknowledgeonlythroughawarenessoftheirinabilitytoattainexperientialknowledgeofHim."

Chapter60:Their(theSufis')viewsonthespiritualrealitiesofma`rifa

[158]Oneoftheshaykhssaid,"Therearetwokindsofintimateawareness:intimateawarenessofdivinetruthandintimateawarenessofultimatespiritualreality.Theintimateawarenessofdivinetruth,ontheonehand,meansaffirmingthepriorityofGod'sonenessabovetheattributesHehasmademanifest.Asfor

theintimateawarenessofultimatespiritualreality,itinvolvesrealizationthatthereisnomethodforattainingsuchanawarenessbecausenomindcancomprehendthedivinetranscendenceorembracefullythedivinesublimity.Godhassaid,`AndtheydonotencompassHimwiththeirknowledge'(20:110).HeisthetranscendentOne,thespiritualrealitiesofwhosecharacteristicsandattributesnoonecangrasp."

OneoftheleadingSufissaid,"Intimateknowledgeinvolvescallingforththeinnermostselfthroughallmannerofreflection.ItispartoftheprocessofassessingtheecstaticexperiencesresultingfrominvokingGodinconnectionwithunfoldingsignsofdivinerevelation."BythathemeansthattheinnermostselfexperiencesthegrandeurofGod,themagnificationofHisreality,andtheglorificationofHispowerinawaythateludesarticulation.SomeoneaskedJunaydaboutintimateknowledge,andheanswered,"Itistheinnermostself'sambivalenceastowhethertoproclaimGodgrandbeyondcomprehensionormajesticbeyondgrasping."Someoneelseaskedthatquestion,andhereplied,"Ma`rifameansknowingthatGodistheoppositeofwhateveryourheartcanpicture.AndhowperplexingitisthatGodsharesnohumanqualitiesandthatnohumanbeinghasanyshareindivinequalities!Forthemysticisabeingwhogoesinandoutofthestateofnonbeing.NomodeofexpressionisadequatetodealwithGod,sincecreatedthingscameafterGod,andwhatcomesintoexistencelaterisincapableofcomprehendingwhatcamebeforeit."[159]Junayd'swords,"themysticisabeingthatgoesinandoutofthestateofnonbeing,"arereferringtotheindividualinthatspiritualstate,forJunaydsaysthattheindividualexiststooutwardappearances,butasforattributesandcharacteristicsheisasgoodasnonexistent.Junaydalsosaid,"Experientialknowledgeistheawareness,throughapassingspiritualimpulse,oftheimplicationsofone'simpendingreturntoGod:Themystichadbestavoidsinsofbothcommissionandomission."Inotherwords,themysticisnotwitnessinghisactualpresentspiritualstate,butratherhasaglimpseofGod'spriorknowledgeofhimandarealizationthathewillreturntothatpriorcondition,awarethatbothinserviceandfailureheisatGod'sbidding.

OneSufisaidofexperientialknowledge,"Whenitdescendsintotheinmostself,theinmostselfisincapableofdealingwithit,muchasthesun'srayspreventonefromperceivingitfromperipherytocenter."Ibnal-Farghani"said,"Onewhounderstandsthemereoutlinesofarealitybecomespuffedup;one

whoperceivesthereality'sstamp12becomesperplexed;onewhoknowswhathasalreadybeenarranged,stopsinhistracks;onewhoattainsexperientialknowledgeofGodremainsatrest;andonewhoknowstheMasterthroughexperientialknowledgehumbleshimself."ThismeansthatapersonwhotestifiestohisownreligiousobservancebeforeGodisfullofhimself;someonewhowitnesseswhatGodhaspreparedforhiminadvanceisstymiedbecausehedoesnotcomprehendwhatGodknowsofhimorwhatthePenhaswrittenabouthim;onewhoisawarethathecannothastenorpostponewhathisallottedportionholdsinstoreforhimisnolongerabletosearchforalternativepossibilities;onewhopossessesexperientialknowledgeofGod'spoweroverhimandsufficiencyforhimisself-possessedandunruffledbyfearsomerealitiesordeficits;andonewhoknowsthroughmwrifathatGodisinchargeofhisaffairsexperienceshumilitybeforeGod'sjudgmentsanddecrees.

Anoutstandingindividualhassaid,"WhenGodgrantsapersonexperientialknowledgeofGodself,Godputsaholdonthatperson'sintuitiveawarenesssothatheexperiencesneitherlovenorfearnorhopenorpovertynorsufficiency,sincethesethingsarenotultimateconcernsandGodtranscendshumangoals."Inotherwords,theindividualisnotawareofthesespiritualstatesfortheyaretheindividual'sownqualities,andhischaracteristicsaresolimitedastofallfarshortofwhatbefitsGod.[160]Oneofthegreatonesissaidtohavecomposedtheselines:

Inotherwords,theindividualissocompletelyoverwhelmedbytheexperienceofGod'sgrandeurandmajestythatyouwouldperceivehim,thoughalive,tobeasifdeadandpassingawayashebecomesawareofwhathenowhas,forhediscovershecanneitherhastennorpostponehisdestiny.

Chapter 62:Their (theSufis')ways of describing the individual endowedwithexperientialknowledge

[162]SomeoneaskedHasanibn'AliibnYazdanyar,13"Whendoesthepersonendowedwithm&rifaexperienceGod?"Heanswered,"Whentherealevidenceismanifest,andthecounterfeitspassaway,andthesenseslosetheirpurchase,andsinceritybecomesirrelevant."Hiswords"realevidenceismanifest"refertotheevidenceofwhatGodhasdonewithyoupreviously,HisattentivenessandlargesseininfusedknowledgeofHim,convictionofHisoneness,andbeliefinHim.Awarenessofallofthatsends[163]attentiontoyourowndeeds,devotion,andobedienceintooblivion.Asaresult,yourealizehowthe"much"thatapparentlyoriginateswiththeselfisengulfedinthe"little"thatapparentlyoriginateswithGod;and,infact,whatoriginateswiththeselfisnotthe"much."Hiswords"thecounterfeitspassaway"refertotheindividual'sno

longeradvertingtowhetherotherpeoplerepresentthreatoradvantage,criticismoradulation.Hisreferencetothesenses'lossofforcealludestoGod'ssaying,"HespeaksthroughMeandheseesthroughMe."Whenhesaysthatsinceritybecomesirrelevant,hemeansthatwhentheindividualtakesstockofhisownqualities,henolongerconsidershimselfsincerenordoeshejudgehisactions,pastortocome,assincere,sincehispersonalqualitiesarecontingentjustashehimselfis.

SomeoneaskedDhu`n-Nunabouttheultimatefateoftheoneendowedwithexperientialknowledge,andhereplied,"Tobecomeashewas,wherehewas,beforehecameintobeing."Inotherwords,oneendowedwithma'rifaexperiencesGodandthedivineactivityratherthanhimselfandhisowndeeds.Someoneelsesaid,"ThepersonwhohasthekeenestexperientialknowledgeofGodistheonewhoseperplexityisthemostintense."SomeoneaskedDhu`n-Nun,"Whatisthefirsthurdleoneendowedwithexperientialknowledgehastoclear?"Heanswered,"Perplexity,followedbyradicalspiritualpoverty,thenarrivalinGod'spresence,followedbymoreperplexity."InitialperplexityfollowsfromGod'sactionsandbeneficencetowardtheindividual,whenherealizesthathisgratitudeisnomatchforthedivinelargesse.Heknowsthatgratitudeisacompulsoryresponseforthat,butthatifheisthankful,evenhisgratitudeisagraceforwhichhemustgivethanks.HedoesnotregardhisdeedsasworthypossessionswithwhichtomeetGodbutdespisesthemasnomorethanwhatwasrequiredofhimandinnowayoptionalforhim.

TheysayShiblistooduponedaytoperformtheritualprayer.Afteralongpauseheperformedtheritualprayer.Whenhehadcompletedtheprayer,hesaid,"Howdifficultadilemma!IfIpray,itimpliesthatIamrejectingwhatGodhasinstoreforme;ifIdonotpray,itimpliesthatIamungratefulforwhatGodhasalreadygivenme."Inotherwords,"Iamcontradictingthescopeofthedivinelargesseandthecompletenessofthedivineabundancebyjuxtaposingthattomyownpunygestureofthanks."[164]ThenShiblirecitedtheseverses:

Asforthesecondperplexity,itoccursinthetracklessdesertsofdivinetranscendentunitywherethemystic'sunderstandingisledastrayandhisintellectdisappearsbeforetheimmensityofdivinepowerandawe-inspiringmagnificence.Asthesayinggoes,"Onthissideofthedivinetranscendentunityaretracklesswasteswherediscursivethinkinggoesoffcourse."Abu`s-Sawdaaskedoneofthegreatones,"Doestheoneendowedwithexperientialknowledgehaveaspecificmysticalmoment?""No,"heanswered."Whynot?"cametheinquirer'sreply."Becausethemysticalmomentisarespiteinwhichonetakesabreatherfromanxiouscare,whereasexperientialknowledgehappensinsuccessivewavesthatoverwhelmonewhilealternatelyliftinganddashingthemystic,sothathismomentisdarkandforbidding."Hethensaid,

Farissaid,"OneendowedwithexperientialknowledgeisonewhoseknowledgeisaninwardstateandwhoseoutwardmovementsresultfromhisbeingtakenoverbyGod."SomeoneaskedJunaydwhatapossessorofexperientialknowledgeislike,andhereplied,"Waterassumesthecolorofitscontainer."Inotherwords,oneendowedwithexperientialknowledgeexistsineveryspiritualstateasismostappropriate,andsincehisspiritualstatesvary,theysay"heisthesonofthemoment."SomeoneaskedDhu`n-Nunwhatamysticis,andheanswered,"Hewasherebuthasgone."Hemeantthatonedoesnotseeapersonendowedwithexperientialknowledgeinthesamespiritualstateontwooccasionsbecausesomeoneotherthanthemysticisdirectinghim.Ibn'Ata'iscreditedwiththeverse,

[165]SahlibnlAbdAllah(at-Tustari)said,"Thefirststationinexperiential

knowledgeistheservant'sbeinggivenacertitudeinhisinmostbeingthatbestowsrestonhislimbs,andatrustinhislimbsthatmakeshimatpeaceinhissurroundings,andavitalityinhisheartthatgiveshimvictoryoverwhathasyettobe."Oneendowedwithexperientialknowledge,therefore,isonewhohastakenpainstofulfillhisresponsibilitiestowardGodandhasrealizedexperientiallywhathehasreceivedfromGod,sothathisreturnfromthingstoGodissure.Godhassaid,"YouwillseetheireyesoverflowwithtearsfromwhattheyrecognizeastheTruth"(5:83).Itispossiblethatthephrase"whattheyrecognize"referstotheirexperientialknowledgeofGod'skindnessandgoodness,Hisattendingtothemandturningtowardthem,andHissinglingthemoutfromamongotherslikethem.WhentheProphetsaidtoUbayyibnKalb,""GodhasorderedmetomakeaQur'anicrecitationtoyou,"[166]Ubayyasked,"0MessengerofGod,wasImentionedamongthem?"Heresponded,"Yes,"andUbayywept,forhecouldenvisionnospiritualstateinwhichtocomebeforeGod,nothankfulnesscommensuratewiththedivinelargesse,nomindfulnessworthyofGod.Sohewentoffaloneandwept.

TheProphetsaidtoHaritha,'5"Yourknowledgecomesfromexperience,sopersevereinthat,"thusassociatinghimwithexperientialknowledgeandenjoininghimtobesteadfast,butwithoutspecifyingaparticularcourseofaction.SomeoneaskedDhu`n-Nunabouttheoneendowedwithexperientialknowledge,andhereplied,"Heisamanwhoissolitaryeveninthecompanyofothers."Sahlsaid,"ThosewhoareintimatelyawareofGodarelikethepeopleofA'rafwho`wouldrecognizeeveryonebytheircharacteristicfeatures'(7:46).'6Godhasassignedthemastationandsuspendedthemoverthetwodwellingplaces,thusgivingthemexperientialknowledgeofthetwokingdoms."ThefollowingversesareattributedtooneoftheSufis:

AbuTalibal-Makki'streatmentofknowledgeisthemostexpansiveofthetextstranslatedhere.Itisalsothemostbroadlytradition-basedinthesensethatMakkiregardstheearlyhistoryofIslamasthesourceofknowledgeparadigmsmoreexplicitlythandotheotherauthorsrepresented.Theothertextsdo,ofcourse,makereferencetocountlesshistoricalcharactersandevents,inadditiontotheircopiouscitationofQur'an,Hadith,andthesayingsoffamousSufis.Defyingeasycharacterization,Makki'sapproachisdistinctiveinpartbecausehesoprominentlycanonizesthewayofthesalaf,theancestorsinfaith,asthestandardofbeliefandaction,whiletheotherauthorsgenerallydonotshowcasethetraditionalistparadigmtothatdegree.AtthesametimeMakkiconsistentlyarguesforaflexibilityandvitalityinthattraditionalistparadigmthatwillsurprisemanytwenty-first-centuryreaders.

Hebeginswithalistofthemainthemesheintendstodiscuss.HisinitialsectiontakestheformofacommentaryonthevariousmeaningsofthetwomostimportantHadithsonthesubjectofknowledge.MakkisetsouttosurveythevariousinterpretationsofthetraditionsandeasesintohisownpositiononthefirstHadithbutneverdirectlyaddressesthesecond.Hethenmovesontodiscuss,moreorlessinorder,thetopicsatthetopofhis"tableofcontents":'

•concerningtheexcellenceoffilm;

•thecharacteristicsofthosewhopossessli1m;

•thesuperiorityofthescienceofma`rifaoverotherdisciplines;

•anexpositionofthewaysoftheuprightreligiousscholarsamongthepiousancestorsinfaith;

•anexplanationoftheexcellenceofthesciencesofsilence;

•onthewayofthedevoutinknowledge;

•thedifferencebetweenknowledgeofinwardrealityandofoutwardreality,andbetweenthosewhopossessknowledgeofthisworldandthosewhopossessknowledgeofthenext;

•onthesuperiorityoftheproponentsofma`rifaoverexternalists;

•discussionofthewickedreligiousscholarswhousetheirdisciplinesforworldlyends;

•descriptionofknowledgeandofthemethodofinstruction;

blameworthyelementsthatpeoplehaverecentlyintroducedviapopularnarrativetraditionsandpublicdiscourse;

•asegmentonhowpeoplehaveinnovatedidiosyncraticspeechandactionnotinaccordwiththeancestorsinfaith;

•anexpositionofthesuperiorityoffaithandcertitudeovertheothersciences;and

•acautionagainstpersonalopinion.

[234] Discussion of the meaning of the Prophet's saying, "The quest forknowledge is a religious duty for every Muslim," and the other Hadith,"Seekknowledge,evenasfarasChina"

"ThequestforknowledgeisareligiousdutyforeveryMuslim."Ourteacher

AbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari)said:"BythattheProphetmeantthescienceofaspiritualstate."Hemeanstheknowledgeofthegodservant'sspiritualstateinthespiritualstationinwhichhehasbeenplaced,becauseheknowsthedemandsofthespiritualstatethatconstituteshisrelationshiptoGod,especiallyinhislifebothhereandhereafter,sothathefulfillsGod'sobligationsforhimaccordingly.

Oneofthemysticssaid,"Whatthatmeansisthequestforknowledgeofthemysticalmomentandthegodservant'sperformanceoftherequirementsofthepresentmomentandofwhatisdemandedofhimeachmomentofhisday."AreligiousscholarofSyriasaid:"Bythathemeansthequestfortheknowledgeofsincerityandthema'rifaoftheego-soul'ssinfulpropensitiesanditsinsinuations,andthem&rifaofthestratagemsoftheenemyandofhisruses,deceptions,andarrogance,andofthatwhicheitherrendersone'sdeedsappropriateorvitiatesthem."Allofthatisareligiousdutyinsofarassincerityinone'sactsisaduty,andtothedegreethattheProphetteachesaboutthemaliceofIbisandenjoinsonetocounteracthisevildesigns-thisaccordingto'Abdar-RahimibnYahyaal-Urmawiandsomeofhisdisciples.

ConcerningtheinterpretationofthisHadith,oneoftheBasranshassaid:"Thequestforthescienceofheartsandtheexperientialawarenessandanalysisofpassingthoughtsandoftheirvarioustypesisaduty,sincetheyincludethemessengersofAllahtotheservantaswellasthewhisperingsoftheenemyandtheego-soul.TheindividualcanthusactinaccordwithwhatcomesfromGod,andthatincludestheimplementationofwhatcomesfromHimtotheservantandprobingtheefficacyoftheindividual'sstrugglewithhisego-soulinitsrejectionofthewhisperings.Fortheseinwardmovementsmarkthebeginningoftheintentionthatistheprecursorofeveryaction;fromitalldeedsariseandaccordingtoitsstrengthactionsmultiply.OnemustthereforedistinguishthecalloftheangelfromthatoftheEnemy,theinwardmovementofthespiritfromthewhisperingoftheego-self,andcertainknowledgefromthereproachesoftheintellect,inorder,thereby,todistinguishamongtheoriginatingcircumstances.Thisisadutyaccordingtothesepeople,anditisthepositionofMalikibnDinar,'Farqadas-Sabakhi,''Abdal-WahidibnZayd,'andtheirpiousfollowers.Hasanal-Basri,theirteacher,hadpreviouslyassertedthatandtheyadoptedthesciencesoftheheartfromhim.

AccordingtoreligiousdevoteesamongthepeopleofSyria,[235]thequestfor

knowledgeofwhatisreligiouslypermittedisaduty,sinceGodcommandedit.Muslimsareofonemindconcerningthecorruptionofonewhoconsumesforbiddenfood.Anaccountclarifyingthishascometous,saying,"Questforknowledgeofthereligiouslypermittedisadutybeyondtheduty."IbrahimibnAdham,'YusufibnAsbat,'Wuhaybibnal-Ward,'andShulaybibnHarb9inclinetowardthisopinion.Oneofthisgroupwhopossessedexperientialknowledge,said,"ItmeansthatthequestforWmofinwardrealitiesisadutyforthoseendowedwithit."Someonesaid,"Thisisauniquedutyforthepossessorsofheart,peoplewhoseektoactuponitandofwhomitisrequiredinawaythatdoesnotapplytothegeneralityofMuslims."

ThisisclearlyarticulatedintheHadith"Learncertitude,"whichmeans,"Seektheknowledgeofcertitude."Buttheknowledgeofcertitudecannotbefoundexceptamongthosewhohavecertitude.Itisamongthedeedsofthosewhopossesscertitudeandisfounduniquelyintheheartsofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge.Thisistheusefulknowledgethatconstitutesthegodservant'sspiritualstateandstationbeforeGod,justasthesayingoftheProphettestifies:"Aninwardknowledgeisintheheart."Thisreferstothatbeneficialknowledge,andthisisaninterpretationuponwhichothershaveagreed.Jundab(ibn'AbdAllah)said,"WhenwewerewiththeMessengerofAllah,hetaughtusthefaith,andthenhetaughtustheQur'an,sothatourfaithincreased.ButatimewillcomewhenpeoplelearntheQur'anbeforethefaith,andourinstructingtheminthefaithwillassistthem."ThisistheviewoftheausteredevoteesamongthepeopleofBasra.

Accordingtooneofthereligiousforebears,thismeansthequestofaknowledgeofthatwhichcannotbeignored,namely,theknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunity,oftheethicalprinciplesofcommandingthegoodandforbiddingtheevil,andofthedifferencebetweenthepermittedandtheforbidden.Forthereisnogoalfortheothersciencesbeyondthis,andtheterm"'ilm"isappliedtothemalltotheextentthattheyaredealingwiththingsknown.TheyconcurthatinstructioninmattersbeyondwhatIhavementionedisnotaduty,evenifitisinsomewayexcellentorcommendable.AlegalscholarofKufasaid,"Itreferstothequestforaknowledgeofbuyingandselling,andofmarriageanddivorce.Ifsomeonewantstoenterintooneofthesetransactions,itthenbecomesadutyforthatperson,uponenteringintoit,toseekknowledgeofit."As`Umaribnal-Khattabsaid,"Letnonedobusinessinourmarketexcept

onewhoisfamiliarwiththelaw,lesthebevulnerabletothechargeofusurywhetherintendedornot."Asthesayinggoes,"Gainanunderstandingofthelaw,thendobusiness."Sufyanath-Thawri,10AbuHanifa,"andtheircompanionsareinclinedtothisview.

OneKhurasanireligiousscholarofearlierdayssaid,"Supposethatamanisathomeandwantstodosomethingthathastodowithreligion,orthattherecrosseshismindanissuethathastodowithGodthatimposesonhimanobligationofworshiporbelieforaction.Butheisunabletoignorethat,andheisallowedneithertotakeactiononitaccordingtohispersonalopinionnortoevaluateitaccordingtopreference.Hemust,therefore,putonhissandalsandheadouttoinquireofthemostlearnedofhisfellowcitizens,askinghimaboutthatmatterwhenitarises.This,then,isareligiousduty.ThisopinionhasbeenattributedtoIbnal-Mubarak12andsomeoftheHadithspecialists.

Others,however,havesaidthatthisHadithmeansthatthequestfortheknowledgeofGod'stranscendentunityisaduty,buttheyareatoddsconcerninghowthequestistobeconductedandthenatureofthegoal.Someofthemargueforthemethodofdeductiveproofanddeliberation;othersargueforthemethodofscientificinvestigationandspeculativethinking;stillothersforthatofdivineassistanceandtradition.Afactionamongthesepeoplesaythatitissolelyamatterofasearchforknowledgeaboutambiguousandconfusingissues,tothedegreethatwhenthegodservanthearsofthemhefindsthemproblematic,andthesearchisnotincumbentonhimifheisunawareofthem.OntheprincipleofacceptanceandinaccordwiththebeliefofthegeneralityofMuslims,hewillnotentertaininhismindanydoubtsnorruminateonthem[236]inthecenterofhisbeing.Atthisjunctureheispermittedtoabandoninvestigation.Shouldhehear,however,ofanythingofthatsortthatburdenshisheartandaboutwhichhelacksclarity,certainty,andwhosetruthorfalsehoodheisatalosstoevaluate,itisnotpermissibleforhimtoremainsilentabouttheissue,lestheassenttoanuntruthordenyatruth.

Atthispoint,theindividualisduty-boundtoinquireofthosewhoareinformedaboutthematter,seekingtobeinformedtothepointthatheissurehebelievesthetruthandrejectsthefalsehoodofthematter.Onedoesnotabandonthequestsoastoremainvagueandthusfollowone'swhim,orbecomedoubtfulconcerningmattersofreligionsothatheswervesfromthepathofthebelieversorassentstoaninnovation,therebydepartingunawaresfromtheSunnaandthe

beliefsystemofthecommunity.AbuBakras-Siddiqwasreferringtothisinhisprayer,"0God,showusthetruthastrue,sothatwemaypursueit;andshowusthefalseasfalse,sothatwemightavoidit;anddonotleavethematterconfusingforus,lestweproceedonawhim."ThisisthepositionofAbuThawrIbrahimibnKhalidal-Kalbi,'3Dawudibn'Ali,Husaynal-Karabisi(d.c.245/859),andHarithibnAsadal-Muhasibi,14andtheirdisciplesamongthespeculativetheologians.

Thesearetheopinionsofthereligiousscholarsconcerningthemeaningofthistradition.Ourinformationisbasedonourknowledgeoftheirviews,takingintoconsiderationeveryfaction'sinterpretationassupportedbyeveryrelevantcitation.Thespecificarticulationisours,theunderlyingmeaningtheirs;andthisisaltogethergoodandappropriate.EventhoughallofthesepeoplehavedifferingviewsastotheinterpretationoftheHadith'sprecisewording,theyneverthelessconcurastoitsmeaning.Exceptionstothatincludetheexotericistsamongthem,whointerpretitaccordingtowhattheyknow,whereastheesotericistssearchfortheinnermeaningaccordingtotheirknowledge.And,makenomistakeaboutit,theexotericistsandesotericistsrepresenttwodifferentwaysofknowing,neitherofwhichcangetalongwithouttheother,asintherelationshipbetweenIslamandfaith.Onedependsontheotherasdothebodyandtheheart,neitherofthemabletodisentangleitselffromitspartner.Thoughthesegroupsdifferintheirexplanations,theyagreethattheProphetdidnotmeaneitheraquestforknowledgeofjudgmentsoflawandlegaladvisories,orknowledgeoftheologicalcontroversiesorlegalmethodologies,orthebooksofHadith.Nolegaldutyisattachedtoanyofthese,eventhoughGoddoesnotexemptfromthosethingsindividualswhomHehaschargedwithlookingafterthem.

MyownviewonthetruemeaningoftheHadith-butGodismostknowledgeable-isthattheProphet'ssaying"Thequestforknowledgeisaduty"referstothefiveobligationsonwhichIslamisfounded,totheextentthatnootherobligationsarebindinguponMuslims.Noactionissoundapartfromknowledgeofit,forthebeginningofactionisknowledgeofit.Knowledgeofthedeed,therefore,isadutytotheextentthattheactionitselfisaduty.SinceMuslimsarerequiredonlythesefivedeeds,thequestforknowledgeofthesefivebecomesobligatory,asthedutyitselfisobligatory.Knowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityisatissuehere,sincethefirstofthefiveobligationsisthe

confessionoffaith,"ThereisnodeitybutGod,"alongwiththeaffirmationofHisattributesunitedwithHisessenceandthedenialofattributesdistinctfromGod.Allofthatpertainstotheknowledgeoftheattestation,"ThereisnodeitybutGod."TheknowledgeofsincerityisrelatedtothesoundnessofIslam,sincenoonecanbeaMuslimwithoutsincerityofaction.AstheProphethassaid,"TherearethreethingsbywhichtheheartofaMuslimisnotfettered:sincerityofactiondoneforGod...(goodcounselforMuslimleaders,andholdingfasttothecommunity)."HethereforebeganwithsincerityofactionandmadeitaconditionforIslam.

Thefundamentalpointhereisthatheisnotreferringtoknowledgeofeverythingthatcanbeknownonthebasisofconsensusofthewholecommunity.Hedoesnotmean,forexample,thesciencesofmedicine,astronomy,grammar,poetry,orwarfare.These[237]areknownassciencesbecausetheirsubjectmatterisknownandtheirspecialistspossessknowledgeofthem.TheRevealedLaw,ontheotherhand,doesnotdealwithspecificstipulations,andthecommunityisinagreementthatthisisnotaquestionofknowledgeoflegalopinionsandjudgments,noraknowledgeofthedifferencesamongtheschoolsoflegalmethodologyandthedivergenceofopinionsamongscholars.Alloftheseareknownassciencesamongtheirpractitioners.SomeofthemareadutygivenasufficientcollectivityofMuslims,butnonehasanyforcewithrespecttoindividuals."

Theprophetictraditionemploysthegeneraltermforknowledge:"ThequestforWm(ingeneral)isaduty."Butthenhissaying"foreveryMuslim"aftersaying"seekknowledge(evenasfarasChina)"impliesthatthementionofWmisinfactspecificknowledge.Itseems,therefore,giventhedefinitearticle-bywhichImeantheletters"a"and"I"-prefixedtothenoun"knowledge"(al-ilm),thatitlendsthemeaningofspecificandgenerallyknownknowledge.IntheabsenceoftheseconsiderationsonecouldequallyarguethattheProphet'ssaying,"ThequestforknowledgeisadutyforeveryMuslim,"referstoseekingknowledgeofthatonwhichIslamisfounded,knowledgeofwhichisrequiredofMuslims.AclearindicationofthisiswhatMuhammadsaidtotheBedouinwhenasked,"TellmewhatAllahrequiresofme,"orinanotherversion,"TelluswithwhatmessageGodhassentyoutous."TheProphetthentoldhimaboutthedoubleconfessionoffaith,thefiveritualprayers,alms,fastingduringthemonthofRamadan,andpilgrimagetothesacredhouseinMecca.SotheBedouin

asked,"Anythingelse?"Muhammadanswered,"No,onlythatyoudosoobediently."SaidtheBedouin,"ByGod,Iwillneitheraddnorsubtractathing!"SoMuhammadsaid,"Ifthatmanissincere,hewillflourishandenterParadise."Therefore,knowledgeofthesefivepillarsisadutytotheextentthatthecontentofthatknowledgeisrequired,sincetherecanbenoactionwithoutknowledge.

Godhassaid,"Apartfromthosewhotestifytothetruthandareknowledgeable"(43:86);similarly,"Untilyouunderstandwhatyouaresaying"(4:43);and"Doyouhaveknowledge?Thenbringitforthforus.Indeed,youfollowonlyconjecture"(6:148);and"Butthosewhodoevilfollowtheirownwhimswithoutknowledge,butwhowillguidethosewhomGodleadsastray?"(30:29);and"Donotpursuethewhimsofthosewhodonotknow.TheywillavailyounothingfromGod'sperspective"(45:18-19).AndGodhassaid:"UnderstandthattheQur'anisrevealedcontainingtheknowledgeofGod,andthatthereisnodeitybutHe"(11:14);and"Ifyoudonotknow,thenaskthepeoplewhohavebeenreminded"(16:43).Withtheseverses,therefore,Godenjoinsthequestforknowledge,andinthetraditionsconcerningthefivefoundationsofIslam,theMessengerofGodmadethesedeedsaduty.Thenhemadethegeneralstatement,"Thequestforknowledgeisaduty,"andfurtherspecifieditbyadding"foreveryMuslim."InterpretationanddetailedstudyyieldtheconclusionthatitistheknowledgeofthesefivepillarsthatarethefoundationofIslamthatisadutysincethefiveareaduty.

TraditionconcerningtheMessengerofGodhascomedowntousbywayofaHadithfromaFollowerthatlacksthenameoftheCompanionfromwhomhereceivedit,thatheoncecameacrossamanaroundwhomacrowdwasgathering,andasked,"Whatisthis?"Theyreplied,"Amostlearnedman!"Soheasked,"Learnedaboutwhat?"Theyreplied,"Aboutpoetryandgenealogiesandthecampaignsofthepre-IslamicArabs."Soheobserved,"Thisisaknowledgetheignoranceofwhichwon'thurtyou."Anotherversionhas,"Aknowledgethatwon'thelpandanignorancethatwon'thurt."Atraditionhascomedowntous,"Thereisknowledgethatis(infact)ignorance,andwordsthatareinappropriate."Inanothertradition,"AlittlehelpfromGodisbetterthanalotofknowledge."Andinalesssoundlyattestedtradition,"Everythingrequiresknowledge,butknowledgerequiresthehelpofGod."Andinawell-knownHadith[238]hiswordsare,"IseekrefugeinYoufromunprofitableknowledge."Hecallsit"knowledge"becauseithasthequalityofsomethingknownand

becausethosewhocultivateitare,intheeyesoftheirassociates,learned.However,hethendeniesthatitisusefulandseeksrefugeinGodfromit.

Wehavereceivedatraditionthatsays,"Satanoftengetsthebetterofyouwhenitcomestoknowledge."Weasked,"0MessengerofGod,howisitthathegetsthebetterofusinknowledge?"Hereplied,"Hesays,`Seekknowledge,buttakenoactionuntilyouknowcompletely.'Sotheindividualprattlesonaboutknowledge,postponingactionsothathedieswithouteveractingonit."Thistraditionmakestwopoints.Thefirstisthatitreferstothequestforsuperfluousknowledgethatwillhavenoutilityinthenextlife:thequestforitdoesnotbringoneclosertoGod.Thesecondisthattheknowledgethatitextollsandrecommendsisthatwhichrequiresaction,fortheProphetcommandsnoactionapartfromknowledgeandhehasnoproblemwithaquestforknowledgeinserviceofaction.Haven'tyouheardwhathehassaidinanothertradition,"Ipreferexcellenceinknowledgeoverexcellenceinaction,andthebestpartofyourreligiouspracticeisspiritualreticence."

Inthefollowingsection,Makkibeginsbyframingtheprobleminrelationtolegaldisciplines,givesevidencefromHadiths,andthenbolstershiscasewithdreamaccountsandsayingsofearlySufis.

Discussionofthesuperiorityofthescienceofma`rifaandcertitudeovertheothersciences,andadisclosureoftheway(s)ofthelearnedandrighteousancestorsinfaith[amongthelearnedonesofthisworldandthenext]

TheMessengerofGodwastakenfromamongthousandsofhiscompanions,allofwhompossessedknowledgeofGod,weregivendeepcomprehensionthroughGod,andwerebeneficiariesofGod'sgoodpleasure.Evenso,barelytenmenamongthemwereprofessionallyconcernedwithlegalopinions,orissuedlegaljudgmentsordecisions.WhensomeoneaskedIbn`Umar16aboutlegalopinions,hereplied,"Gototheofficialwhoisresponsibleforpublicmattersandlaythatburdenonhisneck!"ThattraditionwastransmittedfromAnas(ibnMalik)"andthenfromthecollectivityoftheCompanionsandthosewhofollowedtheminspirituality.IbnMaslud18usedtosay,"Anyonewhodeliverslegalopinionstoeverylegalinquirythepeoplemakeiscertainlycrazy."WhensomeoneaskedIbn`Umarabouttenissues,hewouldrespondononematterandkeepsilentabouttheothernine.Bycontrast,IbnAbbas,whenaskedabouttenmatters,wouldrespondaboutnineandkeepquietabouttheoneremaining.

Somelegalscholarshavesaid"Idonotknow"moreoftenthan"Iknow"Sufyanath-Thawri,MalikibnAnas,'9AhmadibnHanbal,20FudaylibnandBishral-Hafi,22tonameafew.Whentheyheldpublicsessions,theywouldrespondtosomequestionsandkeepsilentonothers,anddidnotanswereveryquestionputtothem.

Wehaveatraditionfrom'Abdar-RahmanibnANLay1a23inwhichhesaid,"Icameupon120CompanionsoftheMessengerofGodinthismosque,andeveryoneofthem,onbeingaskedaboutaHadithorlegalopinion,preferredthathisbrotherhandleitforhim."Accordingtoanotherversion,"Ifoneofthemwaspresentedwithaquestion,hewouldpassitalongtothenextpersonandhetothenextuntilitcamebackroundtotheonewhohadposeditinthefirstplace."AtraditionhascomedowntousfromIbnMasudandIbn`UmarandothersamongtheFollowerswithanunbrokenchainoftransmittersbacktotheProphet,"Onlythreepersonsofferlegalopinionstothepeople:aruler,adeputy,orsomeonewhoisputtingonairs."24Tobemorespecific,[239]therulerisonewhodiscoursesontheknowledgeoflegaladvisoriesandstatutes,as,forexample,whenpeopleaskrulersandtheymakealegalpronouncement.Thedeputyisonewhoreceivesanorderfromtheruler,whoputsthedeputyinhisstead,seekingassistancethroughthedeputy'sinvolvementwiththeruler'ssubjects.Theshowoffisthestorytellerwhonarratesthetalesofpeopleofoldandrelatestraditionsfrombygonedays.Thatisunnecessarynowadaysandisnotanauthorizedformofknowledge,andissubjecttoembellishmentandabridgementanddivergentinterpretations.Asaresult,narrativetalesareunacceptableandthestorytellerhasjoinedtheranksoftheshowoffs.21

ThespecificterminologyofanotherHadithbearsontheinterpretationoftheaboveHadith'sinnermeaning:"Onlythreepeoplediscoursetothepublic:aruler,adeputy,oranimpostor."Herearethekindsofthingstheysay:Arulerisonewhomakeslegaladvisoriesconcerningjudgmentsandstatutes,asIhavealreadymentioned.Theterm"deputy"heremeansonewhohasknowledgeofGodandwhodenieshimselfinworldlymatters,andwhodiscussestheknowledgeofthefaithandcertitudeinknowledgeoftheQur'an,andencouragespeopletodeedsofreligiouspietyatthecommandofGod.GodgrantshimpermissionforthatinHiswords,"AndwhenGodtookthecovenantofthosetowhomHehadgiventheBook,sayingtothem,`Youaretomakeitcleartothepeopleandnottoconcealit"'(3:187).AbuHurayra2'andothersusedtosay,"If

thesetwoverseswerenotintheBookofGod,IwouldneverhavecommunicatedaHadithtoyou."Thenhewouldrecitetheseversesandtheversespriortothem,andsay,"TheMessengerofGodsaid,`GodhasgivennolearnedpersonknowledgewithoutbindinghimbythecovenanttowhichHeboundtheprophets,namely,thatheshouldmakeitclearandnotconcealit."'Thehypocrite,ontheotherhand,isonewhotalksabouttheworldlysciencesandexpresseshimselfoutofcaprice,seekingtherebytowinpeople'sheartsandsecurethroughhisrhetoricanincreaseofworldlyprofitandstatus.

Oneofthereligiousscholarssaid,"TheCompanionsandFollowersurgedeachothertoexcelwithrespecttofourthings:executorship,takingchargeofsomevaluableentrustedtosomeone,lasttestaments,andlegaladvisories."Oneofthemsaid,"Theindividualwhoisquickesttoissuealegaladvisoryistheonewhoknowstheleast,whiletheonewhomoststeadfastlyresistsrushingtoofferafatwaandrefrainsfromthatisthemostadmirable."Thussaidoneoftheancestorsinfaith,"TheCompanionsandFollowersoccupiedthemselveswithexcellenceinfivethings:recitingQur'an,buildingmosques,recollectingGod,commandingthegood,andforbiddingtheevil."AccordingtoatraditionfromGod'sMessenger"Everywordofahumanbeingisaburdenratherthanabenefit,exceptforthesethree:commandingthegood,forbiddingtheevil,andremindingpeopleofGod."AndGod,thetruestofspeakers,hassaid,"Thereisnogoodinmostoftheirconversations,exceptthatofapersonwhoexhorts(others)toadeedofoptionalcharity"ormorallyuprightactionorreconciliationamongthepeople"(4:114).OneoftheHadithspecialistssawinadreamadeceasedlegalscholarofKufa,whowasamongtheproponentsofpersonaljudgment.Thedreamersaid,"Iaskedhim,`Whathaveyoudiscoveredaboutyourviewonformallegalopinionandpersonaljudgment?'Inembarrassmentheturnedawayfromthedreamerandreplied,`Wefounditwasnothingandhavenothinggoodtosayaboutitsconsequences."'

Wehavereceivedatraditionfrom'AliibnNasribn'AlialJahdami(d.187/803)thathisfathersaid,"AsIslept,IsawKhalilibnAhmad(d.between160/776and175/791)afterhisdeath,soIsaidtomyself,'I'llneverfindamoreintelligentpersonthanKhalil-Imustputaquestiontohim!'Thenheaskedme,`DoyouwanttoknowwhatIknow?Iregarditasnothing.NothingIhaveknownismoreusefulthanthephrases,"GlorybetoGod,""Godbepraised,""ThereisnodeitybutGod,"and"Godissupreme.""'Wehavereceivedthe

traditionthatoneoftheshaykhssaid,"Isawoneofthereligiousscholarsinadream,soIaskedhim,`Whatisthepoint[240]ofthesesciencesaboutwhichwedebateandspeculate?'Heopenedhishand,blewonitandsaid,`Allofthemarecarriedawaylikesomuch"scattereddust"(25:23).NothinghasbeenofusetomeapartfromtwocyclesofritualprostrationthatIwasmovedtoperforminthemiddleofthenight."'

IhavereceivedatraditionfromAbuDawudas-Sijistani(d.275/889),saying,"OneofourcompanionshadsearchedoutmanyHadithsandwasthoroughlyfamiliarwiththem.Afterhedied,Isawhiminadream,soIasked,`HowhasGoddealtwithyou?'Hesaidnothing,soIrepeatedmyquestion.Againhewassilent,soIasked,`HasGodforgivenyou?'Hereplied,`No.'Iasked,`Whynot?'Saidhe,`Mysinsaboundandmyexcusesaremeager.Still,Ihavebeenpromisedgoodthings,soIgoonhopingforgood.'Iasked,`Whichdeedsdidyoufindthemostexcellenthereinthisworld?'Heresponded,`Qur'anrecitationandritualprayerinthemiddleofthenight.'Iinquiredfurther,`AndisitbettertoreciteQur'anorhaveitrecitedtoyou?'Saidhe,`Toreciteitmyself.'Iasked,`Andwhatdoyouthinkofoursaying,"Thispersonisreliableandthatoneinaccurateintransmitting?"'Heanswered,`Ifyourintentioninsayingthatissincere,classifyingtransmittersthatwaygoesneitherforyounoragainstyou."'

Oneoftheshaykhspassedalongatraditiontome,saying,"Ahmadibn`Umaral-Khulganitoldme,`IsawinmydreamthatIwasgoingalongonapathwhenamanhappeneduponme.Heapproachedmeandsaid,"Evenwhenyouareobedient,mostpeopleonearthwillleadyouastrayfromthewayofGod."Iasked,"Doyoumeanme?"Heanswered,"Youandanyonewhocomesafteryou."Iturnedawayand,loandbehold,therewasSari(as-Sagati).SoIleftthemanandapproachedSariandsaid,"Thisisourteacherandmentorwhoeducatedusintheworldbelow."ThenIsaidtohim,"Abu`1-Hasan(Sari),youhavegonetoGod,sofillusinastowhatdeedGodhasaccepted."Atthathetookmyhandandsaid,"Come!"SoIwentwithhimtoastructureliketheKalbaandwestoppedbesideit.Suddenlyanindividuallookeddownatusfromthebuilding,andthatplacewasresplendentbecauseofhim.Sarigesturedtowardhimandboostedmeuptowardhim.SariwassmallofstatureandsowasI,sotheindividualwhowasuponthebuildingextendedhishand.Igrabbeditandheliftedmeuptohimself.Icouldnotopenmyeyesagainstthelightsinthatplace.Thenhesaidtome,"Iheardyourconversationwiththeshaykh.Ifyoumakeuse

ofeverycreatedthingthattheQur'anpraisesandavoideverycreatedthingtheQur'ancondemns,itwillserveyouwell.""'

TraditionhasitthatSarias-Sagatisaid,"Ayoungmanwasdoggedlypursuingexotericknowledge.Thenhegaveuponthatandsingle-mindedlydedicatedhimselftodevotion.SoIinquiredabouthimandfoundthathehadwithdrawnfromsocietyandwasstayinginhishouse,intentonworship.Isaidtohim,`Youwereavidlyinsearchofexotericknowledge.Whydidyoubreakoffthatconcern?'Heanswered,`Isawinadreamsomeonewhowassayingtome,"Howmuchknowledgeyouhavesquandered!MayGodsquanderyou!"ThenIsaid,"ButIhavekeptit!"Cametheresponse,"Keepingknowledgeinvolvesactinguponit."SoIabandonedthequestanddevotedmyselftoregardingknowledgeintermsofaction."'IbnMasudusedtosay,"Knowledgeisnotaquestionoftransmittingagreatdeal;knowledgeisGod-awareness."Anotherpersonwhopossesseddeepcomprehensionsaid,"11misalightthatGodcastsintotheheart."Hasanal-Basriusedtosay,"Knowwhatyouwish,butbyGod,GodmostHighwillnotrewardyouforitunlessyouactuponit.Personsoflittlesubstanceareconcernedwithtransmissionoftradition;thetrulylearnedareconcernedwithobservance."28[241]Wehavealsoreceivedatraditionabouthim(Hasan),inwhichhesaid,"Goddoesnotcareaboutthepersonwhotalksandtransmitstexts;hecaresaboutpeopleofprofoundcomprehensionandawareness."AbuHasin(d.c.128/745)said,"Ifoneofthemhadofferedalegalopiniononaquestionanditcametotheattentionof`Umaribnal-Khattab,hewouldhavegatheredthosewhohadparticipatedintheBattleofBadr."29Someoneelsesaid,"Ifsomeoneaskedoneofthemaquestionaboutsomething,hewouldhastentoofferalegalopinion,eventhoughifsomeonehadaskedthepeoplewhohadparticipatedintheBattleofBadraboutit,itwouldhavestumpedthem."

'Abdar-RahmanibnYahyaal-Aswadandotherreligiousscholarssaid,"Knowledgeofreligiousstatutesandlegalopinionsusedtobetheprovinceofgovernorsandrulers,andthepublicconsultedthemonthesethings.Thenthesituationdeterioratedandthegovernorswerenolongerabletofunctionthatwaybecauseoftheirinclinationtothisworldandtheirinvolvementinwars.Sotheycametorelyforhelpinthesemattersontheexotericscholarsandthosewhoissuedlegaladvisoriesinthemosques.Then,whentherulersattohearlegalclaims,specialistsinlegaladvicesattohisrightandhisleft,andhewouldconsultthembothconcerningrulingsandstatutes.Heorderedhisassistantsto

actlikewise.Someamongthepeople,then,learnedthescienceoflegaladvisoriesandrulings,sothatthegovernorcouldseektheirassistanceconcerninglegalstatutesandrulings.Eventually,legaladvisorsmultipliedasaresultofworldlydesiresandthequestforleadershipstatus.Thenmattersdeterioratedfurtheruntilthegovernorsceasedtoasktheassistanceofthescholars."

Atraditionfrom`Umar,whenhewrotetoAbuMasudUqbaibn'Amr(d.40/660),clarifies:"HaveInotbeeninformedthatyougavethepeoplealegalopinionthoughyouareneitherarulernoradeputy?"Similarly,inaHadithIbn'Amiral-Hawzanisaid,"IwasmakingtheHajjwithMulawiya,30and,whenwecametoMecca,weheardtellofacertainclientofthetribeofMakhzum31whowasissuinglegalrulingsandlegaladvisoriestothepeople.Mulawiyasentamessagetohiminquiring,`Haveyoureceivedanordertodothis?'`No,'hereplied.SoMulawiyaasked,`Thenwhatpromptsyoutodoit?'Heanswered,`Weissuelegaladvisoriesandspreadourknowledge.'SoMulawiyasaid,`HadIcometoyoubeforenow,Iwouldhavehadyourhandcutoff(asifyouwereathief).'Thenheforbadehimtodoitanymore."

Theydidnotgenerallysaythataboutthescienceofhearts,orthescienceofthefaithorofcertitude.Onthecontrary,`Umarwouldwritetohismilitarycommanders,"Guardwhatyouhaveheardfromtheobedientones,fortothemtruemattershavebeenmanifested."`Umarusedtositamongthespiritualseekersandlistentothem.Accordingtoatradition,"Whenyouseeamanwhohasreceivedthegiftsofsilenceandasceticism,getclosetohim,forhehasreceivedwisdom."OneoftheHadithspecialistssaid,"IsawSufyanath-Thawrisad,soIaskedhimaboutthat.Herepliedwearily,`Wehavebecomenothingbutmerchandiseforthedenizensofthisworld!'`Howso?'Iasked.Hereplied,`Oneofthemhasauseforusuntil,oncehehasbecomefamiliarwithusandprofitedfromus,someonemakeshimabossorachamberlainorahouseholdmanager."'Hasan(al-Basri)usedtosay,"Peoplehavecometolearnthisknowledgewhohavenoconnectionthroughittothenextworld.Godpreservestheknowledgethroughthemforthesakeofthecommunity,lestitbelostentirely."Ma'mun32said,"Butforthreethings,thisworldwouldgotoruin:wereitnotforconcupiscence,progenywoulddieoff;andwereitnotfortheloveofamassingwealth,meansofsubsistencewouldcease;andwereitnotfortheloveofleadership,knowledgewouldvanish."Allofthisdescribesthosewhoseekthis

worldandtheproponentsofthescienceoftongues.

Asforthoseseekingthenextlifewhoaretheproponentsofma'rifaandcertitude,theyfleefromrulersandtheirfollowersandminionsamongthepeopleofthisworld.Theybelittlethelearnedofthisworld,discreditthem,andavoidtheircompany.(Abdar-Rahman)IbnAbiLaylasaid,"Icameupon120oftheCompanionsinthismosque.Notoneofthem,whowhenquestionedaboutaHadithor[242]askedtoenunciatealegalopinion,butpreferredthathiscompaniontakeoverforhim."Heoncesaid,"Iencounteredthreehundredpeople,andifoneofthemwasquestionedaboutalegalopinionortheHadith,hereferredittothenextperson,whopassedittohiscompanion,andtheywentonpassingaroundthelegalissueinquestion.ButwhenoneofthemwasquestionedaboutaprobleminthescienceoftheQur'anorofcertitudeorthefaith,hewouldnotasarulepassitofftohiscompanionandwasnotreticentaboutanswering."

Godhassaid,"Whenyoudonotknow,theninquireofthepeopleofrecollection"(16:43,21:7).Theyarethepeopleever-mindfulofGodandthepeopleofthedivinetranscendentunityandofunderstandingfromGod.Theyhavenotacquiredthisknowledgethroughthestudyofbooks,norreceiveditfromoneanotherbywordofmouth.Theywerepeopleofactionandelegantdeedsofdevotion,sothatwhenoneofthemwasentirelydedicatedto,andoccupiedwith,God,hesoughttolaborintheserviceoftheMasterthroughdeedsoftheheart.TheywerewithHiminseclusionbeforeHim,rememberingnothingbutHimandoccupyingthemselveswithHimalone.And,whentheyappearedinpublicandsomeonequestionedthem,Godinspiredthemwithrightguidanceandaccommodatedthemwiththeperfectlyappositeresponse.Hegavethemwisdomastheheritageoftheinwarddeedsarisingfromtheirpurehearts,pellucidminds,andloftyaspirations.

Hechose,inHisexquisiteprovidence,toinspireinthemthespiritualrealityofknowledge,andtodisclosetothemthehiddenmystery,sincetheychosetoserveHimanddedicatedthemselvestoHimthroughworthydeedsofdevotion.Thus,theywouldrespondtoanyquestionputtothem,throughthebeautyofGod'spredilectionandHiscomelyimprintuponthem.Theywoulddiscourseoftheknowledgeofthedivinepower,bringtolightthequalityofwisdom,articulatethesciencesofthefaith,andrevealtheinnermeaningsoftheQur'an.This,then,istheknowledgethatisbeneficialintherelationshipbetweenthe

servantandGod,throughwhichonemeetsGod,aboutwhichoneinquiresofGod,andforwhichGodrewardstheindividual.Thatknowledgeisthebalance-scalethatweighsallactionsatjudgmentday.Inproportiontotheservant'sknowledgeofhisLord,hisactionsingeneralweighmoreandhisgooddeedsarecountedtwice.Thisishowtheindividualbecomes,intheeyesofGod,amongthosewhodrawnear,sincefromGod'sperspectiveheisoneofthosewhopossesscertitude.

Thesearethepeopleofspiritualrealitieswhom'Alidescribed,elevatingthemoverallcreatures.Hecharacterizedthembysaying,"Heartsarereceptacles,andthebestofthemarethemostcapacious.Peopleareofthreekinds:thoselearnedabouttheirLord,thosewhoseekknowledgealongthepathofsalvation,andthecommonrabblethatchaseaftereveryconartist,bendwitheverybreeze,donotseektobeilluminedbythelightofknowledge,anddonottakerefugeinafirmfoundation.Knowledgeisbetterthanpossessions,forknowledgekeepswatchoveryou,whereasyoumustkeepwatchoverwealth.Knowledgeispurifiedbyaction,whereasconsumptiondiminisheswealth.TheloveofknowledgeisareligionthroughwhichoneservesGod.Itanchorstheindividualinobediencethroughouthislifeandspeakswellofhimafterhisdeath.Knowledgepassesjudgment,whereaswealthissubjecttojudgment.Wealth'sutilitydwindlesasitdiminishes.Thetreasuryofrichesperisheswhileitsownerslive,whereasthelearnedsurviveaslongastimeitselfgoeson."

Then'Alisigheddeeplyandsaid,"Nowthatisanabundantknowledge!IfonlyIcouldfindoneabletobearit.Ofcourse,Icaneasilyfindacleverpersonwhoisnottrustworthy,whoaffectstheperformanceofreligiousdeedsinsearchofworldlygoals,whobragsaboutthefavorsGodbestowsonHisFriends,whomakesashowofhimselfbydemonstrationsofGod'sproofsbeforepeople,orwhotagsalongwiththepeopleoftheTruthwhilenurturingdoubtinhisheartatthefirstinklingofambiguity,andwhohasnospiritualinsight.[243]Neitherofthefollowingtwotypesareguardiansofthereligion-neitherthepersonwhoisaccustomedtopleasureandeasilyswayedtowardsatisfyinghiscravings,noronewhoisseducedintoaccumulatingandhoardingwealthandisinthralltohiswhims.Theyareverymuchlikegrazingcattle.0God,thusletthisvainknowledgediewhenthosewhopossessitdie.ButtheearthwillneverlackonewhoputsforthproofonbehalfofGod-whetheroutintheopenandknown,orinfearandunderduress-sothattheproofsandelucidationsofGodmightnotcome

tonought.Buthowmanyarethey,andwherearethesepeople?Thoughtheybefewinnumber,theirinfluenceisenormous.Thoughonecannotdetecttheirintrinsiccharacters,theirlikenessesexistintheheartsofhumankind.ThroughthemGodguardstheproofsHesafelydepositsintheheartsofthosesimilartothemandimplantsintheheartsofthoseresemblingthem.Throughtheiragency,theknowledgeoftheessentialrealitiestakeshold,sothattheytouchthespiritofcertitude.Whatthepamperedconsiderrough,theyconsidergentle,andtheybecomeintimatewithwhattheheedlessfindrepellent.Theykeepthisworldcompanyinbodieswhosespiritsareconnectedtotheloftiestabode.ThesearetheFriendsofGodamongHiscreatures,HisagentsonHisearthandthosewhoinvitetoHisreligion."Then'Aliweptandsaid,"WhatIwouldgiveforaglimpseofthem!"

Allofthesearefeaturesofthosewhopossessknowledgeofthenextworld.Theyarecharacteristicsoftheknowledgeofinwardrealityandthescienceofhearts,notofthescienceoftongues.ThatishowMuladhibnJabal"hascharacterizedtheminhisdescriptionoftheknowledgeofGod,inaHadithtransmittedtousfromRaja'ibnHaywaibn'Abdar-RahmanibnGhanam(d.112/730)fromMuladhhimself:"Learnthisknowledge,forlearningitforGod'ssakeisGod-wariness;searchingforitisworship;studyingitispraise;seekingitisjihad;teachingittoonewhodoesnotknowitisagiftofcharity.GrantingknowledgetothoseworthyofitisnearnesstoGod,intimacywiththedivineoneness,acompanioninthemidstofloneliness,aguideamidbothjoyandsorrow,adornmentwhendivestedofone'shonor,nearnessinthemidstofstrangers,andthelighthouseilluminingthewaytoParadise.ThroughknowledgeGodraisesuppeoples,makingthemonthepathgoodmodelsandguidessothatpeoplecanemulatethem,andsignstowardwhatisgoodwhosetracespeoplecanfollow.Thepeopleobservethedeedsoftheseexemplarsandtakeguidancefromtheiractions,endingupatthegoalthatistheirexemplars'wayofthinking.Theangelslongfortheircompanionshipandstroketheirwingsoverthemuntileverythingwetanddryasksforgivenessforthem-thecreaturesandfishofthesea,thedryland'sbeastsofpreyandlivestock,thefirmamentanditsstars.Forknowledgeisthelifeofhumanheartsoutofblindness,thelightoftheeyesoutofdarkness,andthestrengthofbodiesoutofweakness.Throughknowledgetheservantarrivesatthedwellingplacesofthepiousandtheloftiestspiritualstations.Reflectionuponknowledgeisfoodduringfasting;throughstudyingitandactinguponitoneobeysGod;throughitoneworships;throughitone

acknowledgesthedivinetranscendentunity;throughitonedoesdeedsofpiety;throughitbloodrelativescometogether.Knowledgeisaguideandactionisitsfollower.Itinspirestheblessedwhileitisdeniedthewicked."These,then,arethecharacteristicsoftheotherworldlyscholars,andtheattributesofinwardknowledge.

`Umaribn'Abdal-,Aziz34wasoneofthemostexcellentrulersafterthefourRightlyGuidedCaliphs.WehavereceivedatraditionfromZakariyaibnYahyaat-Ta'i(d.251/865)inwhichhesaid,"MyuncleZajribnHisnpassedontomethetraditionthat`Umaribn'Abdal-,AzizwrotetoHasan(al-Basri),`Nowthen,showmeagroupofpeopleIcanaskforassistanceconcerningthecommandofGod.'Hasanwroteback,`Asforthepeopleofthereligion,theywillneverwanttodealwithyou,butasforthepeopleofthisworld,youwillneverwanttodealwiththem.Youmustassociatewiththehigh-born,forthey[244]willupholdtheirnobilitylesttheybesmirchitwithtreachery."'HasanusedtotalkdisparaginglyaboutsomeofthereligiousscholarsofBasra,andAbuHazimal-MadaniandRabilaalMadani35usedtofindfaultwiththereligiousscholarsoftheBanuMarwan.36And(Sufyan)ath-Thawri,Ibnal-Mubarak,Ayyub,and(AbdAllah)Ibn'Awn(ibnArtaban,d.151/768)lettheirviewsbeknownaboutcertainworldlyscholarsofKufa,asdidFudayl,IbrahimibnAdham,andYusufibnAsbataboutsomeworldlylearnedindividualsamongthepeopleofMeccaandSyria,whosenamesIamloathetomentionsincereticencehereisthebetterpartoftact.

Bishr(al-Hafi)usedtosay,"(Thetechnicalphrase)`Ithasbeenhandeddowntous'isoneofthegatesofthisworld.So,whenyouhearamansay,`Ithasbeenhandeddowntous,'heisreallysaying,`Makeroomforme."'Sufyanath-Thawri,(Bishr's)imambeforehim,usedtosaytotheproponentsofexotericknowledge,"Thequestforexotericknowledgeisn'tasourceofprovisionsforthenextlife."(AbdAllah)IbnWahb(d.197/812)said,"SomeonementionedthequestforknowledgeinthepresenceofMalik(ibnAnas),andMalikobserved,`Thequestforknowledgeisbeautiful,andexpatiatingonitisbeautiful,solongasone'sintentionindoingsoissound.Butpayattentiontowhatisrequiredofyoufromthetimeyouawaketothetimeyouretire,andfromeveninguntilmorning,andthenprefernothingoverit."AbuSulaymanad-Daranisaid,"WhenamangoesinsearchofHadithorgetsmarriedortravelstoseekthemeansoflivelihood,hehasreliedonthisworld."

Butasfortheknowledgeofthefaithandthedivinetranscendentunity,andthescienceofmacrifaandcertitude,thatbelongstoeverysurebelieverwhoseislamisbeautiful.Thatisone'sspiritualstation,asGodseesit,one'sspiritualstatebeforeGod,andone'sportionfromGodwithrespecttothelevelsofParadise.Throughthatmeanstheindividualbecomes,fromGod'sperspective,oneofthosewhodrawneartoGod,andtheknowledgeofGodandfaithinHimaretwothingsjoinedinseparably.AsfortheknowledgeofGod,itisthebalance-scalethroughwhichonedistinguishesthegrowthoffaithfromitsdiminishment.Forknowledgeistheoutwardaspectoffaithinthatitrevealsandmakesfaithvisible,whereasfaithistheinwardaspectofknowledgeinthatitbestirsandenkindlesknowledge.Faithisthesupportandvisionofknowledge,whileknowledgeisthepowerandtongueoffaith.Faith'sweaknessandstrength,itsincreaseanddiminution,aredirectlyproportionatetothewaxingorwaning,thevigororinfirmity,ofknowledge.

Inhisadvicetohisson,theSageLugman37said,"0myson,justastheseedcannotflourishwithoutwaterandsoil,sothefaithcannotflourishwithoutknowledgeandaction."Therelationshipamongcontemplativevision,ma'rifa,certitude,andfaithissimilartothatamongthefinalfoodproduct(derivedrespectively)fromflowermeal,fromgrist,fromwheat.Thewheatcontainsallofthatinitself.Asfaithistherootofwhichcontemplativevisionisthehighestbranch,sothewheatistherootofthesedevelopmentswhosehighestbranchisthefinaledibleproduct.Thesespiritualstationsexistwithinthelightsoffaith,andtheknowledgeofcertitudeundergirdsthem.Experientialknowledge,furthermore,isoftwodegrees,onerelatedtohearingandtheotherrelatedtoseeing.Ma`rifathroughhearingisconnectedtoIslaminthatpeoplehearaboutGodandthuscometoknowHimexperientially.Butma'rifathroughseeingisassociatedwithcontemplativevision,inthatitistheessenceofcertitude.

Contemplativevisionlikewiseisoftwodegrees,namely,contemplativevisionrelatedthroughdemonstrativeproofandcontemplativevisionthroughsigns.Visionthroughdemonstrativeproofprecedesma'rifaandconsistsintheknowledgeofinformationthatderivesfromhearing,andwhosetongueistheword.Onewhofindsitdoessothroughknowledgefromwhichcertitudearises,asinthewordofGod,"Surenews...Ihavefound"(27:22-23).38Thisknowledgeprecedesthe"finding"andistheknowledgeofhearing.InstructionisitsmeansandthesayingoftheProphetisrelatedtoit,"Learntheknowledgeof

certitude!"Inotherwords,keepthecompanyofthoseendowedwithcertitude[245]andhearoftheknowledgeofcertitudefromthem,fortheyaretheoneswhoknowit.

Contemplativevisionthroughsigns,ontheotherhand,comesaftertheexperientialknowledgethatderivesfromseeing.Thisiscertitude,anditstongueistheexperienceofecstaticfindingandbeingfound.Theindividualwho"finds"thisexperiencefindsproximity,andafterthis"beingfound"thereisaknowledgeoftheessenceofcertitude.GodtakescareofthisindividualwiththeaidofHislightandpower.PertinenthereisthesayingoftheProphet,"Ihaveexperienceditschill,andthusIknowit."39Thisknowledgesubsequenttotheexperienceoffindingandbeingfoundarisesfromtheessenceofcertitudebymeansofcertitude,anditisoneofthedeedsofhearts.Theseareendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlife,thepeopleoftherealmofLordlyDominion,40whopossesshearts.TheyareamongtheCompanionsoftheRightHand,41whodrawneartoGod.Exotericknowledge,ontheotherhand,belongstotheknowledgeofearthlysovereignty,anditisoneofthedeedsofthetongue.Thosewhopossessknowledgeofitarekintothisworld,thoughtheuprightpersonsamongthemareCompanionsoftheRightHand.

AmancametoMuladhibnJabalandsaid,"Tellmeabouttwokindsofpeople:oneofthemisgiventotallytothestruggle'sinworshipofGod,prolificingoodworks,andguiltyoffewsins.Butheisweakincertitudeandsubjecttodoubtsinhisdailyaffairs."Muladhthensaid,"Surelyhisdoubtscancelouthisgoodworks."Themanwenton,"Nowtellmenowaboutanindividualwhohasfewgoodworkstohiscredit,andwho,thoughstrongincertitude,isneverthelessaprolificsinner."Muladhwassilent,sothemansaid,"ByGod,ifthefirstman'sdoubtscancelouthisdeedsofpiety,surelyallofthisman'ssinswouldcancelouthiscertitude?"ThenMuladhgrabbedhishand,stoodboltupright,andsaid,"Ihaveneverseenonewithgreaterunderstandingthanthisman."AHadithwithacompletechainoftransmitters,commentsonthemeaningofthis.IntheHadithsomeoneinquired,"MessengerofGod,whataboutanindividualoffinecertitudebutmanysins,andonethoroughlydedicatedtoworshipbutwithmeagercertitude?"Hereplied,"Nohumanbeingissinless,butwhensomeoneisnaturallydisposedtointelligenceandhascertitudebytemperament,hissinsdohimnoharm;forwheneverhesins,herepents,asksforgiveness,andfeelscontrition.Thushissinsarecovered,leavinghimasurplusofgracethatwill

gainhimentrytoParadise."

WehavereceivedthefollowingHadithofAbuUmama(d.c.86/705)fromGod'sMessenger:"Attheveryleast,whatyouhavebeengivenincludescertitudeandfirmpatience.Foronewhoreceiveshisshareofthesetwo,itdoesnotmatterthatheneglectsnightvigilanddaytimefasting."Inhisadvicetohisson,Lugmansaid,"Mylittleson,knowledgewithoutcertitudeisnotpossible,andapersoncannotactexcepttotheextentofhiscertitude.Onewhoactsdoesnotfailunlesshiscertitudeisinsufficient."Weakactiondonewithcertitudeispreferabletostrongactionaccompaniedbyweakcertitude.Whenaperson'scertitudeisweak,minorsinfulnesscanvanquishhim.YahyaibnMuladhusedtosay,"Foraffirmingthedivinetranscendentunitythereislight,andforidolatrythereisfire;butthelightofdivineunityincineratestheevilsofthosewhoaffirmitmorecompletelythandoesthefireofidolatrytheidolaters'gooddeeds."

Therearethreestationsincertitude:first,certituderesultingfromdirectobservation,aboutwhoseinformationthereisnodispute,foronewhoknowsinthismannerisinformeddefinitively.Thisisacharacteristicofthecompletelyveraciousonesandthewitnesses.Thenthereisthecertitudeofaffirmationandassent,andthishastodowithreportsfromothers.Onewhoknowsthisisonewhoacceptsthereport.Thisisthecertitudeofbelievers,andtheyarethepiousones"amongwhomaretheuprightandthosewhoarenot"(7:168),accordingtothewordsoftheMostHigh,"anditonlyincreasedtheirfaithandsurrender"(33:22).Thecertaintyofthesepeoplemayweakenwiththelackofbasicnecessitiesandthedisruptionoffamiliarcircumstances,whereastheircertitudegrowsstrongerwithbetterconditionsandamoreaccustomedflowofcircumstances.Theyareabletoseeonlysecondarycausesandareawareofthetruthonlyinspecificcontexts.Theyaresocialcreatures,andtheyexperiencediminishmentandalienationintheirlossofsocialrelations.Amongthesepeoplethereisvariationincertitude;theywaver,fluctuate,anddiminishasdotheirexteriorcircumstances.

[246]TheThirdStationofCertitude

Thethirddimensionofcertitudeisthecertitudeofopinion.Thisgrowsstrongerthroughtheargumentsofreligiousknowledgeandreportsoftraditionsandthepronouncementsofthereligiousscholars.ThesepeopleexperienceincreasefromGodintheportiontheyreceivefromHim.Itweakensasaresult

oflossofproofsandthesilenceofteachers.Thisisthecertitudeofdemonstrativeargumentation,whosesciencesarebasedonrationalunderstanding.ThisisthecertitudeofthespeculativetheologianswithinthelargerMuslimpopulation,andmorespecificallyamongtheproponentsofindividualassessment,therationalsciences,analogicalreasoning,andspeculativeinquiry.

EveryonewhopossessescertitudeconcerningtheexistenceofGodtherebypossessesknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityandma`rifa.Butsuchaperson'sdiscursiveandexperientialknowledgeisproportionaltohiscertitude.Hiscertitudeisinaccordwiththepurityandstrengthofhisfaith,whichinturndependsonhisdeedsofworshipandreligiousobservance.Theloftiestofthesciencesistheknowledgeofcontemplativevisionderivingfromtheessenceofcertitude.ThisisreservedforthosewhodrawneartoGodinthestationsofproximitytoHim,intheconversationsoftheirspiritualsessionsandtheshelteroftheirintimacy,andinthegentlenatureoftheiraffection.Themostaccessibleofthesciencesistheknowledgeofsurrenderandacceptancewithoutdisavowalandwithoutdoubts.Thisbelongstothegeneralityofbelieversandisanaspectoftheknowledgeoffaithandofthehighestaffirmationofreligioustruth.ItistheprovinceoftheCompanionsoftheRightHand.Betweenthesetwoaretherefinedspiritualstations,fromthehighestcategoriesofthosewhodrawneartoGodtotheintermediatespiritualstations,andfromthemostaccessibleranksoftheCompanionsoftheRightHandtothehighestoftheintermediatehigherstations.

Discussionofthevarioussciencesofsilenceandthepathofthespirituallyreticentinthereligiousdisciplines

Accordingtoatraditionthathascomedowntous,"Therearethreeaspectsofknowledge:abookthatspeaks,anunwaveringSunna,andIdon'tknow."AccordingtoShalbi,43Muhammadsaid,"`Idon'tknow'isthehalfofknowledge."Inotherwords,thisisspiritualreticence.(Sufyan)ath-Thawriusedtosay,"Knowledgedoesindeedinvolveauthorizationfromareliableperson;butasforstrengtheningit,everyindividualcanimproveonit."Bythathemeantthatspiritualreticenceandsuccessinordinaryaffairsisthewaythebelieverslive,eveniftheyarenotformallylearned.Spiritualreticencemeanshesitatingtoforgeaheadwithafrontalassaultonambiguitiesandcomingtoatranquilorsilenthaltinthefaceofproblematicalissues.Certitude,ontheotherhand,

meansgoingforwardwithspiritualinsightandfirmnessandmakingdecisionsonthebasisofknowledgeandinformation.This,then,ishowreligiousscholarsfirmlyestablishedintheirknowledgeproceed,astheyalonecandowell.

'AlisaidtohissonMuhammadibnal-Hanafiya,44whomhehadletgoaheadofhimduringtheBattleoftheCamel,""Goon!Goon!"Muhammadhesitatedand(,Ali)struckhimwiththeshaftofthespear.ThenMuhammad,hisson,turnedtohimandsaid,"ByGod,thisisthedark,blindinsurrection!"So'Alistruckhimwithhisspearandsaid,"Getgoing!Youhavenomother.Isthereaninsurrectionwhoseleaderandpromoterisyourfather?"Whenthemansaid,"Idon'tknow,"hewasactinguponhisknowledgeandproceedingonthebasisofhisspiritualstate.Asaresult,hisrewardwasequaltothatofapersonwhoknowsandproceedsaccordingtohisspiritualstateandactsonhisknowledge,therebyclarifyingit.Thus,theexpression,"Idon'tknow"ishalfofknowledge,sothattherecompenseofapersonwhoremainssilentoutofspiritualreticenceforGodisequaltothatofonewhotalksopenlywithknowledgeforGod.'Aliibnal-Husayn46andMuhammadibn'Ajlan(d.148/765)said,"Whenalearnedpersonmistakenlysays,`Idon'tknow,'thosewhoopposehimactappropriately."Malik(ibnAnas)andShafi,i0.7saidsoafterthesetwo.

Youmustunderstandthatknowledgeandignorancearelikethedisparityamonghumanbeingswithrespecttomadnessandintelligence.Therearecategoriesofbothmadandintelligentpersons,justastherearecategoriesofignorantandlearnedpersons.Thebestendowed[247]amongtheignorantareliketherun-of-the-millscholars,andtheyconfusethegeneralityofpeoplesothattheybegintoconsiderthemlearned,whileasfarasthosewhoareknowledgeableofGodareconcerned,theirignoranceisevident.Similarly,thoseendowedwithexperientialknowledgeareheldinsuspicionbythegeneralityofreligiousscholarsbutarevisibletothosewhopossesscertitude.Oneofthelearnedhassaid,"'Ilmisoftwokinds:theknowledgeofrulersandtheknowledgeofthegod-fearing.Theknowledgeofrulersistheknowledgeoflegaledicts,whereastheknowledgeofthegod-fearingisthatofcertitudeandma'rifa."

Godhassaidbywayofadescriptionoftheknowledgeofbelieversandadiscussionoftheknowledgeoffaith,"Godwillelevateinranksthoseamongyouwhobelieveandtowhomknowledgehasbeengiven"(58:11).Hehastherebyconstruedthebelieversaslearnedandindicatedthatthereisno

distinctionbetweenknowledgeandfaith.Accordingtolinguists,the"and"herecommunicatespraiseratherthanconjunction.WhentheArabspraisesomeone'scharacteristics,theyintroducethewordandbywayofintensification.So,forexample,theysay,"So-and-soisintelligentandknowledgeableandrefined."Inthesamevein,Godsaid,"Butthoseamongyouwhoarewell-groundedinknowledgeandwhoarebelievers[whobelieveinwhatwassentdowntoyouandwhatwassentdownpreviously]andwhoperformtheritualprayerandwhogivealms"(4:162),allbywayofdescription.Sothebelieversaretheoneswhoare"well-groundedinknowledge"andwhoperformritualprayerandgivealmsaswell.Allofthisisadescriptionofthosewhoare"well-groundedinknowledge,"andforthatreasonGod'swords"andwhoperformritualprayer"areintheaccusative(asthedirectobjectofthefirstverb)becausetheyarewordsofpraise,andtheArabsusetheaccusativeandthenominativetoexpresspraise.

InthesameveinGodsaid,"Andthosewell-groundedinknowledgesay`Webelieveinthescripture"'(3:7).HehasdescribedthelearnedasendowedwithfaithjustasHehasdescribedthebelieversasendowedwithknowledge.SoalsoGod'swords,"Andthosetowhomknowledgeandfaithweregivensay..."(30:56).AlsotothepointisthisHadithfromAnas(ibnMalik)fromtheProphet,"Mineisacommunityoffivegenerationsoffortyyearseach.MygenerationandthatofmyCompanionsarepeopleofknowledgeandfaith;thosewhosucceedthemuptoeightyyears,peopleofpietyandfearofGod;andthosewhosucceedthemupto120years,peopleofunionandcompassion."Hetherebyconnectedknowledgeandfaithandgavethemprecedenceovertheothergenerations.

(OntheWayoftheDevoutinKnowledge)

GodconnectedfaithwiththeQur'an,whichisknowledge,asHelinkedtheQur'anwithfaith,whenHesaid,"HehasinscribedfaithintheirheartsandstrengthenedthemwithaspiritfromHim"(58:22).ItissaidthatitistheQur'anthatGodhassoinscribed.Nowthe"Him"referstoGod,accordingtomostinterpretations.AsHehassaid,"Youdidnotknowwhatthescripturewas,northefaith,butWemadeitalight"(42:52).ThereforethepeopleoffaitharethepeopleoftheQur'anandthepeopleoftheQur'anarethepeopleofGodandHischosenones.Mahd148askedSufyanibnal-Husaynwhenhevisitedhim,"Areyouoneofthelearnedones?"Hewasoneofthelearnedones,buthedidnotanswer,soMahdirepeatedthequestion.StillSufyanwassilent.Someoneasked

Sufyan,"DoyounotrespondtotheCommanderoftheFaithful?"Hereplied,"Heaskedmeanunanswerablequestion.HadIsaid`Iamnotalearnedone,'afterrecitingtheBookofGod,Iwouldhavebeenaliar.ButifIhadsaid,`Iamalearnedone,'Iwouldbeanignorantperson."AbuJalfarar-RazipassedonatraditionfromRabilibnAnas(d.c.139/756)aboutGod'sword,"Indeed,thoseamongHisservantswhopossessknowledgefearGod"(35:28),commenting,"WhoeverdoesnotfearGodisnotalearnedperson."AreyounotawarethatDavidsaid,"YouhavemadeknowledgefearofYou,andwisdomfaithinYou.Onewhodoesnot[248]fearYoudoesnotknow,andonewhodoesnotbelievehasnojudgment."'AbdAllahibnRawaha49calledknowledgefaithandusedtosaytohiscompanions,"Sitdownwithusandletusbelieveforawhile."Theywouldthendiscusstogethertheknowledgeoffaith.

Godhasgivenbelievershearingandsightandheart,forthesearetheavenuestoknowledgealongwhichtheyfindandgainknowledge.ThesearetherootsofknowledgeandgracethatGodbestowsonhumankindandforwhichHeexpectsgratitude.SoHehassaid,"AndwhenGodbroughtyououtofyourmothers'wombsyouknewnothing,andHegaveyouhearingandsightandheartsthatperhapsyoumightgivethanks"(16:78).Onthosethreebases,therefore,Hehasestablishedknowledge,afterprecludingitfromtheunborn.AndGodsaid,bywayofdescriptionofthepersonwhodoesnotbelieveanddenialthatsuchapersonenjoysthebenefitsofknowledgethrough(thethreefaculties),"Andwehavemadeforthemhearing,sight,andheart,buttheirhearing,sightandheartdidnotavailthemintheleast,sincetheycontinuedtodisavowthesignsofGod"(46:26).ButthepersonwhobelievesinthesignsofGodbenefitsfromhishearing,sight,andheart,andthepathsofknowledgeareopentohim.Godhasalsosaidconcerningthemeaningofthat,"Anddonotinvolveyourselfinthingsofwhichyouhavenoknowledge,forhearing,sight,andheartwillallbecalledtoaccountforthat"(17:36).Ifknowledgedidnotdependonthehearing,sight,andheart,Godwouldnothaveproscribedwhatthesefacultiesdonotknow.So,inGod'sforbiddingthepursuitofandadherencetowhatthesefacultiesdonotknow,thereisanaffirmationofwhatonedoesknowthroughthem.Everybelieverpossesseshearing,sight,andheart,andisthusknowledgeablethroughGod'slargesseandmercy.

Inthiscontext,Godhasgiventhiscommunitypreferenceoverothercommunitiesandsingleditoutinthreerespects.Firstistheperduranceofchains

oftransmittersinwhicheachsuccessivelinkisjoinedwithouthiatusthroughtheforebearsinfaithtoourProphetMuhammadandtoanyofourreligiousscholarsofthepast.Theythentranscribedthepages(ofthetextoftheQur'an),andwheneverapagewaswornout,anewonereplacedit,thuscontinuingthetraditionofknowledge.SecondisthememorizingoftheBookofGodsentdownfromtheupperrealmofmystery,whereaspreviouslyothercommunitieshadrecitedtheirscriptureswhilereading.Apartfromthisscriptureofours,nobookrevealedbyGodhasbeenentirelycommittedtomemory,exceptfortheTorahwithwhichGodinspiredEzraafterNebuchadnezzarburnedallofitduringthedestructionoftheTemple.Forthatreason,theysayadescendantoftheJewsisthesonofGodGodisfarexaltedabovesuchathing-sinceGodchosehimandbestowedonhimaloneknowledgeofthewholeTorahfrommemory.50Third,everybelieverofthiscommunityisaskedabouttheknowledgeofthefaith,andpeoplehearwhathesaysandbenefitfromhisviewandhisknowledgeevenwhenheisyoung.Previously,however,peoplelistenedonlytotheirrabbisandpriestsandmonksandnottoanyothersamongthepeople.AndHeincreased(theMuslimcommunity)inafourthrespect,namely,firmnessoffaith,overthecommunityofMoses,sothatnodoubtbesetthemandnoidolatrypossessedthem,evenwhentheirheartswereturningaboutinsinfulrebellion;whiletheheartsofthecommunityofMoseswhereimmersedindoubtandidolatryjustastheirheartswereoverturnedinsinfulrebellion.AndtheheartsofthecommunityofMoseswereoverturnedindoubtandidolatryjustastheirbodilymemberswereoverturnedinsinfulrebellion.Sotheysaid,"0Moses,makeusagodliketheirgods"(7:138),andafterthattheysawthegreatsignofthepartingofthesea,theirpassagethroughitondrypaths,theirsalvationfromdrowning,andthedestructionofPharaoh.

[249]Wehavereceivedatraditionthatoneoftherevealedscripturessays,"0childrenofIsrael,donotsay:knowledgeisinheaven,whowillbringitdown?Orattheendsoftheearth,whowillgetit?Orbeyondtheseas,whowillcrossoverandbringit?Knowledgeisfixedinyourhearts."Inmypresencebeschooledinthedemeanorofthespiritualonesandbemoldedinthemoralcharacteroftherighteousones.Iwillmakethatknowledgemanifestasalightinyourheartssothatitfillsyoutooverflowing."Itiswritteninthe(non-canonical)gospel,"Donotlookforknowledgeofwhatyouhavenotacteduponuntilyouhaveacteduponwhatyoualreadyknow."Andinourtraditionswefind,"Tothepersonwhoactsuponwhatheknows,Godbequeathsknowledgeofwhathe

doesnotknow."Infact,someonehassaid,"Toonewhoactsuponatenthofwhatheknows,Godgivesasaninheritanceaknowledgeofthataboutwhichheknowsnothing."WehaveatraditionfromHudhayfaibnal-Yaman,"Thetimehascomewhenapersonwhoneglectsatenthofwhatheknowsperishes,butafteryouwillcomeatimewhenapersonwhoactsonatenthofwhatheknowswillbesaved."Thisisduetoascarcityofthosewhoactandaplethoraoffoolishpeople.Ourscriptureprovidesconcise,pithysayings:"FearGodandGodwillinstructyou"(2:282);"FearGodandknow"(2:194);"FearGodandhear"(5:108).

Understandthatapersonwhoactsonwhatheknowsorcommunicatesaboutit,sothatheattainstheultimatespiritualrealityasGodseesit,winsadoublereward:therewardofdivineassistanceandtherewardofaction,andthisisthespiritualstationofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge.Apersonwhotalksandactsignorantly,therebymissingoutontheultimatespiritualreality,bearstwoburdens,andthisisthespiritualstationoftheignorant.Andapersonwhoactsonortalksabouttraditionalknowledge,butfallsshortoftheultimatespiritualreality,winsarewardforthesakeofknowledge,andthisisthespiritualstationofthoseendowedwithoutwardknowledge.Apersonwhospeaksorperformsanactioninignorance,butneverthelessattainsultimatespiritualreality,bearsaburdenbecauseofhisabandoningthequestforknowledge,andthisisthespiritualstationoftheignorantgodservants.

Thelearnedpersonislikeajudge.TheProphetdividedjudgesintothreegroups,whenhesaid,"Judgesareofthreesorts:ajudgewhojudgestrulyandknowledgeably,andisboundforHeaven;ajudgewhoknowinglypassesunjustjudgment,oronewhodoessounknowingly,bothofwhomareboundforHell."OneofthefinestinterpretationsIhaveheardconcerningthewordsofGod,"0ChildrenofAdam,Wehavesentdownuponyouraimentwithwhichtocoveryourshame"(7:26),isthattheraimentisknowledge,whileplumageiscertitude,andthegarmentofthefearofGodishumility.AtraditionhascometousfromWahbibnMunabbihal-Yamani52concerningthemeaningofthistext:"Faithisnaked;itsraimentisthefearofGod,itsadornmentishumility,anditsfruitisknowledge."Hamzaal-Khurasanitraceditschainto(Sufyan)ath-Thawriandbroughtitforwardto'AbdAllah(ibnAbbas)fromtheProphet.

WehaveitattestedalsoinanunbrokenlineoftransmissionthatMilsar(ibnKidam)(d.c.153/770)passedonatraditionfromSaldibnIbrahim(d.c.

125/742),inwhichsomeoneinquiredofhim,"WhichofthecitizensofMedinaisendowedwiththedeepestunderstanding?"andhereplied,"TheonewhosefearofGodisthegreatest."Oneofthereligiousscholarssaid,"Ifsomeoneweretoaskmewhowasthemostlearnedofthepeople,Iwouldreply,themostspirituallyreticentofthem.Andifsomeoneweretoaskmewhichofthecitizensofthiscitywasthebest,Iwouldask,`Doyouknowwhichofthemitiswhogivesthemthemostsincerecounsel?'Andiftheyreplied,`Yes,'Iwouldsay,`Heisthebestofthem."'Someoneelsehassaid,"Shouldsomeoneaskmewhowasthemostfatuousperson,Iwouldgrabajudgebythehandandsay,`Thisone."'Godhassaid,"FearGodandhear"(5:108),and"FearGodandsayawordthathitsthemark"(33:70).SotheMostHighhasturnedfearofGodintothekeyoftheappositeword,andofwell-guidedknowledgeandofwell-foundedhearing.ItisthetestamentofGodtothosebeforeourtime,andtous,inwhichGodsays,"WehaveinstructedthosewhohavereceivedtheBookbeforeyourtime,aswellasyou,tofearGod"(4:131).Thisverse[250]isthepivotoftheQur'an,aroundwhichitrevolveslikeamillstonearounditswoodenaxes.AtraditionhasbeenreportedtousfromJesus,"Howcansomeonewhoisdevotedtothisworldbelongtothepeopleofknowledgewhosedestinationisthenextlife?Andhowcansomeonewhoseeksdiscoursebywhichtoinformothers,butdoesnotseekitinordertoputitintoaction,belongtothepeopleofknowledge?"DahhakibnMuzahim53said,"Ihavecomeacrosspeoplewholearnednothingfromoneanotherbutspiritualreticence,butthesedaystheystudytheoreticaldiscourse."

AccordingtoaHadith,"Nopeoplehasfallenintoerrorafterbeingwell-guidedwithoutdegeneratingintovaindisputes.ThentheProphetrecitedtheQur'anictext,`Theyengageyou(Jesus)onlythroughvaindebate.Theyaretrulyacontentiouspeople."'(43:58)AnotherHadithcitestheQur'anandthencommentsonHiswords,"`Butthosewhoseheartsdeviate(fromthetrueinterpretation)...'(3:7)aretheproponentsofdisputationtowhomGodreferredintheearliercitedverse,sobewareofthem."Fromoneoftheancestorsinfaithcomesthetradition,"Attheendoftimetherewillbereligiousscholarstowhomthedoorofactionwillbeshut,buttowhomthedoorofdisputationwillbeopened."Andaccordingtoanothertradition,"Yoursisatimeinwhichyouwillbeinspiredtoaction,buttherewillcomeapeopleinspiredtodisputation."FromIbnMasudcomesthetradition,"Youliveinatimewhenthebestofyouistheonewhoactswithalacrity,butafteryouwillcomeatimewhenthebestofyou

istheonewhobehavescautiously."Inotherwords,duringthefirstIslamiccenturytherewasrevelationofthetruthandcertitude;butafterthat,inthisourtime,ambiguityandobscurityaboundandinnovationsareintroducedthewaynightstealsoverpeopleonajourney.Mattersaredifficult,exceptfortheindividualwhoisintimatelyfamiliarwiththewaysoftheancestorsinfaithandthussteersclearofinnovationaltogether.

Fromoneofthelearnedwehavereceivedthetradition,"WhenGoddesiresgoodforagodservantHeopenstohimthedoorofactionandclosestohimthedoorofdisputation.AndwhenGoddesiresevilforaservant,Heshutsthedoorofactiontohimandopensforhimthedoorofdisputation."AndafamousHadithfromGod'sMessengersays,"Godconsidersthosewhoarguethemostcontentiouslythemostdespicableofallpeople."Wefindinanothertradition,"Shameandhesitationinspeecharetwobranchesofthefaith,whileobscenelanguageandfacilediscoursearetwobranchesofhypocrisy."Bywayofcommentaryonetextexplains,"Hesitationinspeechisthatofthetongueratherthanoftheheart."InanotherreportpassedonbyHakamibn'Utaybafrom'Abdar-RahmanibnANLayla,theProphetsaid,"Anypeoplewiththegiftofeloquencewillabstainfromaction."AccordingtoaHadith,"Godloathestheglibpersonwhorollsdiscoursearoundonhistonguethewayacowchewsitscud."AhmadibnHanbalusedtosay,"Knowledgeisthatwhichcomesfromabove,"thatis,aninspirationwithoutordinarypedagogy.Healsosaid,"Thelearnedamongthespeculativetheologiansareheretics."Beforehim,AbuYusufs'said,"Anyonewhoseeksknowledgeinspeculativetheologyengagesinheresy."

A further exposition of the superiority of inward knowledge overoutward

HereIwilldiscusstheknowledgethatthereligiousscholarshaveextolledandwhosesignificancetheyhaveunderscored.Theyregardthisknowledgeasacharacteristicofthelearnedpersonandcommendsuchapersonforit.TheProphetictraditionstestifytoitsexcellenceandauthorizeit,andthetraditionalreportslauditsproponents.ThesesourcesindicatethatitisknowledgeofGod,thatitleadstoGod,andthatitreturnsonetoHim.Thepersonwhoconfessesthedivinetranscendentunitydoessothroughtheknowledgeoffaithandcertitude,andthroughthescienceof[251]ma~rifaanddeedsofworship.Thisknowledgedoesnotleadonetotheotherdisciplinesoflegalopinionandlegalstatutes.The

scholarstalkof"onewhoactsonhisknowledge"anddiscussactioninrelationtoknowledge.TheycharacterizeitoverallasfearofGodandhumility.

This,then,istheknowledgeofhearts,nottheknowledgeofthetongue.Itinvolvesactionandproducesdeedsofworshiprelatedtotheworksoffaith.Thedeedsofheartsarespiritualstationsofcertitudeandcharacteristicsofthosepossessedofcertitude.Theyareanalogoustotherighteousactionsofthebodilymembersthatresultfromincreasedfaith.Itistothisthatthemastersamongtheproponentsofspiritualpovertyandself-denial,andthosewholivebytrustinGodandfear,aswellasthosewhoexperiencelongingandlove,arereferring.Theydonotmeanthatwhenapersonhasknowledgeofstatutesandlegalrulingsheisconstrainedtoactonthatknowledge,sothatheisobligedtoengagetheirstipulationsinordertoactaccordingtothem.Heisnotrequired,forexample,toseektheofficeofmagistratesothathecanadjudicateclaimsbetweenpeople,ifhehasknowledgeofthesethings;nortopurchasegoodsandengageinsellingandbuying,ifhehasknowledgeofalmsgivingandcommercialtransactions;ortomarryawifeanddivorceherjustbecausehehasknowledgeaboutmarriageanddivorce,inordertobeinthesemattersapersonwhoputshisknowledgeofthemintoaction.Noonehasmadesuchaclaim;infact,traditionhasforbiddenandcensuredthatfarmoreoftenthanonecanmention.Theproponentsofthesesciencesarecharacterizedbyapreferenceforthisworldandacquisitiveness,andtheyliketohobnobwithrulerssothattheycanexchangefavorswiththem.Itthereforegoeswithoutsayingthatitisnotthesepeopleonemeanswhenreferringtoknowledge,andthatfearofGodandasceticismarenottheirhallmarks.

Inthesamevein,mostoftheancestorsinthefaithheldknowledgesuperiortoaction,asintheirsayings,"Anatomofknowledgeismoreexcellentthanthus-and-somuchaction";and"Tworitualprayercyclesofalearnedpersonaremoreexcellentthanathousandofadevotee."AndaccordingtoaHadithofAbuSaidal-Khudri55fromGod'sMessenger,"ThelearnedpersonissuperiortothedevoteeasIamsuperiortomycommunity."Andawell-attestedversionreads,"asthemoonissuperiortotheotherstars."AtraditionofIbnAbbasandSald,56whichwehavereceivedwithunbrokentransmissionbacktotheProphet,says,"AsinglelearnedpersonisharderonSatanthanathousanddevoutones."Somethingsimilarissaidaboutthescholar'sdeath,namely,thatitisdearertoGodthanthedeathsofathousandpiouspersons.

ThepointisthatknowledgeofGodissuperiortoaction,forknowledgeofGodisanattributeoffaithandanaspectofthecertitudethatismorepreciousthananythingthatcomesdownfromtheheavens.Nothingmeasuresuptoit,andnoactionissoundoracceptableapartfromit.Itisthemeasureofallactsinwhosescaledeedsareweighed,somemoreworthythanothers,someweightieronthescalesthanothers.Andthosewhoactareelevatedtoloftyranks,somehigherthantheothers.Godhassaid,"AndWehavebroughtthemascripture,whichWehavelaidoutindetailonthebasisofknowledge"(7:52).AndtheMostHighhassaid,"Wewillnarratetheirstoryonthebasisofknowledge"(7:7);andtheMostHighcontinued,"Andonthatdaythescalewillregistertrue,andthosewhosescalesweighheavilywithgooddeeds..."(7:8).1'Andthebenefitthataccruesfromknowledgethatisnearesttolordlinessismoreexcellent.Actionisanattributeoftheagent,anditisgermanetodeedsofworship.Theydonotmean,however,thatlegalopinions,statutes,andrulings-inwhichpeoplehaveavestedinterestandfromwhichtheybenefit-aresuperiortospiritualdeedsinrelationtoGodontheleveloftheheart.Theselatterincludethespiritualstationsoftrust,satisfaction,andlove,which,inturn,resultfromtheexaminationofcertitude,which,inturn,arethestationsofthosewhohavedrawnneartoGod.Ascholardoesnotmakesuchclaims.

AHadithhasbeenpassedalongtousfrom'Abdar-RahmanibnGhanm(d.78/697)fromMuladhibnJabal,thatGod'sMessengersaid,[252]"Thepeopleclosesttothelevelofprophethoodarethepeopleofknowledgeandthepeopleofjihad.ThepeopleofknowledgeleadhumankindtothatwhichtheMessengershavebrought,whereasthepeopleofcombatengageinbattlewiththeirswordsonbehalfofthatwhichtheMessengershavebrought."DoyounotseehowGodhasfashionedknowledgeintoaguidetoGod,andoutwardcombataswell?Likewiseatraditionhascometousthat"thefirsttomakeintercessionaretheprophets,[thenthosewhopossessknowledge,]thenthemartyrs."Andaccordingtoatradition,"Theprophetsareonestepabovethetrulylearned,andthelearnedaretwostepsabovethemartyrs."ConcerningthemeaningofthewordsofGod,"Godhaselevatedinranksthoseamongyouwhobelieveandthosewhohavebeengivenknowledge"(58:11),IbnAbbassaid,"Thelearnedonesareofmanydegreesandsevenhundredranksabovethosewhobelieve;andbetweeneverytwodegreesisaspanoffivehundredyears."When`Umardied,IbnMasudsaid,"Inmyestimation,hetooknine-tenthsofknowledgewithhim."Someoneinterjected,"YousaythisevenwhilethemajorityoftheCompanionsofthe

Prophetarestillamongus?"Hereplied,"Iamnottalkingabouttheknowledgeyouwant;Imean,rather,theknowledgeofGod."Hethusestablishedthatknowledgeoftheinnumerableknowableobjectsisnotauthenticknowledge,andthatknowledgeofGodissuperiortonine-tenthsofthevariousotherformsofknowledge.

Thevalueofoutwardknowledgedoesnotgreatlyexceedthatofactions,inthatitisitselfoneoftheoutwardactsbecauseitisacharacteristicofthetongueandbecauseitbelongstothegeneralityofMuslims.Thehighestofitsspiritualstationsissincerity,andifiteludesthem,thenitisworldlinessliketheotherpassions.SincerityisthefirstspiritualstateofknowledgeofGodintermsofinwardknowledge.Thereis,however,noendtotheirspiritualstations,allthewaytotheloftieststationsofthosewhoknowGodexperientiallyandtheranksoftheveraciousones.

[253] A chapter discussing the difference between those who possessknowledgeofthisworldandthosewhopossessknowledgeofthenext,anda censure of thewicked scholarswho use their sciences to consume thisworld'sgoods

ReligiousscholarshavemadeadistinctionbetweenknowingGodandknowingGod'scommand.Theyhavealsodistinguishedbetweenthosewhoarelearnedaboutthisworldandthoseendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlife.Sufydn(ath-Thawri)said,"Therearethreetypesoflearnedpeople:onewhohasknowledgeofGodandofGod'scommand,andthatisthepersonofcompleteknowledge;onewhohasknowledgeofGodbutnotofGod'scommand,andthatisthepiousandgod-fearingperson;andonewhohasknowledgeofGod'scommandbutnotofGodHimself,andthatistheprofligatescholar."Anothersayingalsomentions,"onewhohasknowledgeforGod'ssake,andwhoactsuponhisknowledge;andonewhohasknowledgeaboutthe`DaysofGod'(14:5,45:14),58andwhoexperiencesfearandhope."

SomeoneaskedSufyanwhatknowledgeis,andhereplied,"Itisspiritualreticence."Someoneasked,"Andwhatisspiritualreticence?"Heanswered,"Thequestfortheknowledgebywhichonerecognizesspiritualreticence."Accordingtothepeoplegenerally,thatmeansprotractedsilenceandfewwords.Inmyviewthatisnotthecase;rather,thelearnedpersonwhospeaksispreferabletoonewhokeepssilent.TraditionhascomedowntousthatLugman

saidinhisadvice,"Therearethreeindicationsofknowledge:knowledgeofGod,ofwhatGodloves,andofwhatHehates."Hethusconstruedthesethreeastheessenceofknowledgeandevidenceofitsexistence.

Herearesomethingsthatprovideyouevidenceastothedistinctionbetweenthosewhoarelearnedinmattersofthisworldandthosewhohaveknowledgeofthenextlife:Wheneversomeoneseesatrulylearnedperson,butdoesnotknowhimassuch,thesignsofhisknowledgewillnotbeevidenttohim,fornonewillrecognizethatheisalearnedpersonexceptthosewhohaveknowledgeofGod.Theyareidentifiablethroughtheircharacteristichumility,tranquility,lowliness,andself-effacement.Theseconstitutethe"distinctivehue"thatGodbestowsonHisFriendsandthevesturewithwhichHeclothesthosewhohaveknowledgeofHim."AndwhoisbetteratconferringadistinctivehuethanGod?"(2:138).Inthatrespecttheyarelikecraftsmen,forwheneveranyoneseesacraftsmanbutdoesnotrecognizehimassuch,hedoesnotrecognizethecraftsman'sworkasdistinctfromotherworks.Onlyafellowcraftsmancanseethedifferencebetweenhimandothercraftsmen.Onerecognizesthecraftsmanbyhisproduct,foritishisoutwardcharacteristicandmakeshimknowninthatitbecomes,throughtheresultsofhisactivity,likeauniformandadistinguishingmarkofwhatwouldotherwisebeanonymity.59Assomeonehassaid,"ThefinestgarmentGodconfersonagodservantishumilityintranquility,whichistheraimentoftheProphetsandtheoutwardmarkofthemostrighteousandthetrulylearned."

ThemostlearnedpeoplearethosewhohaveknowledgeofthesubtlethingsthatGodlovesandthesecretthingsthatHehates.TheyarethepeoplewhoseheartshaveapenetratingunderstandingofGodandwhohaveexperientialknowledgeofHim.Sahl(at-Tustari)usedtosay,"Learnedpeopleareofthreekinds:onewhohasknowledgeofGod;onewhohasknowledgeorientedto(actinginaccordwiththewillof)God;andonewhohasknowledgeofGod'sstatutes."Inotherwords,onewhohasknowledgeaboutGodisonewhoknowsGodexperientiallyandwithcertitude;onewhohasknowledgeforGodisonewhoisknowledgeablethroughtheknowledgeofsincerity,spiritualstates,anddeedsofworship;andonewhoknowsthestatutesofGodisonewhohasknowledgeoftheparticularitiesofwhatisallowedandwhatisforbidden.

IwillelaborateonthatwithreferencetothesensesofSahl'sutterancesandwithanintimateunderstandingofhisoverallapproach.Heoncesaidinamore

expansiveexplanation[254]thanthis,"ThosewhohaveknowledgeofGodbutnotofGod'scommandorofthe`DaysofGod,'arethebelievers;thosewhohaveknowledgeofthecommandofGod,butnotofthe`DaysofGod,'aretheywhoissuelegalopinionsconcerningthepermittedandtheforbidden;andthosewhohaveknowledgeofGodandofthe`DaysofGod'aretheveraciousones."Hissaying"aboutthe`DaysofGod"'means"aboutHishiddengracesandHisinscrutablereproaches."Hethensaid,"Allpeopleotherthanthelearnedaredead;andthelearnedareasleep,exceptforthosewhofearGod;andthosewhofearGodarecutoff(fromsocietyingeneral),exceptforthelovers;andtheloversarelivingwitnesseswhogiveGodprecedenceovereveryspiritualstate."AndSahlusedtosay,"Seekersofknowledgeareofthreekinds:oneseeksitinordertoactuponit;anotherseeksitinordertorecognizedifferencesofopinion,inordertherebytoexercisespiritualreticenceandcircumspection;andthethirdseeksitforanunderstandingofobscureinterpretationsthatwillallowhimtointerpretwhatisforbiddensoastorenderitpermissible.Thislastindividualtherebydestroysthetruthwithhisownhands."

Atraditionhasbeenpassedalongtome,thatatthebeginningoftheyearAbuYusufendowedhiswifewithhispossessionsandthenaskedhertogivehimherpossessions,sothatthetwoofthemwouldbeabsolvedofrequiredalmsgiving."SomeonementionedthattoAbuHanifa,andheanswered,"Thatisaresultofhisknowledgeoftechnicalloopholes."Evenso,peopleseekknowledgetounderstandspiritualreticenceandcircumspectioninreligion,andthisisusefulknowledge.Butifapersonseekssomethinglikethisandpursuesatendentiousinterpretation,ignorancewouldbepreferable.SuchknowledgebecomesdetrimentalandsomethingfromwhichtheMessengersoughtrefuge.

Wehaveatraditionfrom`Umarandothers,"Hownumerousaretheprofligatescholarsandtheignorantgodservants!Bewaretheprofligateamongthescholarsandtheignorantamongthosewhodevotethemselvestoworship!"Likewisefrom`Umar,andtransmittedtouswithunbrokenchain,"Bewareeveryhypocriteoflearnedtongue,whotalksaboutwhatisfamiliartoyouanddoeswhatyouabhor!"Wehavealsoreceivedthistraditionfromhim,"Learnknowledge,andlearnforthesakeofknowledgetranquilityandmildness.Humbleyourselvesbeforethosefromwhomyoulearn,sothatthosewholearnfromyoumighthumblethemselvesbeforeyou.Donotbeoverweeningscholars,lestyourknowledgerestuponyourignorance."Wehaveatraditionfrom'Ali

andIbnAbbas,andfromKalbal-Ahbar,61"Attheendoftimetherewillbescholarswhoencouragethepeopletowithdrawfromthisworldwhiletheythemselvesdonotdoso;whoencouragethepeopletofearGodwhiletheythemselvesdonotfearHim;andwhoforbidthemtokeepthecompanyofrulerswhiletheydonotsorestrictthemselves.Theypreferthisworldtothenextanddevourthisworld'sgoodswiththeirtongues,hoardingwealthforthemselveswhilekeepingitawayfromthepoor.Theyguardtheirknowledgejealouslyfromoneanotherthewaywomenguardtheirmen,sothattheyarerousedtoangershouldone'scompanionspendtimewithanother.Thatistheirportionofknowledge."

AccordingtoaHadithof'Ali,"Theirlearnedonesarethemostwickedofcreatures,forstrifebeginswiththemandreturnsamongthem."AHadithofIbnAbbassays,"TheyaretheboldenemiesoftheMerciful."Wehavereceivedatraditionfrom'Ali,"OnlytwomengivemetroubleinIslam:aprofligatescholarandanovelty-contrivingascetic.Theprofligatescholarbegrudgesthepeoplehisknowledgebecausetheyrecognizehisdepravity,whilethecontrivingascetictitillatesthepeoplewithhisnovelpracticeswhentheyobservehisasceticism."Salihibnal-Hassanal-Basrisaid,"IcameupontheelderswhiletheyweretakingrefugeinGodfromtheprofligatescholaroftheSunna."Fudaylibn'Iyadsaid,"Thelearnedareoftwosorts:onewhohasknowledgeofthisworldandtheotherknowledgeofthenext.Theknowledgeofonelearnedinmattersofthisworldisoutintheopen,whilethatofonelearnedinmattersofthenextisveiled.Seekouttheoneknowledgeableofthenextworldandbeonguardagainsttheoneknowledgeableofthisworld.Donotlethisintoxicatingwinehinderyourprogress."ThenFudaylrecitedtheQur'anicverse,"Manyarethepriestsandmonkswhodeceitfullydevourthepossessionsofhumankind[255]andhinderthemfromthewayofGod"(9:34).Fudaylcommentedfurther,"Thepriestsarethescholars,andthemonksaretheascetics."

Sahlibn'AbdAllah(at-Tustari)said,"Seekersofknowledgeareofthreekinds:Oneseekstheknowledgeofspiritualreticenceforfearofbeingvulnerabletoambiguities,soheforgoesthepermittedinfearoftheforbidden.Suchisthegod-fearingascetic.Anotherseekstheknowledgeofthedisparityandmultiplicityofviews:HeavoidswhatisclearlyobligatoryuponhimandoptsforthatwhichGodhasmadepermissibleinHislargesse,andavailshimselfofdispensations."Stillanotherinquiresaboutsomething,istoldthatitisnot

permissible,andasksfurther,`HowcanIcancontrivetomakeitpermissibleforme?'Soheasksthereligiousscholarstoinformhimofthedivergentviewsandambiguousinterpretations.Suchapersontherebycausesthedestructionofhumankindwithhisownhands,aftercompassinghisownruin.Thesearethecorruptscholars."

Understandthateveryoneinlovewiththisworldwhocommunicatesknowledgedevourswealththroughdeceitandfalsehood.AndeveryonewhoconsumesthepossessionsofthepeoplethroughdeceitinevitablydivertsthemfromthewayofGod(asinQ9:34).Andevenifthatisnotapparentinwhatapersonsays,youwill,nevertheless,recognizeitinnuancedallusionstominutedetailsoftacticsdesignedtosteerpeopleawayfromthecompanyofothers,andinsubtlewaysofdeterringthemfromthepathstothenextlife.Fortheloveofthisworldandthevictoryofcapricepredisposeonetothat,willy-nilly.Atrulylearnedindividualhassaid,"Godlovesthelearnedpersonwhohumbleshimselfandloathesthoseamongthelearnedwhoareoverbearing.GodbequeathswisdomasaninheritancetothosewhohumblethemselvesbeforeGod."AccordingtoatraditionfromIbnMasud,"Godabhorsthefatrabbi."AndGod'sMessengersaidtoMalikibnas-Sayf,aJewishreligiousauthority,"OnyoursolemnhonorbeforeGod,doyounotfindinwhatGodrevealedtoMosesthatGodabhorsthefatrabbi?"NowIbnas-Sayfwascorpulent,sohebecameangryatthatandreplied,citingtheQur'an,"Godhasnotsentanythingdowntoahumanbeing"(6:91).Sothisversewassentdownasaclarificationofhisfalseassertion,"Proclaim:WhohassentdownthescripturethatMoseshasbroughtasalight(andguidanceforhumankind)?"(6:91)SoIbnas-Sayf'scompanionsaidtohim,"Woetoyou!WhatyouhavesaidrepudiatesthescriptureofMoses!"Sohereplied,"Hepickedafightwithme,soIsaidthat."

Someonesaid,"Godhasnotgivenagodservantknowledgewithoutsimultaneouslygivinghimgentleness,humility,gooddisposition,andaffability."Thatisthemarkofusefulknowledge.Wehavereceivedatraditiononthemeaningofthat,saying,"ThepersontowhomGodgrantsasceticism,humility,andgooddispositionistheleaderofthegod-fearing."Hasan(al-Basri)usedtosay,"Gentlenessistheministerofknowledge,affabilityisitsfather,andhumilityitsraiment."AccordingtoatraditionaboutDavid,"Godrevealedtohim,`David,donotaskMeaboutaknowledgeablepersonwhoisintoxicatedwiththisworldandhasdivertedyoufromthepathoflovingMe.Sucharethe

highwayrobbersofMyservantswhoseekMe.David,theleastseverethingthatIdotothelearnedperson,ifhegiveshisowndesiresprecedenceoverloveforMe,istoforbidhimthedelightsofintimateconversationwithMe.David,shouldyouseesomeoneinsearchofMe,becomehisservant.David,whensomeonebringsbacktoMeapersonseekingrefuge,Itakenotethatheisabrilliantscholar;andIwillneverpunishonewhomInotedownasabrilliantscholar."'

WehaveatraditionfromJesus,"Wickedscholarsarelikeaboulderthathastumbledintothemouthofariver:itneitherdrinksthewaternorallowsthewatertobedirectedtoirrigateacultivatedfield."Thatishowthoseworldlyscholarsblockthepathtothenextlife:TheyneithermovealongnorallowgodservantstojourneyontoGod.Healsosaid,"Wickedscholarsarelike[2561asewerpipe:externallybeautifulandinternallyfoul-smelling;orlikepretentiousfuneralmonuments:imposingmansionsontheoutside,charnelhouseswithin.""

Bishral-Harith(al-Hafi)said,"WhensomeoneaspirestoleadershipamongthereligiousscholarsandapproachesGod,toGod'sgreatdispleasure,heisdespisedinheavenandonearth."AwzalihandeddownatraditionthatBilalibnSaid(d.between105/724and124/743)usedtosay,"Peopleofyourilklookattheroyalguardandthecourtiers,takerefugeinGodfrombeinglikethat,andloathethatstate.Ontheotherhand,theylookataworldlyscholarwhoputsonairsbeforethepeopleandeagerlyanticipatestheobjectsofhisdesireandapositionofleadership,butdonotspurnhim.Yetthisscholarwasmoredeservingofdisgustthanthatroyalguard."AbuMuhammad(Sahlat-Tustari)said,"Donotundertaketheaccomplishmentofanydeed,religiousorsecular,withoutconsultingthetrulylearned,foronlythenwillyouultimatelygainthepraiseofGod."Someoneasked,"AbuMuhammad,whoarethetrulylearned?"Hereplied,"Thosewhopreferthenextworldtothis,andGodtothemselves."And`Umarsaidinhislasttestament,"BereflectiveinallyouraffairslikethosewhofearGod."

TraditionhascometousinthehistoricaldocumentsabouttheIsraelitesthatoneofthewiseonescompiled360volumesonwisdom,andthusbecameknownastheSage.Godthereforerevealedtotheirprophet,"Saytoso-and-so,`Youhavefilledtheearthwithidlechatterandyouhavenotacquittedyourselfbeforemeinanyofthat.Therefore,Idonotacceptanyofyourbabbling."'Themanthenbecamedowncastandsadasaresultandabandonedthatwayofacting.He

mingledamongthepublic,strolledinthemarkets,andlookedafterthechildrenofIsrael.Thusdidheattainspiritualhumility.SoGodrevealedtotheprophet,"Tellthatperson,`Nowyouhavemeasureduptowhatpleasesme."'

Oneofthelearnedsaid,"Thelearnedareoftwotypes:thepublicscholarandtheprivatescholar.Thepublicscholarisonewhoissueslegalopinionsconcerningthepermittedandtheforbidden,andkeepsthecompanyofthehighandmighty.Theprivatescholar,ontheotherhand,isonewhoknowsthescienceofthedivinetranscendentunityandexperientialknowledge.Thelattertypekeeptotheirsecludedcorners.64Someonesaid,"ImamAhmadibnHanbalisliketheTigrisRiver-everybodyisfamiliarwithit.ButBishribnal-Harith(al-Hafi)islikeapleasanthiddenspring-peopleheadforitoneatatime."HammadibnZayd(d.179/795)said,"SomeoneaskedAyyub,65`Isknowledgemoreplentifulthesedaysthaninthepast?'Hereplied,`Knowledgewasmoreabundantinthepast;nowadayswordsareingreatersupply."'Hethusdistinguishedbetweenknowledgeanddiscourse.Peopleusedtosay,"So-and-soisalearnedperson,andso-andsoisatalker;so-and-sotalksmore,butso-and-soismoreknowledgeable."AbuSulayman(ad-Darani)usedtosay,"Ma`rifaisclosertosilencethantospeech."Oneofthosewhopossessedexperientialknowledgesaid,"Thistypeofknowledgehastwoparts:halfofitkeepsquiet,andasfortheotherhalf,youknowwhereyoucandepositit."Someoneelsehasadded,"Halfofitisecstasy,andhalfreflection,"meaningreflectionandcontemplation.

SomeoneaskedSufyan(ath-Thawri)whatalearnedpersonis,andheanswered,"Someonewhoputsknowledgeinitsplace,sothatallthingsexistindueproportion."Oneofthesagessaid,"Whenknowledgeabounds,talkisscarce."Ibrahimal-Khawwas66said,"AstheSufi'sknowledgewaxes,sowaneshisinnerspiritualopenness."Oneofourspiritualmasterssaid,"IaskedJunayd,`Abu`l-Qasim,aretheretongueswithouthearts?T'Plenty,'hereplied.Iasked,`Arethereheartswithouttongues?T'Thereare,'heanswered,`butatonguewithoutaheartisaanaffliction,whileaheartwithoutatongueisablessing.'Iasked,`Andwhentongueandheartaretogether?T'That,'saidhe,`isbutter[257]withthefinestdates,"'meaning(butterwith)datesyrup.

Wehaveatradition,lackingfullisnad,fromSufyan(ath-Thawri)fromMalikibnMighwal(d.c.157/773),whosaid,"Someoneasked,`MessengerofGod,whatisthemostexcellentdeed?'Hereplied,`Avoidingforbiddenthings,while

yourmouthismoistenedwiththeremembranceofGod.'Someoneasked,`MessengerofGod,whoisthebestcompanion?'Heanswered,`Acompanionwhosupportsyouwhenyouengageinrecollection,andwhospursyoutorecollectionyouwhenyouforget.'Someoneasked,`Whoisthemostevilcompanion?'Saidhe,`Onewhodoesnoturgeyoutorecollectionwhenyouaresilent,andwhodoesnotsupportyouwhenyourecollect.'Someoneelseasked,`Andwhoisthemostlearnedperson?'(Muhammad)answered,`TheonewhosefearofGodisthemostintense.'Theysaid,`Tellusaboutthebestamongussothatwecankeepcompanywiththem.'Heanswered,`PeopleatthesightofwhomoneremembersGod.'Theysaid,`Andwhoistheworstperson,MessengerofGod?'Hereplied,`OGodforgive!'Theycontinued,`MessengerofGod,tellusmoreaboutthat.'Heanswered,`Religiousscholarswhohavebecomecorrupted."'

'Alidescribedworldlyscholarswhospeakoutofpersonalopinionandcapriceinanextraordinarymanner-wehavethetraditionfromKhalidibnTaliq,fromhisfather,andhisfather,1ImranibnHusayn(d.52/672):"'AliibnANTalibaddressedusandsaid,`Myresponsibilityisapledge,andIstandbehindit.Nopeople'sseedofthefearofGodwithers,andnorootstockthirstsforguidance.Themostignorantpersonistheonewhoisnotawareofhisstanding-andthatissomeignorance,tobeunawareofone'sspiritualstanding!FromGod'sperspective,themosthatefulofcreaturesisapersonwhocollectsknowledge,raidingundercoverofdarkness,causingtrialandtribulation,blindtowhatishiddenintranquility.Themostcontemptiblepeople,andthosewhohavethemostincommonwithsuchaperson,considerhimlearned,eventhoughhehasnotgainedanyknowledgeforasingleentireday.Hesetsoutearlyinthemorning,amassingthatwhich,thoughavailableinabundance,isoflittleuse.Whenhehasslakedhisthirstwithtaintedwaterandhasmultipliedfruitlessacts,hesitswiththepeopleissuinglegalopinionswiththeintentofclarifyingwhatothersfindobscure.Shouldhebeconfrontedwithapuzzlingissue,headdressesitfromhisidiosyncraticperspective.Inhisdispellingofambiguitiesheisastenuousasthespider'swebbing,forhedoesnotknowwhetherhehasmissedthemarkorhitit.Thefoolishnessdragson,adarkmadnessinwhichheoffersnoexcuseforwhathedoesnotknow,andhethusgetsawayunscathed.Henevertakesafirmconvincingbiteoutofknowledge,yethemanagestocomeawaywiththeprize.Peopleshedtearsofbloodforhim,inheritancescryoutforhim;becauseofhisrulings,peopleconsiderforbiddenwomenpermissible.ByGod,

suchapersonisincapableofgivingoutwhathehasreceived,norisheequaltothatwhichoverpowershim.Thesearetheonesdestinedtowailandweepallthedaysoftheirlivesinthisworld."'

'AlialsodescribedthoselearnedaboutthenextlifeintheHadithofKumaylibnZiyad,inwhichhesaid,"Peopleareofthreekinds:onewhopossessesspiritualknowledge"-thatis,onewhopossessesknowledgeofLordlinesssothat'AlimadeattributiontoaLord,thewayGodhasreferredtotheminHisword,"BeyouallLordlyonesinthatyouarethosewhoknowthescripture(andinthatyouhavestudieditintensively)"(3:79).Hethuscalls"Lordly"boththeonewhopossessesknowledgeofHisscripture,andtheonewhostudiesitintensely.Thispersonthereforeintegratesknowledgeandaction,soitissaidthattheonewhopossessesLordlyknowledgeistheonewhoknowsandactsandteachesthepeoplewhatisgood.Hesaid"thatistheonewhoiscalledmightyintherealmofheaven."AndaboutHisgivingthemprecedenceGodhassaid,"Whythendotheirdivinesandscripturalspecialistsnotdeterthem(fromdeliveringtheirsinfulteachingsandeatingwhatisforbidden)?"(5:63).

SotheLordlyoneshaveprecedenceoverthereligiousauthoritieswhopossessknowledgeofthescripture.InthiscontextwehavereceivedatraditionfromMujahid,67"TheLordlyonesareonestepabovetheauthoritiesonscripture."Someoneelsesaid,"Thescripturalauthoritiesareonestepabovethemonks,"thatis,thosewhopossesstheknowledgeofhearts[258]outrankthosewhopossesstheknowledgethatcanbearticulated,whilethosewhopossessknowledgeofthescripturearesuperiorinranktodevotees.GodhaslinkedthemtoHisprophetsastheirhelpersandregardsthemaslong-suffering,whenHesays,"Howmanyaprophethasdonebattle,andalongsidethemcountlessLordlyones"(3:146).Heproceeds,intheremainderoftheverse,todescribethemasfirmlycommittedtoHiscommand,staunchinHisreligion,andlong-sufferinginthefaceofHisjudgment.Theword"Lordlyones"(ribbiyuna)isthepluralof"Lordlyone"(ribbiy"").Onesaysribbiy""andrabbaniy"",sothepluralofribbiy°"isribbiyunaandthatofrabbaniy`°'israbbaniyuna.

Inthatvein,thetraditionhascomedownfromGod'sMessenger,"OnthedayofResurrectiontheprophetswillintercede,thenthelearnedones,thenthemartyrs."Hehasthusgiventhelearnedprecedenceoverthemartyrs,forthelearnedoneistheleaderofacommunity,andhisrewardcommensuratewiththatofhiscommunity,whereasthemartyractsonhisownbehalf.Accordingto

anothertraditionalreport,"Theinkofscholarswillbeweighedinthescalewiththebloodofmartyrs."Themartyr'sloftiestspiritualaspectishisblood,whereasthelowestattributeofthescholarishisink.ButGodcomparedthemwitheachotherandthescholarcameoutaheadofthemartyrinhisloftiestspiritualstation.'Aliusedtosay,"ThescholarismoreexcellentthanonewhofastsorkeepsnightvigilorengagesinjihadinthecauseofGod,andwhenalearnedonediesheleavesavacuuminIslamthatonlyoneofhissuccessorscanfill."AtraditionsupportedcompletelybacktoMuhammadelaborates,saying,"Whenalearnedonedies,heleavesavacuuminIslamthatnothingcanfillaslongasthenightbanishestheday.Ascholar'sdeathmeansthatastarhasgonedark,outstrippinginimportanceeventheextinctionofawholetribe."

Then'Alisaid,intheHadithofKumayl,referringtothesecondtypeofperson,"Theonewhoseeksknowledgetowardsalvation."HereferstotheseekerinquestofknowledgewhowantstolearnfromthosewhopossessknowledgeofGodaboutthepathofpiousdeedsandsincerityinrelationtothequestforwholenessandsalvationfromignoranceinthisworldandfrompunishmentinthenext.Hethenadded,"Andtheswarmingwingedinsects."The"wingedinsects"aremothsthat,outofignorance,diveintotheflame.Thesingularoftheterm(hamaj"')ishamajat"."Swarming"meanstrivial,fickle,andlackingunderstanding:cravingagitateshim,irascibilitycarrieshimaway,self-satisfactiongiveshimtheillusionofcleverness,andhedisplayshishubrisarrogantly.Onthataccount'Aliweptandsaid,"Thusdoesknowledgeperishwhenonetowhomitisentrusteddies."ThenhesighedashereferredtotheLordlyones,saying,"Oh,howIlongtohaveaglimpseofthem!"-meaningtheLordlyonesamongthelearned.IhavediscussedthisHadithinitsentiretyinaprevioussection.ThosewhomhelamentslonginglyarethoseforwhomtheMessengerofGodhadlongedbeforehim,whenhesaid,"Oh,howIlongtomeetmybrothers!HowIwishIcouldseemybrothers!"Thenhesaid,"Theyarethepeoplewhowillcomeafteryou,"anddescribedthem(seepp.128-29).

Theyare,then,hisbrothers,fortheirheartsareinaccordwiththeheartsoftheprophetsandbynaturaltemperamenttheypossesstheattributesofthefaith.TheyaretheAbdal68ofthiscommunity.Theirqualitiesdefydescription,andtheyareofthreecategories:theperfectlytruthful,thewitnesses,andtherighteous.SomeoftheirheartsareintunewiththeheartofAbrahamtheKhalil(God'sintimatefriend);someoftheirheartsareintunewiththatofMosesthe

Kalim(God'sconversant),JesustheSpirit(ofGod),andMuhammadtheBeloved(ofGod);whilestillothers'heartsareintunewiththoseofGabriel,Michael,andIsrafil.

Brotherhoodbetweentwopartiesisamatterofaffinityandcloseresemblanceindeedsandnaturaltemperament,asGodhassaid,"HaveyounotnoticedhowthehypocritessaytotheirinfidelbrothersamongthepeopleoftheBook...?"(59:11).69Sincetheyshareathearttheinnercharacteristicsofunbeliefandadherencetowhatisdubious,Godreferstothem[259]asbrothers.Inasimilarvein,Godhassaid,"ThesquanderersarebrothersoftheSatans"(17:27).Thesehavenothingincommonwithrespecttocreaturelycharacteristics,nordotheyshareeithercommonfatherhoodormotherhood,fortheSatansarethespawnofIbliswhilethesquanderersaredescendantsofAdam.Nevertheless,sincetheirheartsaresimilarwithrespecttoaffectivepropensities,naturaltemperament,anddeeds,theirsisabrotherlyaffinity.

Theunderstandingofonewhopossessesknowledgeofthenextlife,ontheotherhand,isresplendentfromthelightsofhisheart,andhisspiritualcomprehensionisinformedbywhathehasdiscoveredthroughhislearningandcontemplation.Hisnaturaltemperamenttakesonthequalitiesofhiscertitudeandpower,andhispathandjourneyingareonthehighroadoftheProphet'sexampleandway.HeisthusamonghisbrothersandthebrothersoftheprophetswhomGod'sMessengerlongedtosee.Theyarethestrangersamongthemultitude,ofwhomMuhammadsaid,"Islambeganasastrangerandwillendasastranger.Happyarethestrangers!"Someoneasked,"Andwhoarethestrangers?"Hereplied,"Thosewhoremainuprightwhilehumankindbecomescorrupt."Anotherversionsays,"ThosewhocontinuetohonoraspectsofmySunnathatmostpeoplehavedistorted,andwhokeepaliveaspectsofmySunnathatmostpeoplehavekilled."Inotherwords,theyshowforththeProphet'sPath,whichmostpeoplehaveabandoned,andofwhichtheyareignorant.Accordingtoanothertradition,"TheyarethosewhoadheretomySunnaandtothewayyoulivenow."AndinanotherHadith,"Thestrangersarepersonsfewinnumberandupright,amongnumerouswickedpeople,moreofwhomhatethemthanlovethem."SothestrangersarethosewhomGodhasblessedwiththefriendshipoftheprophetsinthehighestheights,andofwhomHesaid,"WiththoseuponwhomGodhasbestowedHisgrace,theprophets..."ondowntoHisword"friends"(4:69).7°(Sufyan)ath-Thawriusedtosay,"Whenyouseealearned

personwhohasmanyintimatefriends,knowthatheisspreadingconfusion."Healsosaid,"Ifyouseeamanbelovedofhisbrothersandpraisedbyhisneighbors,youcanbesurethatheisapublicityseeker."

Godhasdescribedwickedscholarsasconsumingthisworldwithknowledge.BycontrastHehasdescribedthosewhopossessknowledgeofthenextlifeasgod-fearingandself-disciplined.AndconcerningtheworldlyscholarsHehassaid,"GodacceptedacovenantwiththosewhohadreceivedtheBook(enjoiningthem)tomake(thescripture)cleartothepeopleandnottoconcealit;buttheycastitbehindtheirbacksandtradeditforapaltryprice"(3:187).Characterizingthosewhopossessknowledgeofthenextlife,Godhassaid,"IndeedamongthepeopleoftheBookarethosewhobelieveinGodandwhatHehasrevealedtoyou..."continuingontoHiswords,"theyhavetheirrewardinGod'seyes"(3:199)."

WehavereceivedatraditionthroughDahhak(ibnMuzahim)andIbnAbbasfromtheProphet,"Amongthelearnedonesofthiscommunityaretwokindsofpeople.FirstistheonetowhomGodhasgivenknowledgeandwhothendispensesitliberallytohumankindwithoutexpectinganythinginreturnandwithoutsellingitforaprice.Forthatreasonthebirdsofthesky,thefishesofthesea,thebeastsoftheearth,andthehighest-rankingrecordingangelscalldownblessingsuponhim.SuchapersonwillcomebeforeGodonResurrectionDayasaSayyidandaSharif72andthusbecomeanintimatefriendoftheMessengers.ThenthereisthepersontowhomGodhasgivenknowledgeinthisworld,butwhothenwithholdsitfromtheservantsofGod,expectssomethinginreturnforit,andsellsitforaprice.OnResurrectionDaysuchapersonwillcomeasonerestrainedinharnessfromthefire,whileacriercallsoutaboveallcreatures,`Thisiswhat'shis-nametowhomGodgaveknowledgeinthisworld,butwhothenwithhelditfromtheservantsofGod,expectedsomethinginreturnforit,andsolditforaprice.HewillbepunisheduntilGodhasfinishedcallinghumankindtoaccount."'

OneofthemostegregiousexamplesIhaveheardofsomeoneusingknowledgetodevourthisworld'sgoodsisastorypassedalongbyUbaydibnWagidfrom`UthmanibnANSulayman,whosaid,"TherewasamanwhoworkedforMoseswhousedtoclaim,`Moses,God'sdearfriend,toldme...,'and`Moses,God'sconfidant,toldme...,'[260]and`Moses,whoconversedwithGod,toldme...,'untilhebecamewealthyandhispossessionsmultiplied.Moses

losttouchwithhimandstartedinquiringabouthim,butfoundnotatrace.Then,oneday,amancamealongcarryingapigwithablackcordarounditsneck.Mosesaskedhim,`Doyouknowso-and-so,'andhereplied,`Yes,he'sthepighere.'Mosessaid,`Sir,IrequestthatyoureturnhimtohisformerstatesothatIcanquestionhimabouthowthishappenedtohim.'ThenGodrevealedtohim,`OMoses,hadyouentreatedmeasAdamandtheotherProphetsentreatedme,Iwouldnothaverespondedtoyourcall.ButIwillexplainittoyou:Ididthistohimbecauseheusedreligionforworldlygain."'

WehaveatraditionfromHasan(al-Basri),thatoneday,ashelefthisstudycircle,amanfromKhurasanrequestedapermissionfromhim.HeplacedbeforehimapursecontainingfivethousanddirhamsandproducedfromunderhisarmaparcelcontainingtengarmentsoffineKhurasanilinen.SoHasanasked,"What'sthis?"Hereplied,"AbuSaid,thisisforspendingandthisisforwearing."RepliedHasan,"MayGodforgiveyou!Keepyourmoneyandyourclothes.Wedon'tneedthat.Anyonewhoholdsastudycirclesuchasthisoneofmineandacceptsfrompeoplesomethinglikethis,onthedayhemeetsGod,hewillmeetHimindisgrace."Andaccordingtoatradition,"Indeed,thoughpeoplemaypraiseanindividualfromeasttowest,Godregardsthatpersonasofnogreatervaluethantheweightofagnat'swing."Asfortheworldlyscholarswhoseekthisworldthroughtheirknowledge,whoconsumeitbyexploitingreligion,whochoosetheirfriendsandcompanionsfromamongthechildrenofnobility,whoaggrandizethemandlovethisworld,andwhodevotethemselvestoitgladlyandcheerfully-ineveryagetheywillbeknownbytheircharacteristics,bythestyleoftheirpronouncements,andbytheirdemeanor.

Wehavereceivedaharshtraditionaboutthespiritualstationsofthewickedscholars.WetakerefugeinGodfromtheirilkandaskHimnottoafflictuswithanyoftheirspiritualcircumstances.WehavereceivedthistraditioninoneversionwithanunbrokenchainoftransmissionbacktotheProphet,andinanotherwithalineoftransmissionbackasfarasMuladhibnJabal;Ipreferthelatter.WehaveatraditionfromMindalibn'AliandAbuNu`aymash-ShamiandMuhammadibnZiyad,inwhichMuladhibnJabalsays,"God'sMessengersaid,"thoughIstopthechainoftransmissionwithM&adh,whosaid,"Atemptationforthelearnedpersonistoprefertalkingoverlistening.Talkingallowsscopeforelegantexpressionandembellishment,sothatonecannotreadilypinpointaspeaker'serror.Silence,ontheotherhand,yieldsintegrityandknowledge.Some

scholarshoardtheirknowledgeanddonotlikepeopletodiscoveritfromsomeoneelse.SuchapersonisdestinedforthefirstlevelofHellfire.Otherscholarstaketheirknowledgeasauthoritytoruleoverothers,sothat,shouldanyonerejectsomeaspectoftheirknowledgeordoubtthetruthofwhattheyknow,theybecomeangry.SuchpeoplearedestinedforthesecondlevelofHellfire.Stillotherscholarsdeemtheirpronouncementsandthearcaneaspectsoftheirknowledgeappropriateonlyforthewell-connectedandaffluent,regardingthosewhoneedtheirknowledgeasunworthyofit.ThesearedestinedforthethirdlevelofHellfire.Somescholars,again,appointthemselvesaslegaladvisorsandproceedtoissuefaultylegalopinions.AndGodloathespeoplewhoperpetratefraud.TheyaredestinedforthefourthlevelofHellfire.YetotherscholarsdiscourseusingtheterminologyoftheJewsandChristians,sothattheirlearningisrepletewiththat.ThesearedestinedforthefifthlevelofHellfire.Thentherearethescholarswhotaketheirlearningtobenomorethanamarkofmanlyvirtue,magnanimity,andreputationamongthepeople.SuchpeoplearedestinedforthesixthlevelofHellfire.Vanityandnarcissismmotivatesomelearnedpersons,sothat,whentheyadmonishothers,theymakestringentdemands,butwhenothersadmonishthem,theyrespondwithdisdain.[261]ThesearedestinedfortheseventhlevelofHellfire.Considersilencemandatory,forwithityouwillovercomeSatan.Takecarenottobeamusedwhenthereisnothingworthlaughingat,andnottosetoffwithoutadestinationinmind."

WehavereceivedaHadiththatmakesreferencetothecharacteristicsofthosewhopossessknowledgeofthenextlife.Itencompassestheprinciplesofthespiritualstationsofthefaithandthemeansofreligionandcertitudeforwhichhumanitycriesout.WehaveatraditionfromShagiqibnIbrahimal-Balkhi'3from'AbbadibnKathir(d.c.140/757),fromAbu`z-Zubayr(d.126/743),fromJabir,"whoattributedittoGod'sMessenger.I,however,judgethechaintoendwithJabiribn'AbdAllah,whosaid,"Donotassociatewitheverylearnedperson,butonlywiththosewhocallyoutoprogressinfiveareas:fromdoubttocertitude,fromvainglorytosincerity,fromcravingtoasceticism,fromhaughtinesstoself-effacement,andfromhostilitytoamicableadmonition."

Itisevidentthatcertainknowledge,aswellasthescienceofma'rifaandguidance,istheveryknowledgethattheancestorsinfaithhadinmind,inthattheCompanionsandtheFollowerswereontheirguardagainstlosingthatknowledge.Theyfearedbeingdeprivedofitandspokeaboutitseliminationand

scarcityattheendoftime.WhattheyweretalkingaboutwastheknowledgeofheartsandcontemplationthatistheresultoffearofGod,aswellasaboutthescienceofexperientialknowledgeandcertitudethatarisesfromincreasedfaithandisthefruitofguidance.Oncethegod-fearingarenomore,andthosewhoexerciseself-scrutinyarescarce,andtheasceticalpeoplehavedisappeared,thesedisciplineswillhavevanished,fortheydependonthesepeoplefortheirexistence.Suchpeoplearethemastersandcommunicatorsofthesesciences,whichinturnarethespiritualstatesthatundergirdthemandtheirpathalongwhichtheytravel.Itwasbecauseoftheirma'rifaofthepreciousnessofthatknowledgethattheCompanionsandtheFollowersgrievedoveritsloss.

Godhasdescribedthetrulylearnedaspeoplewhorenounceandthinklittleofthisworld,andwhoperformandbelieveinrighteousdeeds.Conversely,thepeopleofthisworldarecharacterizedaslustingafteritandmakingmuchofit,aswhentheMostHighsaidinthisconnection,"SoQarunwentoutamonghispeopleinhisadornment.Thosewhodesirethelifeofthisworldsaid,`OthatwehadthelikesofwhatQarunhasbeengiven,forhisindeedisaprodigiousfortune!'Butthosewhohadbeengivenknowledgesaid,`Woetoyou,forbetterisGod'srewardforthosewhobelieveanddorighteousdeeds."'ThenHesaid,"Nonebutthelong-sufferingwillattainthat"(28:79-80).Inotherwords,nonewillattainthiswisdomexceptthosewhorenouncetheworldlyadornmentwithwhichQarunwentout.

WehavereceivedatraditionfromJundabibn'AbdAllahal-Bajali,"Asimpressionableyoungpeople,wewereinthepresenceofGod'sMessengerandwelearnedaboutthefaithbeforetheQur'an,andthenwelearnedtheQur'an,sothatwegrewinfaith."AndfromIbnMasud,"TheQur'anwasrevealedinorderthatpeoplewouldactuponit,andyouhaveengagedintheactofstudyingit.Therewillcomeapeoplewhowillmakeitasstraightasspears,andtheywillnotbeamongthebestofyou."Accordingtoanotherversion,"Theymakeitstraightasanarrowsoastoanticipateitratherthanwaitforit."

WehaveatraditionfromIbn`Umarandothers,"TherewasaperiodduringourlifetimewhenoneofusreceivedthefaithbeforetheQur'an.Aparticularserawasrevealedsothathelearnedwhatitheldpermittedandwhatforbidden,andwhichofitscontentsconstitutedaninjunctionandwhicharejection.Helearnedwhataspectsofithadtobeleftundecided,thewayyoulearntheQur'annowadays.AndIhaveseenindividualswhoreceivedtheQur'anbeforethefaith,

andwhocouldreciteitscontentsfromthefirstseratoitsconclusion,withoutknowingwhatitenjoinedandwhatitrejected,orconcerningwhataspectsofitoneneededtoremainundecided,andwhotosseditoffasonediscardsspoileddates."Anotherreportcommentsonthemeaningofthis:"Wewere[262]CompanionsofGod'sMessengerwhoreceivedthefaithbeforetheQur'an.AfteryoutherewillcomeapeopletowhomtheQur'anwillbegivenbeforethefaith.Theywillarticulateitslettersproperlybuttheywillfailtograspitsmeanings.Theywillsay,`WehaverecitedQur'an,andwhorecitesmoreexcellentlythanwe?Weareknowledgeable,andwhoismorelearnedthanwe?'ThatistheextentoftheirreceptionoftheQur'an."Andaccordingtoanotherversion,"Theyarethevilestofthiscommunity."

Asfortheknowledgethathasbeenhandeddown,whichthesuccessorsoftheancestorsinfaithhavetransmitted,andthereportsrecordedinthebooksandputdownonthefolios,whichthemostancientamongourforbearsheard-thisistheknowledgeoflegalstatutesandopinions,andtheknowledgeofIslamandlegalrulings.Itsmethodishearing,itskeyisdeductiveinference,anditsstorehouseistheintellect.Itisrecordedinthebooksandwrittenelegantlyonpaper.Thesmalllearnitfromthegreatthroughoraltradition,anditwillremainaslongasIslamremainsandexistsolongasMuslimsexist.ForitistheproofofGodforHisservantsandthepilgrim'sgoalforthewholeofHiscreation.Itsmanifestationisguaranteed,butitcanbemanifestedonlythroughthosewhobeartheburdenofmanifestingitandhandingitdown.SotheMostHighhassaid,"Tomakemanifestthereligioninitsentirety,eventhoughtheidolatersabhorit"(9:33).InthisconnectiontheMessengerhassaid,"Andaknowledgemanifestbythetongue...,"suchistheproofofGodbeforeHiscreation.MuhammadsaidtohisCompanions,"Youhearandothershearfromyou,andothershearfromthosewhohaveheardfromyou."Muhammadhastherebyinformedusabouttheknowledgeyettocomethathasbeenmanifestlysetdowninthebooks,knowledgethatistheoutwardaspectofthereligion,ignoranceorlackofwhichgivesrisetoidolatry.JustsohasGodassuredthesurvivalofIslaminthefaceoftheidolaters'denial.

Muhammadsaid,"GodbemercifultoonewhohasheardaHadithfrommeandimpartsitjustashehasheardit.Manyarethepurveyorsoffiqhwhohavenodeepunderstandingofit.Manyaretheywhoconveyreligiousunderstandingtothosewhoseunderstandingisdeeperthantheirown."Muhammadhasthereby

informedusthatthepurveyorofreligiousknowledgecanlackanunderstandingheartifhedoesnotactuponhisknowledge,andthatsuchapersonconveysknowledgetothosewhohavedeeperunderstandingthanhehas,iftheonetowhomheconveysitactsuponit[oncehehasappropriatedit].AsMuhammadsaidinanothertradition,"Manyarethosewhoimpartknowledgewhoseappropriationofitismoreprofoundthanthatofthosewhohearditfrommedirectly."Hethuspraisessuchapersonforactingaccordingtohisknowledgeoncehehasappropriatedit,forthisindividualkeepsitinmindandreflectsuponitevenifhehasnothearditdirectlyfromtheProphet.

Godhassaid,"...andthattheearsthathearitmightappropriateitprofoundly"(69:12),referringtotheearoftheheartthatholdsinmemorywhatithasheardandthatponderswhatithastakenin.AstheMostHighhassaid,"Inthat,thereisareminderforonewhohasaheartorlistensandisawitness"(50:37).Hemeansonewhoislisteningattentivelytoonewhohasheard,andwitnesseswithhisheartthatwhichtheonefromwhomhehearsthisknowledgehasactuallywitnessed.AccordingtoanexegeticalcommentaryontheMostHigh'swords,"...andthattheearsthathearitmightappropriateitprofoundly"(69:12),thismeansanearthathasunderstoodfromGodHisinjunctionandHisforbidding,andhasinteriorizeditandacteduponit.SotheMostHighhascharacterizedthebelievers,whoseveryselvesHehaspurchased(9:111),sayingattheconclusionofadescriptionofthem,"thosewhoobserveGod'ssanctions"(9:112).

Wehavereceivedatraditionfrom'Ali,"Seekknowledge,sothatyoucangainma'rifabymeansofit.Actuponitandbecomeitsproponents."Healsosaid,"Whenyouhearofknowledge,keepittoyourselfanddonotgetitmixedupwithlightbanterlestheartsrejectit."Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Anyonewhoemitsalaugh,spitsoutabitofknowledge."KhalilibnAhmadsaid,"Knowledgeisnotmerelywhatfitsinabooksatchel;knowledgeisthatwhichthecenterofone'sbeingappropriatestoitself."Whenaknowledgeablepersoncombinesinhimself[263]threethings,namely,long-suffering,humility,andpleasantdisposition,theblessingupontheonewholearnsfromhimiscomplete.Andwhentheonewholearnscombinesinhimselfthreethings,namely,understanding,properdemeanor,andexcellentcomprehension,thentheblessinguponthelearnedpersoniscomplete.[AndGodknowsbest.]

Discussionof the characteristics of traditional knowledge and thepathoftheancestors in faith,andacensureof thenew,morerecently introduced

popularnarrativesandpublicdiscourse

OnewhopossessesknowledgeofGodmusthavefivethingsthatarethehallmarksofthoseendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlife:fearofGod,aweinGod'spresence,meekness,noblecharacter,andself-denial.Godhassaid,"ThoseamongGod'sservantswhopossessknowledge,experiencedreadinGod'spresence"(35:28);and"ThosewhohumblethemselvesbeforeGod..."(3:199).Likewisemeeknessandpositivedispositionareessential,asGodsaid(addressingMuhammad),"Andloweryourwinggentlytowardthebelievers,andsay:`Iamtheclearwarner"'(15:88-89).TheMostHighhassaid,"SoitisinherentinthemercyofGodthatyoubegentletothem"(3:159).Andasforself-denialinthisworld,Godhassaid,"Thosewhohavebeengivenknowledgesaid,`Woeuntoyou!TherewardofGodisbest(forthosewhobelieveanddogoodworks)"'(28:80).TheindividualinwhomthesecharacteristicsareevidentisamongthosewhopossessknowledgeofGod.

Knowthatonecandiscernthepossessorofknowledgeinthecontextofaddressingreligiousdilemmas.Peopleneedtheindividualwhopossessesexperientialknowledgewhendoubtstakeholdofthecenteroftheirbeing,as'AbdAllahibnMasudsaid,"Whenoneofyouexperiencesinternalconsternation,goodwillalwayscomeofitsolongasthatpersonfindssomeonewhocanoffersolidinformationonthematterandhealtheonesufferingfromit.But,byGod,weareonthevergeofatimewhenyouwillnotfindsuchaperson."InthisconnectionGod'sMessengerasked'AbdAllahibnMasud,"Whoisthemostlearnedperson?"Hereplied,"GodandhisMessengerknowthatbest."SoMuhammadcontinued,"Theonewho,evenwhenheistooyoungtowalk,isthemostknowledgeableconcerningthetruthwhenmattersareambiguousanddilemmasarise,orwhenpeopleareatoddswitheachother,eveniftheknowledgeablepersonislimitedinhisabilitytoact.s75Wehavereceivedatraditionfrom1ImranibnHusayn,"IndeedGodlovesthepenetratinggazewhendoubtsdescend,andcompleterationalunderstandingamidtheonslaughtofpassions.Helovesgenerosityevenwithsomethingsosmallasdates,andHelovesvalorevenifoneismerelykillingasnake."

InthisageofourswehavecometoasituationsuchasIbnMasudfeared:ImaginethatadilemmaweretoarisewithrespecttoaffirmingGod'stranscendentunity,oradoubtpreoccupiedabelievertothecenterofhisbeingconcerningGod'sattributes,andyousoughtadisclosureofthetruthofthe

matterintermsofwhattherightlyguidedheartwitnesses-aheartthatGodhasmadetoprosperandthecenterofwhosebeingGodhasexpandedwithguidanceandcleansedwithsnow.76Supposefurtherthatsuchathingwererareinthistimeofyours,sothatinseekingadisclosureaboutityoufoundyourselfhavingtochooseamongfivetypesofpeople."

Firstisthewaywardinnovatorwhoinformsyouofhisviewonthebasisofwhim,therebyaddingtoyourconfusion.Secondisthespeculativetheologianwhopurveyslegalopinionstoyouonthebasisbothofhismeagerknowledgeoftheproofsofthosewhopossesscertitudeandofhisrationalunderstandingoftheoutwarddimensionofreligion.This,however,isitselfanambiguousmatter:Howcanoneelucidateoneambiguousmatterwithanother?

Third,thereistheitinerant,errantSufiwhomakesecstaticutterances,whotakesyoubeyondtheBookandtheSunna,sincehedoesnotcareaboutthem,andwhoopposestheteachingsoftheimams,thoughhepaysthemnoheed.Heanswersyouwithsupposition,diabolicalinsinuation,conjecture,pretense,andobfuscation.Heobliteratesbeingandplace,turnsknowledgeandethicalstandardstopsy-turvy,anddispenseswithnamesandforms.Thesepeoplewanderaimlesslyintracklessdesertwilderness,neversettlingdownalongthebeatenpath.Theyaresubmergedintheoceanofdivinetranscendentunity,buttheystandneitherasguidesforthosewhopossesscertitudenorasproof[forthegod-fearing.]Thisperson'steachingisvapid,forhehasnoproofanddoesnottravelbytheestablished[264]road.

Fourth,thereistheonewhoissueslegaladvisories,whoconsidershimselflearned,andwhosecroniesfeaturehimapersonofdeeperunderstanding.Hesays,"Thisisamongtherequirementsofthenextlifeandanaspectoftheknowledgeoftheunseenworld,butwedon'ttalkaboutitbecauseitisn'tourcharge."Heneverthelessmultiplieshisargumentsanddiscoursesaboutwhatisnothischargeandholdsdisputationsconcerningthingstheancestorsinfaithneverdiscussed.Hestudiesandacquiresaknowledgethatislittlemorethananaffectation.Asaresult,thehaplessonedoesnotknowthatheischargedwithdedicatinghimselftotheknowledgeofthefaith,theultimaterealityofthedivinetranscendentunity,themwrifaofsincerityinpiousdeeds,andtheknowledgeofthingsthatunderminesincerity.Hesidestepsallofthatevenbeforeengaginginit,unawarethatwhatheisstrivingfortrulyisincumbentuponhim.Knowledgeofthefaith,integrityoftheaffirmationofGod's

transcendentunity,sincerityofworshipinrelationtoLordliness,thedisengagementofactionsfromworldlycraving,andtheassociatedworksofhearts-allofthatcomposesdeepreligiousunderstandingandepitomizesthequalitiesofbelievers,sinceoneisenjoinedinthesematterstotakegreatcare,asinthewordsoftheMostHigh,"Toacquiredeepreligiousunderstandingandtoadmonishtheirpeople...[whentheyreturntothemsothatperhapstheymighttakeprecautions]"(9:122).TheMessengersaid,"LearncertitudeandIwilllearnalongwithyou."AndtheCompanionssaid,"Welearnedthefaith,thenwelearnedtheQur'an,sothatwegrewinfaith."This,then,isanabundanceofguidancethroughcertitudeandanaugmentationofthebelieversinthefaith,astheMostHighhassaid,"SoHeincreasedtheirfaith"(3:173).Godhasalsosaid,"AndGodincreasestheguidanceofthosewhoareguided"(19:76).

Butthattypeofpersondoesnotrealizethattheproperdemeanorinpiousdeeds,whichresultsfromexperientialknowledgeandcertitude,isamongthequalitiesofthosewhopossesscertitude.ThatistheinteriorstateofthegodservantinthespiritualstationthatcharacterizeshisrelationshiptohisLord,hissharefromhisLord,andhisportionofabundanceinhislifehereafter.ItisintimatelyboundtothepureconfessionofGod'stranscendentunity,whichisinturninextricablylinkedtothefaithoveragainstinsidioustypesofpolytheismandvarietiesofhypocrisy.Itisconnectedtomandatoryduties,andthemostfundamentalrequirementofallissincerityinpiousdeeds.Anyknowledgeotherthanthis,whichhelovesandisdeartohisheart,fromamongthevarietiesofsuperfluousknowledgeandstrangesciences,dealsonlywithhumanconcernsandnecessitiesandisadistractionfromreligiousdutyandavainpreoccupation.

Butduetoalackofexperientialawarenessoftherealityofbeneficialknowledge,thisheedlesspersonprefersthatwhichhehascometoconsiderworthyofhisquestforworthlessknowledgewhosegoalheholdssodear.Heaccordsprioritytotheneedsandstatesofothersoverhisownneedsandspiritualstate.HeoccupieshimselfwiththeirclaimonhimintheimmediacyoftheirmundaneaffairsandinlegalopinionsanddoesnotworktowardhisownmoreplentifulportionpromisedhimbyhisLordinthelifetocome,which"isbetterandmorelasting"(87:17),sinceitisthereheisdestinedtoreturnandtherewillhavehiseverlastingdwelling.ForheprefersproximitytoothersovernearnesstohisLordandabandonsallbutapartofhisownsharewithGodinfavorofinvolvementwiththem.Hewouldratherfreehimselfforthemthanfreehisown

heartfortomorrowbyoccupyinghimselfwiththeserviceofhisMasterandseekingHisgoodpleasure.Instead,heisdistractedfromattainingvirtueinhisheartbythevirtuousthingstheysayabouthim,andfromhisowninwardspiritualstatebytheiroutwardcircumstances.

Thecausesforwhatailshimaretheloveoftheroleofleader;thequestforstatusintheeyesofthepeople,togetherwiththerankthatgoeswithgovernance;andthethirstforworldlyacquisitionsandtheadulationtheybring.Addtothathismeagerspiritualdesireandweakintentionwithrespecttothelastingbenefitsandtreasuresofthenextlife.Hefrittersawayhisdaysinfavoroftheirdays,hesquandershislifeinresponsetotheircravings,sothatthosewhoareutterlyignorantoflearningwillcallhimalearnedman,andsothathewillbe,intheheartsandopinionsoffools,animportantperson!SohearrivesattheResurrectionbankrupt,forheappearsbereft,bycontrastwiththeportionofthosewhohavedrawnneartoGod.Forthosewhoact,winnearnesstoGod;andthosewhoknow,experiencetherefreshmentofcontentment.[265]Buthowandwhencecouldonewintheportionallottedtoanother?ForGodhasmadeadoerforeverydeedandaknowerforeverykindofknowledge:"TheirallottedportioncomestothemfromtheBookofDeeds"(7:37).Everythingdoesreadilythatforwhichitwascreated,andthisisthefinalwordonthesubject.

Inaddition,thereisnodisagreementamongmembersofthecommunityofbelievers:Knowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityisarequirement,particularlywhendoubtsariseanddilemmasbecomeevident.Peopledo,however,differwithrespecttoanswerstotwoquestions:Whatisthedivinetranscendentunity?andHowdoesoneseekitandarriveatit?Somesaythroughinvestigationandsearch;others,throughdeductiveinferenceandspeculativeanalysis;stillothers,throughhearingandpassingalongtradition.Andsomeofthemsay,throughdivineaccommodationandsurrender.Somesaythatitistobeencounteredthroughvulnerabilityandinabilitytoarriveattheirgoals.

ThefifthtypeofpersonamongthosewhopossessknowledgeisonewhohasmasteredHadithandtraditionsandwhocommunicatesbypassingalongsacredreports.Whenyouinquire,suchapersonsaystoyou,"Commityourselftosurrender,andteachtheHadithasithascometoyouwithoutexaminingit."Thisishowthelegaladvisorwithintegritytransmitsmaterial,andheisthebestofthosewhopointtothepathandisintemperamentmostliketheforebearsofthegeneralpublic.Hedoesnotbelieveinclaimingcertitudeorinthema'rifaof

profoundesttruthsinrelationtowhathecommunicates,nordoeshepaycloseattentionashedescribesthemeaningofwhathepassesalongtoothers.Inrelationtoknowledge,hisroleisthatofareporter,andinrelationtoHadithandtraditionalaccounts,thatofaconduitthatconveysonlytheinformationhehasreceivedwithoutseekingdeeperunderstandingofwhathehascommunicated.Heis,therefore,"inthepresenceofaclearindicationfromhisLord"butthatindicationisnot"followedbyawitnessfromHim"(11:17).

usedtosay,"So-and-sotransmittedaHadithtous,andhewasamongthevesselsofknowledge."Hedidnotsay,"Hewasalearnedperson."AndMalikibnAnasusedtosay,"IencounteredsevenshaykhsamongtheFollowers,amongwhomsomeweregodservants,someindividualswhoseprayersofpetitionwereheardbyGod,andotherswhoprayedforrainonbehalfofothers;butItookawaynoknowledgeatallfromthem."Someoneasked,"Whyso?"Hereplied,"Becausetheywerenotamongthosewhoknewaboutthesematters."Accordingtoanotherversion,"Theydidnotunderstandwhattheywerepassingalongandpossessednofiqhoftheinquirer'squestion."Maliksaid,"IbnShihabcameamongus,whilehewasstillyoung,andsuchathronghadgatheredthatwecouldnotgetnearhim,forhewasknowledgeableaboutwhathewastransmitting."ThisisthemeaningofwhathasbeentransmittedfromGod'sMessenger,"Manyarethosewhoareresponsiblefordeeperunderstandingbutwhodonothaveit,andmanyarethosewhoconveyfiqhtothosewhopossessmoreofitthantheydo."

Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Thosewhoarenotawareofthedisparityofviewsamongthescholarsconcerningknowledgearenotcommittedtoknowledge."Otherssaid,"Onewhoisnotfamiliarwiththedisparityofviewsamongthescholarsisnotpermittedtoissuelegaladvisoriesandisnotcalledapossessorofknowledge."Qatada'9andSaidibnJubayr80said,"Themostlearnedpersonisonewhoisthemostcognizantofdiversityofviewsamongpeople."SomeoneaskedImamAhmad(ibnHanbal),"WhenamanhaswrittendownahundredthousandHadiths,isheauthorizedtoissuelegaladvisories?""No,"hereplied.Someoneasked,"Whatabouttwohundredthousand?""No,"heanswered.Someoneasked,"Howaboutthreehundredthousand?"Saidhe,"Ihopeso."

ItiswrittenintheTorah,"Theskilledphysiciansucceedsathealingtheinnerailment.""Salmanal-Faris!"wrotefromMada'intoAbu`d-Darda',83afterGod's

Messengerhadlinkedtheminbrotherhood,"Mybrother,ithascometomyattentionthatsomeonehasappointedyouasaphysiciantotreattheinfirm.Watchout!Ifyouareaphysician,speak,foryourwordbringshealing.Butifyouareonlyaquack,forGod'ssake,don'tmurderaMuslim!"Abu`d-Darda'wasinclinedto[266]hesitateafterthat,wheneversomeoneaskedhimaboutsomething.Anindividualaskedhimaboutsomething,sohegavearesponseandthensaid,"Disregardit."Sotheindividualsaidtohim,"Repeatittome,"soherepeatedit,andthemansaid,"ByGod,acharlatan!"SoAbu`d-Darda'tookhisresponseback.

RestassuredthatthesayinghascomedownfromGod'sMessenger,"Onewhopracticesmedicinewithoutpossessingaknowledgeofmedicineandkillssomeoneisresponsibleforthat."IbnAbbasusedtosay,"AskJabiribnZayd.84WerethepeopleofBasratoacccepthislegalpronouncements,hewouldexerciselatitudeevenforthem,andhewasamongthepiousFollowers."WhensomeoneaskedIbn`Umaraboutsomething,hewouldsay,"AskSaidibnAndAnasibnMalikusedtosay,"AskourMasterHasan(al-Basri),forheremembers,whereaswehaveforgotten."OneoftheBasranssaid,"OneoftheCompanionsofGod'sMessengercameamongus,sowewenttoHasanandsaid,`ShouldwenotgotothisCompanionandaskhimaboutaHadithofGod'sMessengerandyouaccompanyus?'`Yes,'hereplied,`let'sgo.'SowebegantoinquireoftheCompanionabouttheHadithofGod'sMessenger,andhestartedtoteachusHadithuntilhehadcommunicatedtwentyHadithstous.Hasanlistenedandwasattentivetohim.ThenHasangotdownonhiskneesandsaid,`CompanionofGod'sMessenger,provideuswithacommentaryonwhatyouhavehandedontousfromGod'sMessengersothatwegaindeeperunderstandingofit.'ButtheCompanionwassilent,andthensaid,`IknowonlywhatIhaveheard.'SoHasanbegantocommentonwhattheCompanionhadrecited.`AsforthefirstHadithhecommunicatedtous,'hebegan,`itsexplanationissuch-and-such;andthecommentaryonthesecondisthusandso...'untilhehaddealtwitheachoftheHadithsastheCompanionhadcommunicatedtous,andinformedusofitsinterpretation.AndweknewnotwhethertobemoreamazedattheaccuracyofhismemoryandcommandoftheHadithorathiseruditeexplication.AtthattheCompaniongrabbedahandfulofpebblesandpelteduswiththem,thensaid,`Youseekknowledgefrommewiththislearnedpersoninyourmidst!?"'

ThoseCompanionsoftheProphetreferredmattersrelatingtolegalopinionsandoutwardknowledgetothoseoflesserestateandrankthanthemselves,butwho,nevertheless,weresuperiortothemintheknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityandma'rifaandfaith.ThelatterdidnothaverecoursetotheCompanionsinambiguousmatters,nordidtheydefertotheminrespecttothescienceofexperientialknowledgeandcertitude.Hencethesaying,"KnowledgeisalightthatGodcastsintotheheartsofHisfriends."Thusaresomepersonsaccordedpreferentialtreatmentoverotherslikethem,as,forexample,whenyoutharesingledoutoverelders,andthoseamongtheFollowerswhocameaftertheancestorsinfaith.Itisoftenthecasethatobscureandunassumingpersonsareennobledinordertobringthemtonoticebyaggrandizingandelevatingthem,asGodhassaid,"Wechosetograntfavortothosedowntroddenontheearthandmakethemleaders"(28:5).

Whenthelightoccursinthecenterofone'sbeing,theheartisexpandedwithknowledgeandseeswithcertitude,sothatthetonguespeakswithauthenticelucidation.ThisisthewisdomthatGodplacesintheheartsofHisfriends,justastheinterpretationofthewordoftheExaltedandMajesticOnehasit,"Wegavehim(KingDavid)wisdomanddiscerning,articulatespeech"(38:20).Interpreterssaythatdiscernmentmeansknowingexactlywhattosay,sothatitisasthoughGodgivestheindividualsuccessinspiritualrealityasGodseesit,andtheMostHighhassaid,"HebestowswisdomonwhomHewill,andonetowhomwisdomisgivenreceivesimmensegood"(2:269).Interpreterssaythatpersonreceivesprofoundcomprehensionandsagacity.

[267]God'sMessengerwastalkingaboutdivineguidancewhenherecitedthewordofGod,"WhenGodwishestoguidesomeone,Heexpandsthecenterofthatperson'sbeingtowardsurrender"(6:125).Someoneasked,"0MessengerofGod,whatisthis`expansion'?"Hereplied,"Whenthelightdescendsintotheheart,itexpandsitscentersothatitbecomesspacious."Someoneasked,"Andistheresomeindicationofthat?"RepliedtheProphet,"Yes:withdrawalfromtheabodeofdelusion,repairingtotheabodeoftimelessness,andbeingpreparedfordeathbeforeitsarrival."ThenhementionedasconditionsselfdenialinthisworldandwillingnesstoservetheMaster.

OutstandingsuccessandaccuracyinknowledgearegiftsfromGodandamarkofpreferentialtreatmentwithwhichGodsinglesoutwhomHewill.SomeoneaskedAbuMusaal-Ashlari,86whenhewastheAmirofKufa,

concerningthewhereaboutsofamanwhowaskilledinthecauseofGodwhileadvancingratherthanretreating.AbuMusareplied,"InHeaven."IbnMasudsaidtotheinquirer,"RepeatyourquestiontotheAmir;perhapshedidnotfullyunderstandyourquestion."Theinquirersaid,"Isaid,`OAmir,whatdoyousayaboutthewhereaboutsofamanfightinginthewayofGodwhoiskilledwhileattackingratherthanretreating?"'AbuMusasaid,"InHeaven."IbnMasudsaid,"RepeatyourquestiontotheAmer,forhemaynothavefullyunderstood."Sothemanrepeateditallathirdtime,andAbuMusareplied,"InHeaven."Hethensaid,"Ihavenootheropinionthanthat.Whatdoyousay?"ThenIbnMasudsaid,"Well,Iwouldnotputitquitethatway.""Thenwhatwouldyousay?"AbuMusaasked."IwouldsaythatifheiskilledinthecauseofGodandhascorrectlyapprehendedthetruth,heisinHeaven."SoAbuMusareplied,"Hehasspokentruly.Donotaskmeaboutanythingelseaslongasthislearnedmanisamongyou."

SimpleacceptanceandhandingdownofthetraditionsaboutGod'sattributes,andreticenceconcerningtheirinterpretation,asthespecialistsinHadithhaverecommended,presupposesma'rifaandexperienceofthemeaningsofthedivinenamesandattributes.ItdoessobyrulingouttheuseofmereopinionandinsinuationandbyrepudiatingattemptstopositequivalencesoranalogiesbetweenGodandcreatures.Thissettlingintothetranquilityofcertitudethroughma~rifaandthroughwitnessingtothedivinerealityisthespiritualstationofthosewhopossesscertitude.ThefurtherconvictionthattheyarethecharacteristicsofGodthroughwhichHeismanifest-alongwithwhateverotherlimitlessandcountlesswaysHewishes-andwhichmakeevidentHisattributeshoweverHewishes,withoutbeingconstrainedbyspecificfeaturesorobligedtoconformtoaspecificimage-thisisthespiritualstationofthoseamongthewitnesseswhohavedrawnneartoGod.TheyknowthatHeissimplyHeandneednotdisplayHisothernessbutmanifestsHimselfinwhateverappearanceunderanyguise,thusrulingoutanyquestionofmanneroranalogybecauseoftheabsenceinGodofanyspeciesorsubstance.Thesearetheuprightandtheelectamongthoseendowedwithcertitude.Butanyonewhoturnsawayfromthese(uprightones)anddoesnotacknowledgewhattheyhavetestifiedhasturnedtoward(mere)acceptanceandassent(toasubstituteforactualexperience),andsettlesthereasinarefugeandplaceofrepose.Beyondthese(possessorsofcertitude)thereisnolaudablespiritualstationandnonoteworthyquality.Anyone,therefore,whopursuesarationalinquiryofthosematters,

interpretingthemaccordingtohisownopinion,endsupeitherassertingGod'slikenesstocreatedthingsordenyingGod'sattributesaltogetherandevacuatingthemofsignificance.

(On the benefits of "sessions of recollection" and the negative aspects ofsessionsdedicatedtomerestorytellingforentertainment'ssake)

AnindicationoftheexcellenceofthisknowledgeoverotherformsofknowinghascometousinthetraditionstransmittedfromtheProphetandfromtheCompanionsandFollowers.TheyconcerntheexcellenceofgatheringsforthepurposeofbeingmindfulofGodandtheexcellenceofthosewhokeepGodinmind.TheseHadithsrefertotheknowledgeoffaith,mwrifa,thesciencesofdevotionaldeeds,deepunderstandingthroughspiritualinsightintohearts,andexaminingwiththeeyeofcertaintythemysteriesoftheunseen.Theyarenotreferringtogatheringsforthepurposeofrecountingtales,noraretheytalkingaboutprofessionalraconteurs,fortheyregardstorytellingforentertainmentasareligiousinnovation.Theysay,"InthedaysofGod'sMessengerandAbuBakrand`Umar,theydidnotrecountentertainingstories,untiltheonsetofthe(first)[268]civilwar(36/656).Butwhenthecivilwarbrokeout,professionalstorytellersappeared."When'AlienteredBasra,heexpelledtheprofessionalstorytellersfromthemosqueandsaid,"Therewillbenostorytellinginourmosques."WhenhecametoHasan,ashewasdiscoursingonthiskindofknowledge,helistenedtoHasan.Thenhedepartedwithoutexpellinghim.Ibn`Umarcametohisgatheringinthemosque,andhefoundastorytellerrecountingatale,sohesentthechiefofpolicetohimtoejecthimfromthemosque,andhethrewhimout.IfthestorytellinghadbeenpartofthesessionsdedicatedtomindfulnessofGodandthestorytellershadbeenreligiousscholars,Ibn`Umarwouldnothaveejectedthemfromthemosque,inspiteofhisownspiritualreticenceandasceticism.

WehaveasayingfromIbnShawdhab(d.c.144/761)fromAbu`tTayyah(d.c.128/745),whosaid,"IsaidtoHasan,`OurImamtellsstories,somenandwomengatherandraisetheirvoicesinsupplicatoryprayerandextendtheirhands.'Hasanreplied,`Raisingthevoiceinsupplicatoryprayerisaninnovation,andextendingthehandsinsupplicationisaninnovation.-Abu`l-Ashhab(d.165/782)hascommunicatedthatHasansaid,"Storytellingisaninnovation."SomeonesaidtoIbnSirin,87"Ifonlyyouwouldtellstoriestoyourbrothers!"Sohereplied,"Itissaidthatonlythesethreediscoursepubliclytopeople:a

ruler,adeputy,oranimbecile.Iamneitherarulernoradeputy,andIwouldhatetobecomethethird!"Asayinghascomedowntousfrom'AwnibnMusathatMulawiyaibnQurra(d.113/731)said,"IaskedHasanal-Basri,`WouldyouratherIvisitedasickpersonorattendedasessionofastoryteller?'Hereplied,`Visityoursickperson.'SoIsaid,`WouldyouratherIescortedafuneralprocessionorattendedthesessionofastoryteller?T'Escortyourfuneralprocession,'heanswered.Iasked,`Andifamaninneedasksmeforhelp,shouldIhelphimorattendasessionofastoryteller?'Hereplied,`Goafteryourneedyperson,"'thusindicatingwhatwasbetterthanfrivolousgatherings.IftheyhadconsideredgatheringsforthepurposeofrecollectingGodequivalenttostorytellers'sessions,andstorieswererecollection,Hasanwouldnothavesteeredhimawayfromstorytellingandindicatedapreferenceformanyotherdeeds.HasanwaswonttocallouttoGodwhileacknowledgingthedivinetranscendentunityandtodiscourseaboutthescienceofmwrifa,ofcertitude,andofthosewhorecollectGod.

Participationinasessionofrecollectionincreasesfaith,andGodelevatesthespiritualstationofthosewhorecollectHimabovethoseofbelievers,accordingtotheMostHigh'sword,"Menwhosurrenderandwomenwhosurrender,[andmenwhobelieveandwomenwhobelieve]"(33:35).Godplacesrecollectingmenandrecollectingwomeninthehighestofspiritualstates.WehavereceivedaHadiththroughAbuDharrsaying,"Participationinasessionofrecollectionismoreexcellentthanritualprayerofathousandprostrations,andparticipationinasessionofknowledgeismoreexcellentthanvisitingathousandsickpersons,andparticipationinasessionofknowledgeismoreexcellentthanwitnessingathousandfunerals."Someoneasked,"MessengerofGod,evenmoreexcellentthanrecitingQur'an?"Hereplied,"IsQur'anrecitationbeneficialapartfromknowledge?"Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Participationinasessionofrecollectionmakesupfortenbanalgatherings."'Ata'(ibnAbiRabah)(d.c.114/732),forhispart,said,"Asessionofrecollectionmakesupforseventysessionsofidleamusement."WehaveatraditionfromMu'adhal-Allam,saying"YunusibnUbayd(d.139/756)sawmewhileIwasinthecircleoftheMultazila,andhesaid,`Come!'SoIwent,andhesaid,`Ifyouhavenoalternative(toassociatingwiththesystematictheologians),thenatleastavoidthecircleofthestorytellers."'

Hasanal-BasriwasoneofthosewhorecollectedGodandhisgatheringswere

sessionsofrecollectioninwhichhemetprivatelyinhishousewithhisbrothersandhisfollowersamongtheasceticsanddevotees-peoplelikeMalikibnDinar,Thabital-Bunani,88AyyubasSakhtiyani(d.131/748),MuhammadibnWasil,Farqadas-Sabakhi,and'Abdal-WahidibnZayd.Hesaid,"Comeletusgiveforth[269]light!"Hewastalkingtothemaboutthisdisciplineoftheknowledgeofcertitudeandpowerconcerningtheinnermovementsofhearts,depraveddeeds,andtheinsinuationsoftheego-soul.OftenoneoftheHadithspecialistswouldveilhisheadsothathewasdisguisedamongtheminordertohearthat.SowhenHasanspottedhim,hewouldsaytohim,"Youdisgracefulperson,whatareyoudoinghere?Wehavecometogetherprivatelywithourbrothersinordertorecollectwitheachother."

Hasanisourimaminthisknowledgeofwhichwearespeaking.Wepursuehisfootsteps,followhispath,andseekilluminationfromhisniche.89ItisbyGod'sleavethatwehavetracedthisteachingfromimamtoimamallthewaybacktoHasan.HewasamongthebestoftheFollowersinspirituality,sothatpeoplesaid,"Hekeptthewisdomwithinforafullfortyyearsbeforeheeverspokeaboutit."HehadmetseventycombatantsfromtheBattleofBadrandseenthreehundredCompanions.Hewasborntwoyearsbeforetheendofthecaliphateof`Umaribnal-Khattab,intheyear20/642.HewasborninMedina,andhismotherwasahandmaidtoUmmSalama(HindhintAbiUmayya,d.c.61/681),awifeoftheProphet.Itissaidthatshegavehimherbreasttodiverthimwhenhecried,andherbreastflowedabundantlyforhim.HiswordwaslikethewordofGod'sMessenger.Hesaw`Uthmanibn'Affan90and'AliibnANTalib,andwhicheveroftheTen91survivedtohisday.Inotherwords,hesawCompanionsoftheMessengerofGodfromtheperiodof`Uthmanandfromabouttheyeartwentytoabouttheyearninety(oftheIslamiccalendar).

ThelasttodieamongtheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerwereAnasibnMalikinBasra;SahlibnSaldas-Salad!(d.88/706)inMedina;Abu`t-TufaylinMecca;AbyadibnHammalal-Ma`ribiinYemen;lAbdAllahibnANAwfa(d.c.86/705)inKufa;AbuQirsafainSyria;andBuraydaal-Aslami(d.63/682)inKhurasan.AttheturnofthefirstIslamiccenturythereremainedonthefaceoftheearth,inanyregionoftheearth,notonewhohadactuallyseenGod'sMessenger.ThenHasan(al-Basri)diedintheyear110/728.AbuQatadaal-lAdawiusedtosay,"Attachyourselftothisshaykh,forbyGod,noneoftheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerIhaveseenismoreliketheCompanionsof

God'sMessengerthanhe."Theyusedtosay,"WelikenedhimtotheProphetAbrahamtheIntimateFriendofGodforhisgentleness,hishumility,hisdignifiedbearing,andhistranquility,suchwereHasan'sfinequalities."AwomaninBasramadeavow,thatifGoddidthusandsowithher,shewouldweaveagarmentofherownyarn,andshedescribedit,andwouldclothewithitthefinestpersoninBasra.Sowhenhervowrequestwasfulfilled,andshehadcompletedwhatshehadpromised,sheinquiredastowhowasthefinestpersoninBasra.Peoplesaid,"Hasan."

Hasanwasthefirstofthosewhosetoutonthispathofknowledge.Heclarifiedthediscourseaboutitandspokeaboutitsspiritualsignificance;hemadeitslightsmanifestandpulledbackitsveil.Heexpoundedonitinwordsnoneofthemhadeverheardfromanyofhisbrothers,sosomeoneaskedhim,"AbuSaid(i.e.,Hasan),youdiscourseonthisknowledgewithwordswehaveneverheardfromanyonebutyou.Fromwhomdidyougetthis?"Hereplied,"FromHudhayfaibnal-Yaman."Itissaid:"PeoplesaidtoHudhayfaibnalYaman,`WeseeyoudiscoursingonthisknowledgewithwordsweneverhearfromanyoftheCompanionsoftheMessengerofGod.Sowheredidyougetthat?'Hesaid,`God'sMessengerhasmadeitmyspecialty.Peopleusedtoaskhimaboutthegood,butIwouldaskhimabouteviloutoffearthatImightfallintoit,andIknewthatthegoodwouldnotoutdistanceOncehesaid,"Iknewthatonewhohasnoexperientialknowledgeofevilhasnoneofgoodeither."[270]Andinanotherversion,"Peopleusedtosay,`MessengerofGod,whatwillbethefateofonewhodoesthusandso?'Theywouldaskhimaboutmorallypositivedeeds,whileIwouldask,`MessengerofGod,whatdoesthisorthatactioncorrupt?'AndwhenhesawthatIaskedaboutactionsthatresultedincalamity,hemadethisknowledgemyspecialty."

Hudhayfawasaspecialistinknowledgeofthehypocrites,93uniqueamongtheCompanionsintheintimateunderstandingofmattersofhypocrisyaswellasinotheraspectsofknowledgeandthesubtletiesofprofoundcomprehensionandthearcaneaspectsofthefaith.`Umarand`UthmanandthemostprominentCompanionsoftheMessengerofGodusedtoaskHudhayfaaboutthegeneralandspecifictemptations,havingrecoursetohimconcerningtheknowledgethatwashisspecialty.TheywouldaskhimaboutwhethertherestillremainedanyhypocritesamongthemwhomGodhadmentioned(intheQur'an)andtherebyprovidedinformationaboutthem.Thenhewouldinformthemabouttheir

numbers,butnevermentionedtheirnames.ButUmaraskedforadisclosureabouthimself,astowhetherHudhayfawasawareofanytingeofhypocrisyinhim,andHudhayfaclearedhimofanydoubt.Umaraskedhimaboutthehallmarksofhypocrisyandthescripturalversesdealingwiththehypocrite,soHudhayfainformedhimaboutthattotheextentthatitwasappropriateandpermissibleforhim,beggingoffwhenitcametomattersonwhichhewasnotallowedtoimpartinformationandexcusinghimselfforthat.WhenUmarwascalledtoattendafuneraltoperformtheritualprayerforit,helookedaround,andifHudhayfawasinattendance,hewouldperformtheritualprayer;butifhedidnotseeHudhayfa,hedidnotperformtheritualprayerforthefuneral.HudhayfawasknownastheMasteroftheSecret,andwhenoneoftheCompanionsoftheMessengerofGodaskedaboutknowledge,hewouldsay,"YouareaskingmeaboutthiswhiletheMasteroftheSecretisamongyou?"referringtoHudhayfa.

WehaveitfromAnasibnMalikthatwhenhetransmittedtheHadithfromtheProphetconcerningtheexcellenceofthesessionofrecollection-"IwouldratherkeepthecompanyofpeoplewhoaremindfulofGodfrommorningtillsunsetthanfreefourslaves"-heturnedtowardYazidandZiyadan-Numayriandsaid,"Therewerenotformerlysessionsofrecollectionlikethesesessionsofyours,inwhichoneofyourecountsastoryandgivesanaddresstohiscompanions,andyouexchangeHadithswitheachother.Whenwesattogether,wereflectedonthefaith,contemplatedtheQur'an,soughtadeeperunderstandingofthereligion,andcountedGod'sgracestous."'AbdAllahibnRawahausedtosaytotheCompanionsofGod'sMessenger,"Come,letusbebelieversforanhour,"sotheywouldsitwithhimandhewouldrecallforthemtheknowledgeofGodandofthedivinetranscendentunityandoftheworldtocome.AndafterGod'sMessengerstoodup,hewouldtakehisplace.Thepeoplewouldgatheraroundhim,andhewouldfocustheirattentiononGodandHisdays,givingthemdeeperunderstandingofwhatGod'sMessengerhadsaid.OftenGod'sMessengercametothemwhiletheyweretogetherwithAbdAllah,andtheywouldfallsilent.Hesatwiththemandinstructedthemtotakeupagainwhattheyhadbeendoing,saying,"InthisIhaveinstructedyou,andtothisIhavecalledyou."InthisregardwehavebeentoldaboutMuladhibnJabalalso,whousedtodiscourseaboutthisknowledge.

BywayofexplanationwehavereceivedtheHadithofJundab,"Whilewe

werewithGod'sMessengerwecametoknowthefaithbeforewecametoknowtheQur'an."Sohereferredtotheknowledgeofthefaithasfaith,asIbnRawahahaddone,fortheknowledgeoffaithisacharacteristicofthefaith.TheArabsnameathingbyitscharacteristicevenastheynameitaccordingtoitssource,asGod'sMessengerhassaidbywayofanalogy,"Cometoknowcertitude,"andasGodhassaid,"Andhis(Jacob's)eyesturnedwhitefromgrief'(12:84),thatis,fromweeping,soHenameditaccordingtoitssource,sincegriefisthesourceofweeping.WehaveatraditionfromGod'sMessenger"Hewentoutonedayandsawtwogatherings.ThepeopleinoneofthemcalledouttoGod[271]andpetitionedHim,whilethoseintheothersoughtdeeperunderstandingofthereligionandwereteachingthepeople.Sohestoppedbetweenthetwoandsaid,`ThesepeoplearemakingrequestsofGod;ifHechooses,Hegrantsthem,andifHechoosesotherwise,hedeniesthem.Buttheseothersareteachingthepeopleandseekingdeeperunderstandingofthereligion,andindeedIwassentasateacher.'ThenhewenttowardthosewhosoughttogivethepeopledeeperunderstandingofthereligionandrecollectedGod,andsatwiththem."

Oneoftheancestorsinfaithrecounts,"Ienteredthemosqueonedayandthereweretwocirclesofinstruction.Thepeopleinoneofthemweretellingstoriesandofferingprayersofsupplication,whilethoseintheotherdiscoursedonknowledgeanddeepunderstandingofaction.SoIwenttothecircleofsupplicatoryprayerandsatwiththem.MyeyesglazedoverandIfellasleep.Thenavoiceasinadreamcalledouttome,orsomeonesaidtome,`Youhavesatdownwiththesepeopleandhaveneglectedthesessionofknowledge.Hadyousatdownwiththelatterinstead,youwouldhavefoundGabrielamongthemonGod'sbehalf."'

TheessenceofrecollectednessistheknowledgeofGod.HaveyounotheardwhathasbeencommunicatedfromtheProphet,"Themostexcellentrecollectionissaying`ThereisnodeitybutGod"'?AndGodhassaidbywayofaffirmationofthat,"KnowthatthereisnodeitybutGod"(47:19).Similarly,Hehassaid,"Knowthat(theQur'an)isrevealedwithknowledgeofGod,andthatthereisnodeitybutGod"(11:14).Therefore,theknowledgederivingfromrecollectednessistheknowledgeofcontemplation,andcontemplationisacharacteristicoftheessenceofcertitude.Sowhentheveilovertheeyeisremoved,youcontemplatetheinnermeaningsofthedivineattributesbymeansoftheirlights,anditsurpassesthelightofcertitude,whichisinturntheperfectionandultimate

realityoffaith.InthatcontextyoubecomemindfuloftheOnewhopossessestheattributes,bycontemplatingtheOnerecollectedbythelightofHisattributes.AreyounotawareofthewordoftheMostHigh,"ThosewhoseeyeswereveiledfromtheremembranceofMe"(18:101)?AnyonewhoseeyeisunveiledforrecollectionofHimwitnessestheOnerecollected.Andasherecollects,hediscoverstheultimaterealityofknowledge,afterforgettingcreatures,accordingtothewordoftheMostHigh,"AndbemindfulofyourLordonceyouhaveforgottenallelse"(18:24).ForauthenticmindfulnessmeansforgettingallthatisnotHe,justastheultimaterealityoffaithinvolvesunbeliefineverydeityotherthanGod,accordingtothewordoftheMostHigh,"Theonewhodisbelievesinfalsegods,believesinGod"(2:256).

Oneofthetraditionistssaid,"Oneofmybrothersamongtheproponentsofmwrifacametomeandsaid,`Ihavediscoveredheedlessnessinmyheart,andIwouldlikeyoutotakemetooneofthesessionsofrecollection.'Isaid,`Yes.'Thereissomeonecalledamudhakkirwhoexhortspeopletoremembrance,whodiscoursesonpopulartypesofknowledge.Sowecameintohispresenceandthepeopleweregathered,andhehadbegunrecountingstoriesandmentioningHeavenandHell.Mycompanionlookedatmeandsaid,`DoyounotclaimthatthisistherecollectionofGodandanexhortationtorememberingHim?'Ireplied,`Yes,that'swhatwethink.'Sohesaid,`Ihearnothingbutrecollectionofcreatures.WhereistherecollectionofGod?'Forawhilehecontinuedtoanticipatesomethingofthescienceofma'rifathathedesired,andwhichhehadheardfromhisSufishaykhs.Butsinceonlystoriesandnarrativeaccountswereforthcoming,heturnedtomeandsaid,`Let'sgo.ItmakesnosensetokeepsittingheresinceIfindnopurposeinthatkindofmaterial.'SoIreplied,`Iwouldbeembarrassedtowalkthroughthecrowd,butdoasyouseefit.'Sohegotupandwalkedthroughthecrowdonhiswayout."

(IbnShihab)Zuhri(d.124/742)transmittedasayingfromSalim(ibn'AbdAllahibn`Umar,d.106/725),that(AbdAllah)Ibn`Umarleftthemosqueandsaid,"Itwasonlythestorytellerthatcausedmetoleave,andbutforhimIwouldnothavedeparted."AndDamra(ibnRabila)(d.202/818)said,"Isaidto(Sufyan)ath-Thawri,`Shallwegomeetthestorytellerfacetoface?'[272].Hereplied,`Turnyourbackoninnovation!"'Ibn'Awnsaid,"IwentintoIbnSirinandheaskedme,`What'snewtoday?'Ireplied,`TheAminhasforbiddenthestorytellerstotellstories."'TraditionhascomedownthroughAbuMa`mar(d.

224/838)thatKhalafibnKhalifasaid,"IsawAbu`1-Hakamcleaninghisteethatthedoorofthemosque,whileastorytellerwasnarratingataleinthemosque.Soamancametohimandsaid,`Abu`1-Hakam,peoplecanseeyou!'Sohereplied,`WhatI'mdoingispreferabletowhatthey'redoing-I'mobservingtheSunnawhilethey'reengagingininnovation."'Almash95didsomethingstillmorestrikingthanthatwhenheenteredBasraasastranger.Hespiedastorytellerinthecongregationalmosque,whowassaying,"AlmashtransmittedtousfromAbuIshaq...(d.129/746)"and"AlmashtransmittedtousfromAbuWa'il...(d.c.82/701)."Almashthensituatedhimselfinthemiddleofthecircle,liftedhisarm,andbegantopluckhairsfromhisarmpit.Thestorytellernoticedthisandsaid,"Shaykh,aren'tyouembarrassedtobedoingthatwhileweareconcernedwithknowledge?"SoAlmashsaidtohim,"WhatI'mdoingismoreexcellentthanwhatyouaredoing."Cametheretort,"Howcouldthatbe?"AndAlmashanswered,"BecauseI'mactingaccordingtotheSunnawhereasyouarecaughtinalie.IamAlmash,andIhavetransmittedtoyounoneofwhatyouhavesaid."AndwhenthepeopleheardwhatAlmashhadtosay,theydismissedthestoryteller,gatheredaroundAlmash,andbesoughthim,"TransmitHadithstous,AbuMuhammad."A___._lL_____A.T_1____

toatousfromMuhammadANHarun,(IbnHanbal'sassistantAbuYalqub)Ishaq(an-Naysaburl)toldhim,"Iwasprayingthe1Idritualprayer96withImamAhmadibnHanbalwhenastorytellerbegantorecounttalessuchasdeservetobeaccursedasinnovationandwhichtheSunnamentionsdisparagingly.Afterwehadcompletedtheritualprayerandwereontheroad,Abu'AbdAllah(AhmadibnHanbal)alludedtothestorytellerashesaid,`Howhelpfultheycanbeforthepublic,eventhoughwhattheypassalongisgenerallyalie!"'IhavereceivedatraditionfromMuhammadibnJalfar97thatAbu`l-HarithsaidthatheheardImamAhmadibnHanbalsay,"Themostdeceitfulpeoplearethestorytellersandthepanhandlers."IhavealsoheardthatAhmadsaid,"Howdesperatelythepeopleneedcrediblestorytellers!FortheymakementionoftheScaleofJudgmentandthepunishmentofthegrave."98I(thetransmitterofthesaying)asked,"Wouldyouhaveremainedattheirsessions?""No,"hereplied.

WehaveatraditionfromHabibibnAbiThabit(d.c.119/737)thatZiyadan-Numayrisaid,"OnceIcametoAnasibnMalikwhilehewasintheoratory,andhesaidtome,`Tellastory.'`HowcanI,'Iasked,`sincepeopleclaimthatitisaninnovation?'Heresponded,`NothingthatconcernstherecollectionofGodisan

innovation.'SoItoldastory,prayinghopefullythathewouldapproveofmostofmyaccounts.ThenIbegantotellstories,andheapprovedofthem."Sotheyusedtomakestoriesintosupplicatoryprayers.

YusufibnAtiya(d.187/803)handedonthetraditionthatMuhammadibnAbdar-Rahmanal-Kharrazsaid,"Hasan(al-Basri)missed'AmiribnAbdAllahal-lAnbari(d.c.41/661),sohesaid,`Let'sgotoAbu'AbdAllah.'WhenHasancametohim,Amirwasinaroomwithhisheadwrappedandnothingelseintheroombutsand.Hasansaidtohim,`Abu'AbdAllah,wehavenotseenyoufordays.'Hereplied,`Iwasattendingthesesessions,andwhatIheardwasconfusingandbefuddling.AndIwaslisteningtoourshaykhsconcerningwhattheyknewfromourProphetthatheusedtosay,"OntheDayofResurrectionthepeopleofpurestfaithwillbethosewhoreflectedmostinthisworld.ThepeoplewhowilllaughmostinHeavenwillbethosewhoweptthemostinthisworld.Andthepeoplewhosejoywillbemostintenseinthenextlifewillbethosewhosesadnesswasthemostpersistentinthisworld."SoIfoundtheroomthatwasthemostconducivetomyheart'sfreedomandinwhichIcouldbestpursueformysoulwhatIdesired.'Hasansaid,`Hewasnotreferringtothesesessionsofoursbutwasreferringtothesessions[273]oftheitinerantstorytellerswhoconfuseandbefuddleandgettheorderofthingswrong."'

Oneofthereligiousscholarsdividedthosewhodiscoursepubliclyintothreegroups,categorizingthemaccordingtotheplacestheyoccupied.Hesaid,"Thosewhodiscoursearethreekinds:thosewhositonchairs,andthesearetheprofessionalstorytellers;thosewhohavepillarstoleanagainst,andthesearethemuftis;andthoseinsecludedcorners,andthesearetheproponentsofmaTifa."ThestudycirclesofthosewhopossessknowledgeofGod,theproponentsofthedivinetranscendentunityandexperientialknowledge,arethesessionsofrecollectionofGod,anditisinthesethatpeopledealwiththetraditions.AmongtheHadithswefindthis,"WhenyoustrollthroughthemeadowsofParadise,feedyourflocksthere.Someoneasked,`WhatarethemeadowsofParadise?'Muhammadresponded,`ThesessionsofrecollectionofGod."'AccordingtoaHadith,"Godhasangelswhotravelthefirmament-inadditiontokeepingaccountofhumandeeds-who,whentheyseesessionsofrecollection,callouttooneanother,`Cometotheobjectofyourdesire!'Sotheycomeandsitwiththemandthemembersofthesessionsreceivethemhospitably,andtheangelshearfromthem,`SobemindfulofGodandbemindfulofyourownsouls!"'

WahbibnMunabbihal-Yamanisaid,"Asessionconcernedwithknowledgeisdearertomethantheequivalentamountofritualprayer.Foritmaybethatoneoftheminthesessionwillhearawordandprofitfromitforawholeyearorevenfortherestofhislife."SomeoneaskedAhmadibnHanbalaboutsessionsofrecollection,sohespokeoftheirmeritsandofhowtheyappealedtohim,saying,"WhatcouldbeloveherthanpeoplecomingtogethertobemindfulofGodandtoenumerateHisblessingstothem,justastheHelpers"said?"Wehaveatraditionfrom'Ali,"IwouldhavehadnodelighthadGodcausedmetodieasachildandgivenmeaccesstothehighestlevelsofParadise.""Whynot?"someoneasked."BecauseHehasextendedmylifesothatIcouldgainexperientialknowledgeofHim."MalikibnDinarsaid,"Peopledepartfromthisworldwithouthavingtastedthebestithastooffer.""Whatisthat?"someoneasked."Ma`rifa,"hereplied,thenherecitedthisverse:

YahyaibnMuladhar-Razisaid,"Thereisagardeninthisworld,andwhoeverentersithasnoneedofParadiseandknowsnoloneliness."Someoneasked,"Whatisit?"Hereplied,"ExperientialknowledgeofGod."Someoneelsehassaid,"Noneofthefollowingthreedistinctivecharacteristicswillyoufindwantinginthepossessorofexperientialknowledge:reverence,sweetness,andintimacy."OurteacherAbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari)said,"Thereligiousscholars,ascetics,anddevoteesleftthisworldbehindwiththeirheartslocked,andnonewillbeopenedbuttheheartsofthetruthfulandthewitnesses."HethenrecitedtheQur'anictext,"Hisarethekeysoftheunseen,andnoneknowswhatitholdsbutHe"(6:59)-meaningthattheirheartsarelockedwithoutthekeysofma'rifaandwitnessingoftheessenceofthedivinetranscendentunity.

Thesesessionsofrecollection,therefore,werefromancienttimestheprovince

oftheproponentsofexperientialknowledge,andofthedeedsofheartsandofinwardknowledge.Thesearetheonesknowledgeableaboutthenextlifeandthepossessorsofdeepreligiousunderstanding.Godhassaid,andHeisthemostveraciousofspeakers,"Forifagroupfromeverysegmentdidnotgoout,theywoulddevotethemselvestodeeperunderstandingofthereligion,inordertowarntheirpeople,whentheyreturnfromanexpedition,thatperhapstheywouldbecomeattentive"(9:122).Themindfulnessofdeeperunderstandingisamong[274]thecharacteristicsoftheheart,asisthefearwhichisaconsequenceofdeeperunderstanding.IntellectualknowledgebelongstoexternallearningwhiletheknowledgeofGodbelongstocertitude,astheHadithhasit,"Certitudeisthewholeoffaith."Godhassaid,"Nonebutthosepossessingknowledgeunderstandthem(thatis,thesimilitudesGodcoinsforhumankind)"(29:43).Hethusmadeunderstandingacharacteristicofknowledge.AndGod'sMessengerenjoinedthelearningofcertitude,justasheenjoinedthequestforknowledge.ThisHadithbecameaspecificexampleofthat.Hissaying"learncertitude"appliestotheelect,becausecertitudeisastationaboveknowledge.Hissaying,"TheQuestforknowledgeisaduty,"ontheotherhand,appliestothegeneralpublic.

Inhissaying"learncertitude"heenjoinsthestudycirclesofthosewhopossesscertitude,becausecertitudedoesnotbecomeevidentofitselfbutisdiscoveredamongthosewhopossesscertitude.Muhammad,therefore,commandedtheminthatwayanddidnotsay,"Learntherationalsciences,"or"Acquiretheknowledgeoflegaladvisories."Inancienttimestheycalledtheexotericreligiousscholarsmuftis,andthatisthereasonforMuhammad'ssaying"Seekafatwafromyourheart,evenifthemuftishavedeliveredafatwatoyou."Hethusdirectedhim100towardthedeeperunderstandingoftheheartandawayfromthelegaladvisoriesofthemuftis.Iftheheartwerenotpossessedofdeeperunderstanding,andesotericknowledgedidnottakeprecedenceoverexotericknowledge,hewouldnothaveurgedWabisaawayfromthesciencesoftheexotericists,whoarethescholarsofthetongue,towardesotericknowledge,whichisthescienceofhearts.HewouldthusnothavebeenpermittedtodirecthimtoonewholackeddeeperunderstandingortodeflectWabisafromonewhopossesseddeeperunderstandingtoanother,lesserone.ThisHadithhasactuallycomedowninaversionattestedthroughreiterationandembellishment,saying,"Seekanopinionfromyourheart,eveniftheygiveyouonelegaladvisoryandthenanother."Thisismeantespeciallyforthepersonwhopossessesaheart,whoisattentive,andwhoobservesdirectlythebeginningofhisbeinga

witness,101andwhoisdivestedofhisconcupiscenceandingrainedhabits,fordeeperunderstandingisnotacharacteristicofthetongue.HaveyounotheardthewordoftheMostHigh,"Theyhaveheartswithwhichtheyfailtoattaindeeperunderstanding"(7:179)?

OnewhohasahearthearsthroughOnewhohears,seesfirsthandthroughOnewhowitnesses,andunderstandsthroughhisheartthatwhichisaddressedtoit.Andherespondstowhathehasheard,andturnstoGodinrecollectedness.InthewordoftheMostHigh,"Todedicatethemselvestoattainingdeeperunderstandingofthereligion"(9:122),twofeaturesofdeeperunderstandingareevident.Oneofthemisthewarning,whichisaspiritualstationincallingouttoGod.Theonewhoissuesawarningdoessoonlyinordertoinstillfear;theonewhoinstillsfearcanonlybeonewhoexperiencesfear;andtheonewhoexperiencesfearistheonewhopossessesknowledge.Thesecondcharacteristiciscircumspection,whichisoneofthespiritualstatesassociatedwithmwrifaofGodandinvolvesasenseofdreadbeforeHim.Thewordsfiqhandfahmarevirtuallysynonymous.TheArabssayfaqihtuinterchangeablywithfahimtu(Ihaveunderstoodorcomprehendeddeeply).Godhasgivenprioritytoprofoundcomprehensionoverdiscursiveknowledgeandwisdom,andhaselevatedinstancesofprofoundcomprehensionabovelegalrulingsandjudgements:"WeendowedSolomonwithprofoundcomprehensionofthem"(21:79,whichcontinues:"andtoeveryoneWegavejudgementanddiscursiveknowledge").GodthereforeequippedSolomonuniquelywiththeprofoundcomprehensionofHim,makinghimsuperiortohisfather's(David's)abilitytorenderjudgment,afterHehadmadethetwopartnersinjudgmentanddiscursiveknowledge.Hasanibn'AligavepreferencetoreligiousscholarswhoprovidecorrectguidancetowardGod,wholeadpeopletoHim,inasayinghandeddowntousfromhiminwhichhecallsthemtheoneswhopossessknowledgeandcertifiestheirknowledge.Wehavealsoreceivedtheseversesfrom'Ali:

IfanindividualislearnedinasciencewhoseobjectofknowledgeisGod,whocanbemoreexcellentandwhatvaluecanonerecognizeinhim[275]whenthevalueofeveryscienceisrecognizedandtheweightofeverylearnedpersonishisknowledge?'Abdal-WahidibnZayd,theimamoftheascetics,hasmadeastatementaboutthisnotion,inwhichhesetsapartthosewhopossessknowledgeofGodbyextollingtheirpathovereveryother.Wehavethefollowingversesfromhim:

WehavereceivedatraditionthatIbnMasudsaid,atthedeathof`Umar,"Ireckonthatthismantookawaywithhimnine-tenthsofknowledge."Someoneaskedhim,"AndyoumakethisstatementwhiletheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerremainalive?"Hereplied,"Iamreferringnottotheknowledgethatyoupossess,buttotheknowledgeofGod."IbnMasudusedtosay,"ThosewhofearGodaretheinvisibleones."Healsousedtosay,"ThosewhofearGodaremasters,thoseendowedwithknowledgeareleaders,andparticipatingintheirsessionsisworthwhile."Inotherwords,thosewhofearGodarethemastersofthepeople,asGodhassaid,"Indeed,Godconsidersthenoblestamongyouthosewhoaremostgod-fearing"(49:13).ThosewhopossessknowledgearetheleadersofthosewhofearGod,thatis,thosewhostandbeforethemandwhosefootstepstheyfollow,fortheMostHighhassaid,"Andmakeusamodelfor

thosewhofearGod"(25:74).HetherebygaveprioritytotheknowledgeableoverthosewhofearGod,makingthemmodelsforthelatter.ThosewhofearGodaretheircompanions.Hefurtherinformsusabouttheaugmentationthatcomesfromparticipationintheirsessions,meaningthatsuchparticipationyieldsanincreaseoverparticipationinthesessionsofthosewhofearGodwithoutthosewhopossessknowledge;forwhileeveryknowledgeablepersonisgod-fearing,noteverygod-fearingpersonpossessesknowledge.Inthiscontextwehavereceivedatraditionthat"thosewhopossessreligiousknowledgearemany,butthoseamongthereligiousscholarswhoarewisearefew.Similarly,thoughrighteouspersonsarenumerous,thoseamongthemwhospeakthefulltrutharefew."

SomeoneaskedIbnal-Mubarak,"Whoarethepeople?""Thereligiousscholars,"heanswered,"Andwhoarethekings?"askedanother."Theascetics,"saidhe.Someoneasked,"Thenwhoaretheriffraff?"Hereplied,"Thosewhofeedontheirreligion."Andheoncesaidinanaccount,"Theriffraffarethosewhodressup,beg,andseektheopportunitytobeawitnessinlegalcases."Farqadas-SabakhiansweredaquestionputtohimbyHasan(al-Basri)bysaying,"AbuSaid,thosewhopossessdeeperunderstandingdisagreewithyou."SoHasanreplied,"Farqad,mayyourmothergrieveoveryou(forsayingsuchathing)!Haveyouyourselfeverseenpeopleofgenuineunderstanding?Onewhopossessesgenuineunderstandingistheonewhopracticesasceticismwithrespecttothisworldandwhopinesforthenextworld;whohasspiritualinsightintohisreligionandwhoconstantlyattendstotheworshipofhisLord;whorefrainsoutofspiritualreticencefromtheprivateaffairsofMuslimsandwhodoesnotcovettheirpossessions;andwhoiswell-disposedtowardallofthem."Ihavecitedthissayingofhisasasingleunit,thoughitwasoriginallyreportedinthreedistinctsegments.These,then,arethecharacteristicsofthosewhopossessknowledgeofGod,andtheyaretheonesendowedwithexperientialknowledge.

Ihavereceivedatraditioninwhich'AbdAllahibnAhmadibnHanbalsaid,"Isaidtomyfather,`IhavediscoveredthatyouusedtovisitMalruf(al-Karkhi).102DidhetransmitanyHadiths?'Hereplied,`Myson,heknewthemostimportantmatter-fearofGod."'SomeoneaskedImamAhmad(ibnHanbal),"Howdoesonespeakofanddescribetheseexemplars?"Hereplied,"Whattheypossessedwasnoneotherthanveracity."Someoneasked,"Andwhatisveracity?"Saidhe,"Sincerity.""Andwhatissincerity?"askedanother.[276]

"Self-denial,"heresponded."Andwhatisself-denial?"camethequery.Hebowedhisheadinsilence,thensaid,"Asktheascetics.AskBishribn

SomeonerelatedtomeacharmingnarrativefromBishraboutMansuribn'Ammar."'MansuribnAmmarwasoneofthepreacherswhoexhorted.Thereligiousscholarsinhisday,likeBishrandAhmadandAbuThawr,didnotconsiderhimlearned.Theythoughtofhimasoneofthestorytellers,thoughthegeneralpubliccalledhimalearnedperson.IhavereceivedatraditionfromNasribn'Alial-Jahdami(d.250/864),saying,"Hemadeajokeoneday,butoverdidit.Someoneaskedhim,`Yousaythis,andyouareoneofthosewhopossessknowledge?'Hereplied,`Ihaveneverseenonewhopossessedknowledgewhodidnotjoke.'Someonesaidtohim,`ButyouhaveseenBishribnal-Harith.Haveyouheardhimjest?T'Yes,'heanswered.`Iwassittingwithhimonedayonasidestreet,whenMansuribnAmmarcamerunningandsaid,"AbuNasr,theamirhascommandedanassemblyofthosewhoareknowledgeableandupright.DoyouthinkIshouldhidemyself?"Bishrshovedhimasideandsaid,"Makeway!Youwillcauseapassingloadofthornstofalluponusandincinerateusall."ii104

This,therefore,washowthereligiouslyknowledgeableviewedthesituationofthestorytellersinformertimes,butatlengththeproponentsofthisknowledgedwindled.Peoplebecameignorantofthesessionsofrecollectionandthesciencesofcertitudeandpiousdeeds.Therareexceptionswerethosefamiliarwiththelifestoriesofthepredecessorsandthewayoftheirancestorsinthefaith,whousedtoseparatesessionsofrecollectionfromthosededicatedtostorytelling.Theydistinguishedbetweenthereligiouslyknowledgeableandthosewhoengageinpublicdiscourse,betweenknowledgeofthetongueandthedeeperunderstandingoftheheart,andbetweentheknowledgeofcertitudeanddiscursiveknowledge.Forthedifferencebetweenthereligiouslyknowledgeablepersonandthestorytelleristhattheformerremainssilentuntilsomeoneasksaquestion,and,whenasked,respondsonthebasisofsoundknowledgeofwhatGodhasmadeavailableanddisclosedtohim,articulatingwhatGodhasgrantedhimtoknowintimately.Whensilenceispreferable,thisindividualchoosesnottospeaksinceheknowswhatisbetter.Ifheseesnooneworthyofaresponse,hebideshistimeuntilhecanbestowitonsomeonedeservingofsucharesponse,andapersonthusworthyisonewhohasexperientialknowledgeofitandwhohasacontemplativerelationshiptotheexperience.

Godsaid,"Soinquireofthoseworthyofthereminder,ifyoudonotpossessknowledge"(16:43).Thistextembracestwoconcepts:Oneisthatthoseworthyofthereminder(thatis,theQur'an)arethosewhopossessknowledgeofGod,asindicatedbythephrase,"ifyoudonotpossessknowledge."Hecouldnothavesaid,"Inquireofthosewhohavenoknowledge,"sincetheyareignorantandwouldonlyincreasetheignoranceoftheinquirers.Thesecondconceptsuggeststhatthereligiouslyknowledgeableremainsilentuntilsomeoneinquiresofthem;then,whenasked,theymustrespondtotheinquiryinkeepingwiththeMostHigh'ssayingtothosewhodonotknow,"Inquire!"Itindicatesthatthesessionsofrecollectionarethesessionsofthereligiouslyknowledgeable,reportsofwhosemeritshavecomedowntous.Itindicatesfurther,asonereflectsonthematter,thattheproponentsofrecollectionaretheveryindividualstowhompeopleaddresstheirquestionsandtowhomtheQur'anictextpertains,"[AndWehavemadetheWordcometothem,]sothatperhapstheymightbecomemindful(28:51)."AndwhentheWordjustmentionedcametothem,theybecamemindfulofwhattheMostHighhadpledged,sothatwhentheybecamemindful,theyattainedknowledge.ItisinthatcontextthatGodenjoinsthemtoinquire.

Similarly,wehaveatraditionfromGod'sMessenger,"Itisinappropriatefortheignorantpersontobesatisfiedwithhisignorance,anditisinappropriateforthereligiouslyknowledgeabletokeepquietabouthisknowledge."Hence,Godsaid,"Soinquireofthoseworthyofthereminder,ifyoudonotpossessknowledge"(16:43).InthesameveinGod'sMessengersaidintheHadiththathascomedowntousbywayoftheProphet'sfamily,"Knowledgeisatreasurywhosekeysarequestions,soaskquestions,forfourkindsofpeoplebenefitfromthat:thequestioner,theonewhopossessknowledge,theonewholistensin,andtheonewholovesthem."[277]IbnMasudusedtosay,"Onewhorendersalegalopinioneverytimepeoplerequestonefromhimisafool."AndAlmashsaid,"Therearesomediscourseswhoseanswerissilence."Dhu`n-Nunal-Misrisaid,"Thebeautifulquestionoftherighteousisthekeytotheheartsofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge."Thestoryteller,ontheotherhand,isonewhosetsouttonarrateaccountsandrecalltalesandprophetictraditions,andisthereforeknownasaraconteur;thatis,hetracesastoryfromtheancestors.105ThewordoftheMostHighisrelevanthere,"She(Pharaoh'swife)saidto(Moses')sister,`qussihi"'(28:11,fromthesamerootas"storytelling"),thatis,"FollowMoses'tracestodiscoverhisstoryandbringmenewsofhim."MalikibnAnassaid,"Oneofthewaysinwhichknowledgeisdebasedisarticulatingitbeforebeing

askedaboutit."Heoncesaid,"Knowledgeisdebasedwhenanindividualrespondstoeveryquestionaskedofhim,"referringtoanabuseanddenigrationofknowledge.Inordinaryusagepeoplesay,"Raise(ashil)this"or"Lower(adhil)this,"meaning,respectively,"grantanelevatedstatus"and"demean."Inotherwords,"Ifsomeonediscoursesonknowledgebeforebeingaskedaboutit,itslightdiminishesbytwo-thirds."

IbrahimibnAdhamandothershavesaid,"ThesilenceofthereligiouslyknowledgeablepersonisharderonSatanthanhisdiscourse,forhekeepssilentoutofdiscretionandexpresseshimselfwithknowledge.SoSatansays,`Observethis:Hissilenceismoredifficultformethanhisdiscourse."'["NothingismoredifficultforSatanthanareligiouslylearnedpersonwhospeaksknowledgeablyandholdshistongueoutofdiscretion."]Inthiscontextthesayinggoes,"Silenceistheadornmentofthereligiouslyknowledgeablepersonandtheveiloftheignorantone."QasimibnMuhammad106said,"Amantreatshimselfmostnoblywhenheissilentabouthisopinionuntilsomeoneaskshimforit."AndIamsurethatisaccurate.Forwhenonediscoursesinresponsetoaninquiry,hedoessooutofnecessity,andindeedoftenoutofduty;andneithernecessitynorresponsetoadutyarisesfromthepassions.WithregardtotheMostHigh'sword,"Soinquireofthepractitionersofrecollectedness"(16:43;21:7),GodhasmaderesponsearequirementtotheextentthatHehasenjoinedinquiry.Muhammadsaid,"Apersonwhoisaskedaboutknowledgeandthenkeepsithiddenwillhaveabridleoffireplacedinhismouth,"therebypromisingsuchapersonchastisement.

(On the reticence of the truly knowledgeable to discourse on what theyknow)

Launchingintodiscoursecanresultfromhiddendisorderedcravings,andsuchcravingsareofthisworld.SomeonedescribedamantoMalikibnAnas,andhereplied,"Thereisnothingobjectionableabouthimifhedidnotdiscourseonamatterbeforebeingaskedaboutit."Anotherversionsays,"Hewouldnothavebeenobjectionableexceptthathediscoursedinonedayonasubjectthatshouldhavetakenamonth."Inresponsetosomeone'squestionaboutthemeaningofthestatement"discoursearisesfromthepassions,"hesaid"Itisthatwithwhichonebeginsbeforebeingaskedaboutit."SomeonedescribedtheAbdal,commentingontheircharacteristics,"Theyeatoutofnecessityonly,andtheyspeakonlyunderduress."Theydonotspeakuntilsomeonehasinquired

aboutsomething,thentheyanswer.Onewhodoesnotdiscourseuntilbeingaskedwillnotbeconsideredvainlyloquaciousoronewhodiscoursesonwhatdoesnotconcernhim.Foraresponseafteraquestionislikethedutyofreturningagreetingwhenthegreeting"Peacebewithyou"isoffered.AndasIbnAbbassaid,"Iconsidertherenderingofananswerascompulsoryasthereturnofagreeting."AbuMusa(al-Ashlarri)andIbnMasudsaid,"Onewhoisaskedaboutsomethingheknowsshouldtalkaboutit;andonewhoisnotaskedshouldkeepsilent,orelseheisassociatedwiththosewhofeignknowledgeandthusdeviatesfromthereligion."WehaveatraditionfromIbnAbbasalso,thatheusedtofeartheywouldtakeonaffectationinallthings.AbuMusasaid,"Launchingintodiscoursewithoutsomeevidentnecessity,orbeforebeingaskedaboutsomething,andwithoutseeingapropercontextforitorfindingsomeonewhomeritsaresponse-alltheseconditionsputanindividualatriskofaffectation."

InhisadvicetoMujahid,IbnAbbassaid,"Donotdiscourseaboutwhatdoesnotconcernyou,forthatisthemostexcellentcourseandthereisnothingthatwillmakeyoumoresecurefromerror.Anddonotdiscourseonwhatdoesconcernyouuntilyouperceiveanappropriatecontext,formanyarethepeoplewhodiscourseonwhatistheirbusinessbutdosoininappropriatecontextsandgetthemselvesintotrouble."[278]WehaveaHadithaboutoneoftheAnsarwhosemothersaidtohimashewasdying,"MayyoubehappyinHeaven!YouengagedinthestrugglewithGod'sMessengerandwerekilledinthecauseofGod."InresponsetoherGod'sMessengersaid,"HowcanyouknowforsurethatheisinHeaven?Perhapshespokeaboutwhatdidnotconcernhimorwasstingywithsomethingthatwasofnovaluetohim.""'

Anyonewhomanifestssomeaspectofknowledgewithoutbeingaskedaboutit,andmakesitavailabletothosewhoarenotworthyofitandareill-disposedtowardit,willbeinterrogatedaboutthatatthefinalreckoningofJudgment.Hewillbecalledtoaccountbecausehismanifestingtheknowledgewasapretense.If,ontheotherhand,apersonisaskedaboutasubjectofknowledgeandthendiscoursesonit,hewillnotbeheldaccountablewithrespecttothosewhorejectit,sincetheknowledgebecameavailableinresponsetoaquestion.Inthiscontext,theancestorsinfaithwhodiscoursedonthisaspectofknowledgeremainedsilentuntilasked.

AbuMuhammad(Sahlat-Tustari)usedtosay,"Thereligiouslyknowledgeablepersonsitsandkeepsquiet,elevateshishearttohisMaster,

senseshisutterneedinessofHisbeautifulgiftofdivineaccord,andasksthatHeinspireinhimappropriateconduct.Hediscourses,therefore,onwhateveranyoneaskshimabout,insofarashisMasterrevealsittohim."AbuMuhammadthussituatesthepossessorofknowledgeinthespiritualstateofhissilenceandofhislookingtowardhisLordasoneinneedoftrustandonewhowaitsfortheobjectofhistrustineverythingHebringstopass.Oneofthemsaid,"Theknowledgeablepersonisonewho,whenposedaquestion,actsasifoneofhismolarsisbeingextracted."RaqabaibnMasgala(d.129/746-47)andothershavesaid,"Onewhoassemblesthepeopletotellthemstoriesisnotaknowledgeableperson;foronewhopossessesknowledgeisonewho,uponbeingaskedaboutknowledge,actsasifhehadgottenanosefulofmustardpowder."Accordingtotradition,AlmashsaidthatafterMuhammadibnSuqahadaskedhimabouttheHadithandAlmashhadturnedawayfromhimwithoutrespondingtohim.ThenAlmashturnedtofaceRaqabaandsaidtohim,"Heisasmuchafoolasyouifhesurrendershisadvantagetosomeoneofmywickeddisposition."SoMuhammadibnSuqasaidtoRaqaba,"Woetoyou!Iconsideredmyinquirytheequivalentofamedicinalremedy:IputupwithitsbitternessbecauseIhadhopethatitwouldbebeneficial."

Wehaveatraditionfrom'Alivia'AbdAllah(IbnMasud),that'Alicameacrossamanwhowasdiscoursingtothepeople,sohesaid,"Thismanissaying,`Gettoknowme."'OneofthelearnedonesofKhurasanpassedalongatraditiontousfromashaykhofhisthatAbuHafsan-Naysaburial-Kabir,whosestaturetherewasequaltothatofJunaydhere,said,"Thelearnedpersonisonewho,onbeingaskedaquestionaboutreligion,becomessodistressedthatifhewereinjured,nobloodwouldflowbecauseofhisintensefearthathemightbeaskedinthenextlifeaboutthequestionposedtohiminthisworld.Hewouldbeterrifiedthathewouldnotescapethequestionunlesshesawthathehadadutytoanswer,becauseofthedearthoftrulylearnedpeople."ForthatreasonIbn`Umardeclinedtoanswerninequestionsandrespondedtoone,saying,"YouwanttomakeusabridgeyouwillcrossoverintoHell,becauseyouwillsay,`Ibn`Umargaveusalegalopiniononthis."'

WhensomeoneaskedIbrahimat-Taymi108aboutaproblem,hewouldweepandsay,"Can'tyoufindsomeoneelsetoask,ordoyoureallyneedme?"Replied(thequestioner),"WeimportunedIbrahiman-Nakhali109toletusleanhimagainstacolumn,buthedeclined;andwhenaskedaquestionabout

something,hewouldweepandsay,`Thepeopleneedme."'SufyanibnUyayna1Ohadbeeninhisdayunequaledinvariousformsofknowledgebecausehewasuniqueinhistime.Hethereforefashionedametaphorforhimself,sayinginapoeticverse,

Abu`I-,Aliyaar-Riyalp(d.c.93/711)usedtodiscoursetotwoorthree,butifafourthpersonarrived,hewouldgetup.Similarly,Ibrahim(an-Nakhali),(Sufyan)ath-Thawri,andIbrahimibnAdhamusedtodiscoursetoafewpeople,andwhenthenumber[2791ofpeoplemultiplied,theywouldleave.AbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari)usedtositwithfromfiveorsixtotenpersons.Ashaykhtoldme,"Junaydusedtodiscoursebeforesometenpersons,andthesessions'participantsneverreachedafulltwenty."Ihavereceivedatraditionaboutourshaykh,Abu`1-HasanibnSalim(d.c.356/967),thatthepeoplegatheredinhismosqueandsentoneoftheirnumbertohimtosay,"Yourbrothersarepresent,andtheywouldliketomeetwithyouandlistentoyou.Soifyouseefittogoouttothem,fine."Nowthemosquewasnearthedoortohishouse,butnoonewentintohiminhisresidence.Sohewouldsaytothepersonsent(tofetchhim)afterhehadgoneouttohim,"Whoarethey?"Themessengerwouldreply,"So-and-so,andso-and-so,givingtheirnames."ThenAbu`l-Hasanwouldsay,"Thosepeoplearenotmycompanions,theyaresessiongroupies,"andhewouldnotgoout,forheregardedthemasgenerallyunfittodealspecificallywiththefinepointsofhisknowledge.Hethereforedidnotwastehistimeonthem,andinjustthatwayisthelearnedperson'stimeofsolitudemostprecioustohim.However,whenhegetstogetherwithaspecialgroupofhisbrothers,heprefersthemtohissolitude,andtheyarebeneficiariesofthat.But,ifthesituationdoesnotcallforit,hewillnotcedeprioritytoanythingelseoverhissolitudeandhisspiritualmoment,lestheprovideahaventothosewhoprattleonmindlessly.Abu`l-Hasanusedtogoouttohisbrothers,whomheconsideredworthyoftheplaceofhisknowledge,andsitwiththem.Hewouldconversewiththemandoftenbringthemintohimdayornight.AndIassureyou,thediscussionoccurredamongequalsanditwasaconversationamongbrothers.Sittingtogetherforthesakeofknowledgeiswhatcompanionsdo,and

responsetoaquestionformsthenexusofthegathering.

Proponentsofknowledgeregardedtheirknowledgeasappropriateonlyfortheelect,andtheelectarefew.Theyconsidereditessentialandincumbentuponthemnottotalkaboutitexceptinthepresenceofthoseworthyofit.'Alidescribedthemthatway(intheHadithofKumayl)whenhesaid,"sothattheymightentrustittotheirlikesandimplantitintheheartsofpeopleoftheirkind."InthatcontextwehavetraditionsonthesubjectfromourProphet.AndfromJesus,"Donotbestowwisdomonanyoneunworthyofit,foryoudoaninjusticetotheknowledge;anddonotwithholditfromthosewhoareworthyofit,lestyoudothemaninjustice.Belikethegentlephysicianwhoappliesmedicationonlywherethereisillness."Inanotherversion,"Whoeverbestowswisdomuponthoseunworthyofitisignorant,whilewhoeverwithholdsitfromthoseworthyofitdoesaninjustice.Forthereisanetiquettetowisdomandtherearethoseworthyofit[andarightnessassociatedwiththoseworthyofit],sodealwitheachasisindividuallyappropriate."InaHadithofJesus,"Donothangpearlsaroundthenecksofswine."".Tobesure,wisdomisfinerthanpearls,andwhoeverdespisesitisbaserthanapig.

Amemberofthisgroupusedtosay,"Halfofthisknowledgeiskeepingsilent,andhalfofitisknowingwheretoimpartit."Anindividualendowedwithexperientialknowledgesaid,"Onewhodiscoursestothepeopleabouthowheacquiredhisknowledgeandthebreadthofhisunderstanding,andaddressesthemwithouttakingtheirlimitationsintoaccount,disregardstheirprerogativesanddoesnotattendtotherightsofGodwithrespecttothepeople."YahyaibnMuladhusedtosay,"Dipwaterforeachpersonfromhisownstreamandgiveeachadrinkwithhisowncup."Isuggestthatthismeansaccountingforeachgodservant'scapacityforunderstandingandmeasuringouttoeachinproportiontotheperson'slearning,sothatyougiveeachasenseofwell-beingandeachonebenefitsfromyou;otherwise,thenetresultiswithholdingknowledgebecauseofdisparatecapacitiesinindividuals.SomeofourshaykhsfromthisgrouphavepassedalongtomeatraditionaboutAbu1Imran,alsoknownas(AbuJalfar)al-Muzayyinal-Kabiral-Makki,"IheardhimtalkingtoAbuBakral-Kattani,13atatimewhenthelatterwasliberallyimpartingthisknowledge,lavishingituponallthepoor.Abu1Imranbegan[280]toreprovehimandforbidhimtodispenseknowledgesoprodigallyandtodiscoursesocopiouslyaboutit.Atlength,Abu1Imransaid,`FortwentyyearsIhaveaskedGodtomakemeforgetthis

knowledge.'AbuBakral-Kattaniasked,`Why?'Theotherresponded,`IsawtheProphetinadreamandheardhimsay,"EverythingissacredfromGod'sperspective,andoneofthemostsacredofallthingsiswisdom.Wheneversomeoneimpartsittoonenotworthyofit,Goddemandsofhimwhatisdueasaresultoftheaction;andwheneverHedemandsthatofsomeone,Godwinstheargument.""'Oneoftheancestorsinfaithusedtosay,"Ifamanleansagainstapillarorlovestohavepeopleaskhimquestions,donotsitwithhim,andthereisnoneedtoinquireofhim."

Intheearlydaysonedidnotseethirtyoreventwentymeninthesessionsoftheproponentsofthisknowledge,exceptonrareoccasionsandnotasaruleorconsistently.Therewereusuallybetweenfourandten,andoccasionallyten.FromthetimeofHasan(al-Basri)untilours,peopleusedtoassembleinthesessionsofthestorytellers,admonishers,andpreachers.Andthisisalsooneofthedifferencesbetweenthetwophenomena,namely,thatknowledgeisrestrictedtoafew,whereaspopularnarrativesappealtoawidepublic.Oneofourlearnedonessaid,"InBasratherewere120peoplewhodiscoursedonethicaladmonitionandpreaching,butonlysixwhodiscoursedonthescienceofexperientialknowledgeandcertitude,andonthespiritualstationsandstates.AmongthemwereAbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari),asSubaybi,and'Abdar-Rahim.Asasayingwent,"Anyonewhodidnotprofitfromthesilenceofareligiouslyknowledgeablepersonwouldnotprofitfromhisdiscourseeither."Inotherwords,oneneedstobetutoredbysuchaperson'ssilence,humility,andspiritualreticence,andemulatehiscertitudeinthosethings,justasoneistutoredbysuchaperson'sverbalcommunicationandfollowswhathesays.Indeed,peopleusedtosaythatexotericlearningbelongstotheknowledgeofearthlysovereignty,whereasesotericlearningbelongstotheknowledgeofLordlyDominion.Whattheymeantwasthattheformerpertainedtoknowledgeofthisworldinsofarasitwasarequisiteformanagingmundaneaffairs,whereasthelatterpertainedtoknowledgeofthenextworldinsofarasittranscendedtheformer.Thisisthewaypeopleordinarilyputit,forthetongueisexternallyoriented,associatedwithearthlysovereignty,andisthestorehouseoftheknowledgeofoutwardrealities;whiletheheartisthestorehouseofLordlyDominionandthedoortotheknowledgeofinwardrealities.KnowledgeofinwardrealitiesisasfarsuperiortoknowledgeofoutwardrealitiesasLordlyDominionissuperiortoearthlysovereignty,foritisahiddenandinteriorformofrule;andastheheartissuperiortothetongue,whichisevidentandmanifest.

(On the differences between transmittal of tradition and knowledge ofexternalmatters,andgenuineknowledge)

Bishribnal-Harithusedtosay,"Theexpressions`Wehavereceivedatradition'and`Wehavereceivedthereport'areamongthegatewaystothisworld."Andheoncesaid,"TheHaditharenotprovisionsforthenextlife."Oneofmyshaykhspassedalongtomeatraditionfromoneofhisshaykhs,saying,"WehadsometenbooksboundforBishr-aboutwhatasatchelordatebasketwouldhold-fromwhichhehadtransmittednotraditionsapartfromwhatonerarelyheardfromhimoftheoddsaying."Heusedtosay,"IhaveacravingtotransmitHadith,andifthatcravingdepartsfromme,IwilltransmitHadith."Thenhesaid,"Ihavebeenstrugglingagainstmyego-soulforfortyyears."Andhesaid,"Whenyouhearamansaying,`Wehavereceivedatradition'and`Wehavereceivedthereport,'heissaying,ineffect,`Makeroomforme."'[Hewasapossessorofknowledgewhopracticedself-denial.]

Heandotherssaid,"IfyouhaveacravingtotransmitHadith,donotdoso;butifyouhavenodesiretotransmitHadith,transmitHadith."Rabilaal-,Adawiya14hadsaidpreviouslyof(Sufyan)athThawri,"WhatafinemanSufyanwouldhavebeenhadhenotbeensoattachedtotheHadith!"Shealsosaid,"TheseductionoftheHadithismoreintensethantheseductionofacquiringpossessionsandbegettingchildren."Andsheoncesaid,"Ifonlyhehadnotbeenattachedtothisworld,"".referringtothegatheringofpeople[2811aroundhimtohearhimtransmittheHadith.AbuSulaymanad-Daraniusedtosay,"AnyonewhomarriesortranscribesHadithorseeksalivelihoodreliesonthisworld."

Oneofthisgroupsaid,"AnyonewhoattainsthesciencesapartfromtheknowledgeofGodisonlyplayingatunderstanding,butanyonewhoattainstheknowledgeofGodhastrulybeenbroughttofullcomprehension."HeproceededtorecitethewordoftheMostHigh,"IfgracefromhisLordhadnotreachedhim,hewouldhavebeencastawayuponabarren(strand)"(68:49).Inotherwords,hadhenotbeenbroughttothescienceofmwrifa,hewouldhavebeenexiledinthedistantlandofconcupiscence.The"barrenstrand"isdistancefromGod,whilepurelyintellectualknowledgeisdistancefromtheknowledgeofcertitude.HealsocommentedontheprofoundcomprehensionofthewordoftheMostHigh,"HadWenotestablishedyoufirmly,youwouldhavebecomevirtuallydependentonthem"(17:74),bysaying,"Inotherwords,`(HadWenot)

establishedyoufirmlyuponma'rifa,youwouldhaveineffectreliedondiscursiveknowledge."'Sahlibn'AbdAllah(at-Tustari)glossedthewordoftheMostHigh,"AndprovidemefromYourpresenceanauthorityandahelper"(17:80),bysaying,"ProvidemeatonguewithwhichtospeakaboutYouandtospeakaboutnonebutYou."

KnowledgeofGod,alongwithknowledgeofthefaithandknowledgeofcertitude,areasfarsuperiortoknowledgeofstatutesandlegaljudgmentsascontemplationistohearsay.God'sMessengersaid,"Hearingamerereportisnotlikeseeing."Inanotherversion,"Onewhomerelyhearsareportisnotlikeonewhoseeswithhisowneyes."1IyadibnGhanm(d.20/640)transmittedasayingfromtheProphetbywayofinterpretationoftheserathatbegins,"Thecompetitivedrivetoacquiremoredistractsyou"(102),"`Theknowledgeofcertitude'(102:5)isequivalenttoseeingwiththeeye."AndtheHadith,"ThebestofmycommunityarethepeoplewholaughbecauseoftheexpansivenessoftheirLord'smercyandwhoweepinsecretforfearofHispunishment.Theirfeetareonthegroundandtheirheartsintheheavens,theirspiritsinthisworldandtheirmindsinthenext.TheygoforwardintranquilityanddrawneartoGodinmeasuredpace,"isreferringtothis.Nowlegaladvisoriesareinthecategoryoftransmittedreports,andengaginginissuinglegaladvisoriesisequivalenttoseekingtotransmittraditionalreports.OnthispointthewordoftheMostHigh,"Soseekanopinionfromthem"(37:11),isapposite;soalso,"Theyseekanopinionfromyou"(4:176)-inotherwords,peopleaskyouforareport.Nowtheknowledgeimpartedthroughreportsissubjecttomeresuppositionanddoubt,whilecontemplationelevatesmeresuppositionandremovesdoubt,astheMostHighsaid,"Theheartdidnotlieastowhatitsaw"(53:11).Hethusestablishesthatthehearthaseyes;sothevisionoftheheartiscertitude,andonewhopossessesheartisendowedwithcertitude.

TheProphetsaid,"Incertitudethereissufficientwealth."Incertainknowledgelieswealthequaltoallotherformsofknowledge,foritistheinwardrealityandpurityofknowledge.Ontheotherhand,possessionofallotherformsofknowledgedoesnotallowonetodispensewiththeknowledgeofcertitude,becausethereispovertyindoubt.Moreover,theneedofcertitudeintheknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityandtheknowledgeofthefaithismoreintensethanthepovertyoneexperiencesintheneedforthedisciplinesoflegaladvisementandotherformsoftechnicalknowledge.Asaresult,theriches

ofcertitudeoutstriptheself-sufficiencyoftheotherbranchesofthesciences,sothatinitsrelationshiptotheothersthisknowledgeisliketheopeningseraofthescriptureinrelationtotherestoftheQur'an.AsthesayingwehavereceivedfromtheProphethasit,"TheopeningseraofthescriptureisworththewholeoftheQur'an,butthewholeoftheQur'anisnotequalinvaluetotheopeningseraoftheBook."SuchistherelationshipoftheknowledgeofGodtotheknowledgeofeverythingelse.IntheknowledgeofGodiscompensationforallthesciences,butthereisnosubstitutefortheknowledgeofGodintheothersciencesinsofarasGodsubstitutesforwhatisotherthanHim.Everyformofknowledgeisorientedtoitsownobject.Certainknowledge's[282]properobjectisGod,soitspriorityisanalogoustoGod'spriorityoverallbesideHim.

AwisepersonsaidbywayofinterpretingwhatIhavejustsaid,"IfapersonhasexperientialknowledgeofGod,thenofwhatisheignorant?AndifapersonisignorantofGod,thenofwhatdoeshehaveexperientialknowledge?"AsforthosewhoareknowledgeableaboutGod,theyaretheheirsoftheprophets,fortheyinheritfromthemguidancetowardGodaswellasaninvitationtoHimandtheimitationoftheminthedeedsoftheheart.Godhassaid,"WhosespeechismorebeautifulthanonewhoinvitestoGodandwhosedeedsareupright?"(41:33),andagain,"InvitepeopletothepathofyourLordwithwisdom"(16:125).GodthereforeenjoinedtheProphettoinvitepeopletoGodandassociatedhisfollowerswithhimasproxiesinspiritualinsight.SotheMostHighhassaid,"Say:Thisismyway.IcallyoutoGodinkeepingwithspiritualinsight,Iandthosewhofollowme"(12:108).Andtheywillgatherwiththeprophetsonresurrectionday,astheMostHighhassaid,"TheyarewiththosetowhomGodhasbeengracious,includingtheprophets"(4:69);andagain,"Andtheprophetsandwitnesseswillbebroughtforward"(39:69).ThenHeelaboratedonthis,"InthattheywereentrustedwiththesafekeepingoftheBookofGod,andtheywerewitnessestoit"(5:44).WehavereflectionsonthisinaHadithtransmittedbyMuladhibnJabal,inwhichGod'sMessengersaid,"Thepeopleclosestinranktoprophethoodaretheproponentsofknowledgeandtheproponentsofspiritualstriving.Asfortheproponentsofknowledge,theyguidethepeopletowhattheprophetshavebrought,whiletheproponentsofjihadstrivewiththeirswordsforwhatthemessengershavebrought."

Thosewhopossessknowledgeofthisworldthrowintheirlotwithoverseersandwieldersofauthority.Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Thegenuinely

learnedonesassemblewiththecontingentoftheprophets,butthemagistratesgatherwiththecohortofsultans."IsmailibnIshaqal-Qadi16wasalearnedmanamongthechildrenofthisworld,arankingmemberamongtheintelligentmagistrates,andbrotherofAbu`1-HasanibnAbi`1-Ward,whowasoneofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge.WhenIsmailassumedthejudgeship,IbnAN`1-Wardpartedcompanywithhim.Thenoneday,whenhewasrequiredtogobeforeIsmailtotestify,IbnAbi`1-WardstrucktheshoulderofJudgeIsmailwithhishandandsaid,"Ismail,ignoranceisbetterthantheknowledgeuponwhichyouhavepresidedoverthissession!"SoIsmailpulledhiscloakoverhisfaceandbegantoweepuntilhehaddampenedthecloak.Thosewhopossessexotericknowledgearetheornamentsoftheearthandearthlysovereignty,whilethosewhopossessinwardknowledgearetheadornmentoftheheavensandLordlyDominion.Thosewhoarelearnedinexternalmattersarethepeopleofreportsandofthetongue,butthosewhoarelearnedininteriorrealitiesarethemastersofheartsandofeyewitnessing.

Oneofthelearnedonessaid,"WhenGodcreatedthetongue,Hesaid,`Thisisthestrongholdofmytraditionalreports;ifitrepresentsmeaccurately,Isaveit.'AndwhenGodcreatedtheheart,Hesaid,`ThisiswhereIdirectmygaze;ifitispureforMe,Iwillpurifyit."'Oneofthepeopleofoldsaid,"Theignorantpersonisredeemedthroughknowledge,theonewhopossessesdiscursiveknowledgethroughproof,andtheoneendowedwithexperientialknowledgethroughrank."Oneofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledgesaid,"Knowledgeofoutwardrealitiesisjudgment,butknowledgeofinwardrealitiesiswhatpassesjudgment;thejudgmentawaitsthearrivaloftheonewhopassesjudgmenttobringitintobeing."

Whenthoseknowledgeableaboutexternalmattersofreligioncouldnotresolveaquestionofknowledgebecauseofconflictingopinionsastowhichdirectiontotake,theywouldasktheproponentsoftheknowledgeofGod,fortheyconsideredthemclosertodivineassistanceandfartherfromconcupiscenceandrebelliousness.Shafili[283]wasonesuchscholar.Whenhehadanissuethatremainedproblematicalbecauseofthedisparityofviewsofthereligiousscholarsaboutit,despitethehomogeneityofthedeductive-inferentialmethodappliedtoit,hehadrecoursetothescholarswhopossessedexperientialknowledgeandinquiredofthem.HeusedtositwithShaybanar-Ra,i(d.158/774)likeayoungsterbeforeateacherandwouldaskhim,"Howdoesone

actinsuchasituation,andwhatdoesonedoinsuchasituation?"Sosomeoneaskedhim,"Howisit,Abu'AbdAllah,thatsomeonelikeyou,withyourlevelofknowledgeanddeepcomprehension,inquiresofthisBedouin?"Sohereplied,"BecausethismanhasputintopracticewhatIknowintellectually."Shafiliwaswonttosaywhenhewasseriouslyill,"0God,ifitpleaseyou,givememoreofit."So(YahyaibnIdris)MalafiriwrotetohimfromthesouthofEgypt,"Abu'AbdAllah,neitherofusareamongthepeopleof(thatis,whooughttoaskfor)tribulation.Letus,therefore,requestofGod'sgoodpleasurewhatismoreappropriatetous,namely,thatweaskfordivinelygrantedsuccessandgoodhealth."Shafiliwroteback,saying,"IseekforgivenessofGodandturntowardHiminrepentance."Afterthat,hewaswonttosay,"0God,bringaboutmygoodundercircumstancesthatIlove."

AhmadibnHanbalandYahyaibnMain(d.233/848)usedtovisitMalrufibnFayruzal-Karkhi,andeventhoughhedidnotpossessahighlevelofknowledgeorfamiliaritywiththeSunna,theyusedtoaskhimquestions.Atraditionhascomedownthatsomeoneasked,"MessengerofGod,howshouldweactifwereceiveacommandthatwefindneitherintheBookofGodnorintheSunnaofGod'sMessenger?"Hereplied,"Asktheuprightandconsultwiththem,and,apartfromthem,donotcomplywithanycommand."AccordingtoasayingofMuadh(ibnJabal),someoneaskedhim,"WhatifamatterarisesforyouthatisinneithertheBookofGodnortheSunnaofGod'sMessenger?"Hereplied,"Ibehaveaccordingtothedispositionoftheupright."Someonethenexclaimed,"PraisebetoGodwhohasgivensuccesstothemessengerofHisMessenger!"Anotherversionreads,"Iexercisemypersonalopinion."

WehavereceivedatraditioninwhichJunaydsaid,"IwaswalkingalongwithSarias-Sagati,andhesaidtome,`Whenyoupartcompanywithme,withwhomwillyousit?'SoIreplied,`Harithal-Muhasibi.'Hesaid,`Yes,accepthisknowledgeandtutelage,butleavehisfaultytheologicalresponsesforthetheologians."'ThenJunaydsaid,"AsIwasdeparting,Iheardhimsay,`MayGodmakeyouamasterofHadithwhoisaSufi,andnotaSufiwhoisamasterofHadith!"'Inotherwords,whenyouundertaketheknowledgeoftheHadithandtraditionsandintimateknowledgeoflegalprinciplesandthecompilationofHadith,andthereafterpracticedevoutasceticism,youwillhavearrivedatthescienceoftheSufisandwillbeaSufiwhopossessesexperientialknowledge.ButifyoubeginwithdevotionandfearofGodandthespiritualstate,youwill

divertyourselffromreligiousknowledgeandtheHadithcollections,sothatyouwillwindupasonewhomakesecstaticutterancesorerrsreligiouslybecauseofyourignoranceoftheprinciplesoflawandthepracticesoftheProphet.Asaresult,itwouldbebettertohaverecoursetoexotericknowledgeandthecompilationoftraditions,forthatistherootfromwhichdevotionandknowledgebranchoff;otherwise,youwouldhaveputthebranchbeforetheroot.Ontheotherhand,ithasbeensaid,"Theywhoareheedlessofthefundamentalswillbepreventedfromarrivingatthegoal."ThefundamentalsarethecompilationofHadithandknowledgeoftraditionsandSunnas.Soifyouwerelulledtosleep,youwouldbereturnedtothefundamentals,foryouwouldhavelosttherankofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge,forfeitingtheincreaseoffaithandcertitude.

Sufyanath-Thawrisaid,"Whenpeopleusedtoseekknowledge,theyacted;andwhentheyacted,theydidsowithdedication;andwhentheywerededicated,theyfled(thepubliceye)."Someoneelsesaid,"Whenthelearnedpersonfleesfromthepeople,theycomelookingforhim;andwhenhegoesinsearchofthepeople,[284]theyrunawayfromhim."AbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari)said,"Knowledgecallsouttoactionifapersonrespondstoitaffirmatively;ifnot,theknowledgetakesflight."Dhu`n-Nun'"said,"Sitwiththosewhosequalitiesspeaktoyou,notwiththosewhosetonguestalkatyou."Previously,Hasan(al-Basri)hadsaid,"Sitwiththosewhoseactionsspeaktoyou,notwiththosewhoseutterancesaddressyou."Anumerouscontingentusedtokeepcompanywiththeproponentsofmwrifainordertobenefitfromtheirtutelageandobservetheirguidanceandethicaltraits,eventhoughthelatterwerenotacknowledgedasreligiousscholars.Thatwassobecausespiritualtutelagecomeswithdeedswhileovertteachingcomesfromwhatissaid.[OneofthemostsagacioussayingsIhaveheardonthisconceptiswhat]oneofthewisehassaid,"Oneperson'spreachingtoathousandpeoplebymeansofoneactionismorebeneficialandefficaciousthanthepreachingofathousandpeopletoonepersonbymeansofamereword."*Sahlusedtosay,"Knowledgeisaltogetherthis-worldly,whileactionpertainstothenextworld;andwithoutsincerity,actionisnothingbutdustintheair."Hesaidonce,"Exceptforthelearned,thepeoplearedead.Apartfromthosewhoact,thelearnedaredrunk.Apartfromthesincere,thosewhoactaredeluded.Thesincerepersonlivesintrepidationuntilhislifeissealedinsincerity."

(Crucialdifferencesbetweenfirsthandandderivativeknowledge)

Thetrulylearneddonotconsiderlearnedonewhoisknowledgeableaboutsomeoneelse'sknowledgeorwhohashasmerelycommittedtomemorysomeoneelse'sinterpretation.Theycallsuchapersonareporter,amemorizer,aconduit,oronewhohandsontraditions.AbuHazimtheasceticusedtosay,"Thetrulylearnedhavevanished,whilebitsofknowledgehavesurvivedinunreliablereceptaclesofmemory."Zuhnusedtosay,"So-and-sowasareceptacleofknowledge,"and"So-and-sopassedtraditionsalongtous,andhewasareceptacleofknowledge,"buthedidnotsay,"Hepossessedknowledge."Inthatcontextthetraditionispertinent,"Manyaretheconduitsofdeeperunderstandingwhodonotpossessdeeperunderstandingthemselves.Andmanyarethosewhoarethebearersofdeeperunderstandingtothosewhoalreadyhavemoreofitthantheydo."Theyusedtospeakof"Hammadthereporter,"18andtheymeantthathegaveanaccountoftradition.Theletter"h"intheword(ar-rdwiy[ah],"thereporter")servestounderscorethedescriptionofhisfunction,asintheterms~alldm(ah)(theoutstandingteacher)ornassdb(ah)(thenotedgenealogist).Butthisusagemeansthattheyregardedsuchanindividualasabundantlylearnedinhisownareaofknowledgeratherthanthatofsomeoneelse.Thatishowtheyregardedsomeonewhopossesseddeeperunderstandingasaresultofpenetratingdeeplyintohisownareaofknowledgeandheart,ratherthanasaresultofsecuringatraditionfromsomeoneelse.Hencethetradition,"Someoneasked,`Whoaretherichestpeople?'Muhammadreplied,`Thelearnedpersoniswealthybecauseofhisknowledge.Ifsomeonehasneedofhim,heoffersabenefit;otherwiseheiscontentwithhisknowledgeapartfromthepeople."'Thatissobecauseeverypersonwhoislearnedinsomeoneelse'sknowledgebecomes,asitwere,onewhoknowsonlybyvirtueofhisconnectionwiththeotherperson,andhis"connections"arethereligiousscholars.Everypersonwhoseexcellencedependsonanotherperson'sattributesderiveshisqualitiesfromthosewhoareoutstanding.Whensuchapersonleavestheircompanyandisalone,hehasnothingtosay,forhecannothaverecoursetoaknowledgeofhisownthatsetshimapart.Hemust,then,inrealitybedescribedasanignorantcamp-followerofthetrulydistinguished,andasoneidentifiedonlybyaknowledgeofwhatisheardandhandeddown.

Onewhoislearnedintheknowledgeofanotherislikeapersonwhodescribesthespiritualstatesoftherighteous,andwhoisawareofthespiritualstationsof

therighteouswithoutactuallyexperiencinganysuchspiritualstateorstation.Hisdescriptionofsuchpeopleonlyreturnstohimasaproofagainsthimwithrespecttoknowledgeanddiscourse.Asforproofsoftheirdeedsandspiritualstation,ontheotherhand,thetrulylearnedarewayahead.ByanalogywiththemGodhassaid,"WoetoyouforwhatyoudescribeconcerningGod"(21:18),and,forexample,inHisword,"Wheneverthelightilluminesthem,theywalkinit,butwhendarknessdescendsuponthem,theystandstill"(2:20).Suchapersondoesnotproceedalonghispathwithspiritualinsightbecauseofthedarknessthatenvelopshimasaresultofthedisparityofviewsofthereligiousscholars,nordoeshehaveagenuineexperienceofitonthebasisofhisownspiritualstate.Forhecloakshisownstateoverwithinauthenticexperience,sinceheisonlyexperiencingitvicariously.Someoneelse,therefore,isactuallyhavingtheexperience,andheisgivingwitnesstowhatsomeoneelsehasactuallywitnessed-theotherpersonistherealwitness.

Hasan(al-Basri)usedtosay,[285]"Godcouldnotcarelessaboutonewhoengagesinreportingtradition,buthedoespayattentiontothepersonofprofoundcomprehensionandunderstanding."Healsosaid,"Whenapersonhasnounderstandingthatimposesdemandsonhim,aplethoraofreportsofHadithwillbeofnousetohim."Oneofthewise(,Ali)hasrecitedtheseversesonthemeaningofthat:

Thebooksandcollectionsaremorerecentdevelopments.Thesameistrueofthepracticeofquotingpeople'ssayingsandindividualauthorities'legaladvisories,seekingsupportinallthingsfromsuchanindividual'sutterancesandstories,andseekingdeeperunderstandingaccordingtohisschooloflegalmethodology.Duringthefirstandsecondcenturiespeoplewerenotfamiliarwithallthat.Thesesystematizedbooksappearedonlyaftertheyear120/737,andafterthedeathofalltheCompanionsandthemostprominentFollowers.ItissaidthatthefirstsystematicIslamicworkwasthebookof(Abdal-Malik)IbnJurayj(d.c.150/767)concerningthetraditions,andtheexegeticaltextsofMujahidand'Ata'(ibnANRabah)19andthecompanionsofIbnAbbasinMecca.ThentherewasthebookofMa`maribnRashidasSanlani(d.c.152/769)inYemen,inwhichhegatheredwidelydispersedsunnasaccordingtothematicchapters.ThencameMalikibnAnas'sBookoftheLevelPath(Kitabal-muwatta')inMedina,concerningreligiouslaw,followedbytheAnthology(Jami`)ofSufyanath-Thawri(d.161/777-78)concerningreligiouslawandHadith.ThentherewasIbn'Uyayna'santhologizedBookofGatheredVersions(Kitabaljawami`)concerningsunnasandthematicchapters,alongwiththeBookofScripturalCommentary(Kitabat-tafsir)abouttheterminologyandscienceoftheQur'an.Theseareamongthefirstsystematicallycomposedbooks,afterthedeathofSaidibnal-MusayyibandtheoutstandingFollowers,subsequenttotheyear120ofthehistoryofIslam.

Thelearnedpeoplewhowerethemodelsofthesereligiousscholarsbelongedtothefourcategoriesofandafterthedeathofthefirstgeneration,theywereamongtheforemostFollowers.Theydiedoutpriortothecompositionofbooks,andtheywereaversetowritingdownofHadithandpeople'sauthoringbooks,outofconcernthattheymightdistractthemfromtheQur'anandfrom

recollectionandreflection.Theysaid,"Keepitinmemoryaswehavememorizedit,soasnottobedistractedfromGodbyanywrittentracesormarks."JustsodidAbuBakrtheTrustworthyOneandthemostprominentCompanionsholdbackfromgatheringtheleavesoftheQur'anintoavolume,saying,"HowcanwedosomethingGod'sMessengerdidnotdo?"Theywereafraidthepeoplewouldbecomepreoccupiedwiththewrittentextandrelyonbooks.Sotheysaid,"ShouldwemakeanexceptionoftheQur'ansothatthepeoplelearnitfromoneanother,acquiringitthroughinstructionandrecitation,andsothatitwillbetheirfocusandconcernandtheobjectoftheirrecollection?"Eventually,`UmarandtherestoftheCompanionsadvisedAbuBakrtogathertheQur'aninto[286]writtenvolumes,becausehehadthefirmestgraspofit.Thepeoplewouldthusbeabletoresorttotheboundvolume,fornooneissafefrompreoccupationwithworldlyconcerns.GodthereforeexpandedthecenterofAbuBakr'sbeingtoacceptthat,sohegatheredtheQur'anfromlooseleavesintoasinglevolume.

Inthatwaytheyacquiredtheknowledgefromoneanotherandsawtoitssafekeeping.Thisprocessledtocleansingtheirheartsofuncertainty,emptyingthemofworldlyconcerns,strengtheningtheirfaith,purifyingtheircertitude,elevatingtheirzeal,amendingtheirintention,andbolsteringtheirdetermination.Then,aftertheyear200/815-indeedafterthepassingofthreecenturies-thereappearedduringtheunfortunatefourthcenturythewrittenworksofsystematictheologyandthebooksofthosewhodiscoursedspeculativelyonthebasisofpersonalopinion,rationalistmethodology,andtheuseofanalogicalinference.Asaresult,theknowledgeofthegod-fearingwaned,andthema'rifaofthosewhopossessedcertitudevanishedfromthescienceofgodliness,withitsinspirationtorightguidanceandcertitude.Andintheirplacecameothersafterthem,incontinuoussuccessiontothisage.Nowinourtime,mattershavegoneontobecomethoroughlyobfuscated,sothatpeoplerefertothespeculativetheologiansasreligiouslyknowledgeableandconsiderthestorytellersendowedwithexperientialknowledge;theycallreportersandtransmittersoftraditionlearnedeventhoughtheypossessneitherdeepreligiousunderstandingnorspiritualinsightincertitude.

WehavereceivedatraditionfromIbnAbi'Abla(d.152/769),saying,"WeusedtositwithAta'al-Khurasani(d.135/752)afterthedawnritualprayer,andhewouldspeaktous.Butwhenhewasdetainedonemorning,oneofthe

muezzins-adecentenoughfellow-spoketousaboutthekindofthingonwhich'Ata'haddiscoursed.ThenRaja'ibnHaywa(d.112/730),whofoundtheman'svoiceannoying,''asked,`Whoisthisspeaker?'Themananswered,`Iamso-and-so.'Repliedthefirstman,Bequiet!Weareloathetohearreligiousknowledgefromanybutthoseworthyofit."'Asaresultpeopleusedtosay,"ProponentsoftheknowledgeofGoddeclinetohearofthisknowledgeexceptfromthoseworthyofit,whorejectthisworld."Theyrefusedtohearofitfromthesonsofthisworld,assertingthatsuchknowledgewasunbefittingtothem.

KnowthatwhenGoddisclosesexperientialknowledgeandtheknowledgeofcertitudetothedevotee,thatindividualisnolongeratlibertytoaccepttheviewsofanyreligiousscholaruncritically.Similarly,whentheMuslimsofoldfoundthemselvesinthissituation,theirviewsdifferedfromthoseofthepeoplefromwhomtheyhadreceivedthereligiousknowledge,becauseoftheirmoreabundantcertitudeandpenetratinginsights.IbnAbbassaid,"ThereisnooneotherthanGod'sMessengerwhoseteachingonereceiveswithoutsometimelaterrejectingit."NowhehadlearnedreligiouslawfromZaydibnThabit,122andrecitedQur'anwithUbayyibnKalb(d.c.19/640),butthendisagreedwithZaydconcerninglegalmattersandwithUbayyconcerningQur'anicreadings.

Oneofthejuristsamongtheancestorsinfaithsaid,"WhathascometousfromGod'sMessengerwehavereceivedmostgladly.WhathascometousfromtheCompanions,wehavetakenandthensetaside.AsforwhathascometousfromtheFollowers,theywerehumanbeingsandwearehumanbeings;theyhadtheirviewsandwehaveours."Asaresult,thejuristsusedtoabhoruncriticalacceptanceofauthority(taglld),saying,"Nooneshouldissuealegaladvisorywithoutbeingfamiliarwiththedisparityofviewsofthereligiousscholars."Inotherwords,heshouldchoosefromamongthoseviewstheonethat,asfarasheknows,isthemostreligiouslyprudentandpromisesthestrongestcertitude.Then,shouldpeoplepreferthatthereligiousscholarissuealegaladvisoryaccordingtosomeoneelse'sschooloflegalmethodology,thescholarwouldnotneedtobefamiliarwiththevariantviews,anditwouldbesufficientforhimtobefamiliarwiththelegalteachingoftheotherteacher.

HenceitissaidthatifaservantisinterrogatedonthemorningofJudgmentDay,hewillbeasked,"Whatdidyoupracticeofwhatyouknew?"-hewillnotbeasked,"Whatdidyoudoinaccordwithwhatsomeoneelseknew?"[287]WhenGodsaid,"Thosewhoreceivedknowledgeandfaith"(30:56),Hedistinguished

betweenthetwoandindicatedthatonewhoreceivesfaithreceivesknowledge,justasonewhoreceivesbeneficialknowledgereceivesfaith.ThisisoneofthefacetsofthemeaningofHisword"HehasinscribedfaithupontheirheartsandaffirmedthemwithaspiritfromHim"(58:22).Thatis,Hestrengthenedthemwiththeknowledgeoffaith,andtheknowledgeoffaithisHisspirit.The"Him"inthephrase"aspiritfromHim"hasasitsantecedent"thefaith."Thelearnedperson,therefore,isamongtheproponentsofdeeperinterpretationandofderivingmeaningsfromtheBookandtheSunna,forhehasthepowerofmakingdistinctionsandspiritualinsightandisgiventocontemplationandprofoundreflection.Theignorant,coarse,heedlessperson,ontheotherhand,shouldaccepttheauthorityofthereligiousscholarsunquestioningly.Infact,thescholarwhoseknowledgeisgeneralhastoaccepttheauthorityofthescholarwhoseknowledgeisspecialized,justasthescholarwhopossessesknowledgeofoutwardmattersmustaccepttheauthorityofhisbetters-namely,thosewhosetaskisknowledgeofthingsinwardandwhoarethepeopleofheart.FortheProphetdirectedpeopleawayfromtheknowledgeoftonguesandlegaladvisoriesandtowardthescienceofhearts,buthedidnotsteerthepeopleofheart,withrespecttothekindofknowledgeinwhichtheyspecialized,towardthosewhoissuelegalopinions.Thatisbecausewhenthepeopleofhearttakethelegalopinionsfromthosewhodispensethem,thentheydiscovercontrivanceandsarcasmintheirhearts.Sotheymustobtaintheadviceoftheheart,accordingtotheProphet'ssaying,"Askyourheartforadvice,"afterhehadsaid,"Evenifthespecialistshavegivenyouanopinion."

Hesaidinaddition,"Sinistherancorofhearts,"andagain,"Letgoofwhattiesthecenterofyourbeinginknots,eventhoughitoffersyouopinionafteropinion."Thenthisintimateknowledge,too,wasobliterated,sothatpeoplebecameignorantofit,tothepointthateverypersonwhoarticulatesawordwhosepresentationeludeslisteners,andwhosetruthsareindistinguishablefromhisfalsehoods,isknownaslearned.Everyworddeemedpleasant,embellished,andadorned,howeverbaselessitmaybe,isknownasknowledge,becausethegeneralpublichasn'taclueaboutwhatknowledgeis,andbecauseofthedearthofma'rifaamonglistenersastothewaythetrulylearnedancestorsinfaithwere.Numeroussystematictheologiansthesedayshavebecomeatemptationforthegullible.Manyaword,personalopinion,andrationalconclusionwhoseessentialrealityisignorance,theignorantconsiderknowledge.Theymakenodistinctionbetweenthespeculativetheologiansandthereligiousscholars,nordotheyknow

thedifferencebetweenknowledgeandspeculativetheology.

Ihavesaidthatthosewhoareparticularlyignorantmakethemselvesouttobelearnedpeoplesothattheyappropriatethestateofalearnedpersonintheirstudycircles.Butthemostknowledgeablepersonnowadaysistheonewiththemostintimatefamiliaritywiththemanneroflifeoftheancientsandthemostknowledgeableamongthemconcerningthewaysoftheancestorsinfaith.Themostknowledgeableperson,therefore,isonewhoisbestinformedaboutwhatknowledgeisandwhothetrulylearnedpersonis,asopposedtothestudentortheonewhomerelyactsthepart.Becomingintimatelyfamiliarwiththisisvirtuallyadutyforthosewhoseekknowledge,forsincetheProphetsaid,"Thequestforknowledgeisaduty,"ithasbeenincumbentuponthemtobecomeawareofwhatknowledgeissothattheycanseekit;itisimpossibletosearchforthatwhichonecannotrecognize.Consequently,itisincumbentuponthemtobeintimatelyawareofwhothetrulyknowledgeablepersonisinordertoseekknowledgewithsuchanindividual,sinceknowledgeisanaccident123andcanbelocatedonlyinabodyandisfoundonlyamongitsproponents.

Assomeonesaidto'Ali,"Youcontradictedso-and-soonsuchand-suchapoint."Hereplied,"Thebestofusistheoneamonguswhofollowsthisreligionmostassiduously."AndwhensomeonesaidtoSaid,"Saidibnal-Musayyibrecites,`WhenWeabrogateaverseorsetitfurtherhereplied,"TheQur'anwasrevealedneithertoIbnal-Musayyibnortohisfather."Thereafter,herecited,"orcauseittobeThemostlearnedpersonthesedays,therefore,andtheonenearesttodivineassistanceandrightguidance,istheonewhofollowsmostcloselytheancestorsinfaithandwhoisincharactermostliketherighteousforbears.NowonderwehavereceivedatraditionfromGod'sMessengerthat,whensomeoneaskedhimwhowasthemostknowledgeableperson,heresponded,"Theonemostintimatelyawareofthetruthwhenuncertaintyabounds."[288]Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Themostknowledgeablepersonistheonemostfamiliarwiththedifferencesamongpeople."

Hasanal-Bashusedtosay,"TwoinnovationsthathaveappearedinIslamareamanwithfaultyviewswhoclaimsthatHeavenisforthosewhoseviewislikehis;andapersonwholivesanopulentlife,whoworshipsthisworld,israpaciousbecauseofit,issatisfiedwithit,andconsidersithisgoal.MaytheybothbeconsignedtoHell!BeawareofhowloathsometheiractionsrenderthemtotheirLord.Whenamanisbornintothisworldbetweenthehigh-rollerwhoinvites

otherstothisworldandthepersoninclinedtoinnovation,Godpreserveshimfromthemboth.Andifthisindividualhasrecoursetotheuprightancestorsinfaith,inquiresabouttheirdeeds,andgivesanaccurateaccountoftheirpatrimony,thenanimmenserewardisinstoreforhim.Mayitbesoforyouall.

(Beginningof a discussion of the value of the knowledge of the ancientsandthedangersofinnovation)

WehavereceivedatraditionfromIbnMasud,withacompletechainoftransmitters,"Therearetworealitiesonly:speechandguidance.ThebestspeechisthewordofGod,andthebestguidanceisMuhammad'sguidancetoGod.Beonguardagainstinnovation,forthemostinsidiousofallthingsarehumaninventions.Everynoveltyisaninnovation,andeveryinnovationisacauseoferror.Indeed,thetimewillnotbelongbeforeyourheartsarehardened.Truly,allthatisyettocomeisnigh.Indeed,whatisnottocomeisfaroff."AndinasermontransmittedtousthroughAban(d.138/755)fromAnas,theProphetsaid,"Happyaretheywhosepreoccupationwiththeirownfaultsdistractsthemfromthefaultsofthepeople,whoaregenerouswiththepossessionstheyhaveacquiredhonestly,whoassociatewithpeopleofdeepunderstandingandwisdom,andwhokeeptheirdistancefromthevileandfractious.Andhappyaretheywhohumblethemselves,whoareofgoodcharacter,whoseinmostthoughtsareupright,andwhoholdtheireviltendenciesalooffromthepeople.Happyaretheywhoactaccordingtowhattheyknow,whogivegenerouslyfromtheoverabundanceoftheirwealth,whorestrainthemselvesfromtalkingtoomuch,forwhomtheSunnaoffersamplescope,andwhodonotpreemptitforthesakeofinnovation."

Oneliteraryfiguredescribedourtimesinexquisitelanguageasthoughhehadwitnesseditpersonally:

IbnMasudusedtosay,"Attheendoftime,goodguidancewillbepreferabletoaplethoraofpiousdeeds."Characterizinghistimeasoneofcertitudeandoursasoneofdoubt,hesaid,"Youliveinatimewhenthebestofyouistheonewhogetsthingsdonewithdispatch.Buttherewillcomeatimeafteryouwhenthebestofthemwillbetheonewhoproceedswithcautionandremainsundecided"-referringtotheprevalenceofambiguities.Hudhayfa(ibnal-Yaman)saidsomethingevenmoreastonishingthanthat:"Whatyouconsideracceptabletodaywasdetestableinaformertime,andwhatyouconsiderdetestablewillpassforacceptableintimetocome.Butyouwillnotceasetoexperiencegoodnesssolongasyouknowthetruthexperientiallyandthetrulyknowledgeablepersoninyourmidstisnotdespised."12'Healsosaid,"Attheendoftimetherewillcomeapeopleamongwhomtheknowledgeablepersonwillhavethestatusofadeadjackass,fortheywillpayhimnoheed.Thebelieveramongthemwillbedespisedaswedespise[289]thehypocriteamongustoday,andthebelieveramongthemwillbethemostcontemptibleofthecommunity."

'AlisaidinaHadith,"Atimewillcomeuponthepeopleinwhichnine-tenthsofthemwilldespisethetruth.Inthatdaynoneofthemwillbesavedapartfrom

everybelieverwhoisasleep-thatis,whoissilentandapathetic.Theyarethelampsofknowledgeandtheparagonsofguidance,notthosewhogoscatteringseedsabroad."Heisreferringtothosewhodiscourseatlengthandputonashowwiththeirboastfulspeech.AndaHadithsays,"Atimewillcomeuponthepeoplewhenonewhorecognizesthetruthwillbesaved.Someoneasked,`Sowhatisonetodo?'Camethereply,`Inthatdaytherewillbenoaction,andnonewillbesavedexceptthepersonwhofleeswithhisreligionfromonehighmountaintoanother."'AHadithofAbuHurayrasays,"Atimewillcomeuponthepeoplewhenthepersonamongthemwhoactsuponatenthofwhatheiscommandedwillbesaved."Anotherversionreads"whoactsuponatenthofwhatheknows."[OneoftheCompanions(Hudhayfa)said,"Youarenowinatimewhenoneofyouwhodisregardsatenthofwhatheknowsperishes;butatimewillcomeuponyouwhenthepersonwhoactsuponatenthofwhatheknowswillbesaved."]OneofthesuccessorsoftheProphetsaid,"Themostexcellentknowledgeattheendoftimewillbekeepingsilentandthemostexcellentactionwillbesleeping."Inotherwords,becauseofthelargenumberofhypocritesspoutingoffambiguities,silencewillbecometheknowledgeoftheignorantperson,andbecauseofthenumerouspeopleengaginginquestionableactions,sleepwillbecomethedevotionoftheheedless.Iassureyou,silenceandsleeparethelowestofthestatesoftheknowledgeableperson,andtheloftiestofthestatesoftheignorantperson.

YunusibnIUbaydusedtosay,"TodaythepersonintimatelyfamiliarwiththeSunnahasbecomeanoddity,butstillstrangerthanheisthepersonwhoisintimatelyfamiliarwithhim"-referringtothewayoftheancestorsinfaith.Heissayingthattheindividualwhoisintimatelyfamiliarwithapersonwhohasanexperientialknowledgeofthepathofsomeonewhohaspassedonisalsoastrangerbecauseheisfamiliarwithastranger.Hudhayfaal-Marlashi(d.207/822)said,"SomeonewrotetoYusufibnAsbat,saying,`Obediencehasvanished,alongwiththepersonintimatelyfamiliarwithit."'Healsousedtosay,"Nobodywithwhomonecanassociateisleft."Andhesaid,"Whatisyourviewaboutatimeinwhichpursuingknowledgeisaformofdisobedience?"Someoneasked,"Andhowcouldthatbe?""Because,"heanswered,"onecouldnotfindaproponentofknowledge."Abu`d-Darda'usedtosay,"Youwillcontinueinagoodsituationsolongasyoulovethebestamongyou,andthetruthisspokenamongyouandrecognizedassuch.Woetoyou,shouldthelearnedpersoninyourmidstbecomelikeasheepthathasbeenbuttedbyanotheranimalwith

Peopleofoldhadsciencesuponwhichtheyconcurredandaboutwhichtheyconferredwitheachother,butinourage(thetracesofthatknowledge)havedisappeared.Theuprighthadtheirnotionsaboutwhichtheyinquiredandwaysonwhichtheytraveled,butthey,too,havevanishedinourtime.Thedisciplinesofcertitudeandexperientialknowledgeoncehadstationsandstateswhichtheirproponentswoulddiscusswitheachotherandwhosemasterspeoplesoughtout.Buttheirtraceshave,fromourperspective,beenobliteratedduetothescarcityofseekers,thelackofpeopledesirousofthem,thelossofthosewhoaretrulylearnedaboutthem,andthedisappearanceofthosewhotraveltheirpaths.Thesethingsincludethescienceofthequestforwhatispermitted;theknowledgeofspiritualreticencewithrespecttomeansoflivelihoodandsocialrelations;theknowledgeofsincerity;theknowledgeoftheego-soul'snegativetendenciesandofthecorruptionofdeeds;thescienceofhypocriticalknowledgeandaction,[andofthedistinctionbetweenhypocrisyinknowledgeandinaction,]andofthedistinctionbetweenhypocrisyoftheheartandthatoftheego,andbetweentheego-soul'smanifestationandconcealmentofitspassions,andofthedistinctionbetweentheheart'srestinginGodandtheego'srestinginmaterialthings,andthedistinctionbetweentheinteriorimpulsesofthespiritandtheegoandtheimpulseoffaith,certitude,andreason;andthescienceofthecharacteristicsofthespiritualstates,andofthestatesofthepathsofthedevout,andofthediversityofcontemplativeexperiencesofthemystics,andofthevariedcolorationsofthingscontemplatedbyseekers;andthescienceofcontractionandexpansion,andoftheverificationoftheattributesofworshipfulness,andofconformingone'scharactertotheattributesofLordliness,andofthedifferencesbetweenthespiritualstationsoftheknowledgeableandother[290]thingsIhavenotmentioned.Forexample,theknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunity,andintimatefamiliaritywiththemeaningsofthedivineattributes,andthesciencesofdivinedisclosurethroughthetheophanyofthedivineessence,andofthemanifestationofactionsthatindicatethemeaningsofthehiddendivineattributes,andofthedisclosureofthemeaningsthatpointtothedivineglanceandaversion,drawingneartoanddistancingfromGod,decreaseandincrease,rewardandpunishment,electionandtrial.Ihavementionedalloftheseconceptsindividuallyanddelineatedthemasacomplexofideasandprinciplestocallattentiontotheirramificationsandtoalludetotheir(possible)ambiguities,forthebenefitofthosewhohavebeenrenderedsuitabletoreflectonthem,whohavebeengiventhedesiretoconsiderthemandwhohavebeengivenashareofthesesciences.

Oneofourlearnedonessaid,"Iamawarethattheancientshadseventyformsofknowledge.Theyusedtodiscussthemandlearntogetherthekindofknowledgewithwhichnoonethesedaysisintimatelyfamiliar.AndIknowofcountlessformsofknowledgeinourtimethatarejustsomuchgibberish,pretentiousness,andbanality.Theypresentandlabelthemselvesassciencesbutwerenotrecognizedassuchinthepast.TheyarethuslikethemirageGoddescribedwhenHesaid,`Thepersondesperatelythirstymakesitoutforwater,until,whenhecomestoit,hediscoversthatitisnothing"'(24:39).Beforehim,Junaydhadsaid,"Thisknowledgeofours,onwhichweusedtodiscourse,islikeacarpetthathasbeenrolledupfortwentyyears,sothatnowwetalkonlyaboutitsfringes."Healsosaid,"OvertheyearsIusedtositwithagroupofpeoplewhohadintensediscussionsaboutformsofknowledgeofwhichIhadnoseriouscomprehension-Ididnotevenknowwhattheywere.Still,Iwasnotinclinedtorejectthemoutright,soIacceptedthemandcametolovethemwithoutpossessinganyexperientialknowledgeofthem."Healsosaid,"Iusedtoengageinmutualcompetitionwithmybrotherswithrespecttomanyformsofknowledgenotwellknowninourtime,andnooneeveraskedmeaboutthem.Thisisadoornowboltedshutandblocked."

AndwhenourshaykhAbuSaidibnal-Arabi(d.341/952)composedTheBookoftheGenerationsoftheAscetics(Kitabtabagatannussak),hedescribedthefirstpeopletodiscourseonthisscienceandmakeitpublic,aswellasthoseBasrans,Syrians,Khurasanis,andfinallyBaghdadiswhocameafterhim.Thenhesaid,"ThelasttodiscourseonthiswasourmasterJunaydal-Qawariri(theGlassMerchant,d.c.297/910),whohadspiritualinsightintoitanditsessentialsignificance,aswellastheabilitytoarticulateitbeautifully.Afterhimthereremainedonlythosewhosecompanywasexasperating."Inanotherplacehesaid,"AfterJunaydthereremainedonlypeoplewhomoneisembarrassedtomention."

OurimamAbuMuhammadSahlusedtosay,"Aftertheyear300oneisnolongerallowedtodiscourseonthisscienceofours,becausetherehasappearedacrowdwhoputonairsforthebenefitofthepublicandusetheirdiscourseasacostumesothattheirallegedexperiencesofecstasyaretheirgarment,theirfineryistheirspeech,andtheirobjectofworshipistheirbellies."WhensomeoneaskedHudhayfawhatthemostintensetemptationwas,hereplied,"Beingpresentedwithgoodandevilandnotknowingwhichofthetwoto

choose."Hewasreferringtotheplethoraofambiguities,aswasSahlwhenhesaid,"Aftertheyear300,scarcelyanyonewillbeabletorepent,fortheirbreadwillbemoldy,buttheywillstillnotbeabletorenouncebread."Inotherwords,repentancestartswitheatingonlywhatispermitted.Wehavereceivedthetradition,"Atimewillcomeuponthepeoplewhentheywillstrayfromtheirreligionandnolongerrecognizeit.Amanwillwakeupadheringtoonereligionandretirethatnightadheringtoanother.Hissituationwillcontinuewithoutcertitude,andtheunderstandingsofmostpeopleofthattimewillbesnatchedaway.Andthefirstthingtobetakenfromthemwillbehumility,thentrustworthiness,andthenspiritualreticence."Someonehassaid,"Thefirstthingtobetakenfromthepeoplewillbeaffection."

[291] A chapter on the words and deeds with which people have onlyrecently concerned themselves, but which were not a concern of theancestorsinfaith

Inancienttimes,whenpeoplemeteachother,theywouldsaytoeachother,"What'snew?"and"Howareyou?"Whattheymeantwas,"What'sthelatestabouthowyouareperseveringinyourspiritualstruggle?"and"What'sthestateofyourheartwithrespecttoanincreaseinfaithandtheknowledgeofcertitude?"And"What'sthelatestonyourdeedsofpietyonbehalfofyourMaster?"and"What'syourspiritualstateinrelationtomatterspertainingtothisworldandthenext?""Haveyouadvancedorregressedspiritually?"Inotherwords,theywouldremindeachotherofthespiritualstatesoftheirhearts,describingactionsrelatedtotheirknowledge,andmentionthedeedsofdevotionGodhadbestoweduponthemandthemarvelsofprofoundcomprehensionHehadrevealedtothem.ThusdidtheyenumerateGod'sgracestothemandthebeautyoftheirgratitude,sothattheyexperiencedanincreaseofm&rifaanddeedsofpiety.

Oneofthemusedtosay,"Mostofourknowledgeandspiritualexperienceconsistsinwhatoneofuslearnsfromanotherandwhatoneofusinformshisbrotherabout."Nowadayspeopleareignorantofthatandthusdisregardit.Ifsomeoneasksthemaboutwhat'sneworaboutwhat'shappeningwiththem,theyarereferringtoworldlymattersandtheobjectsofcovetousness.Asaresult,everyonecomplainsofhisMajesticMastertoHislowlyservantbyexpressingdispleasureatHisjudgments,exoneratingthemselvesofHisdecrees,andforgettingtheformerdeedsoftheirownhands.InthatveintheMostHighhas

said,"WhocommitsgreaterevilthanonewhomWehavemademindfulofthesignsofhisLord,butwhothenturnsawayfromthemandforgetstheformerdeedsofhishands?"(18:57);andastheMostHighhasalsosaid,"Indeed,thehumanbeingisungratefultohisLord"(100:6).Inotherwords,peopleareungratefulforHisgraces,sothattheyenumeratetheirmisfortunesanddiscounttheirbenefits.AllofthatisignoranceandheedlessnessofGod.

Othercurrentcommonexpressionsinclude:"Howareyouthismorning?"and"Howareyouthisevening?"Thisisarecentdevelopment.Peopleusedtosaywhentheymeteachother,"PeacebetoyouandthemercyofGod."AHadithsays,"Ifsomeonebeginstoaddressyouwithoutgivingthegreetingof`Peace,'donotrespond."ThatoccurredinthetimewhenthepestilencethatpeoplecalledthePlagueof1mwas128broughtwidespreaddeathtoSyria.Amanwhowouldmeethisbrotherinthemorningwouldaskhim,"Didyousurvivethenightinspiteoftheplague?"andifhemethimintheeveninghewouldask,"Haveyoumadeittoeveninginspiteofit?"Forapersonamongthemwholivedthroughthenightoftendidnotmakeittillevening,andonewhosurvivedthedayoftendidnotdosotillnextmorning.Sothisexpressionhassurvivedtothisday,butitsoriginshavebeenforgotten.Thoseamongtheancientswhowereawarethattheusagewasarecentdevelopmentdislikedit.WehavereceivedaHadithfromAhmadibn"AmansaidtoAbuBakribn'Ayyash(d.c.193/808),`Howareyouthismorning'or`Howareyouthisevening,'butAbuBakrwouldnottalktohim.Hewouldsay,`Sparemethisinnovation!'SoI(Ahmad)saidtooneoftheancestorsinfaith,`Howareyouthismorning?'andheturnedawayfromme,saying,`Whythe"Howareyouthismorning"?GreetmewithPeaceinstead."'AbuMalshar(d.170/787)passedalongatraditionfromHasan(al-Basri),"Onehadonlytosaytoanother,`Peacebetoyou,'and,byGod,heartsexperiencedpeace.Butnowadays,peoplesay,`Howareyouthismorning?mayGodcauseyoutoprosper;Howareyouthisevening?-Godprotectyou!'Ifweemploytheirexpressions,itisinnovation-thereisnoesteeminthat.Letthembeangryatusiftheywish!"

Amongthenovelpracticespeoplebegantoindicateintheopeningsection[292]ofaletterthenameofthepersontowhomitwaswritten.ButaccordingtotheSunna,onebeginswithoneselfandwrites"fromso-and-sotoso-and-so."IbnSirinsaid,"Iwasawayfromhome,soIwrotetomyfather,beginningwithhisname.Hethenwrotetome,saying,`Myson,whenyouwritetome,startthe

letterwithyourname;ifyoubeginbyputtingmynamebeforeyourname,IwillnotreadyourletterandIwillnotsendyouareply."'Ala'ibnal-Hadrami(d.c.21/641)wrotetoGod'sMessengerbeginningwithhisownname,writing,"From'Ala'ibnal-HadramitoGod'sMessenger."ItissaidthatthefirsttoengageinthenewpracticewasZiyad(ibnAbihi)(d.53/673),butthereligiousscholarsblamedhimforthatandattributedittothenoveltiesoftheUmayyadfamily.Thisacceptedcustomremainsinthewritingsofthecaliphsandcommanderstothisdayasinthepast,sothattheyputtheirnamesfirstintheirletters.

Oneofthenovelpracticesisthatuponarrivingathisbrother'sdwellingamansays,"0servantboy,"or"0servingmaid,"incontraventionofthecommandofGodandtheinjunctionofHisMessenger.Godsaid,"Donotenterhousesotherthanyourownwithoutaskingandwishingpeacetothosewhodwellinit"(24:27).Theexegeteshavesaidthatsocialconventionsincludeknockingonadoororclearingone'sthroatormakingacommotioninordertoannounceone'spresence.AndGod'sMessengersaid,"Whenoneofyoucomestothedwellingofhisbrother,heshouldgivegreetingsofpeacethreetimes,andifpermissionisgranted,thenhemayenter.Otherwise,heshouldgoback."Everyoneoftheancestorsinfaithusedtoknockonhisbrother'sdoor,thengivethegreetingofpeacethreetimes,pausingbrieflyafterevery"Peacebetoyou."Ifpermissionwasgranted,hewouldenter;fortheownerofthedwellingmightnotwanthimtoenteratthatmomentbecauseofsomereasonorexcuse,andmightsaytothevisitor,"Peacetoyouaswell,andthemercyofGod.ButIamoccupied,sogoaway,andGodblessyou."Sothevisitorwouldleavewithouthesitationandwithnohardfeelings,forhewouldconsidertheowner'stellinghimtoleavemoredesirabletotheextentthatitwaspreferableforhimtohavethehopeofafuturepositiveresponseandofspiritualpurification-asintheMostHigh'sword,"Ifsomeonetellsyoutoleave,thengoback,foritwillpurifyyoumore"(24:28).130Oftenenough,onemightturnawaytwoorthreetimesaftertheownerofthehousesendshimaway,totryagainlatersincethatexperienceleftnohardfeelingsinhisheart.Ifthisweretohappentooneofthepeopleofthisageofours,hewouldfinditoffensiveandmightverywellnotreturntovisitlaterthatday.

Asforthereligiousscholars,somepeoplehavenotsoughtpermissiontovisitthemexceptintheinstanceofaveryimportantandunavoidablematter.Forthemostpart,however,outofrespectforknowledgeandesteemforthereligious

scholars,peopleusedtowaitattheirdoorsandintheirmosques,expectingthemtocomeoutatritualprayertimes.WehaveatraditioninwhichAbuUbaydsaid,"Ihaveneverknockedonthedoorofareligiousscholar.IfIwenttoascholar'sdwelling,Iwouldsituatemyselfbeforehisdoorandwaitforhimtocomeout,whileIplumbedthemeaningofthewordofGod,`Iftheywerepatientuntilyoucameouttothem,itwouldbebetterforthem"'(49:5).AsimilartraditionhascomedowntousaboutIbnAbbasconcerningthestatusofhisknowledgeandnobility.SomeoneonceencounteredhimwhilehewasleaningagainstthedoorofthedwellingofamanfromtheAnsar,asthewindbuffetedhim.Sothepasserbysaid,"SonoftheuncleofGod'sMessenger,whyareyousittingthere?""I'mwaitingfortheownerofthehousetocomeout,"hereplied.Whenthemanemerged,hesaid,"SonoftheuncleofGod'sMessenger,ifyouhadsentformeIwouldhavecometoyou."IbnAbbasreplied,"No,itwasmoreappropriatethatIcometoyou."SoIbnAbbasaskedthemanaboutaHadithhehadinmind,onehehadheardthatthemanhadtransmittedfrom[293]God'sMessengerbutwhichIbnAbbashimselfhadnotheardfromtheProphet.

Amongnovelpracticesaswellisaperson'smakingtooextensiveaninquiryconcerninghisbrother'scondition,trollingfornewsabouthim,sothathisbrotherresentsit.Salmanal-Farisigotmarried,andwhenhehadconsummatedthemarriage,hewentouttothepeoplethenextday,andamanaskedhim,"Howareyou,Abu'AbdAllah?""Fine,praisebetoGod,"hereplied.Themanwenton,"Howarethingsgoingforyouandhowdidlastnightturnoutforyou?"Inanotherversion,theinquirerasks,"Howdidthingsgowithyourwife?"Salmanbecameangryandasked,"Whydoesthelikesofyouaskaquestioninsuchawaythattherealquestionishidden,sothatheisactuallyinquiringaboutprivateaffairs?Itissufficientforthelikesofyoutoinquireaboutexternalmatters."AmanaskedSulaymanibnMihranal-Almashinhishome,"Howareyou,AbuMuhammad?"Hereplied,"Fine."Themanasked,"Howareyoureally?""Myhealthisgood,"heanswered."Howdidthingsgolastnight?"themancontinued.AtthatSulaymanshouted,"0servingmaid!Bringdownthebedandthepillows!"Soshebroughtthemdown,andSulaymansaid,"SpreadoutthebedandliedownonitwhileIliebyyourside,sothatwecanshowourbrotherhowthingswentlastnight!"Heusedtosay,"Whenoneofthemencountershisbrother,heaskshimabouteverything,includingthechickensinthehouse.Butifheasksforadirhamcoin,theothermanwillnotgiveittohim.Itusedtobethatifoneoftheancestorsinfaithencounteredhisbrotherhewould

sayonly,`Howareyou?'or`Godgiveyougoodhealth!'Andifoneaskedtheotherforhalfofhispossessions,hewouldshareitwithhim."

Anothernovelpracticeisthatwhenamanmeetshisbrotherasheisgoingalongthepath,hesaystohim,"Whereareyouheading?"or"Whereareyoucomingfrom?"ThatisunacceptableandnotinkeepingwitheithertheSunnaorgoodupbringing.Itvergesonpryingandintrusiveness,inthatintrusivenesshastodowithone'spersonalaffairsandpryingleadstogossip.Thatkindofinquirycombinesthetwo,andnoindividualwantshiscompaniontoknowwherehe'sgoingorwhereheiscomingfrom.Mujahidand'Ata'disparagedthat,saying,"Whenyoumeetyourbrotherontheway,don'taskhimwherehe'scomingfromorwherehe'sheaded,forhemighttellyoumoreofthetruththanyouwanttohear,orhemightdeceiveyouandyouwillhavepressuredhimintothat."TheyalsousedtodisapproveofbuyingandsellingcopiesoftheQur'an,andsomeofthemweremoreaversetosellingthemthantobuyingthem.

Peoplethesedayshaveinnovatedscienceswithwhichtheancestorsinfaithwerenotfamiliar.Theseincludethescienceofspeculativetheologyanddisputation,andthedisciplinesofanalogicalreasoning,investigation,andinferenceasappliedtotheSunnasoftheMessengerbyemployingpersonalopinionandreasoning.Andamongtheseisthepreferenceforrationalknowledge,individualassessment,andargumentfromanalogyovertheapparentmeaningsoftheQur'anandtheHadith.Othernewformsofknowledgeincludethepublicizingofallusionsresultingfrommysticalexperience,apartfromeitherthesciencesthatwouldmakethemunderstandableoranelucidationofthedistinctionsamongtheirvarioustypes.Asaresult,thosewhohaveheardthesethingshavebecomeconfused,andthosewhohaveacteduponthemhavegoneastray.Formerly,thepeoplewhowereknowledgeableaboutthissciencepublicizedthesciencesofmysticalexperience,whileconcealingtheecstaticallusion.Theythusmadeavailabletothepeoplewhatwouldbehelpfultothemandkepthiddenwhatwouldbeharmful.Sincemysticalexperiencesarespiritualstatesofhearts,itispreferabletoconcealthem.Thesciencesofthosethings,ontheotherhand,belongtospiritualseekersandthosewhoact,sothatmakingitknownistheiraim.Theythereforemadethescienceingeneralpublicwhilekeepingtheirecstaticexperienceprivate,foritwastheirsecret.Inthatwaytheyremaineduntaintedbyaffectationandpretense,givingtothosewhoheardthemwhatwasappropriatelytheirs,whiledeflectingfromthemwhatdidnotbelongto

them.Insodoing,theydidjusticetothetwosetsofcharacteristicstogetherandgavedueattentiontobothcircumstancessimultaneously.Nowadayspeopleareignorantofthisaccommodation,soitsoppositehasbecomethegeneralrule,andthatisclosertobeingharmfulandfartherfrombeingfaultless.Forwhenanindividuallacksarefinedsenseofspecificdetailsandisnotendowedwiththeabilitytocommunicatearticulately,heiswelladvisedtokeepquiet,forinsilencethereisamplebreadth;ifonedoesnotdiscourseontheknowledge[294]oftheSunna,hissilencebringshimnearertoGod.InthiscontextwhatGodhassaidisapposite,"Whenaperson'sresourcesarelimited,lethimexpendinproportiontowhatGodhasgivenhim.GodexactsonlyasmuchasHehasgiven"(65:7).

Oneofthenewlyacceptedpracticesispublicizingthedisciplinesofm&rifaasaresultofdisordereddesire,sothatintheirarrogancetheysetthemselvesapartfromthespirituallypoor.Peopleconsiderthempeerless,sothattheyallowmeansoflivelihoodtobedirectedtheirway,inkeepingwiththeirsartorialsplendorandthestyletowhichtheyhavebecomeaccustomed.Thisisamongthewidestdoorstothisworldandthemostdangerousforseekersofthenextlife,andthesubtlestinitsdistortionofthereligion.

OneoftheproblemshereisthatofdiscoursingonthedivinetranscendentunityinsuchawaythatitconflictswiththeknowledgeofRevealedLaw.Suchanapproachaversthatultimatetruthisatoddswithknowledge,wheninfactmysticaltruthisknowledgeandoneofthepathsoftheRevealedLawfromwhichknowledgeofthescienceofrevelationitselfderives.How,theyargue,couldthisultimatetruthbeincompatiblewithRevealedLawwhenitisthatverytruththatmakestheRevealedLawnecessary?Onthecontrary,theultimatetruthisafirmsourceofdefinitionandalimitingfactor,whereasexotericknowledgeis,incomparison,aformofdispensationandpermissiveness.Asaresult,onewhodiscoursesonesotericknowledgewithoutreferencetothefoundationsandprinciplesofexotericknowledgeintroducescorruptionintotheRevealedLawandsetsupabarrierbetweentheBookandtheSunna.Oneofthemysticshassaid,"Ihaveobservedthesepeoplewhomakeecstaticutterances,andhavefoundthemnothingbutignorantanddeluded,orvulgaranddim-witted,orpeoplewhosestatementsareunfounded."

Anotherinnovationisreligiousdiscoursebasedondiabolicalinsinuationandfleetinginnerimpulseswithoutreferringtheassociatedinnerexperiencestothe

BookandtheSunna.However,anintimateawarenessofhowtheseexperiencesdifferisessential,asistherejectionofthoseexperiencestowhichtheBookandtheSunnadonotattest.Forinmysticalexperiencesthereisthepotentialforerroranddelusion,justastheremaybefalsehoodanddeceptionincontemplativevisions.Inaddition,theyclaimtoloveGodwhiledisavowingthedivineattributesthattheSunnamentions,andthatintheabsenceofanyrevealedtestimonytotheOnewhoseattributestheydescribe.Andtheyclaimexperientialknowledgewithouthavinganyactualfamiliaritywiththeobjectofsuchexperientialknowledge.

Anothernovelpracticeistheuseofrhymedproseanddeparturefromtraditionalexpressioninsupplicatoryprayer,practicesrootedneitherintheBooknorintraditionsfromGod'sMessengerortheCompanions.Onthecontrary,thesesourcesloathedexcessiveverbiageinsupplicatoryprayerandavoideddeparturefromthecollected,brief,familiarprayersofsupplicationthatGodhashandeddownfromHisFriends.WehaveatraditionfromGod'sMessenger,"Avoidrhymedproseinsupplicatoryprayer.Itissufficientforanindividualtosay,`OGod,IaskYouforParadise,andforthewordsanddeedsthatbringitnigh.AndItakerefugeinYoufromtheFireandfromthewordsanddeedsthatbringitnigh."'Atraditionsays,"Therewillcomeapeoplewhowillcommitexcessesinsupplicatoryprayerandinpurifyingthemselvesritually."'AbdAllahibnMughaffal(d.c.57/676)heardhissonofferinganoverblownprayerofsupplication,sohesaid,`Myson,avoidexcessesindevotionalprayer."'AndGod'swordsays,"MakesupplicationofyourLordhumblyandprivately,forHedoesnotlovethosewhocommitexcesses"(7:55).Theysaythisreferstosupplicatoryprayer.

Excessinsupplicatoryprayerisanabandonmentofthedevotionalprayersforforgiveness,mercy,andrepentancethatGodhashandeddownfromHisrighteousFriends-thatis,familiarprayersofsupplicationandwidelyknownsayings-infavoroftheobstinateuseofmoreabstruse,nontraditional,andmoreexactinglanguage.Asayinghasit,"NoneofthereligiousscholarsandAbdalexceededsevenphrasesinsupplicatoryprayer."Inthescriptureonefindscorroborationofthat,inthatGoddidnothanddownanyonesupplicatoryprayerfromHisservantsthatexceededsevenrequests,andthoseareattheendoftheSuraoftheCow(2:286).Rather,Hehandeddownfromthem,scatteredthroughoutthescripture,prayerscontainingtwo,three,four,anduptofive

requestsatatime.

[295]Oneoftheancestorsinfaithcameuponastorytellerwhowasofferingaprayerofsupplicationinrhymedproseandpreciouslanguage,sohesaidtohim,"Woetoyou,areyoutryingtobemoreeloquentthanGod?ItestifythatIsawHabibal-,Ajami(d.156/772)offeringprayerofsupplication,sayingnomorethan,`OGod,giveustwoexcellentthings:0God,letusnotbeashamedonResurrectionDay.0God,prosperusingoodness.'Thepeopleweptonallsides,andwefeltsurethatHabib'sprayerofsupplicationwasansweredandthathewasblessed."AbuYazidal-Bistamiusedtosay,"AskHimwiththetongueofneed,notwiththetongueofwisdom."Oneofthem(Hasanal-Basri)said,"Makesupplicationwiththetongueofsubmissivenessandneediness,notwiththatofrhetoricalstyleandfulsomeexpression."

AnothernovelpracticeisrecitingtheQur'aninturns(withvariedrecitations),ortwopeoplevyingwithoneanotherinrecitationofthesameverseortherecitationoftwopeopleoftwoversesinoneplace,whichleadstomisappropriationandtakingthingsfromtheirproperplacewithouthumilityorawebeforetheQur'an.Onthecontrary,therecitationoftheQur'anrequiresasenseofreverence,sadness,andtranquility.AnothersuchnoveltyisthatonewhorecitestheQur'antakeshisrecitationfromtwoteachers.Betterthatheattendtotherecitationofoneatatime,forunderthesecircumstancestheheartbecomesdistracted.AssomeonesaidtoIbrahim(ibnIshaq)al-Harbi(d.285/898),"So-and-soislearningfromtwopeople."Sohereplied,"Mygoodness!Itismorefittingthattwostudentstakelessonsfromasingleteacher."Anotherinnovationischantingasifsingingwhilereciting,sothatpeoplehavenocomprehensionofwhatisbeingrecited.Forrecitersfailtoarticulatewordsproperlybecausetheypronounceshortsyllablesaslongandlongsyllablesasshort,andtheyassimilatelettersthatshouldbepronouncedandpronouncelettersthatshouldbeassimilated,"'therebyblurringthedistinctionbetweenQur'anrecitationandsinging.Noonecaresaboutthedistortionoflanguageanditsmodificationbeyonditsessentialmeaning.Thisisaninnovationthatoneisloathetohear.Bishribnal-Harith(al-Hafi)said,"Iasked'AbdAllahibnDawudal-Khuraybi,`IfIcomeuponamanwhoisrecitingQur'an,shouldIsitwithhim?'Heasked,`Asifheweresinging?'`Yes,'Ianswered.`No,'heresponded,`Thisexposeshimasaninnovator."'

Arelatednovelpracticeisintroducingmelodyintothecalltoprayer,a

practicethatisbothincorrectandanexampleofexcess.OneofthemuezzinssaidtoIbn`Umar,"Indeed,IloveyouinGod."Sohereplied,"ButIhateyouinGod."Themanasked,"Why,Abu'AbdarRahman(Ibn`Umar)?""Becauseyoumakethecalltoprayerincorrectlyandyouacceptcompensationforit."AbuBakral-Ajurri(d.360/970)usedtosay,"IleftBaghdad,becauseitwasnolongerpossibletofeelathomethere.Theyengagedininnovationsineverything,includingtherecitationoftheQur'anandthecalltoprayer."HewasreferringtorecitingQur'aninturnsandwithmelody.HecametousinMeccaintheyear330/941.

OneofthemanynovelpracticesofcontemporaryMuslimsthatisatoddswithtraditionalvaluesoftheancestorsinfaithisthattheyarestricterinmattersinwhichtheancestorsinfaithweremorelenient,whiletheyaremorelenientinmattersonwhichtheancestorsinfaithtookaharderline.Forexample,theKhawarij132takeahardlineonminorsinsandgoeasywhenitcomestothetraditionsandpracticesoftheProphet,aswellasinrelationtoabandoningtheapproachoftheassemblyatlarge,eventothepointofseparatingthemselvesfromit.AmatterinwhichlatergenerationswerestrictwhiletheancestorsinfaithweremorelenientisthattheformerwrotedownthevarioustypesofHadithsandpursuedtheonesnarratedbyonlyasingletransmitter,andintheirapproachtotraditions,investigatingtheirpreciseverbalformulation.

Ibn'Awnsaid,"IhavecomeacrossthreepeoplewhowereflexiblewithrespecttothecontentsofaHadith:Ibrahim(an-Nakhali),Shalbi,andHasan."AmongthegeneralityofreligiousscholarsoftheancestorsinfaithandtheCompanionstherewaslatitudeconcerningthesenseoftheHadiths,evenwhentheirprecisewordingdidnotindicateit.Anothernoveltyisdispensingwithvowelsanddiacriticalmarkssothattheindividualreadermaypursueallvariantsofrecitation,tosuchanextentthatitisvirtuallyadutytodoso.

Anothernovelpracticeisrefinementintheuseofanalogicalreasoningandinvestigation,alongwithdetailedstudyofthesciencesofArabicgrammar.[296]AsIbrahimibnAdhamsaid,"Wearemeticulouslycorrectinspeechandutternobarbarisms,butourdeedsarefulloferrorsandlackpropriety.Ionlywishthatwecommittederrorsinspeechandwerecorrectinaction."SomeonebroughtupthesubjectofArabiclinguistics133withQasimibnal-Mukhaymara(d.c.101/718),andheresponded,"Itbeginswitharroganceandendswithinjustice."Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Grammarostracizeshumilityfromtheheart."

Anotherofthemsaid,"SomeonewhowantstoshowcontemptforallthepeopleneedonlystudyArabiclinguistics."(Anothernovelpracticeisthat)theyarestricterstillinritualpurificationwithwater,aswellasincleaningandfrequentlywashingtheirgarmentscleanoffluidsthatcauseritualimpurity,ofmenstrualpollution,andoftheurineofanimalswhosefleshonemaynoteat(becauseitisrituallyimpure);andinthewashingawayofasmallquantityofbloodandsimilarstains.Theancestorsinfaithusedtobepermissiveinallthesematters.

Ontheotherhand,therearesomemattersaboutwhichtheancestorsinfaithwerestrictbutaboutwhichpeoplenowadaysaremorelax.Theyincludetheethicsofacquisitionandtheabdicationofappropriateoversight;discourseabouttopicsthatarenotone'sownconcern;becomingabsorbedinbanalities;participatingactivelyinslanderandgossipaswellaslisteningtothem;andgivingcredencetodefamatorytalkandthenegativeopinionofothersthatresultsfromit,forthatisparticipatinginslanderandgossip.Allgossiptendseithertoexaggerateorminimize.Soifapersoniswicked,hebecomesmorewicked;ifheisgood,gossiptakeshimdownanotch.Peopletodayarelaxinthattheylookforfalsehoodandfrivolity,keepthecompanyoftheheedless,giveintodisorderedcravingsandbigotry,andcovetthisworldvoraciously.Theancestorsinfaithweremorestringentinallofthesematters.

Othernovelpracticesincludewomenenteringthebathunnecessarilyandmenenteringwithoutbeingwrappedinatowel-thatisanoutrage!SomeoneaskedIbrahimibnIshaqal-Harbiifheshouldpraybehindsomeonewhohadimbibeddatewinebutwasnotdrunk.Hereplied,"Yes."Someoneasked,"Howaboutamanwhoenteredthebathwithoutaproperwrap?""Heshouldnotperformritualprayerbehindhim,"hereplied.Thatisbecausetherearevariantopinionsconcerningdrinkingdatewinewithoutbecomingintoxicated,whereaseveryoneagreesthatenteringthebathnotproperlycladisforbidden.Oneofthereligiousscholarsusedtosay,"Onewhoentersthebathmustbecladintwowraps,oneforthefaceandonefortheprivateparts(fromnaveltoknees);otherwiseheisnotblamelesswhenheenters."Ibn`Umarusedtosay,"Thebathistheamenitytheyintroducedasanovelty."Oneofthebath'sobjectionablefeaturesisthatanattendantisentrustedwithapplyingadepilatorytoaMuslimman'sprivateparts.

Intheirstudycirclesitwasthepracticeofthereligiousscholarstogathereachofthemtogether,sittingaroundwiththeirkneesdrawnuptogether,andsomeofthemwouldsitupontheirheelsandresttheirelbowsontheirknees.That

becamethemannerofsittingforeveryonewhodiscoursedonthisscience,particularlyfromtheageoftheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerandsincethetimeofHasanal-Basri,thefirsttomakethisknowledgepublicandtoloosetonguestospeakofit,ondowntothetimeofAbu`1-Qasimal-Junayd,beforetheuseofchairsappeared.InthatveinwehaveatraditionfromGod'sMessengerthatheusedtositinasquattingposition,hisarmsholdinghislegsdrawnupunderhisrobe.Anothertraditionsaysthatheusedtositonhisheelsandputhiselbowsonhisknees.ThefirstamongtheproponentsofthissciencetositonachairwasYahyaibnMuladhinEgypt,andAbuHamza(d.c.269/882)followedhiminBaghdad,buttheshaykhscensuredbothofthemforthat.Thatpracticewasnotthewayofthemysticswhodiscoursedonthescienceofm&rifaandcertitude.Indeed,itwasthegrammarians,thelinguists,andthemuftiswhowerechildrenofthisworldwhousedtositcross-legged.Thatisthewaythehaughtysit,butthemodestwayistogatherpeopleasequalsinthestudycircle.

[297]Discussionofthespecificvarietiesofknowledge:thosewellknownandancient,andthemorerecentandunacceptable

Knowthatthereareninevarietiesofknowledge.FourofthemarepartoftheSunnaandhavebeenwellknownsincetheCompanionsandtheFollowers.Fiveareofmorerecentoriginandwereunknownintheearlydays.Thefourwell-knowntypesincludethesciencesofthefaith,oftheQur'an,ofHadithsandtraditions,andoflegaladvisoriesandjudgments.Thefivenovelformsincludegrammarandprosody,thescienceofanalogicalreasoning,disputationinjurisprudence,thescienceofrationalinquiry,andthescienceofdefectiveHadiths.ThelastinvolvestracingthepathsofHadiths,pointingoutthedefectsofweakHadithsandtheunreliabilityofthetransmittersoftraditions.Thisisanewfangledformofknowledge,albeitonewhoseproponentsconsidervalidknowledgeandwhosefollowersseektohearfromthem.

Theyusedtoconsiderstorytellinganinnovation,sotheyforbadeitandtookexceptiontostorytellingsessions.Oneofthereligiousscholarssaid,"Such-and-suchamanwouldhavebeenafineperson,ifonlyhehadn'tbeenastoryteller."Oneofthisgroupsaid,"Therelationshipofproponentsofma'rifatothosewhocollectnarrativesismuchlikethatofthejuriststothestorytellers."Someoneelsesaid,"Storytellersaretothereligiousscholarswhatcountryfolkaretocitydwellers."Oneoftheloathsomenoveltiesisthatpeopleusereligiontoacquireworldlygoods,takingtheminexchangeforrighteousness,andselling

knowledgeinexchangeforthisworld,whilebehavinghypocriticallyandpretentiouslyinpublic.Thisissoevidenttothosefamiliarwithexplicitreligiousknowledgethatitisnotnecessarytoexplicateitscorruptnature.Nowadaysthosewhohavenoscientificknowledgecallthemreligiousscholars.Thoughtheignorantknowlittleofthewaysoftheancientsandlacktheirspiritualinsightintotheessentialtruthofreligion,thosewhoaredeficientinexcellenceproclaimthesepeopleoutstanding.

Knowthatdiscourseisdividedintosevenparts.Oneportionisknowledge,whiletheremainingsixarenonsensicalrubbishofthesortthatpeoplewhodonotrecognizeitassuchandmakenodistinctionbetweenknowledgeandignorancewillcollect.TheArabssay,"Foreverythingthatfallsthereissomeonewhowillpickitup,andforeveryonewhotalks,thereisonewhowillpassiton."Thesixportionsincludefalsehood,stupidity,error,supposition,rhetoricalembellishment,anddiabolicalinsinuation,asthescholarslistthem.TheydistinguishamongthemjustasGodhaslaidthemoutinHisclarification,andHehasgiventhemHisBookforsafekeepingandhasmadethemwitnessestoHisreligionandHisservants.Nowtheseventhpartofspeechisverydifferentthanthesesix,andnoneoftheirreprehensiblelabelsappliestoit.Itistraditionalknowledge,consistingofthetextoftheQur'anandtheSunnaorwhattheyelucidate,orwhatonemayextrapolatefromthetwosources,orwhosenameandmeaningwhetherinwordordeed-onefindsinthem.Esotericexegesis,whenitdoesnotdivergefromtheconsensus,isalsopartofknowledge,asisdeeperinterpretation,provideditiscontainedinscripture,thegenerallyacceptedviewtestifiestoit,andthetextdoesnotcontradictit.

IbnMasudusedtosay,"Youtodayareinatimeinwhichdisorderedcravingissubordinatetoknowledge.Butatimewillcomeuponyouinwhichknowledgewillbesubordinatetodisorderedcraving."Godmadeanidentificationbetweensplendorofexpressionandworldlypleasurewiththetermadornments,whenHesaid,"Andforyourhouses,doors,andthronesonwhichtorecline,andmereadornments"(43:34-35),andagain,"(WehavemadeanenemyforeveryMessenger,evilonesamonghumankindandthejinns,whoinspireoneanotherwith)deceptivelyembellisheddiscourse"(6:112).Thustheignorantperson'splacingahighvalueonthe"embellisheddiscourse,"whichthosewhoareknowledgeableaboutthisworlddisguiseasmindlesspleasure,islikepleasurethechildrenofthisworldtakeinembellishmentsthathidetheessentialrealityof

athing.Mereadornmentisthatwhichisdisguisedwithgold,sothatitlookslikegold,andtheignorantpersonandthechildalikethinkitisactuallygold.

Similarly,embellishedspeechisthat[298]whichisdisguisedasandresemblesknowledge,sothattheignorantoneswholistentoitwillreckonittobeknowledge.ForthatreasonGodbroughtthetwoconceptstogetherintheterm"mereadornment."Ithasbeensaidthat"mereadornment"referstogilding,andonthatbasisGodlikensbeguilingspeechtothegoldwhose"permanence"isfleeting.FromtheperspectiveofthosewhohavearelationshiptotheirLordandtheasceticalproponentsofmysticaltruth,theessentialmeaningofsuchaployisnegligible.Forthatreason,too,theprophetsandauthenticoneslikenedbeguilingspeechtostoneandmud,andthatisindeedhowtheyregardedit.

ImamAhmadibnHanbalusedtosay,"Youhaveabandonedknowledgeanddedicatedyourselvestocuriosities.Whatlittledeepunderstandingyouhave.Godhelpus!"ImamMalikibnAnassaid,"Inthepast,peopleneverusedtoinquireaboutthesemattersthewaytheydotoday.Religiousscholarsdidnotclassifymostmattersas'forbidden'or`licit';itismyunderstandingthattheyusedtheclassifications`discouraged'and`recommended."'Malikwaswonttowaverinhisresponses,oftenansweringinquirieswith"Idon'tknow.Asksomebodyelse."Amansaidto'Abdar-RahmanibnMahdi(d.198/814),"Doyounotobservehowso-and-soclassifiesissuesofknowledgeas`licit'and`forbidden'andhowhepreemptsfurtherdiscussiononthem-hewasreferringtooneoftheproponentsofpersonaljudgment-andhowwhensomeoneasksMalikaquestion,hesays`Ithink...'?"Replied'Abdar-Rahman,"Woetoyou!IconsiderMalik'ssaying`Ithink...Ithink...'preferabletoso-and-so'ssaying,`Itestify...Itestfify."'Hishamibn'Urwa(d.c.145/762)usedtosay,"Donotaskthemtodayaboutthenovelpracticestheyaccept,fortheyhaveapatanswerforthat.AsktheminsteadabouttheHadith-theyhaven'taclueaboutthat!"WhenShalbiconsideredpeople'snoveluseofpersonalopinionandcaprice,heusedtosay,"Ioncelovedsittinginthismosquemorethananythingelse.Butsincetheseproponentsofpersonalopinionhavebeenthere,theyhavemadeparticipationinstudycirclesthereodioustome.Iwouldrathersitonagarbageheapthanjoinastudycirclethere."Andheusedtosay,"AccepttheHadithsandtraditionsthathavebeenhandeddowntoyou,andblowyournoseonwhattheypassontoyoufromtheirnewfangledpersonalopnion."Heoncesaid,"Pissonit."

Theancestorsinfaithusedtopreferspeechlessnessandsimplicitytothe

rationalsciences.God'sMessengerviewedthosequalitiesaspartoffaithandassociatedthemwithshame,saying,"Shameandsimplicityaretwooffaith'sbranches,whereasobscenityandthefacileretortaretwoofthebranchesofhypocrisy."Healsosaid,"ThemostdetestableofpeopleinGod'seyesistheglibpersonwhorollsspeecharoundonhistonguethewaycowschewthecud."Heisreferringtofreshherbage.InanotherHadithhesaid,"I'mtalkingabouttheinarticulatenessofthetongue,notthatoftheheart."Andhesaid,"Godloathesyouroverzealousexplication."Allelaborationhastodowitherudition.Trueerudition,therefore,isthedeeperunderstandingoftheheartconcerningtheLord,whiletheartificialeruditionofthetongueexpressedinfacilediscoursebetokenstheheart'sinabilitytoarticulatetheconfessionoffaithandcertitude.

Speechlessnessofthetongueandprotractedsilence,towhichtheancestorsinfaithwereinclined,aretodayregardedasashortcoming.Thespeculativetheologiansarenotfamiliarwithit;andtheverbalexpressionofnovelty,andthescienceofthehypocrites,whichtheancientscensured,nowadayshasthestatusoftheSunna,sothatthosewhoarticulateitareconsideredlearned.Theethicallyacceptablehasbecomereprehensible,andthereprehensibleacceptable.TheSunnahasbecomeaninnovation,andinnovationhastheweightofpropheticexample.Accordinglythetraditionalreportsfigureinreligiousscholars'descriptionoftheendoftime,asinthewell-knowntradition,"Goddeteststheloud-mouthedchatterboxes."Ifthisisaperson'sdominantcharacteristic,[299]insuchawaythatheshootsoffhismouthandisgiventorhetoricalembellishmentinthescienceofpersonalopinionandtheapplicationofreason,whilehisheartisunabletoputintowordsthecontemplativevisionofcertitudeandtheknowledgeoffaith,thenheisonthevergeofhypocrisyandfarfromtheessentialrealityoffaith.

Abuusedtosay,"Thepersonwhohasbeeninspiredwithaccomplishingsomethinggoodneednotactuponituntilhehearsofitintraditionalsources,thenheshouldgivepraisetoGodifitaccordswithwhatisinhissoul."Oneofthemysticssaid,"IhaveneveracceptedapassingthoughtfrommyheartuntilIcanrelyontwosolidwitnessesfromthescriptureandtheSunna."OurImamAbuMuhammad(Sahlat-Tustari)usedtosay,"Theservantdoesnotarriveattheessentialrealityoffaithuntilthesefourthingsoccurinhim:theperformanceofdutiesprescribedbytheSunna;partakingofpermissiblefoodsinmoderation;avoidanceofthingsforbiddenwhetherexternalorinternal;andpersistencein

thatuntildeath."TheyusedtoreprovethosewhotalkedfrombeforedawnuntilsunriseaboutthingsotherthanGod-recollectedness,andtheyusedtodrivefromthemosquepeopleengagedinconversation,sothatonlythoseperformingritualprayerorrecollectingGodremainedthere.

TheancestorsinfaithusedtoconsiderofgreatconsequencebothnewinventionsinreligionandtheminutedetailsofinnovationinIslam,becauseoftheimmenseplacetheSunnaoccupiedintheirheartsandbecauseoftheirintimateawarenessoftheessentialrealityofwhatwaslegallyandethicallyacceptable.'AbdAllahibnal-Mughaffalsaidtohisson,oncehehadheardhimreciteQur'anbehindtheimam,"Myson,bewareofnovelpractices!Bewareofnovelpractices!"SaldibnANWaggassaidtohisson`Umarafterhearinghimuserhymedproseinhisspeech,"Ifindthisdetestable,andIwillneverfulfillanyneedofyours!"Thesonhadcometohimtoaskaboutsomeneedhehad.God'sMessengersaid,"Nogreaterevilwillbefallapersonthanaglibtongue."Hesaidthisto'AbdAllahibnRawahaafterhehadspokeninrhymedproseandhadstrungthreewordstogether.Andhesaid,"Bewareofrhymedprose,IbnRawaha"-rhymedproseconsistsofmorethantwowordsinarowrhyming.Similiarly,amanwhomMuhammadhadorderedtopaythebloodmoneyforadeadfetusasked,"Howarewetopaybloodmoneyforonewhoneitherdranknorate,whonevercriedandneverraisedhisvoice?Thiskindofthingneedsnocompensation."God'sMessengersaidtohim,"CouldthisberhymedproselikethatoftheBedouins?"

TraditiontellsusthatwhenMarwanintroducedthepulpit134attheprayerplaceforthefeast-dayritualprayer,AbuSaidal-Khudristoodbeforehimandsaid,"Marwan,whatisthisinnovation?"Hereplied,"Itisnoinnovation.Itissomethingbetterthanyourealize.Thepeoplehavegrownnumerous,andIwantedthevoicetoreachthem."AbuSaidsaid,"ByGod,youwillneverbringsomethingbetterthanIknow.Iwillnotperformtheritualprayerbehindyoutoday!"Thenheturnedawayanddidnotperformtheritualprayerwithhimatthefeast-dayprayer.Preachingthesermonupontheminbarduringfeastdayritualprayerandduringtheprayerforrainisaninnovation.TheProphetusedtopreachasermononbothoccasionsontheground,leaningonaboworstaff.

Traditionhascomedowntousthat`Umar(Ibnal-Khattab)postponedtheafter-sunsetritualprayeronenightuntilastarhadset,thenhefreedaslave.`Umaribn'Abdal-,Azizdidthesame,settingaslavefreeaftertheexampleof

`Umar(Ibnal-Khattab),whowashismaternalgrandfather.WehavereceivedatraditionthatIbn`Umarpostponedtheafter-sunsetritualprayeruntiltwostarshadset,andthenfreed[300]twoslaves.AccordingtoaHadith,"Mycommunitywillholdfasttoitsreligionsolongastheydonotpostponetheafter-sunsetritualprayeruntilstarsareindistinguishablefromoneanother,astheJewsdo,anddonotpostponethepre-dawnritualprayeruntilthestarsappearfewinnumber,astheChristiansdo."

Sufyanath-ThawriandYusufibnAsbatsaid,"Donotacceptuncriticallyviewsaboutyourreligionexpressedbyonewhohasnoreligion."AndWakilsaid,"Iwouldrathercommitadulterythanaskaninnovatoraboutmyreligion."ImamAhmadibnHanbalhadreceivedmanytraditionsfromUbaydAllahibnMusaal-,Absi(d.213/828),whensomethingfromUbaydborderingoninnovationcametoAhmad'sattention:PeoplesaidthatUbaydhadelevated'Aliover`Uthman,whileotherssaidhehadaccusedMu(awiyaofmisconduct.SoAhmadturnedaway(from(Ubayd),toretoshredseverythinghehadgottenfromhim,andhandedonnomoreHadithsfromhim.Someoneonceasked,"Abu(AbdAllah,"'whoismoreliketheancestorsinfaith:Waki,orUbaydAllah?""Wakil,"heanswered,"evenifheshouldcommitadultery."WehaveatraditionfromIbrahimalHarbi,saying,"Ihavegarneredavarietyofmaterialfrom'AlialMadyani(d.234/849),Iassureyou,butIhavenotpassedalongasingleiotafromhim.""Whyso,AbuIshaq?"askedsomeone.Heexplainedthatitwasbecause'Alihadperformedhisritualprayerbehindaninnovator.Heusedtosay,"Ikeptthecompanyofthejurists,Hadithspecialists,andlinguistsforseventyyears,butIneverheardanyofthemraisethesenovelquestions."Hewasreferringtoissuesofterminologyandthelike.Hewenton,"AndIhaveforbiddenanyproponentofspeculativetheologyanddialecticstoattendmystudycircleoraskmeanyquestions.ForIhavenoknowledgeofspeculativetheology,andamnotproficientatit,nordoItalktoitsproponents.AndevenifIwerefamiliarwithanyofthem,Iwouldnotconversewithhimorrespondtohimconcerninganything."

ZaydibnAkhzam(d.257/870)passedalongaHadithinwhichWahbibnJarir(d.c.206/821)said,"IheardShulbasay,`IcametoHarithal-,Ukliandasked,"WhatisthemeaningofthesayingoftheProphet,`Whenoneofyougoesalongwithafuneralprocession,heshouldnotsitdownuntil[301]thebodyhasbeenlowered'?"IUklianswered,"Don'tyouthinkitmeansthatifwecomeandthey

havenotyetburiedhim,thenwemustremainstanding?"Whenhesaidtome,"Don'tyouthink,"Idisregardedtherest."'MahmudibnGhaylan(d.c.239/854)handeddownatraditionfromWahbaswell,andfromShu`ba,saying,"IcametoMinhalibn'AmrtoaskhimaboutaHadith,whenIheardthesoundofalutecomingfromhisdwelling.SoIleftwithoutputtingmyquestiontohim.ThenafterthatIfeltregretandsaidtomyself,`Whydidn'tIaskhim?Perhapshewouldnothaveknownthe

ImamAhmadibnHanbalpartedcompanywithAbuThawr,Shafili'scompanion,becausewhensomeoneaskedAbuThawraboutthemeaningoftheProphet'ssaying"IndeedGodcreatedAdaminHisimage,"herespondedthatthe"his"before"image"referredtoAdam.SoIbnHanbalbecameangryandsaid,"Woetohim!WhatformdidAdamhavepriortobeingcreated?Woetohim,forsayingthatGodcreatedaccordingtoaprototype.What,then,doeshemakeofthetraditionthatproposesthegloss,`GodcreatedAdamintheimageoftheMerciful'?"WhenthatcametoAbuThawr'sattention,hecametoIbnHanbalandexcusedhimselfandsworethathehadnotmadethatstatementoutofdoctrinalconvictionbutthatithadbeennomorethanadebatableopinionthathehadconsidered.HesaidtoIbnHanbal,"Theauthenticteachingiswhatyouexpressed,andtothatIgivemyassent."

IbnHanbalalsopartedcompanywithHarithal-Muhasibi,criticizinghimonthegroundsthatheengagedindisputationwithinnovators,eventhoughhewasamongtheproponentsoftheSurma.IbnHanbalaskedMuhasibi,"Howcanyouclaimtorefutethemwhilerepeatingwhattheysay?""Asamatteroffact,"hewenton,"youareinducingthemintospeculationandtheexerciseofpersonalopinionthroughwhatyousay,sothatitbecomesanoccasionfortheirrejectingthetruthinfavoroffalsehood.""'HealsopartedcompanywithYahyaibnMain(d.233/848)concerningoneofhissayings,towit:"IfSatanweretooffermesomething,Iwouldtakeit."SomeonesaidtolAbdar-RahmanibnMahdi,"So-and-sorefutedtheinnovator."Hethenasked,"BymeansoftheBookofGodandtheSunnaofGod'sMessenger?""No,"repliedthefirstman,"ratherbyusingrationalistmethods."IbnMahdisaid,"Whathedidwasmostunfortunate-refutinganinnovationwithaninnovation."MalikibnAnassaid,"ThereisnothingintheSunnathatsaysyoushouldengageindisputationabouttheSunna.Rather,onesimplyreportsonit,andifsomeoneacceptsitfromyou,fine;ifnot,thenyoushouldsaynomore.""'

Othernovelpracticesincludesellingandbuyingalongthestreet.Thosewhoarespirituallyreticentdon'tbuyanythingfromvendorswhositalongthestreet.Itislikewiseunacceptabletohavethewindowsofhousesorientedouttothestreetandhavethedoorwayneartheshops.Oneofthethingsthespirituallyreticentdetestissellingtoorbuyingfromchildren,becausetheycannotownthingslegallyandbecausetheirwordisnotacceptableaslegaltestimony.IhavereceivedaHadithfromAbuBakral-Marwazi(d.275/888),saying,"AshaykhofsomeprestigeusedtositwithImamAhmadibnHanbal,soAhmadtookaninterestinhimandheldhiminhighesteem.ButwhenitcametoAhmad'sattentionthattheshaykhhadcoveredtheouterwallofhishousewithclay,hebannedhimfromsittingwithhim.Theshaykhdidnotunderstandthatandasked,`Abu'AbdAllah,haswordgottentoyouthatIhaveengagedinsomenovelpractice?T'Yes,'hereplied,`youhavecoveredtheouterwallofyourhousewithclay.'Theshaykhasked,`Isn'tthatallowed?T'No,'respondedIbnHanbal,`becauseyouhaveshavedoffthespaceofafingertipfromtheMuslims'street.'`HowshouldIremedythat?'heasked.RepliedIbnHanbal,`Eitheryoushouldscrapeoffthecoatingofmudyouhaveapplied,orteardownthewallandmoveitbackafinger'swidth,andthencoatthesurfacewithclay.'Sothemantoredownthewall,moveditbackafinger'swidth,andcoatedthesurfaceofitwithclay.ThenAbulAbdAllahagainacceptedhimasbefore."

Amongthethingstheancestorsinfaithabhorredwasdiscardingcatsanddeadanimalsinrefuseheapsontheroads,sothattheMuslimshadtoputupwiththefoulodors.Whenoneoftheircatsdied,Shurayh139andothersusedtoburythemwithintheircompounds.Theydealtwithdrainageconduitsinlikemanner,whentheydrainedoutsidethehouseandintothestreets.ImamAhmadibnHanbalandtheproponentsofspiritualreticencearrangedtohavetheirdrainageconduitsdraintotheinsideoftheircompounds.Ibrahiman-Nakhalisaid,"Thelikesofyouliestwicewithoutnoticing,saying,`Itisnothingatall,'or`Itisbutnothing,'`Itamountstonothing."'Hemeantthatpeoplerefertosomethingminor,whichtheydonotdescribeasmuch,as"nothing."Heconsideredthisagravematter,forhesawitas"lyingtwice."

Wehavereceivedatraditionabout`Umarinwhichhesaidto(Abu`s-Saldi)'Awana,"Iusedtobesadforyoubecauseofyourblindness,butnowIhavecometoenvyyouforit.""How'sthat?"heasked.`Umarreplied,"Abu`s-Saldi,younolongerseewithyourowneyestheinnovationinMedina."Someone

askedQatada,"Wouldyouliketobeabletosee?"Heanswered,"Notwhatwouldberevealedtomyeyenow,butifIlivedinthetimeoftheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerIwouldliketohaveseenthem."

WehaveatraditionfromFadlibnMihran,inwhichhesays,"IsaidtoYahyaibnMain,`Abrotherofminesitswiththestorytellers.'Heresponded,`Forbidhim.'Isaid,`Hewon'tacceptit.'Hereplied,`Admonishhim.'Isaid,`Hewon'tacceptit.ShouldIpartcompanywithhim?T'Yes,'heanswered.ThenImamAhmadibnHanbalcamealong,andwhenImentionedthemattertohim,hesaid,`Tellhimtoreadthesacredtext,tobemindfulofGodinteriorly,andtoseektheHadithofGod'sMessenger.'`Andifhewon'tdoit?'Iasked.`ThenasGodwills,forthisconferencewe'rehavingisalreadyanovelty.'Iaskedfurther,`Ifhewon'tdoit,shouldIsevermyrelationshipwithhim?'Thenhelaughedandsaidnothing."

AmanaskedBishribnal-Harithaboutanissueofthescienceofhearts,[302]sohepausedandthenansweredhim.Thenthemanaskedhimanotherquestionconcerningthescienceofdevotionaldeeds,buthelookedatthemaninsilence.ThenBishrasked,"Whatsortofpeopledoyousitwith?"Hereplied,"MansuribnAmmarandIbnasSammak."140SoBishrasked,"Aren'tyouashamedtoaskmeaboutthescienceofheartswhileyouarekeepingthecompanyofstorytellers?"Thenheturnedawayfromhimuntilwesaidtohim,"AbuNasr(Bishr),there'snothingwrongwithhim.HeisoneofthepeopleoftheSunna."

Theyalsousedtoabhortheritualprayerintheroyalenclosure,"'andtheyconsidereditthefirstinnovationnewlyintroducedinthemosques.Andtheyfrownedupontheornamentalembellishmentofmosques,suchasadorningtheqibla(themihrab)withcolors,andilluminatingcopiesoftheQur'an,forthisisinnovation.Accordingtoatradition,"IfyouadornyourmosquesandilluminateyourcopiesoftheQur'an,youwillcometoruin."Anotherthingtheycondemnedwasamultiplicityofmosquesinonelocale.Accordingtoatradition,whenAnasibnMalikenteredBasra,hesawamosqueeveryfewpaces.Hesaid,"Whatisthisinnovation?Whenthemosquesproliferate,thoseperformingtheritualprayerdiminish.Itestifythatforeveryfulltribethereshouldbeonlyasinglemosque.Tribespeoplewouldcooperateinconstructingtheonemosqueinoneoftheirquartersofthecity."Opinionsdifferedastowhichmosqueshouldbetheplaceofritualprayerwhentwomosquesweresituatedinonelocale.Somesaidintheolderofthetwo,andAnasibnMalikand

otherCompanionswereinclinedtothatview.Anassaid,"Theyusedtobypassthenewermosquesinfavorofthemoreancient."Hasanusedtosay,"Theyshouldperformtheritualprayerinthecloserofthetwo."

Itissaidthatthefirstinnovationstobeadvancedarethesefour:tables,sieves,potash,andeatingtosatiety.Theyusedtobeappalledthathousevesselswereofmaterialotherthanearthenware,andthespirituallyreticentdidnotconsidervesselsmadeofbrassandcopperrituallypure.Junaydsaid,"Sarias-Sagatisaidtome,`Makeanefforttouseinyourhouseonlyvesselsmadeofthesamesubstanceasyourself"-inotherwords,madeofclay.Peoplesaidtherewasnocallingtoaccountoverthem.

Anotherthingtheancestorsinfaithfoundunacceptablewasconstructingabuildingwithgypsum(plaster)andbakedbrick.ItissaidthatthefirstpersontofireclaywasHaman,underordersfromPeoplesayitwasabuildingforthearrogant.Theyalsodislikedcarvingsanddecorationonceilingsanddoorsandusedtoclosetheireyestokeepfromseeingthem.AhnafibnQays(d.c.72/691)wasawayfromhomeforawhile,andwhenhereturnedtheyhadpaintedtheceilingofhisquartersgreenandyellow.Whenhesawit,helefthisdwellingandsworehewouldnotenteritagainuntiltheyhadremovedthepaintandreturnedtheroomtoitsformercondition.

YahyaibnYaman(d.c.189/804),acompanionof(Sufyan)athThawri,said,"IwaswalkingwithThawriontheroad,andwehappeneduponadoorthatwascarveddecoratively.WhenIlookedatit,SufyanpulledmeawayuntilIwaspastit.SoIasked,`Whatdoyoufindobjectionableaboutlookingatthis?'Hereplied,`Theybuiltitsothatpeoplewouldlookatit,andifnopasserbylookedatit,theywouldnotbuildthingsthatway."'Itisasthoughhewasafraidthatbylookingatit,hewasencouragingitsconstruction.

Anoveltythatpeopleintroducedandthattheancestorsinfaithfounddetestablewasluxuriousapparel,suchasembroideredfabricandrefinedEgyptianlinen[forthewomenandthemen,butitismorereprehensibleandgaucheforthewomen].Theyusedtosay,"Luxuriousapparelistheuniformofthedissolute,"and"Whenanindividual'svestureisdelicate,soishisreligion(fragile)."Theyalsosaid,"Asceticismbeginswithclothing."IbnMasudsaid,"Clothingismostlikeclothingwhentheheartismostliketheheart."BishribnMarwan13waspreachingasermonwhilewearingaluxuriousgarment.Then

RafilibnKhadij(d.74/693)begantoridiculehim,saying,"Look[303]atyourgovernor,whopreachestothepeoplecloakedinthegarbofadandy."Andwhenafinelydressed'AbdAllahibn'AmzribnRabila(d.c.59/680)cametoAbuDharrtoaskhimaboutasceticismandbegantodiscourseaboutit,AbuDharrscoffedathim.Thenhelefthimanddidnotconversewithhim.SoIbn'Amirbecameenraged,forhewasanoblememberoftheQurayshtribe,andcomplainedtoIbn`UmaraboutAbuDharr.Ibn`Umarsaidtohim,"YouwenttoAbuDharrdressedlikethattoaskhimaboutasceticism?Yousabotagedyourself!"

Accordingtoatradition,God'sMessengerwasdescribinghowwomenwouldbeattheendoftimewhenhesaid,"scantilyclad,withliltingandenticinggait,wearingontheirheadssomethinglikethehumpofacamel"-referringtoveilsandhead"TheywillnotexperiencetheGarden'sperfume."[Luxuriousgarmentsforwomenareparticularlyobjectionableandinappropriate.]IbnAbbasusedtointerpretthedisplayofbeautyasincludingluxuriousclothing.ThusheglossedthewordoftheMostHighaddressedtoMuhammad'swives,"Donotdisplayyourbeautyastheydidofoldinpre-Islamictimes"(33:33),sayingthatinthosedayswomenworeagarmentwhosevaluewassuch-and-so,butwhichwasnotsufficienttoconcealtheirnakednessandinwhichtheywerenotpermittedtoperformtheritualprayerbecauseitwasformrevealingorgossamer.Itwas,therefore,objectionabletowearit.

TheancestorsinfaithusedtoweartheSunbulaniandQatawanigarment,theYemeniturban,theEgyptiangarmentfromMalafir,theCopticgarmentliketheveiloftheKalba,theSahuligarmentfromYemen,andwhitecottongarmentsfromHadramawt.Allofthesewereroughandthick,withavalueofbetweenfiveandthirtydirhams.ThenpeopleintroducedthenoveltyofluxuriousgarmentsofEgyptianlinenandKhurasanicotton.God'sMessengerworeawrapfourandahalfmeasureslong,"'whichcostaboutfourorfivedirhams.Thecostoftheirundergarmentwasbetweenfiveandtwentydirhams.Accordingtoatradition(fromHudhayfa),"TheHourofJudgmentwillnotcomeuntilthemorallyacceptablehasbecomeunacceptableandtheunacceptableacceptable."

IbnAbbassaid,"Notayearcomesuponthepeoplebutthattheykillasunnaandbringaninnovationtolife.Eventually,thesunnaswillhaveperishedandinnovationsalonewilllive."Ifpeoplearenotfamiliarwithsomething,theysayit'sobjectionable.Ifthetruthishiddenandunknown,thelabelobjectionable

stickstoit.Likewise,whensomethingiswidespreadandfamiliar,peoplecallitmorallyacceptable.Asaresult,whenfalsehoodgainsgroundandignoranceproliferatesuntilitisfamiliarandcomfortable,thelabelmorallyacceptablestickstoit.Inthatveinpeoplesaythatoppressionspreadsuntilthosebornunderitsswaynolongerrecognizejustice.

Shalbiusedtosay,"AtimewillcomeuponthepeoplewhentheywillmentionthenameofHajjajintheFridayritualAndthisisnowlongsincethecase,forHajjajintroducedinnovationsforwhichthepeopletookexceptiontohiminhistime.Today,however,thosethingsarewell-knownsunnasandactionsconsideredgood,forwhichthepeoplegivethankstoGodandinwhosenoveltytheyrejoice,reckoningthatHajjajdeservesarewardandgratitudeforhisefforts.Theyarenotaware,however,thathehasintroducednovelties,sothateveniftheydonotactuallypronouncehisnameintheritualprayer,neverthelesstheiruseofthenoveltiesheadvancedandtheiracceptanceoftheinnovationheintroducedistheiraskingmercyforhim.Andaskingformercyisequivalenttotheritualprayer.Inaddition,hedidintroduceasinnovationssomethingsthatweregoodandgavehimentrytothedoorsofthenextlife.

Butafterhimthereappearedprovincialadministrationsthatintroducedinappropriatenoveltiesandmadecorruptinnovations,whichsubsequentlybecamesunnas.Asaresultofthat,peopleoughttomentionthenameofHajjajintheirsupplications,especiallybycontrastwithwhatoccurredafterhim.Heintroducedthenovelpracticesofthesesedanchairsandawnings[304]withwhichhewentcountertotheguidanceoftheancestorsinfaith,intheinterestofeaseandcomfort.Bycontrast,peopleusedtosetoutonfemaleridingcamelsandpackcamelsandbeexposedtothesun,exhaustingthemselvesinthecauseofGod.Theyweredisheveledandcoatedwithdust,ateandsleptlittle,whilemaximizingthecomfortofthecamelsbyminimizingtheirlaborandburden.Theirrecompensewasthatitpurifiedtheirpilgrimageandkepttheircamelsinbetterhealth.BysuchbehaviortheymorecloselyapproximatedtheexemplarybehaviorofGod'sMessenger.Asaresultoftheinnovationstowhichheintroducedthem,Hajjajdivertedthemfromallthat.Thustheywouldventureoutinshadedgondolas,withwhichtheyreplacedthecamels'packload,lesttheybeunabletobearitanditbecomeasourceofinjurytothem.Theythereforemadecommoncauseinthepractice,andtheyjoinedtogetherinthesunnathatHajjajhadestablished.

HajjajalsointroducedtheinnovationofdividingtheQur'anintofiveortensections;ofmarkingthebeginningsofverses;andofusingblack,red,green,andyellowink.HetherebyintroducedintothecopiesoftheQur'anembellishmentsnotofQur'anicorigin,whiletheancestorsinfaithusedtosay,"KeeptheQur'anplain,thewayGodsentitdown,anddonotcontaminateitwithextraneouselements."Forthereligiousscholarshadobjectedtothat,tosuchadegreethatAbuRazin(d.c.85/704)said,"AtimewillcomeuponthepeoplewhentherewillariseanewgenerationwhothinkthatGodsentdownthenovelpracticesthatinrealityHajjajintroducedintocopyingtheQur'an."MayGodrebukeHajjajforthat!Astimewentby,peopleadvancedadivergenceofopinion:Someofthemusedtorecitefromatextpointedinreddiacritics,117whileothersdidnotapproveofrecitingfrompointedtexts.Similarly,traditionhasitthatsomeofthemregardedthepurchasingofcopiesoftheQur'anasacceptablebutobjectedtosellingit.Inotherwords,ifyouyourselfdidnotpointthetext,thereisnoproblemwithyourrecitingfromwhatsomeoneelsehaspointed."'

TheyalsotookexceptiontotakingremunerationforpointingtheQur'anonthegroundsthatpointingisaninnovation.AbuBakralHudhali(d.167/783)said,"IaskedHasanaboutbeingcompensatedforpointingthetext,andhereplied,`Whatdoespointinginvolve?'Ianswered,`RenderingtheArabicunambiguous.'Soheresponded,`ThereisnothingwrongwithrenderingtheArabicclearly."'KhalidalHadhdha'(d.c.141/758)said,"IvisitedIbnSirinandsawhimrecitingfromapointedtextoftheQur'an,eventhoughhefoundthepointingobjectionable."FirasibnYahya(d.129/746)said,"IfoundagrammaticallypointedfolioinHajjaj'sprison,andIwasastonishedatit,foritwasthefirstpointingIhadseen.SoIbroughtittoShalbi,andhesaidtome,`Recitefromit,butdonotaddthepointingwithyourownhand."'

AnotherofHajjaj'sinnovationswashisassemblingthirtyQur'anreciters.Theythencountedthelettersofthewrittentext,andtheytalliedupitswordsforamonth.If`Umaror`Uthmanor'AlihadseenthemdoingthistotheQur'an,namely,countingthelettersandwordsofeachchapter,theywouldhavegiventhemanastycloutonthehead.ThisiswhattheCompanionsabhorredandthewaytheycharacterizedtheQur'anrecitersattheendoftime,namely,thattheymemorizedtheQur'an'slettersbutneglectedtheirmeaning.HajjajwasthebestoftheQur'anrecitersandhadmemorizeditslettersmostcompletely.HeusedtorecitethewholeQur'aneverythreedays,butofallthepeoplehewastheleast

attentivetoitsmeaning.

Hajjajalsointroducedtheinnovationofremovinggravelandsandfromthemosquesandfurnishingthemwithreedmats.Accordingtoatradition,Qatadawasperformingtheritualprostrationwhenabitofreedgotintohiseye.Qatada,whowasalreadyblind,said,"GodcurseHajjajforintroducingtheinnovationofthesereedmatsthatinjurepeoplemakingritualprayer!"Theyusedtoprefertomakeprostrationonthegroundandinthedust,asasignofhumility,surrender,andinsignificancebeforeGod.Heintroducedotherinnovations,butIdonotintendtoenumerateorsummarizethemhere,sincethesedaystheyareacceptedwaysofbehavingandfamiliarlegalstipulations.Buthisandotherpeople'snoveltiesarecountless,andanyonewhoisfamiliarwiththoseaspectsofthewayoftheancientsthatarereligiouslyacceptable,andwiththegoodqualitiesoftheupright,willregardthemallasobjectionable.

[305]IbnMasudsaid,"Abhorrentinnovationskeeppoppingup,tothepointthatwhenoneofthemismodifiedinturn,peoplesaythattheSunnahasbeenaltered."Andheendshistraditionbysaying,"Inthattimethemostastuteofthemwillbethosewhoareasshiftyintheirreligionasfoxes."InthedaysofHajjaj,intheyear80/699,AnasibnMaliksaid,"IamawareofnothingtodaythatoriginatedduringtheageofGod'sMessengerthathasnotbeenchanged,otherthantheconfessionoffaith,`ThereisnodeitybutGod."'Someoneaskedhim,"Andtheritualprayer,AbuHamza?"Heresponded,"Doyouknowofanythingintheritualprayerthathasnotbeennewlyintroduced?"Hewasreferringtoitspostponement,andtheplacementofthecalltoprayerbeforeit,andhereferstothegreetingofpeacefortherulersthattheycombinedwiththebeginningoftheritualprayeranddeclaredconsistentwiththeSunna.WhenQur'anrecitersthelikesofYazidar-Ragashi,Ziyadan-Numayri,andFarqadas-Sabakhivisitedhim,hewouldsay,"HowliketheCompanionsofMuhammadyouare!"Andwhentheyexpresseddelightatthat,hewouldadd,"Yourheadsandyourbeardsarefine,"muchasthepoetMajnun149said,

AndaswasrelatedfromalargenumberoftheCompanions,"IftheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerweretoariseandseeyou,theywouldnot

recognizeanythingyoudoexceptfortheFridaycongregationalritualprayer."Anotherversionsays,"exceptthatyouperformtheritualprayertogether."Hasanhassaid,"Ihavebeeninthecompanyofgroupsthat,wereyoutoseethem,youwouldcallthemcrazy;andiftheyweretoseethebestofyou,theywouldsay`Thesepeoplearedisgraceful!ii15.AbuHazimsaid,"IhavecomeacrossQur'anreciterswhoreallywereQur'anreciters.IftherewereoneinahundredmenwhoknewtheQur'an,onecouldidentifyhimbyhiscompellingmodesty,hisattractivemanner,andhishumility,fortheQur'anwillhavesettledhimdownandmadehimhumble.ButthesearenotauthenticQur'anreciters;onthecontrary,theyarefilth!"Oneoftheancestorsinfaithcharacterizedtheminthatway,saying,"Wewereattendingafuneralbutcouldnotidentifythevictimofthedisaster,nordidweknowwhomtoconsole,sointensewasthesadnessofthepeople.Oneofthemremainedunabletodoanythingusefulforthreedaysafterattendingthefuneral."

Fudayl(ibndIyad)usedtocautionagainsttheQur'anrecitersofhistime,saying,"BewarethecompanyoftheseQur'anreciters,forifyoucontradictthemonanything,theypronounceyouanunbeliever."Sufyanath-Thawrisaid,"Nothingisdearertomethanassociatingwithayounggentleman,andnothingmoreloathsometomethanassociatingwithaQur'anreciter."Heusedtosayfrequently,"OnewhodoesnotexcelatgentlemanlydemeanorwillnotexcelasaQur'anreciter."Bishribnal-Harithusedtosay,"Iwouldratherassociatewitharogue112thanwithaQur'anreciter."Bewary,therefore,ofassociatingwiththeQur'anreciters,fortheytransformintoablameworthypersononewhoisnotblameworthy.Andifyoushouldskiptheritualprayerwiththemintheassembly,theywillbearwitnessagainstyou.Allofthatisbecausetheyoversteptheboundariesinthematterandarequicktotakeexceptionineverythingbecauseignorancehasovercomethem,soseldomdotheysitwiththereligiousscholarsandsomeageristheirregardforknowledge.Inaddition,theyareparticularlysusceptibletothesubtleinfluencesofostentationandofplayingtothepublic.Sotheyfindobjectionablewhatisnotabhorrent,andtakesidespetulantlyandinpartisanfashionoverminormattersthatpeoplehavealreadydiscounted.Theirqualitiesdonotincluderefinementofcharacter,noraretheynotedforcheerydemeanorandspontaneity.Theyaretedious,rudetothepeople,stiff,andresentfulofthewealthyasiftherichhaddevouredtheirsustenanceandasthoughtheyworkedasslavesforthem.Theirsisanabundantloathingforpeoplewhoarehappyandbuoyant,tosuchanextentthatonemightsay,"The

noblepersonwhofunctionsasaQur'anreciterisbroughtlow,[306]whilethehumblepersonwhofunctionsasaQur'anreciterisaggrandized."Someoneelsesaid,"ThecommonpersonwhofunctionsasaQur'anreciterincreasinglycommandsthegoodandtakeshisneighbortotaskinallthings."Inotherwords,hecontinuallycommandsthegoodsothatpeoplewillacknowledgehimasgoodalso.

Asaresultofthat,thereligiousscholarsrejectthemandthesagesfindfaultwiththem,forknowledgeisexpansiveandopen,andgoeshandinhandwithhighmoralcharacter,propercomportment,andmagnanimousgenerosity.Theknowledgeablepersonsituatesthingsintheirproperplacesforpeople,insuchawaythatheneitheroverstatestheissuesnorovertaxespeople'scapabilities,andheferretsoutpeople'smisgivingsforthem.Oneofthequalitiesofscholarsisatendencytointrospectionandreserve.ImamShafilsaid,"Introverteddispositioninrelationtothepeoplecanelicittheiranimosity.Thereforecultivateapublicdemeanorbetweencompleteprivacyandglad-handing."

Accordingtoatradition,"Yourwealthisnotwideenoughtoencompassthepeople,soletyourcheerfulcountenanceandbeautifulcharactersurroundAnotherversionreads,"delightandahappyface."AllofthistheQur'anreciterslackanddonotunderstand.Godhasgiveneverythingameasuredcapacity,sothatanyonewhoexceedsathing'slimitsruinsit.Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Alittlehumilitysufficesforalotofaction,andalittlespiritualreticencesufficesforalotofknowledge."

Oneofthemoralqualitiesoftheancestorsinfaiththattheirsuccessorshaveneglectedisthatwheneveranyonespokeillaboutsomeonewithwhomhewasonspeakingterms,orengagedinconversationwithsomeoneofwhomhehadspokenill,theychargedthatpersonwithhypocrisy.Thatwasbecauseiftheyspokewithsomeoneorofferedagreetingofpeace,theyentrustedtheirheartstothatpersonandspokenoillofhim.Andiftheyspokeillofsomeonebecauseofhisinnovationorbecausehiscorruptionandinjusticecametolight,thentheywouldnotengageinconversationwiththatperson.Whentheypraisedsomeonewithwords,theydidnotthenaccusehimwithdeeds,andwhentheyaccusedsomeonewithanaction,theywouldnotthenpraisehimwithwords,forthatwouldbespeakingwithtwotongues,self-contradictoryduplicity,andplayingoffsecrecyagainstopenness.Theyusedtosaythatthemeaningofthegreeting"Peacebetoyou"offereduponmeetingsomeone,was"IassureyouthatIwill

notslanderorcriticizeyou."Theyregardeddoingtheoppositeofthisasoneofthedoorsofhypocrisy.WehaveatraditionfromGod'sMessenger,"Thebasestpersonisthetwo-facedonewhopresentsonefacetothesepeopleandanothertothose."AccordingtoanotherHadith,"Foranyonewhospeakswithtwotonguesinthisworld,twotonguesoffirewillbefashionedonJudgmentDay."

Oneofthemusedtosay,"NoonehaseverbeenmentionedinmypresencebutthatIimaginehimtobesittingwithme.ThatwayIwillsayinhisabsenceonlywhatheoughttohear."Someoneelsesaid,"NoonehaseverbeenmentionedinmypresencebutthatIhadanimageofhislikenesswithinmyself,sothatIsaidabouthimeverythingIwouldhavelikedhimtosayaboutme.,114These,then,arethequalitiesoftheMuslimsthatmakethepeoplesafeintheirhandsandhearts.Ifoneofthemspeaksillofanotherinhispresence,hepausestoreflectonhisownsituation.Ifhedetectsasimilarevilinhimself,shamepreventshimfromspeakingagainsthisbrotherandhekeepsquiet.If,ontheotherhand,thatisnotthecase,hepraisesGodandhascompassiononhisbrother,overcomewithgratitudetohisMasterforforgivinghim.Thiswasthewayoftheancestorsinfaith.

OneoftheBooksofGodsays,"Howamazingisapersonwhoiswellspokenofinspiteoftherebeingnogoodinhim!Howcansuchaonerejoice(atwhatpeoplesay)?Andhowrareisapersonofwhomillisspokenandwhoactuallyisevil.Howcansuchaonebeangry(atwhatpeoplesay)?Stillmoreamazingthepersonwholoveshimselfonthebasisofcertainty(aboutwhatheknowsofhimselffrompersonalexperience)whiledetestingpeoplepurelyonthebasisofconjectureaboutthem."Onefacetofthewayoftheancestorsinfaithistheirsternreactiontotheloveofflatteryandthesearchforpraise,tothepointthat[307]oneofthemsaid,"Whoeverlovesflatteryandloathesblameisahypocrite."`Umarsaidtoaman,"Whoisthemasterofyourclan?""Iam,"hereplied.Said`Umar,"Ifyouwere,youwouldn'thavesaidso."MuhammadibnKalb(d.c.118/736)oncewrotedownhiskinshipname,al-Qurazi.Someonesaidtohim,"Sayinstead,al-Ansari,"andhereplied,"IamloathetopresenttoGodsomethingIhavenotdone.,155

(Sufyan)ath-Thawrisaid,"Ifsomeoneweretosaytoyou,`Whatadespicableindividualyouare!'andyoubecameirate,thenyouwouldindeedbeadespicableperson."Someoneelsesaid,"Youwillnotceasetohavegoodinyousolongasyoudonottakecreditforthegoodinyourself."Someoneaskedone

ofthereligiousscholars,"Whatisthetelltalesignofahypocrite?"Hereplied,"Ahypocriteisonewhoseheartrejoiceswhenpraisedforsomethingforwhichthepersoncannothonestlytakecredit."Sufyan(ath-Thawri)usedtosay,"Whenyouseesomeonewholovestohaveallthepeoplelovehimanddetestshavingevenonepersonmentionsomethingnegativeabouthim,knowthatheisahypocrite."ThispertainstoGod'sdescriptionofthehypocritesinthewordoftheMostHigh,"Youwillfindotherswhowantyouandtheirpeopletoputfaithinthem"(4:91).ItthusbehoovesthosewhotrustinthepeopleoftheSunnatofeartheinnovators.ThisisoneofthethingsthatledtheQur'anreciters,whomthereligiousscholarscensure,intoerrorthewaythenightstealsovertheday.

Itmaybethatadeluded,ignorantpersonwillinterpretinadistortedfashiontheHadiththathascomedown,"Whensomeonepraisesthebeliever,thefaithinhisownheartgrows,"misconstruingitsmeaning.ButMuhammadsaid,"thefaithgrows,"not"thebelieverincreases,"forthegrowthoffaithisitsincrease,anditsincreaseoccursasaresultoffearandanxiety,overthedivinewileshiddeninitandtheenticementofit.156Hereinliesthepathofthosewhopossessexperientialknowledgeinthattheloftyfaithrisestotheloftiestbeliever.TheindividualmightwellrejoiceinthatbeforehisMasterandattributethatfaithtohisLordwhohasentrustedittohim.TheindividualthusreferstheproductbacktoitsMakerandcontemplatesinthecreationtheOnewhocreatedit.ThattherebybecomespraisefortheMakerandadescriptionoftheCreator,whiletheindividualneitherlooksuponhimselfnormarvelsathisownqualities.Thesearethepathwaysthathavebeenobliteratedandwhosetravelers-apartfromthosewhohavereceivedyourLord'scompassion-havebeencutoff.

Achapteronthesuperiorityofthisscience[offaithandcertitude]overtheotherdisciplines,alongwithacautionagainsterroneousinterpretationofit,andaclarificationofwhatIhavebeendiscussing

Knowthatahypocrite,aninnovator,orapolytheistwholearnsandteachesmightlearnbyheartandtransmitanyoneofthedisciplines,shouldheorshedesireandbemotivatedtodoso,forthesciencesareaproductofintellectandthefruitofreason.Buttheknowledgeoffaithandcertitudeistheexception,forthemanifestationresultingfromcontemplatingit,andtheabilitytodiscourseonitsinnerrealities,comeonlytothebelieverpossessedofcertitude.Forthatmanifestationisanincreaseoffaithandtheessentialspiritualrealityofknowledgeandfaith.ItisamongthesignsofGodandHispledgeofunveiling

Hispowerandgrandeur.ButthesignsofGodarenotavailabletothecorruptnorHispledgetotheunrighteous.NoonewhoswervesfromthetruthbearswitnesstoHisgrandeurandpower,noraretheyfoundintheutterancesofidlechatterers.ForthroughsuchdeficienciesthesignsofGodandHismanifestdecreearetakenlightly,Hispowerandproofsarediminished;doubtinfiltratesthecertitudethatisthepilgrim'sgoalofthesincereandtheremnantamongGod'sservants;andfalsehoodismistakenforthetruththatistheattributeoftheveracious,whoaretheguidestoHimandthepeopleGodloves.Andthisisthemosttellingindicatoroftheexcellenceoftheknowledgeofm&rifaovertheothersciences.Godsaid,"Isitnotasigntothemthatthereligiousscholars[308]ofthechildrenofIsraelknewit?"(26:197).AndtheMostHighsaid,"Indeedtheseareclearsignsintheinmostbeingsofthosetowhomknowledgehasbeengranted"(29:49).AndHesaid,"Indeed,inthattherearesignsforthosewhopayattentiontotheevidence"(15:75).And,"Wehavemadethesignscleartothosewhopossesscertitude"(2:118).Andagain,"Sothatwemakeitcleartothepeoplewhopossessknowledge"(6:105).

ThesearethepeoplewhoareknowledgeableofGodandwhospeakfromGod.HehassecuredforthemaportionfromHimandaplaceinHispresence.Butthatisnotforthosewhoarenotworthyordeservingofwhatare,infact,signsofGod,Hisclearproofs,witnesses,andpenetratinginsightsthatdiscloseHisPathandbringtolightHiselucidation-aswhentheMostHighsays,"ThenWeindeedprovideanelucidationofit"(75:19).ThentheMostHighsaid,"Hecreatedthehumanpersonandtaughthimtheelucidation"(55:3-4);inaddition,thereisHisword,"Assistingthebelieversisyourduty"(30:47);alongwiththeMostHigh'sword,"Andtheywereindeeddeservingandworthyofit"(48:26).SotheyassistbymeansoftheassistanceHegivesthem,andtheyareproventruetothedegreethatHebringsthemtotheirfullpotential,andtheygivewitnesstoHimonthegroundsofwhatHewitnessestothemaboutHimself.Theythusbecomeexamplesforthegod-fearingandasignpostofguidance.

Oneoftheproponentsofm&rifasaid,"Onewhodoesnotcontemplatethisknowledgeisnotfreeofpolytheismorhypocrisy,forheisdevoidoftheknowledgeofcertitude;andinonewhoisdevoidofcertitude,thesubtleindicatorsofdoubtareevident."Oneofthemysticssaid,"Ifearanevilendforthepersonwhohasnoshareinthisknowledge.Andtheleastportionofitisacceptingitsauthenticityandacknowledgingitspractitioners."Someoneelse

said,"Noneofthisknowledgewillberevealedtoanyonedisposedtowardeitherinnovationorarrogance."Agroupofitsproponentssaid,"Noonewhoisinlovewiththisworldorisaddictedtocapricewillcometoafullrealizationofthisknowledge."AbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari)said,"Thelightestpunishmentinstoreforonewhodespisesthisknowledgeisthathewillneverbeendowedwithanyofit."

Theyareinagreementthatitistheknowledgeoftheveraciousones,andthatonewhohasashareinitisamongthosewhodrawneartoGodabovetherankoftheCompanionsoftheRightHand.Knowthattheknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityandthema'rifaofthedivineattributesaredifferentfromtheothersciences.Thedivergenceofviewsintheexotericsciencesisamercy,whereasdivergenceofviewsinthescienceofthedivinetranscendentunityiserrorandinnovation.Beingmistakeninoutwardmattersisforgivableandisoftenagoodthingifitinvolvesappropriatestriving."'Errorinthescienceofthedivinetranscendentunityandinwitnessingtocertitude,ontheotherhand,isinfidelity.Moreover,GodhasnotmadetherealizationoftheessentialtruthofknowledgeinthequestforexotericlearningincumbentuponHisservants.Itis,however,incumbentupontheminthequestforconformitywithGod'sviewofthedivinetranscendentunity.

Whoeverintroducestheslightestinnovationwillhavehisinnovationworkagainsthimandhewillbeaccountableforit.SuchapersonwillnotbeaproofofGodforHisservants,norwillhebringbeneficialraintohisregion.Onthecontrary,suchapersonbecomesidentifiedwiththisworldasoneofthosewhocraveit,andisneitheraguidetoGod,noronewhoinvitestothereligion,noramodelforthegod-fearing.Inthatveinatraditionsays,"ThelearnedaretheheirsoftheMessengerstothedegreethattheydonotengageinworldlyactivities.So,iftheyactivelyengagethisworld,youmustguardyourreligionfromthem."Awidespreadtraditionsays,"Whoeverintroducesanoveltythatisnotpartofourreligionistoberejected."Asparselyattestedtraditionsays,"WhoevermisleadsmycommunityisliabletothecurseofGodandtheangelsandallthepeople."Someoneasked,"MessengerofGod,whatconstitutesmisleadingyourcommunity?"Hereplied,"IntroducinganinnovationintoIslamandimposingituponthepeople.""'

WehavereceivedatraditioninwhichsomeoneasksJesus,"Whorepresentsthemostdangerousthreatoftemptationtothepeople?"Heanswered,"The

religiousscholarwhocommitsanerror,forwhensuchapersonslipsthewholeworldslipswithhim."OurProphetMuhammadhaspasseddowntousacommentonthemeaningofthat,saying,"WhatIfearmostformycommunityarethereligiousscholar'serror[309]andthedebateofhypocritesconcerningtheQur'an."Oneoftheancestorsinfaithusedtosay,"Areligiousscholarwhoerrsislikeashipthatsinks,formanypeopledrownwithhim;andlikeaneclipseofthesun,whenthepeopleshout,`Oyouheedlessones,gototheritualprayer!"'Inotherwords,thisisasignthatmakesthegeneralityofpeopleanxious.

IbnAbbasusedtosay,"Woetothescholarbecauseofhisfollowing,andwoetothescholar'sfollowersbecauseofthescholar!Forwhenthescholarmakesamistake,asegmentofthepopulationfollowhiminit,andtheerrormakesitswaytothehorizons."IknowofnoonewhocausesamorecolossalinjurythanonewhointroducesaninnovationintothereligionofGodandwhosaysthingsGodhasnotpermittedconcerningthescriptureofGodandthescienceofma'rifa.SuchapersoninflictssuchgreatdamagebecausehedisregardsthesunnasofGod'sMessengerthatareGod'sprooftoallHiscreationandthewayofthoseservantsofHiswhoareHisFriends[or:thosewhoarebroughtneartoHim],therebyleadingtheservantsofGodastray.

Comparingapersonwhointroducesinnovationintothereligion,confidinginauthoritiesotherthanthescriptureandtheSunna,andwhohasdepartedfromthepathofthebelieverswithonewhoeverseeksincreaseinworldlyaffairsandgivesfreereintocapriciouscravingsislikecomparingonewhotyrannizesthepeoplebyattackingtheirlivesandpropertywithonewhodoesinjusticetohimselfbycommittingsinsthatarebetweenhimandhisLord.Fortheinjusticesofgodservantsaremostseriousandcomprisearegisterthatonecannotdisregard.'59Inthatcategory,misrepresentingthereligionisthemostegregiousbecauseitincludesinjusticeswithultimateconsequences,namely,cuttingoffthepathsofthebelieversandeffacingtheRevealedLawoftheMessengers.

Anotheranalogyisthatsuchapersonislikeonewhoisguiltyofsinbutrefusestoacknowledgehissinfulness,andwhojustifieshimselftothosewhosinandwhoacknowledgetheirsinfulnessandaskforgiveness.Theselatterarenearertoforgivenessandhavegreaterhopeofmercythantheformer.Likewise,thereisthepersonwhooffersexcusesforshortcomingsorbeingentirelyremissindeedsandwhoisnothonestwithhimself,butwhoneverthelessmanifeststheinnerrealityofknowledgeandgivesgoodcounselconcerningGodandHis

MessengerinthewayheelucidatesHisscriptureanddiscusseshisSunna.Suchapersonisnearertoabeautifullife-conclusionandmoredeservingofasuccessfuloutcomethanthepersonwhouseshisauthorityinthereligionofGodtointroduceintothecommunityinnovationsthatarenotinaccordancewiththescriptureandtheSunna.ThisistantamounttoturningthereligiouscommunitytopsyturvyandsubstitutinganotherRevealedLaw,forhypocrisyisbornintheheartofthisindividualsothatheendsupinhypocrisy.

Thepersonwhointroducesinnovationintothereligiouscommunityanddepartsfromthepathoftheauthoritiescomparedtotheonewhodoeseviltohimselfwithsinsiscomparabletoapersonwhorebelsagainstthekingintheheartofhisrealmandconspiresagainsthiminhissovereigntybyoverthrowingit,refusingtoobeyhiscommandsandminimizingtherightcitizensowehim.Oneofthesageshassaid,"Therearethreethingsakingoughtnotforgive:overthrowingthepoliticalregimebyhissubjects;performingdeedsthatweakenthesovereignty;orunderminingoneoftheking'ssacrosanctdecrees."

WehavereceivedatraditionfromtheProphet,"Godhasanangelwhocallsouteachday,`WhoevercontradictstheSunnaofGod'sMessengerwillnotenjoythebenefitofhisintercession."''Alisaid,"Beingcontentwithone'sownopinionisthepartnerofblindness."AndGodsaid,"AndwhoismoreveraciousthanGod?"(4:122);and"WhodoesgreaterinjusticethantheonewhoconjuresupalieaboutGodtomisleadthepeoplewithouttheirknowingit?"(6:144).ThentheMostHighsaid,"(Afterbeginningtheversewithaclauseverysimilartotheforegoing)...orwhosays,`Ihavereceivedapropheticrevelation'whennothinghasbeenrevealedtohim;orwhosays,`Therehasbeenrevealedtomethelikesof[310]whatGodhassentdown"'(6:93).GodhasthusequatedlyingbyutteringacalumnyagainstGodwithahumanbeing'scomparinghisqualitiestoGod'sandlikeninghisownstatetoLordliness.Afterthisegregiouslyobjectionablestancecomesrepudiatingthetruthofthosewhoareitsproponentsandrejectingitasthoughitwerealie.TheMostHighhasalsoestablishedanequivalencebetweendeclaringthetruthalie,andinventingalieagainsttheCreator,inHisword,"AndwhodoesagreaterinjusticethanthepersonwhoinventsalieagainstGodorwhodeclaresthetruthaliewhenitcomestohim?"(29:68).Inasimilarvein,theMostHighhassaid,"SowhodoesagreaterinjusticethanthepersonwhoinventsalieagainstGodanddeclaresveracityaliewhenitcomestohim?"(39:32).Inthesamevein,butbycontrast,He

establishedanequivalencebetweenthepersonwhotellsthetruthandtheonewhoaffirmsitsveracity,whentheMostHighsaid,"Andtheonewhobringsforthveracityandtheonewhoatteststoitsveracity-thesearethegod-fearing"(39:33).God'sMessengersaid,"Theonewhopossessesknowledgeandtheonewhoseeksknowledgearetwopartnersinknowledge."Onthissubject,Jesussaid,"Theonewholistensisthepartnerofthespeaker."

Ontheotherhand,GodhascreatedthisfactionofthoseendowedwithknowledgeofGodinordertocensureallthefactionswhoproduceecstaticutterances,andtheinnovators,thosewhoareignorantofthereligionandwhodeviatefromthepathofthebelievers.HehasdonesobythatwhichHehasshownthemofcertainknowledgeandbythetestimonyofGod'sMessengertotheirknowledgeandappropriation,inhissaying,"Theypreservethisknowledgefromeverydisparitythatresultsfromthosewhorenounceit,andtheyprotectitfromthetamperingoftheextremists,thefalseassumptionsoftheheedless,andtheerrantinterpretationsoftheignorant."Theextremistsarethosewhomakeecstaticutterances,fortheyoverstepknowledgeandeffaceitsformssothattheyrenderitamorphous.Theheedlessarethosewhointroduceinnovationswiththeirinflatedrhetoric,fortheyengageinidledisputationinordertorefutethetruththereby,fabricatelieswiththeirpretenses,andintroduceinnovationsbasedonopinionandwhim.Andtheignorantarethosewhodisavowthemarvelsofknowledgeandaredeceivedbythesuperficialunderstandingtheypossess.WehavereceivedatraditiononthisfromtheProphet:"Thereisatypeofknowledgethatislikeaconcealedform,whichnoneknowbutthosewhopossessmwrifaofGod.Sowhentheyarticulateit,theonlyoneswhodon'tunderstanditarethosewhoaredeludedaboutGod.DonotdespiseareligiousscholartowhomGodhasgivenknowledge,forGoddoesnotthinklittleofhimwhenHegivesittohim."

AnyonewhointerpretstheHadithaccordingtopersonalopinionorrationalmethods,orgivesexpressiontowhattheancestorsinfaithdidnotteachordiscussbeforehim,isamindlesspretender.ThoseendowedwithknowledgeofGodrespondtotherationalsciencesbymeansoftheknowledgeofcertainty,andtosciencebasedonpersonalopinionbymeansoftheknowledgeoftheSunna.PeopleofknowledgecorroboratetheHadithscholarsandshoreuptheHadithtransmitters.TheyanalyzetheHadiththetransmittershandonandprovideglossesontheHadithstheynarrateinwaysnotaccessibletothetransmittersthemselves,waysthathavenotbeendisclosedtothenarrators.God

hasdisclosedthistothetrulyknowledgeablebycastingalightintotheirhearts.Hehastherebygrantedthemeloquence,fortheyspeakfromGodofthatwhichtheynarratefromHim."ThatisagraceofGodthatHebestowsonwhomHewill"(5:54;57:21);"AndWehaveappointedexamplesfromamongthem,offeringguidancetoOurcommand,solongastheykeptpatienceandwereresponsivetoOursigns"(32:34).

Oneofthereligiousscholarssaid,"Keepingsilentaboutwhattheancestorsinfaithtalkedaboutisestrangement,anddiscoursingonwhattheancestorsinfaithsaidnothingaboutisaffectation."Anothersaid,"Thetruthisheavy:Thepersonwhocircumventsitdoesevil;thepersonwhoisunabletohandleitisweak;andthepersonwho[311]upholdsitexperiencessufficiency."And'Alisaid,"Keeptothemidmostway,theonetowhichtheloftiestpersonsreturnandtowhichthosewhoproceedalongitwillbe

Itwasthecustomarybehavioroftheancestorsinfaithnottogiveahearingtoaninnovator,forsuchapersonisobjectionable,andnottorefutehimwithdisputationandspeculation,becausethatisaninnovation.Instead,theymarshaledreportsoftheHadithsandarguedbymeansofthetraditions.Iftheinnovatorwasreceptive,thenhewasyourbrotherinGod,anditwasincumbentuponyoutobefriendhim.Otherwise,ifherejecteditandbecamecontentious,hisverycontentiousnesswashisownloss;hebecameknownbyhisinnovation,thetruthofhisenmitywasevident,[andhewasleftaloneforthesakeofGod].Thisisaroadtraveledinthistimeofoursonlybythosewhorecognizethatitisexcellentandthatitwasthepathoftheancestorsinfaith.

IhavereceivedatraditionaboutIblis,thatwhenhehadsenthisminionsoutinthetimeoftheCompanionsandtheyreturnedtohimexhausted,heaskedthem,"What'sthematter?"Theyreplied,"We'veneverseenthelikesofthesepeople;wecouldn'tgettothematall,andtheybadgeredus."Soheresponded,"Youhavenocontroloverthem,fortheywereCompanionsoftheirProphet,andtheywitnessedtheirLord'srevelation.Buttherewillcomeafterthemapeoplefromwhomyouwillbeabletogetwhatyouneed."WhentheFollowerscamealong,Iblissenthisminionstothem,buttheyreturnedtohimdejectedandcrestfallen.Soheasked,"What'swrong?"Theyanswered,"We'veneverseenanythingasremarkableasthesepeople.Wecouldn'tgettothematall,andevenafteralittlesinning,whenthedaywasovertheywouldbegintoseekforgiveness,thusexchangingtheirevildeedsforgoodones."SoIblissaid,"You

couldn'tgetanythingoutofthesepeoplebecauseofthesoundnessoftheiracknowledgmentofthedivinetranscendentunityandoftheiradherencetotheSunnaoftheirProphet.Butafterthesetherewillcomeapeoplethatwilldelightyou.Theywillbeyourplaything,andyouwillleadthemaroundatwillbythenosereinoftheirpassions.Iftheyaskforforgiveness,theywillnotbeforgiven,andtheywillnotrepent,sothattheirevildeedswillreplacetheirgoodones."Then,afterthefirstcenturytherecameapeopleamongwhomwantonpassionswerewidespread.Theyfoundinnovationattractive,sothattheyconsidereditpermissibleandaccepteditasreligion.Theydidnotaskforgivenessforit,nordidtheyrepentbeforeGod,andthusthedevilsgainedpoweroverthemandledthemwheretheywould.

IbnAbbassaid,"Errortastessweettotheheartsofthoseinerror."Godsaid,"Theyconsidertheirreligionagameandapastime"(6:70).AndtheMostHighsaid,"Whatofthepersonbeguiledbytheevilofhisdeedssothatheregardsitasgood?"(35:8),justastheMostHighsaid,"WhatofthepersonwhoreceivesaclearindicatorfromhisLordandtowhomawitnessfromHimrecites?"(11:17).

Knowledge,therefore,isthewaytherighteousancestorsinfaithlived,inwhosetrackspeoplefollow,aswellasofthosewhofollowedtheirguidanceafterthem.TheyaretheCompanions,thepeopleoftranquilityandGod'sgoodpleasure,thentheirFollowersintheperfectionoftheirspiritualityamongthepractitionersofasceticismandself-denial.Andthetrulylearnedpersonistheonewhocallsthepeopletoaspiritualstatelikehisown,untiltheybecomelikehim.Whentheyobservehim,then,theypracticeadetachmentfromthisworldlikehisdetachmentinit,asDhU`n-Nunusedtosay,"Sitwithonewhoseactionspeakstoyou,notonewhosetonguetalksatyou."Hasansaidbeforehim,"Preachtothepeoplewithyourdeeds,notwithyourwords."AbuMuhammadSahl(at-Tustari)said,"Knowledgecallspeopletoaction;ifsomeoneanswersit,fine,andifnot,itmoveson."WehaveatraditionaboutthisfromGod'sMessengerinwhichsomeoneaskedhim,"Which[312]ofourcolleaguesisthebest?"Hereplied,"TheonewhoseviewcausesyoutobemindfulofGod,whosediscourseincreasesyourknowledge,andwhosedeedsputyouinmindofthenextlife."Theworstofthem,ontheotherhand,istheonewhoseekspeople'sworldlyintereststothepointofbecominglikethem,andwho,whenthepeopleseehim,theyarehappywiththeirownspiritualstate.ThatissobecausesuchapersoninvitespeopletohimselfratherthantohisMaster,andbecauseheis

covetoustowardthemwhiletheypracticeasceticism(inrelationtohim).

Thelearnedonesarethustheheirsoftheprophets;theyarethosewhoarespirituallyreticentinthereligionofGodandwhopracticeasceticismwithrespecttothevanitiesofthisworld.Theyspeakwiththeknowledgeofcertitudeandpowerratherthantheknowledgeofpersonalopinionandcaprice,andtheykeepsilentaboutambiguitiesandmattersofopinion.FromtheperspectiveofthelearnedoneswhosetestimonycomesfromGod,thelattervainnotionswillstandagainstneithertheopinionofanyspeakernorthewordofamindlesswindbag,allthewaytoResurrectionDay.'AbdAllahibn`UmarhandeddownanappositesayingoftheProphet,"Thiscommunity'sfirstpeoplewillprosperinasceticismandcertitude,whileitslastwillbelostinstinginessandvainhope."Accordingtoatradition,"YusufibnAsbatwrotetoHudhayfaal-Mar'ashi,`WhatdoyouthinkaboutapersonwhocouldnolongerfindanyonewithwhomhecouldrecollectGodwithoutbecomingasinnerandhavinghismutualrecollectionwiththatpersonconstitutedisobedience,becausehecouldnotfindanyoneworthyofit?'IaskedYusuf,`AbuMuhammad,doyouknowwhotheyare?'Hereplied,`No,theyarehiddenfromus."'

ItissaidthattheAbdalaredispersedoverallpartsoftheearthandseektobehiddenfromtheeyesofthemultitude,fortheycannotbeartolookatthereligiousscholarsofthisage,nordotheyhavethepatiencetolistentotheirdiscourse.TheAbdalregardthesescholarsasutterlyignorantofGod,eventhoughtheythemselves,andtheignorant,considerthemendowedwithgenuineknowledge.Theyarethusproponentsofignorancewhodonotknowtheyareignorant.Sahlwasdescribingthemwhenhesaid,"Oneofthemostegregioussinsisbeingignorantofone'sownignorance."ObservingthecommonthrongandlisteningtothediscourseoftheheedlessislesstediousfortheAbdal(thanlisteningtoscholars),fortheydonotlackthatwheretheyareontheoutskirtsofpopulatedareas.Thatisbecausethecommonthrongdonotadulteratethereligion,nordotheydeceivethebelievers.Andtheydonotclaimtobelearned,fortheyseektolearnandareawareoftheirignorance.TheyarethusnearerGod'smercy,furtherfromHiswrath.

AbuMuhammad(Sahlat-Tustari)alsousedtosay,"Hardnessofheartresultingfromignoranceofknowledgeismoreseriousthanhardnessresultingfromdisobedience;theonewhoisignorantofknowledgeisnegligentandmakesclaims,whereastheonewhoactssinfullyisawareofthatthroughknowledge."

Heissaying,ineffect,"Thatisbecauseknowledgeisaremedybywhichdiseasesarecured,inthatitforestallsthecorruptionofactionsbycorrectingthem.Ignorance,ontheotherhand,isamaladythatcorruptsdeedsthatwereoncehealthy,inthatitreplacesgoodactionswithevilones."Whatadifferencethereisbetweenthatwhichbringsthecorrupttorighteousnessandthatwhichcorruptswhatwasrighteous!Godsaid,"Goddoesnotprospertheactionsofthosewhofostercorruption"(10:81).AndtheMostHighhassaid,"Wewillnotdisregardtherewardofthosewhobringhealing"(7:170).This,then,isoneofthemosttellingindicationsofthesuperiorityofthedeficientlearnedpersonoverthedevotedascetic.Knowthatthegodservantwhoisatoddswithpeoplewithrespecttoeverydetailoftheirspiritualstatesseparateshimselffromthemallandisonfamiliartermswithnoneofthem.Andifheisatvariancewiththemajorityoftheirspiritualstates,heiscutofffrommostofthem.Andifhedistanceshimselfwithrespecttosomeoftheiraffairswhileothersofhisownstatesareconsistentwiththeirs,hemingleswiththegoodpeopleandkeepshisdistancefromtheevilpeople.

[313] A chapter on the various aspects of traditional accounts, with anexplanation of the Path of Right Guidance and a discussion ofpermissivenessandlatitudeinpassingonandreportingtraditions

AllofthetraditionsoftheProphetthatIhavebeendiscussinginthisbook,aswellasthosefromtheCompanionsandtheFollowersandtheirfollowers,Ihavesetdownfrommemory,narratingthemaccordingtotheirsense.Theexceptionsareafewlengthyreportsthatwereeasilyaccessibleandchancedtobecomeavailabletome,andthoseIhavetransmittedfromtheirsources.Inthecaseoftraditionsunfamiliartome,andofwhichIhadnodeeperunderstandingorwithwhichIwasnotactivelyconcerned,IhavereliedonGod'sgrantingmegoodsuccessandthepowerofHissupportforwhateveraccuracyandelucidationandauthenticationthereishere.Asfortheerrors,haste,andcapriceinmytreatment,theinattentivenessandheedlessnessaremyfault,whiletheworkofSatanisthecauseofthehastinessandforgetfulness.InthatveinwehaveatraditionfromIbnMasudconcerningacasethathedecidedaccordingtohispersonalopinion,andwhatIhavetosayisinaccordwithhisview.WehavereceivedaHadithfromGod'sMessengersaying,"ElucidationandverificationarefromGod,whilehastinessandforgetfulnessarefromSatan."Inotherwords,thelatterclausemeansthroughSatan'sinterferenceandthepaucityofdivineassistance.In

general,Ihavenotconsideredindetailtheexactwordingsofthereports;ontheotherhand,Ihavereproducedthesenseineveryinstance.ForIdonotconsideritnecessarytotakenoteoftheprecisewordingswhenyouadducethesense,providedyouhavecometoknowtheinflectionofawordandtherangeofmeanings,takingcaretoavoidanytamperingormodificationbetweentwovariantexpressions."'

MostoftheCompanionspermittedthequotingofaHadithaccordingtoitssensewithoutreproducingthewordingexactly.Theyincluded'Ali,IbnAbbas,AnasibnMalik,Abu`d-Darda',Wathilaibnal-Asgal(d.c.83/702),andAbuHurayra.ThatwasthecasewithmostoftheFollowers,includingtheImamofImamsHasanal-Basri,thenSha`bi,and`AmribnDinar(d.126/743),Ibrahiman-Nakha`i,Mujahid,andiIkrima(d.c.107/725).Thathasbeenhandeddowntousfromtheminthebooksoftheirlifestoriesinvariouslywordedreports.IbnSinnsaid,"IhaveheardaHadithfromtentransmitters,withasinglesensebutvariantwordings."ForthatreasontheCompanionsdifferedinthetransmissionofHadithsfromGod'sMessenger.Someofthemtransmittedthemintact;othersadducedthesense;andotherspreferredanabbreviatedversion.Andstillotherseveninterchangedtwowordingsandregardedthataspermissible,solongasthatdidnotmissthepoint.None,however,committedanoutrightfabrication,andallofthemmadeauthenticitytheirintent,sothatthesenseandintentofwhattheyhadheardwasnotsubverted.Thesearethecircumstancesinwhichtheyallowedlatitude.Theyusedtosay,"Itistheonewhotellsaliedeliberatelywhobearstheresponsibility."

Wehavereceivedatraditionfrom1ImranibnMuslim,"AmansaidtoHasan(al-Basri),`AbuSaid,whenyoutransmitaHadith,youreproduceitmorebeautifullyandwithmoreelegantrefinementandmoreclassicalpronunciationthanwedowhenwetransmitit.'Hereplied,`Solongasyougetthesenseright,there'snoharminthat."'NadribnShumayl(d.c.203/819)said,"Hushaym's(ibnBashir,d.183/799)Arabicwasinelegant,soIhavecloakedhisHadithsforyouinalovelyveil."Inotherwords,hefilledoutHushaym'sexpressionbyaddingthepropervowelsounds,forNadrwasalinguist.I,formypart,interjectineveryitemIhavetransmitted[314]"ashasbeensaid,"or"wordstothateffect,"or"likethis,"or"withthissense."IbnMasudsaidsomethinglikethatinhisHadiths,andSulaymanat-Taymi(d.143/761)usedtosaythatineveryHadithhetransmitted.

Sufyan(ath-Thawri)usedtosay,"WhenyouseeamanfocusingintentlyonthewordingofaHadithinasession,youcanbesureheissaying,`Takenoticeofme."'AmanbegantoaskYahyaibnSaidalQattan(d.198/813)abouttheprecisewordingofanexpressionintheHadith,soYahyareplied,"Sir,wecanholdinourhandsnothingmoresublimethantheBookofGod.Itispermissibletoreciteawordaccordingtoanyofsevenreadings,sodon'tapproachitsorigidly."TraditionsthathavebeentransmittedtousincludesomehandeddownfromtheandsomereportsfromthefollowersoftheFollowers.Amongthemaresomewhosechainoftransmissionhasprompteddiscussion,andoftenenough,atraditionfromtheFollowersortheirfollowersismorereliablethanonewhosechaincanbetracedallthewaybacktotheProphet,sincethecustodiansoftraditiontransmittedit.

GuidelinesforthatspiritualreticencehavecometousintheformofseveralFirst,wearenotcertainofagiventradition'sfalsehood.Second,wehaveareasonforthatspiritualreticence,anditisthatwehavetransmittedandheardthetradition.SoifwehaveerredwithrespecttowhatGodconsiderstheessentialtruth,wearefreeofthatburden.AstheJews164said,"Webearwitnessonlytowhatweknowandcannotbeonguardagainstmattersunseen"whenJosephinstructedhisbrotherstoreturntotheirfather,Jacob,andsay"Yoursonhascommittedtheft"(12:81).165Insodoing,theywereinerrorwithrespecttotheultimatespiritualrealityasGodseesit,buttheywereexoneratedwithrespecttotheevidence,inthattheywereeyewitnesseswhenthegoldcupwasremovedfromtheirbrother'stravelingsack.

Third,weaktraditionsarenotcontradictorytothescriptureandtheSunnainsuchawaythatweareboundtorejectthem.Onthecontrary,suchtraditionscontainmaterialthatpointstothesacredsources.Fourth,wearedevotedgodservantswhenweupholdapositiveopinionofthetraditions-indeed,weareforbiddentoproliferatesuspicion,andweareguiltyofsinifweentertainnegativeviews.Fifth,onecannotarriveattheessentialtruthofthatexceptbywayofdirectobservation,andweareunavoidablyobligatedtoacceptwithoutquestioningandgiveourassenttoandmaintainapositiveviewofthetransmitter.Sodoing,ourheartswillbetranquilaboutthetraditions,ourskinwillbecomesupple,"'andwewillseethatwhatthetraditionshavebroughtistrue.Inaddition,wemustacknowledgethatourancestorsinfaithweresuperiortous.IfwearenottoinstigatealieagainstGod'sMessengerortheFollowers,

wecanhardlytaketheviewthattheywhorankaboveusperpetratedlies.

Ontheotherhand,weakHadithswithsoundchainsoftransmissionhaveindeedcomedowntous.BythesametokenitisappropriatethatwecitesoundHadithswithweakchainsoftransmission,foritislikelythattheywillhavebeentransmittedinareliablefashion,eventhoughweourselveshavenotbeengrantedfullknowledgeofthematter.Alternatively,sometransmitterswhomsomeoftheHadithspecialistsclassifyasweakothersclassifyasstrong.Atransmitter,moreover,whomoneoftheHadithspecialistsdeprecatesandconsidersblameworthy,anotherspecialistholdsinhighregardandpraises.Asaresult,thereisadivergenceofopinionsaboutthetransmitter,sothataHadithofhiswillnotberejectedonthebasisofasinglecitation,absentanothertraditionthatsupersedesitorissimilartoit.

Inaddition,itmaybethatscholarsofHadithclassifysometransmittersasweakandtheirHadithsasdefective,whilethejuristsandthosewhopossessknowledgeofGodseenoreasontofindthemdefectiveorunreliable.Suppose,forexample,thatatransmitterisunknownbecauseheisrarelyattestedtoasatrustedauthority,orhasfewtraditionsattributedtohimbecausehehasfewfollowers.AnotherpossibilityisthatatransmittermaybeuniqueinhiswordingorinhismemorizationofaHadith,orinthatnoothertrustworthytransmitterhadreportedaparticularHadith.StillanotherpossibilityisthatatransmitterhasnotcitedtheHadithverbatimorwasnotconcernedwithstudyingandmemorizingit.Oneofthememorizers(ofHadith),bycontrast,mightspeakaudaciouslyandrecklessly.Hemightengageinexcessivecriticismandinflatedrhetoric,eventhoughhisinterlocutorissuperiortohimand,intheopinionofthosewhopossessknowledgeofGod,isofahigherrank.Asaresult,thecriticismboomerangsonthecritic.

Itmayalsohappenthatone[315]observesthetransmitterwearingagarment,orhearshimsaysomething,thatthejuristsdonotconsiderharmfultohiscredibilityeventhoughsomeQur'anrecitersamongthosewhotransmitHadithsmightfaulthimforit.SomeofthosewhomightimpugnhiscredibilityareHadithspecialists,whereasheisoneofthosewhoareknowledgeableaboutthenextlifeandaproponentofmwrifaofGodwhoespousesmethodsdivergentfromthoseofsomeoftheHadithspecialistsintransmittingHadiths.Asaresult,whenheengagesinHadithtransmissionaccordingtohisownmethod,theHadithspecialistsconstitutenoproofagainsthim.Onthecontrary,hestandsas

aproofagainstthem,forhisowncolleaguesamongthereligiousscholarsregardhimasequaltotheveryHadithspecialistswhohaveimpugnedhiscredibilityinthattheyespouseamethodotherthanhis.

Oneofthelearnedonessaid,"AHadithindeedstandsasatestimonythatallowsamplescopeforpositiveconstruction,butalsoallowsonetoacceptauniquewitnesstoit"-thatis,underspecialcircumstancessuchasthetestimonyofamidwifeandthelike.ImamAhmadibnHanbalpassedalongtousaninterpretationofthat.HeexplainedthatsolongasneitherthescripturenortheSunnacontradictsaHadith,eveniftheydonotdireclysupportit,andsolongasitsinterpretationdoesnotdepartfromtheconsensusofthecommunity,thenoneisobligedtoacceptitandactuponwhattheProphethassaid.Andhowelseisonetoactotherthanasonehasbeentaught?InmyviewaninaccurateHadithbearsthemarksofpersonaljudgmentandanalogicalreasoning,andthisistheapproachofImamAbu'AbdAllahAhmadibnHanbal.WhenaHadithhasbeenpassedbackandforthfortwoeras,orhasbeentransmittedthroughthreegenerations,orhasmadetheroundsthroughasingleerawithouthavingthatera'sreligiousscholarspronounceitobjectionable,thenithasbecomegenerallyaccepted.Assuch,nogenerationofMuslimscandeclareitobjectionable,sothatthematterissettledandproven,evenifthereissomediscussionaboutitschainoftransmitters.AllofthatassumesthattheHadithinquestiondoesnotcontradictthescriptureandtheauthoritativecollectionsofHadith,ortheconsensusofthecommunity,andthatthetestimonyofveraciousauthoritiesturnsupnomendacityonthepartofthosewhotransmittedit.

Wagilibnal-Jarrah(d.c.196/812)said,"Letnoonesay,`ThisHadithisworthless,'fortheHaditharemorenumerousthan(whatanyoneindividualcanmaster)."AccordingtoAbuDawud(as-Sijistani),AbuZurlaar-Razi(d.268/881)said,"God'sMessengerwastakenfromtwentythousandlivingpersonseveryoneofwhomtransmittedsomethingfromhim,whetherintheformofasingleHadithorawordorsomethingtheyhadseen.Asaresult,theHadithofGod'sMessengeraretoonumeroustocount."AmanreferredtoaHadithinthepresenceofZuhri,saying,"We'veneverheardthisone.,,SoZuhriinquired,"HaveyouheardalloftheHadithsofGod'sMessenger?""No,"themananswered."Howabouttwo-thirdsofthem?"askedZuhri."No,"repliedtheman."Half,perhaps?"wasthenextquestion,butthemansaidnothing.SoZuhrisaid,"Addthisonetothehalfofthemyou'vealreadyheard.""'

ImamAhmadibnHanbalsaid,"YazidibnHarunusedtotakedictationfromamanwhomheknewtobeaninaccuratesource,andthatishowhebecameanastuteHadithscholar."IshaqibnRahuya(d.238/853)said,"SomeoneaskedImamAhmadibnHanbal,`Doyouthinkweshouldtakedownonlythebestpartsofthesebeneficialthingsthatalsocontainobjectionablematerial?'Heanswered,`Whatisobjectionablewillalwaysbeobjectionable.'Someoneasked,`Whataboutinaccuratereports?'Hereplied,`Oneneedsthemnowandthen."'Itwasasifhedidnotconsideritdetrimentaltorecordthem.AccordingtoAbuBakral-Marwazi(d.275/888),IbnHanbalsaid,"WeneedHadithsevenfrominaccuratereporters."OneofthehallmarksofhismethodwithrespecttothelatitudeofHadithsisthatheputforthallofhisHadithsthathereportedintheMusnad,fromwhichourshaykhshavepassedthemalongtousthroughIbnHanbal'sson'AbdAllah,withouttakingspecialnoteofthesoundmaterialthere.Asaresult,itcontainsnumerousHadithsthatthecriticsknowareinaccurate,and,indeed,IbnHanbalhimselfhadaclearerknowledgeoftheirinaccuracythanthecritics.Evenso,hepublishedtheminhisMusnad,becausehewantedtounderscorethefullysupportedtraditions.Itwasnothisintenttoestablishthesoundnessofthechainsoftransmission,soheconsidereditpermissibletotransmitthemashehadheardthem.HeceasedtotransmitHadithstothepeopleintheyear228/842[316]anddiedintheyear241/855.Duringthatperiodnooneheardanyreportsfromhimbuthisson,'AbdAllah,andthen,forashortintervalalsoIbnMani,aftertheintercessionofhisgrandfatherAhmadibnMani(d.244/859).

AccordingtoaHadithtransmittedtousfromhim,thatisImamAbmad(IbnHanbal),"'Abdar-Rahman(ibnMahdi)pronouncedaHadithunacceptable,thenafterawhilehecameouttousandsaid,`Itissound.Ifoundit.'Hesaid,`AsfarasWaki,isconcerned,hedidnotdeclareanyHadithobjectionable,but,whenaskedaboutone,hewouldsay"Ididnotmemorizeit.""'WehavereceivedaHadithfromthesonofthesisterof'Abdar-RahmanibnMahdi,saying,"MyunclewouldscratchoutHadithsandthenproceedtocallthemsound,andIrecitedthemwithhim.WhenIobserved,`Butyouscratchedthemout!'hewouldsay,`Yes,butthenIreconsidered,andwhenIhavedeclaredtheminaccurate,Ihaveineffectmalignedthegoodreputationoftheonewhotransmittedthem.Sowhenhesitsknee-to-kneewithmebeforeGodandasks,"Whydidyouimpugnmygoodname?Haveyouseenmeorheardmespeak?"Iwillhavenorejoinder."'Thiswastheapproachofthespirituallyreticentamongtheancestors

infaith.Oneofthemusedtosay,"WequitthesessionsofShulbabecauseheusedtoleadusintogossip,forhisdiscoursetendedtowardpronouncingontheinaccuracyofHadithtransmitters."ConcerningthepracticeofdeclaringHadithtransmittersimprecise,oneofthemsaid,"Whenyourintentionissincere,thatis,whenyouarefocusedonGodandthereligion,itisneitherinyourfavornoragainstyou."

ThesespecificissuesthatIhavebeendiscussingaretheprinciplesofintimatefamiliaritywiththeHadith.Itisaknowledgeforthoseworthyofit,andapathonwhichtheyjourney.Thenapeopleappearedwhowereneitherendowedwithaknowledgeinwhichtheyspecialized,norcharacterizedbyaspiritualrelationshiptoknowledge,nordedicatedtoademandingpietythatsetthemapart.Sotheyfashionedforthemselvesaknowledgethatkeptthembusy,andtheyprovidedadistractionforthosewholistenedtothem.Theycomposedbooksandbegantodiscourseondeficienciesofthetransmittersoftraditionsandthecontinuingsuccessionofscholarlyerror.When(thepseudo-scholars)sawthemselvesdiscredited(intheactofnarratingHadiths),theyopenedapathfortheinnovatorsleadingtotherejectionoftheHadithsandtraditionsandthepreferenceofpersonalopinionandrationalmethodsover(thetraditions).Theyalsoeagerlydesiredanalogicalreasoningandspeculationwhentheybecameawareof(therationalscholars')renunciationoftheSunnaandtraditions,asinthistimeofyours.AndtheHadithsaboutlongingforthenextlifeandself-denialinthisworld,aboutdreadatthethreatofGod,aboutthemeritsofpiousdeeds,andaboutthesuperiorityoftheCompanions,oughttobereceivedandacceptedineverysituation,whetherimperfectintheirchainsoftransmissionortraceableallthewaybacktotheProphet,andneithersecond-guessednorrejected.ThesamegoesforHadithsabouttheterrorsoftheDayofResurrectionandthedescriptionofitscataclysmandcalamities.Nooneshoulddespisethemonthebasisofrationalinquirybutshouldinsteadreceivethemwithassentandsurrender,forthatishowtheancestorsinfaithbehaved.'Jimleadstononeotherthanthat,anditsprinciplesrestonthat.

Wehavereceivedatraditionthatsays,"IfanindividualreceivesagracefromGodorHisMessengerandactsuponit,Godgiveshimarewardforthatevenifitissomethingthathasnotactuallybeensaid."Andaccordingtoanothertradition,"Ifsomeonerelatesthetruthfromme,IsayitevenifIneveractuallysaidit.Butifsomeonerelatesalieaboutme,Idonotspeaklies."

WithregardtoallthatIhavelaidoutinthisbook,Isay,Godismostknowledgeableandwise.HisknowledgeisforemostandtheinnertruthsofallformsofknowledgeHeknows.AllmattersreturntoHim.WhatGodwills,comestobe,anditisfromHimweseekaid.ThereisnopowerexceptinGod.This,then,istheendoftheBookofKnowledge,withitsanalysisofthedisciplines,itsdescriptionofthewayoftheancestorsinfaith,anditspresentationoftheinnovationsintroducedsubsequently.

InthisfirstmajorSufiworkinPersian,Hujwirisetshiswholediscussionofthespirituallifeonthefoundationofli1m.Then,ashemapsoutthepathtowardtheupperreachesofmysticalattainment,hediscussesma`rifaasthefirstofaseriesofveilstobeliftedfortheseeker.HujwirioftenquotestheArabicoffamousauthoritiesandthenglossesinPersian:Ihaveindicatedthosetextswithanasterisk(*)buthavenotincludedhisglossexceptwhenitamountstosignificantlymorethanasimple,literalrenderingoftheArabicoriginal.'

Chapter1:Affirming'Jim

[11]Goddescribespossessorsofknowledgewiththewords,"Indeed,thoseamongHisservantswhopossessknowledgefearGod"(35:28).AndtheProphetsaid,"ThequestforknowledgeisrequiredofeveryMuslim."Healsosaid,"SeekknowledgeevenasfarasChina."Buttheexpanseofacquiredknowledgeisvastandlifeisbrief.Peoplearethereforenotrequiredtopursueallthebranchesoflearning,suchasastronomyandmedicineandmathematicsandthefinearts,andthelike,exceptinsofarasanyoneofthesebranchesoflearningisrelevanttothefulfillmentoftheRevealedLaw.Forexample,astronomyprovidesknowledgeoftimefornightprayer;medicine,ofpossibleimpediments;andnumericalcalculationaugmentsknowledgeofinheritancelawandtheproperintervalforadivorcedwomantorefrainfromremarrying.'Inotherwords,acquiredknowledgeisreligiouslyenjoinedtothedegreethatcorrectactiondependsonit.GodcensuredthosewhoacquireworthlessknowledgewhenHesaid,"Theylearnedwhathurtthem,notwhatbenefitedthem"(2:102).AndtheMessengerreferredtothiswhenhesaid,"IseekrefugewithYoufromuselessknowledge."Understandthatalittleknowledgecanyieldagreatdealofaction,andknowledgeandactionmustalwaysbeconnected,astheProphetsaid,"Thedevoteewholacksunderstandingofreligiouslawislikeadonkeyboundtoamillstone."*Devoteeswithoutunderstandingofreligiouslawarelikedonkeys

workingamill,becausethejackasscontinually[12]retracesitsstepsandnevergetsanywhere.

Agroupamongthecommonfolkrateknowledgeaboveaction;othersrankactionoverknowledge.Bothsidesaremistaken,fortherecanbenoactionwithoutknowledgeofaction.Onlywhenactionisconjoinedwithknowledgedoesitmeritcompensation.Forexample,ritualprayerperformedwithoutknowledgeoftheprinciplesofpurificationandablution,alongwithanawarenessoftheqibladirectionandofhowtoformone'sintention-thepillarsofritualprayer-wouldnotberitualprayerassuch.'Therefore,sinceactionandknowledgeofactionareintimatelyconnected,howcantheignorantpersonconsiderknowledgeseparatefromaction?Andasforthosewhorankknowledgeoveraction,thatisequallyabsurd,becauseknowledgeapartfromactionisnotreallyknowledge.["AsGodsays,`OnefactionofthosewhohadbeengiventheBookofGodthrewitbehindtheirbacksasthoughtheydidnotknow'(2:101),therebydenyingthedesignation`knowledgeable'tothosewhoknowwithoutactingonwhattheyknow."]Thatissobecauselearning,memorizing,andretaininginmemoryarealsoallactionsforwhichapersonwillreaptheultimatereward.

Butifsuchapersondidnotjointhatknowledgetodeedsandtheaccomplishmentofactions,norewardwouldbeforthcoming.Theseareviewsheldbytwogroupsofpeople.Oneofthemassociatesknowledgewithloftyreputation,fortheyareunabletoexpressitinactionandarriveatthefullrealizationofknowledge.Theotherseparatesactionfromknowledgebecausetheyhaveneitherknowledgenoraction.Thus,oneignorantpersonsaysthattalk(qal)isnotnecessarywhereasaspiritualcondition(hal)is,whileanotherignorantoneclaimsthatknowledgeisnecessaryandactionissuperfluous.

AstoryistoldofhowIbrahimibnAdhamsaid,"Isawarockalongthepathandonthatstonewaswritten,`Turnmeoverandread.'Iturneditoverandsawthatonitwaswritten`Youdonottakeactiononwhatyouknow,sowhygolookingforwhatyoudonotknow?"'*(Addingingloss:Itisimpossibletolookforwhatyoudonotknow.)[13]Inotherwords,beattentivetowhatyouknowsothatyouwillknowtheblessingsoftheunknownaswell.AnasibnMaliksaid,"Themainconcernofthelearnedisknowledge,thatoffoolsisrelatingtraditions."Thatishowtheignorantaredistinguishedfromthelearned.Onewhoseeksstatusandworldlypowerthroughknowledgeisnotalearnedperson,for

thequestforstatusandworldlypowerisapreoccupationoftheignorant.Norankamongthelevelsofspiritualattainmentequalsorsurpassesthatofknowledge,forinnoneofthemcanonebecomeawareofthesubtlemysteriesofGod.'Jimisthustheessenceofallthespiritualstationsandisconsistentwiththeevidenceofexperienceandhighdegreesofspiritualattainment.

Understandthat`ilmisoftwokinds:theoneistheknowledgeofGodandtheotherthatofhumanbeings.Asforhumanknowledge,itisofnoconsequenceincomparisonwithGod'sknowledge,forthatisanattributeofGodandthussubsistsinHimwhoseattributesarewithoutend.Ourknowledge,ontheotherhand,isanattributeofoursandthussubsistsinus,whoseattributesarefinite.AccordingtoGod'swords,"Wehavepassedontoyouonlyalittleknowledge"(17:85),andingeneral,knowledgeisapraiseworthycharacteristic.Knowledgecanbedefinedas"comprehensionandelucidationofthethingknown,"butthebestdefinitionof`ilmis"anattributebywhichtheEternalbecomesaknower."Godhassaid,"AndGodcomprehendstheunbelievers"(2:19),andagain,"AndGodisknowledgeableofallthings"(2:282).HisknowledgeisonethroughwhichHeknowsallthingsbothexistentandnonexistent.Humanbeingshavenopartinthisknowledge,foritisindivisibleandinseparablefromGod.TheindicationofHisknowledgeisinthewayHeplansHisacts,foractionnecessitatesknowledgeintheagent.God'sknowledgereachesintothedeepestsecretsandencompassesallthatisapparent.AseekermustactalwayswhilecontemplatingGod,sinceheknowsthatGodisawareofhimandhiseveryact.

AstoryistoldofhowanimportantcitizenofBasraenteredoneofhisgardenswhenhecaughtsightof[14]thegardener'slovelywife.Hesentthemanonanerrandandtoldthewoman,"Closethegate.""Ihaveclosedeverygate,"shereplied,"butthereisoneIamunabletoclose."Themanasked,"Whichgateisthat?"Sheanswered,"ThegatethatstandsbetweenusandGod."Atthatthemanfeltashamedandsoughtforgiveness.

Hatimal-Asamm5said,"Ofallthingsknowableinthisworld,Ihaveselectedfourasworthyobjectsofknowledgeanddismissedtherest."Someoneasked,"Whichfour?"Heanswered,"First,IknowthatIhaveresponsibilitiestoGodthatIalonecanfulfillandhaveoccupiedmyselfwiththat.Second,Iknowthatmysustenancehasbeenapportionedtomeandthatmycovetingmorewillnotaugmentit,soIhavegivenupseekinganincrease.Third,Iknowthatthereisonestalkingme-namely,Death-whomIcannotoutrun,soIampreparingmyself

forhim.Fourth,IknowthatGodisscrutinizingmesothatIfeelshamebeforeHimandceasetodowhatisinappropriate."WhentheservantknowsthatGodisobserving,hewillnotdosomethingthatwouldcausehimshamebeforeGodonthelastday.

INmustencompassGod'scommandsandtheexperientialknowledgeofHim.Requiredoftheservantisknowledgeofthespiritualmoment'andoftheexternalandinternalaspects'ofthereligiouslawthataredirectlyrelatedtotime.Thisincludestwoparts,onerelatingtoprinciplesandtheothertopractice!Theexternalaspectofthepartconcerningprinciplesinvolvesarticulatingtheprofessionoffaith,whileitsinternalaspectinvolvesthefullrealizationofexperientialknowledge.Theexternalaspectofthepartrelevanttopracticehastodowithproperdevotionalacts,whiletheinternalaspectconcernsformulatingasoundintention.Observanceofonewithouttheotheroftheseaspectsisimpossible.Divorcedfromtheinternalaspect,theexternalaspectofultimaterealityishypocrisy,[15]whiletheinternalaspectofultimaterealitydivorcedfromtheexternalisheresy.TheexternalmeaningoftheRevealedLawwithouttheinternalisincomplete,justasspiritualitywithoutitsoutwardconsequencesisuseless.

Therearethreepillarsoftheknowledgeofultimatereality:first,knowledgeoftheessenceandonenessofGod,alongwiththerepudiationoflikeninganythingtoHispureessence;second,knowledgeofthedivineattributesanddecrees;third,knowledgeofGod'sdeedsandwisdom.KnowledgeoftheRevealedLawalsohasthreefoundations:first,theQur'an;second,theSunna;third,theconsensusofthecommunity.ProofofknowledgeliesintheaffirmationoftheessenceandpureattributesanddeedsofGod,accordingtoGod'swords,"ThereforeknowthatthereisnogodbutGod"(47:19);andagain,"KnowthereforethatGodisyourprotector"(8:40);and"DoyounotseehowyourLordlengthenstheshadows?"(25:45);and"Dotheynotobservehowthecamelshavebeenfashioned?"(88:17).TherearemanyothertextslikethesethatrefertoobservingGod'sdeedsandholiness.AsforknowledgeofthedeedsoftheAgentthroughHisattributes,theProphethassaid,"WhenapersonknowsthatGodishisLordandthatIamhisProphet,Godforbidsthatperson'sfleshandbloodtotheFire."TheconditionforknowledgeoftheessenceofGodisthattheindividualmusthaveattainedtheuseofreasonandbepastpuberty,andmustalsoacknowledgethatGodisinessenceaneternallyexistentbeing,isunlimited

andundefinable,isnotconditionedbyplaceordirection,doesnotcauseevilthroughHisessence,isunlikeanyofHiscreatures,hasnofemaleconsortandnooffspring,andisthefashionerandpreserverofeverythingthattheimaginationcanpictureormindcanconceive,asinthewords,"ThereisnothinglikeuntoHimandHeistheall-hearingandall-seeing"(42:11).

Asforknowledgeofthedivineattributes,onemustunderstandthatGod'squalitiesexistwithinHimbutareneitheridenticalwithHimnorindividualpartsofHimbutsubsistinHimandthroughHimeternally.Theseincludeknowledge,power,life,will,[16]hearing,sight,speech,amongothers,asintheMostHigh'swords,"TrulyHeisknowledgeableofwhatisintheinmostbeings"(8:43);and"Godispowerfuloverallthings"(59:6);and"Heisthelivingone,thereisnootherGodbutHe"(40:65);and"Heistheall-hearing,theall-seeing"(42:11);and"HedoeswhatHewishes"(11:107);and(Hiswordsare)"thewordsoftheTruth"(6:73).KnowledgebasedontheaffirmationofGod'sdeedsmeansunderstandingthattheMostHighandHolyOneisthecreatorofhumanbeingsandoftheiractions,whobroughttheworldfromnothingnessintoexistencebyHisactionandisthedisposerofgoodandevilandcreatorofallthatprofitsandharms,as,inHiswords,"Godisthecreatorofeverything"(13:16).

TheindicatorofyouraffirmationoftherequirementsoftheRevealedLawisthatyouunderstandthatitisfromGodthattheMessengershavecometouswithevidentiarymiraclesthatcontravenecustomaryunderstandings,thatourMessengerMuhammadtheChosenOneisanauthenticmessengertowhommanyevidentiarymiraclesweregranted,andthatthenewshehasbroughtusabouttheunseenandvisibleworldsalikeisentirelytrue.ThefirstpillaroftheRevealedLawisthescripture,accordingtoGod'sword,"Amongitsversesarethoseoffirmmeaning"(3:7).SecondcomestheSunna,accordingtotheMostHigh'sword,"SotakewhattheMessengergivesyouandrefrainfromwhatheforbidsforyou"(59:7).Thirdistheconsensusofthecommunity,inaccordwiththeHadith,"Mycommunitywillnotconcuronanerror,anditisincumbentuponyoutoactwiththegreatmajority."Alltold,therequirementsoftheultimaterealityaremany,andifanypersonwantedtoencompassthemall,heorshewouldnotbeabletodoso,forthereisnoendtothesubtlemysteriesofGod.

Thereisahereticalfaction-mayGodcurseit-knownastheSophists,whoholdthatonecannotknowanythingandthatevenknowledgeitselfisnonexistent.TothemIsay,"Isyourcontentionthatnothingcanbeknown,correctornot?"If

theysay,"Itiscorrect,"theyaffirmtheexistenceofknowledge.Iftheysay,"Itisnot,"thenitisridiculous[171toargueagainstafalseassertion,andanyonewhoagreeswiththemisnotwise.AhereticalfactionthathaslinkstothisPathofSufismlikewiseclaimsthatnothingcanbeaccuratelyknown,andthatthereforeitsrepudiationofourknowledgeismoreperfectthantheaffirmationofit.Itspositionderivesfromfoolishness,error,andignorance,fortherepudiationofknowledgecanonlycomefromeitherknowledgeorignorance.However,sinceknowledgecannotdenyknowledgenorbeitsownopposite,itisimpossibleforknowledgetorepudiateknowledge.Therefore,repudiationofknowledgecomesfromreprehensibleignorance,andignoranceisanalogoustofalsehoodandunbelief,sincetruthandignorancehavenothingincommon.

Thisviewisinimicaltothecommonagreementofshaykhs.However,sincepeoplehaveheardofthisopinionandsubscribedtoit,theysaythatitistheopinionandthewayofactingofSufisingeneral.Theyhavethereforepersistedtothepointthattheirbeliefhasbecomehopelesslyconfused,failingtodiscerntruthfromfalsehood.I,formypart,commendtoGodthewholematteroftheirwanderinginerror.Shouldreligiousfaithseizethem,theywouldpracticeSufismbetterthantheydo.Theywouldtreatitmorejustly,andhaveabetteropinionoftheFriendsofGod,payinggreaterattentiontotheirownunresolvedbusiness.EvenifcertainhereticalgroupsassociatethemselveswiththespirituallyliberatedforthepurposeofcloakingtheirownvilenesswiththebeautyoftheSufisandlivingintheshadowoftheirglory,whyshouldpeopleinferthattheyareofthesamepersuasion,concludingthatitisacceptabletolookdownonthemandconsiderthemdisreputable?

[Accordingtooneauthor,]someonewho[18]madeaconceitedshowoflearninganddedicatedadherencetotheSunnaoftheMessenger,butwhoinrealitywasoneofSatan'shelperswhodisputedthewayofproceedingoftheimams,cameamongusSufisandsaid,"Ofthetwelvehereticalfactions,oneisinthemidstofthosewhocallthemselvesSufis."Ianswered,"Ifone(heretical)factionistheirs(thatis,theSufis'),theelevenothersareyours;andtheSufiscanpolicetheirownranksagainstonemoreablythanyoucandefendyourselvesagainsteleven."Allofthisistheresultofthereligiouslassitudeofthisageandthecalamitiesthatarecurrentlymanifestingthemselves.God,however,continuestoconcealHisFriendsfromtherabbleandtokeepthemsequesteredfromthegeneralityofhumankind.ThatsupremespiritualguideandSunofthe

Seekers,'AliibnBundaras-Sayrafi(d.359/969-70),putitwellwhenhesaid,"Thecorruptionofhumanheartsmatchesthatoftheageanditspeople."

InthenextsectionIdealwithsomeoftheSufis'sayings,inthehopeofcatchingtheattentionofthoseamongthisgroupwhoremainunconvincedbuttowardwhomGodremainssolicitous.Success,however,belongstoGodalone.

Muhammadibnal-Fadlal-Balkhisays,"Therearethreetypesof`ilm:knowledgefromGod;knowledgewithGod;andknowledgeofGod."KnowledgeofGodmeansknowledgethatinvolvestheexperientialawarenessofGodbywhichHis[Prophetsand]FriendsknowHim.TheyhaveaccesstothistutelageandintimatefamiliaritywithHimnotthroughnormalchannelsofhumanexperience,sincesuchmeansarenotdirectlyconnectedtoGod.Theindividual'sknowledgedoesnoteffecttheexperientialconnectiontoGod;rather,GodgrantsexperientialknowledgethroughHisguidanceandwaysigns.KnowledgefromGodisknowledgeoftheRevealedLawthatHehasenjoinedandrequiredofHisservants.KnowledgewithGodistheknowledgeofthestationsofGod'sPathandanelucidationofthelevelsoftheFriendsofGod.Ma`rifacannotbecompleteapartfromacknowledgmentoftheRevealedLaw[19],butthepracticeoftheRevealedLawisnotmatureapartfromthemanifestationofthespiritualstations.

Abu'AliThaqafisays,"'Ilmisthelifeoftheheartoveragainstthedeathofignorance,andthelightoftheeyeofcertaintyoveragainstthedarknessofinfidelity."*TheheartofeveryonewholackstheknowledgeoftheintimateawarenessofGodisdeadinitsignorance,andtheheartofeveryoneuncommittedtotheRevealedLawsufferstheillnessoffailuretoknow.TheheartsofunbelieversaredeadbecausetheyknownotGod,andtheheartsoftheheedlessaresickbecausetheyknownotHissacredinjunctions.

AbuBakrWarraqofTirmidhsays,"Onewhoiscontentwithdebatingquestionsofknowledgeapartfromasceticismisengaginginreligiouslywaywardthinking(zandaqa),andonewhoiscontentwithknowledgeofthelawapartfromspiritualreticencebecomescorrupt."*EveryonewhosettlesfordefiningtheknowledgeoftheaffirmationofGod'stranscendentunityanddoesnotpayattentiontoitsoppositebecomesazindiq;andeveryonewhosettlesforknowledgeoftheRevealedLawandfiqhwithoutspiritualreticencebecomescorrupt.Inotherwords,assertionofthedivineunityandtranscendenceapart

fromreligiousactionandspiritualstruggleistantamounttopredestination.Therefore,onewhoatteststothedivineunityandtranscendenceshouldaffirmGod'somnipotencewhileactingasonewhoexercisesmoralchoice,therebystandingbetweendivinepowerandhumanfreewill.Thisisthegistofwhatthatspiritualguidemeantwhenhesaid,"Assertionofthedivineunityandtranscendenceisbeneathpredestinationbutabovefreewill."Thus,anyonewhoconsiderstheaffirmationsufficientwithoutreligiousactionisazindiq,foractionisarequirementforthefulfillmentofreligiouslawandfearofGod.Whoeverbecomespreoccupiedwithlaxinterpretationandisinfatuatedwithanthropomorphism,andcircumventstheteachingofthoseauthorizedtointerpretthelawinordertoeasehisownburden,fallsintocorruption.Allofthesearemanifestationsofheedlessness.

YahyaibnMuladhofRayysaidappropriately,"Eschewthecompanyofthreetypesofpeople:heedlessreligiousscholars,hypocriticalmendicants,andignorantpseudo-Sufis."Theheedlessreligiousscholarsarethosewhohavemadethisworldtheirhearts'qiblaand[201chosenthepathofease,bowingbeforesultans.Theyhaveturnedroyalaudiencehallsintotheirplacesofcircumambulationandhavemadetheadulationofotherpeopleintotheirmihrdbs.10Intheirvanitytheyarebeguiledintocongratulatingthemselvesontheirtheologicaldisputation,criticizingtheauthoritiesandmastersandoverwhelmingthereligiousleaderswiththeopinionstheypileup.Theyaresopreoccupiedthatifyouweretoweighthetwoworldsonascale,itwouldnotattracttheirattention!Theyhavemadeireandenvytheirteaching.Inthefinalanalysis,noneofthisisgenuineknowledge,forknowledgeisacharacteristicrejectedbythelikesoftheseintheirignorance.

Asforthehypocriticalmendicants,"theypraisewhateveranyoneelsedoesinaccordwiththeirpreference,evenifitisfoolish,andcondemnwhateveranyoneelsedoesincontradictiontotheirwhim,evenifitisauthentic.Theycultivatepeople'sfavorwiththeirreligiousbehaviorandhypocrisyinaccordwiththepeople'sfolly.

Finally,theignorantSufipretendersarethosewhohaveneversoughtthecompanionshipofaspiritualguide,norlearnedproperdemeanorfromaninfluentialSufi,nortastedtherebukeoftime.Stilltheyblindlydontheblue(Sufi)garb,thrustingthemselvesintothemidstoftheSufis,andcavalierlysetoutonthepathoflevityintheircompany.Suchaperson'slackofunderstanding

makeshimthinkthattheyarealllikehimself,andthepathoftrueandfalsebecomesconfusedforhim.Lettheseeker,therefore,bemindfulandadvisedtosteerclearofthecompanyofthesethreegroupstowhichthatsuccessfulone(YahyaibnMuladh)referred;thegistofhiscommentwasthattheyareallfalseintheirclaimsandincompleteintheirpractice.

AbuYazidBistamisays,"Igavemyselfovertospiritualstruggleforthirtyyears,butIfoundnothing[21]moredifficultthanthepursuitofknowledge."*Walkingonfireis,onthewhole,morecongenialtohumannaturethanconformitytoknowledge.AfoolishheartwouldsoonercrossthebridgethatspansHellfire'schasmathousandtimesthanengageasinglematterofknowledge.AcorruptpersonwouldprefertocampoutinHellratherthanpracticeasinglethinglearned.Therefore,youmustseekcomprehensiveknowledge,eventhough,whencomparedtoGod'sknowledge,thatamountstoignorance.Youmusthavesufficientunderstandingtorealizethatyoulackknowledge.Inotherwords,humanbeingsarecapableonlyofhumanknowledge,buthumanityistheheaviestveilbetweenahumanbeingandGod.Apoetsaysinthisconnection:

Apersonwhorefusestolearnandholdsfasttohisignoranceisanidolater,butwhenanindividualdoeslearnandapproachestheperfectionofknowledge,theinnermeaningbecomesapparent.Thatpersonrealizesthathisknowledgeisbutalackofcapacitytoknowwhatdestinyawaitshim:knowingthenamesofthingsdoesnotchangetheirreality.Theperson'sincapacitytoattainknowledgeisthereforeitselftheattainmentofknowledge,andGod'sisthegreatestknowledgeofall.

Chapter15:DrawingBacktheFirstVeil:ExperientialKnowledgeofGod

[341]Godhassaid,"AndtheydonotmeasureGod'sexpansivenessaccurately"(6:91).TheProphetsaid,"IfyouknewGodexperientially,youwouldwalkontheseas,andmountainswoulddisappearatyourbidding."Ma`rifaofGod[342]isoftwokinds:oneisdiscursive(`ilmi)andtheotheraffective(hall).Discursivema'rifaisthebasisofeverygoodthinginthisworldandthenext;knowledgeofGodisthemostimportantconditioninallspiritual

momentsandstates.Godhassaid,"IdidnotcreatejinnsandhumanbeingsexcepttoserveMe"(51:56),thatis,sothattheywouldknowMeexperientially.*Mostpeople,however,ignorethisstateofaffairs,exceptthosewhomGodhaschosenandledforthfromthedarknessofthisworld,andwhoseheartsHehimselfhasbroughttolifewithHisownpresence,accordingtothewordoftheMostHigh,"Hemadeforhimalightbywhichhemightwalkamongthepeople"(6:122)-alludingtoalife"likeoneinprofounddarkness"(6:122cont.),bywhichhemeantAbuJahl.'2

Ma`rifaisthelifeoftheheartthroughGod,andtheinnermostbeing'srefusaltoattendtoanythingbutGod.Eachindividual'svalueisinexperientialknowledge,andwhoeverlacksexperientialknowledgeisworthless.ReligiousscholarsandjuristsandotherscallsoundconceptualknowledgeaboutGodma'rifa,buttheSufishaykhsreservethetermma'rifatorefertoaffectiveintegrityinrelationtoGod.Itfollowsthattheyconsiderma'rifasuperiortoWm,sinceaffectiveintegritypresupposessounddiscursiveknowledge.Soundconceptualknowledgeisnotaffectiveintegrity,sothatonecannotpossessexperientialknowledgewithoutsoundconceptualknowledgeofGod.Butonecanpossessdiscursiveknowledgewithoutpossessingexperientialknowledge.Membersofthesetwogroupswhohavebeenunawareoftheaforementionedtwotypesof"knowledge"havebecomeembroiledinunprofitabledebate,onefactionrepudiatingtheviewsoftheother.

Letmenowunveilthemysteryofthissituationinawaythatbothfactions,Godwilling,mightfindhelpful.

UnderstandthatthereisconsiderabledivergenceofviewsconcerningtheexperientialknowledgeofGodandsoundtraditionalknowledgeofHim.TheMultazilaclaimthatma'rifaofGodisintellectual[343]andthatitisproperonlytoarationalindividual.Suchaclaimisflimsy,giventhatinsanepersonswithintheAbodeofIslamarejudgedtopossessma'rifa,andthatchildrenwhohavenotattainedtheageofreasonarejudgedtopossessfaith.If,therefore,ma'rifawereanintellectualquality,peoplelikethesecouldnotbejudgedtopossessma'rifasincetheylackrationality,norcouldunbelieversbejudgedguiltyofunbeliefiftheypossessedreason.Ifrationalitywerethecauseofma'rifa,onewouldhavetoconcludethateveryrationalpersonpossessedma'rifaandthateveryonelackingrationalitywasignorantofGod,butthatisclearlyabsurd.

Onefactionclaimsthatthecauseofma'rifaofGodisdemonstrativeargument,andthatonlythosewhoengageindeductivereasoningattainma'rifa.Thisargument'sweaknessisthatIbliswitnessedmanydivinesigns,includingHeavenandHell,andthedivineThroneandFootstool,butthesedidnotbringaboutmacrifainhim.AstheMostHighsaid,"EvenifWeweretosendthemangelsandthedeadweretospeaktothem,andWeweretobringtogetherallthingsbeforethem,theywouldnotbelieveexceptasGodwilled"(6:111).*Ifthevisionofdivinesignsanddemonstrativeproofofthemwerethecauseofma'rifa,then,intheabovescripturalverse,Godwouldhavepointedtothat,ratherthantoHisownwill,asthecauseofma'rifa.

SunniMuslimsregardsoundnessofintellectandthevisionofdivinesignsasameanstom&rifabutnotitscause;thatcauseisnoneotherthanGod'sfavor,kindness,andwill.Lackingthedivinefavor,theintellectisblind,forbyitselfintellectisignorantevenofitselfandcannotknowtherealityofotherintellects.Sinceitdoesnotknowevenitself,how[344]canitknowsomethingotherthanitself?Withoutdivinefavor,demonstrativeproofandreflectiononthevisionofdivinesignsareallinaccurate,forwhimsicalpeopleandsundryhereticalfactionsrelyondemonstrativeproofbutmostofthemdonotpossessma'rifa.

Asforthoseprivytothedivinefavor,however,alltheirspiritualmovementsareindicationsofmwrifa.Whentheypursuedemonstrativeproof,theyaresearching,andwhentheyleavedemonstrativeproofaside,theyaresurrenderingtoGod.Butwithrespecttosoundma'rifa,surrendertoGoddoesnottakeprecedenceoversearching.Abandoningthequestisnotanacceptableprinciple,andsurrendertoGodisaprincipleinwhichnoanxietyisappropriate,butthespiritualrealityofthesetwoisnotm&rifa.Understandthatinthefinalanalysisthereisnocenter-expanding13guidefortheindividualexceptGodinthefaceofallthatthewrongdoerssay.Neitherintellectnorrationalproofsarecapableofguidingtheindividual,andthereisnodemonstrativeproofclearerthanthefactthatGodhassaid,"Foriftheywerebroughtback,theywouldsurelyreverttowhathadbeenforbiddenthem"(6:28).Thatis,*iftheunbelieverswerebroughtbackintothisworld,theywouldstillactonthebasisoftheirinfidelity.

Whensomeoneasked'Ali,CommanderoftheFaithful,aboutexperientialknowledge,hereplied,"IgainedexperientialknowledgeofGodthroughGod,andofthatwhichisotherthanGodthroughthelightofGod."*Godfashionedthebodyandentrusteditslifetothesoul;Hefashionedtheheartandentrusted

itslifetoHimself.Therefore,sinceneitherintellectnorhumanjudgmenthavethepowertogivelifetothebody,neithercantheygivelifetotheheart,asGodhassaid,"oronewhowasdeadandwhomWebroughtbacktolife..."(6:122).HehasthusentrustedalllifetoHimself,aswhenHecontinuedinthesameverse,"andforwhomWehavemadealightbywhichhemightwalkamonghumankind."Inotherwords,"Iamthecreatorofthelightthatilluminesthefaithfulone."Healsosaid,"WhatoftheonewhosespiritualcenterGodhasexpandedtowardsurrenderandsotowardreceivinglightfromhisLord?"(39:22).HehastakenchargeoftheunfoldingoftheheartHimself,and[345]itsclosureaswell,asHehassaid,"Godsealstheirheartsandtheirhearing"(2:7),and,again,"PaynoheedtoanypersonwhoseheartwehaveallowedtostintinrememberingUs"(18:28).

Itfollows,thus,thatsinceitisHewhocontractsandexpands,sealsandamplifiestheheart,itwouldbeimpossibleforthehearttorecognizeanyotherguidethanHim.ForallthatisnotGodisacauseorameans,andanythingthatproceedsfromcauseandmeanscannotshowthewayapartfromtheprovidenceoftheOnewhocreatesthemeans-withoutGod'sfavoritisaveilandahighwayrobberratherthanaguide.14TheMostHighhassaid,"ButGodhasmadethefaithdeartoyouandhasmadeitattractivetoyourhearts"(49:7).HehasthusassociatedbeautificationandendearmentwithHimself,andtherequirementofthereverentialfearthatisessentialtointimateknowledgeisfromHim.Theywhoaresoobliged,sincetheyareundertheobligation,cannotchoose(either)torejectitorundertakeit.Asaresult,intheabsenceofGod'stutelage,humanbeings'shareofma'rifaofHimwillbenoneotherthantheirincapacitytoknowHim.

Abu`l-HasanNailsays,"ThereisnoguidetoGodapartfromHim,foroneseeksknowledgeintheperformanceofservice."*ApartfromGod,heartshavenoguidetoma'rifa;letthemseekknowledgetorenderservice,notthesoundnessofma'rifa.NocreaturehasthecapabilityoftakinganyoneelsetoGod.PeoplewhousedemonstrativeproofsarenomorerationalthanAbuTalib,15norwasthereaguidegreaterthanMuhammad.Evenso,sinceitwastheforeordainedlotofAbuTalibtocometoanunfortunateend,Muhammad'sguidancewasofnousetohim.

IndemonstrativeproofonefirstturnsawayfromGod,sincedemonstrativeproofrequiresonetofocusonsomethingelse;buttheessenceofintimate

knowledgeisturningawayfromallthatisnotGod.Ordinarilyonesearchesforobjectsofknowledgethroughdemonstrativeproof,butintimateknowledgeofGodgoesagainstthegrain.Asaresult,intimateknowledgeofGodisimpossibleapartfromendlessintellectualperplexity.Onedoesnotreceivethedivinefavorbyaprocessofhumanacquisition.WithoutGod'sgracesandkindnesses[346]theindividualhasnoguidance-thatcomesfromrevelationstoheartsandfromthetreasuriesoftheunseenrealms.EverythingotherthanGodiscreatedintime.Itstandstoreasonthatwhileacontingentbeingmightcometoitsownkind,itcannotarriveattheontologicalstatusofitsownCreator.Forabeingthat"acquires"anothermustbeofahigherorderthantheoneacquired,sothattheoneacquiredisovercome.Themarvelhereisnotthatevidenceofanactleadstheintellecttoaffirmtheexistenceoftheagent,butthatbythelightofGodtheheartdeniesitsownexistence.Intheformerinstance,theresultingrealizationisdiscursive,inthelatter,affective.

Thefactionthatconsidersintellecttobethecauseofma'rifashouldaskitselfwhataspectofma'rifaitisthatreasonestablishesintheheart,sincewhateverreasonaffirms,ma'rifacanonlydeny.Inotherwords,GodistheoppositeofwhateverimageofHimreasonconstructsintheheart.AndiftheimageofGodthatreasonfashionsisdifferentfromGod'sreality,howcanintellectattainma'rifathroughdemonstrativeproof?Sincereasonandimaginationareofthesamegenus,andsincetheaffirmationofgenusnegatesma'rifa,anyaffirmation[oftheexistenceofGod]fromdemonstrativeproofamountstoanthropomorphismandanydenialofGodamountstoadenialofdivineattributes."Itisimpossibleforintellecttotranscendthesetwooppositeprinciples,bothofwhicharesheerignorancefromtheperspectiveofmwrifa,sincethosewhoadheretoeitheroftheseviewsdonotproclaimGod'stranscendentunity.

Onceintellecthasreacheditslimit,andthe[347]heartsofGod'sFriendshavenoremedyotherthantheirquest,theytakereposeinthecourtyardofhelplessness,bereftofresources.Buttheybecomerestlessintheirrepose,raisingtheirhandsinapleaforhelpastheyseekabalmfortheirhearts.Whentheyhaveexhaustedtheirownpowertocontinuethequest,thepowerofGodbecomestheirpower.Inotherwords,theyfindthewayfromHimtoHim,experiencerelieffromtheanguishofseparation,andfindrestinthegardenofintimacy,nestledinperfectrefreshmentandjoy.Whenintellectsawthatthe

heartshadachievedtheirdesire,itsearchedinvainformasteryanddidnotfindit.Intellectwasleftbehindandbecameperplexed,andinitsperplexityandagitationitlostitspowertoact.AtthatpointGodclothedtheintellectinthegarbofserviceandsaidtoit,"Whenyoureliedonyourownresources,yourattemptstodosokeptyoubehindaveil;butwhenyourresourcesvanished,youwereleftbehind,andinyourbeingleftbehindyouarrivedatthegoal."

NearnesstoGodisthereforetheheart'sportion,whilethatoftheintellectisservice.GodsuppliestheindividualinfusedknowledgeofGodbyHistutelageandinstruction,sothattheindividualknowsGodthroughHimratherthanasaresultofhumanfaculties.Thisisaknowledgeinwhichtheexistenceofthehumanbeingismerelyborrowed,sothatfortheexistenceofoneendowedwithintimateknowledge,narcissismisabetrayal,andtheindividual'sremembranceofGodisincessant,hislaborunstinting,andhisexperientialknowledgebecomesaspiritualconditionratherthanamereclaim.

Yetanotherfactionclaimsthatma'rifaisamatterofinspiration.Again,thisisnotpossible,becauseexperientialknowledgeisbasedontheabilitytodistinguishfalsehoodfromtruth,whereasthosewhoappealtoinspirationdonotprovideasoundcriterionfordistinguishingwrongfromright.Supposeonepersonclaimed,"IknowbyinspirationthatGoddoesnotoccupyaplace,"whileanotherargued,"InspirationtellsmethatGoddoeshaveaplace."Oneofthesetwocontradictoryclaims[348]mustbetrueandtheotherfalse,butbothappealtoinspiration.Oneneedstodistinguishbetweentruthandfalsehoodwithrespecttothesetwoclaims,andthatrequiresevidence.Thus,theargumentforinspirationisfolly.ThisisaviewespousedbyBrahmansandinspirationists,andIhaveknownsomepeoplewhohavetakenthepositiontoextremeswhileassociatingtheirworkwiththeviewsofreligiouspeople.Thesepeople,however,areentirelyinerrorandtheiropinionsareatoddswith(all)rationalpeople,unbelieversandMuslimsalike.Asaresult,iftenproponentsofinspirationputforthtencontradictoryopinionsconcerningthesameissue,allareequallymistakenandnotonegetsitright.IfsomeoneweretosaythatanythingatoddswiththeRevealedLawisnotinspiration,Iwouldrespondthattheviewwasinherentlymistakenandill-conceived.ForifoneevaluatesandaffirmsinspirationinrelationtoRevealedLaw,thenintimateknowledgederivesfromtheRevealedLaw,prophethood,anddivineguidanceratherthanfrominspiration.Consequently,theissueofinspirationinrelationtoma'rifaismoot.

Anothergrouphasclaimedthatma'rifaofGodisnecessary."That,too,isimpossible,foritwouldimplythatrationalhumanbeingswouldhavetobeinagreementonwhattheyknow.Butweobservethatcertainreasonablepeoplewillfullydenyanddisavowthetruthbyholdingteachingsofanthropomorphismordenialofdivineattributes,provingthatintimateknowledgeisnotinnate.Inaddition,ifintimateknowledgeofGodwereinnate,theconceptofreligiousdutywouldbemeaningless.Forobligationinm&rifainrelationtothingsknownasnecessary,suchastheself,theheavensandtheearth,dayandnight,painandpleasure,andthelike,isanabsurdity;norationalpersoncandoubt[349]thesethings,forthereisgreatneedtoknowthem,andevenonewhopreferrednottoknowthemwouldbeincapableofdoingso.Thereis,however,afactionofwould-beSufiswho,reflectingonthesoundnessoftheircertitude,claim,"WeknowGodinnately."Sincetheyhavenottheslightestdoubtintheirhearts,theycalltheircertitudenecessity.Theyarenotmistakenaboutthemeaningoftheirclaim,buttheirmodeofexpressionisfaulty.Knowledgeofthatwhichisnecessarycannotbethesolepossessionofanelitebutbelongstoallrationalbeings.Moreover,innateknowledgewouldbeevidentintheheartsofloverswithoutasecondarycause,whilediscursiveknowledgeofGod,aswellasintimateknowledgeofHim,mustbearesultofsomecause.

However,themasterAbu'AliDaggag18andShaykhAbuSahl[Sulluki](d.369/980)andhisfather,whowasanauthoritativeteacheratNishapur,holdthattheinceptionofma'rifaisbasedondemonstrativeproofbutthatitsendisintuitive,justasoneinitiallyacquiresaknowledgeofdevotionalactions,aknowledgethateventuallybecomesnecessary.SomeSunniMuslimsputitthisway:"Don'tyouseethatinParadiseknowledgeofGodbecomesnecessary,sothatwhatisnecessarythereshouldbenecessaryhereaswell?Inthisworld,too,whentheprophetswereinthespiritualstateinwhichtheyheardGod'sword,whetherdirectlyorwhenanangelmediatedtherevelation,theyknewnecessarily."TothatIrespondthatthosewhodwellinParadiseknowGodnecessarilybecausenoreligiousdutyappliesinParadise,andtheprophetsarepreservedfrompunishmentandsafefromseparation.TheonewhohasnecessaryknowledgeaboutHimhasnofearofbeingcutoff.Thesuperiorityoffaithandexperientialknowledgeisintheirhiddenness,forwhenthesethingsbecomevisible,faithbecomescommonknowledge;andwhensomethingbecomesvisible,freechoice[350]departsandtherootsofRevealedLawaredisturbed.Eventhelawofapostasybecomespointless,sothatBallam'9or

Barsisa20orIblisarenotpreciselyguiltyofunbelief,sinceitisagreedthattheyhadexperientialknowledgeofGod.RegardingIblis,forexample,Godhasinformedusaboutthesituationofhisbanishmentandreproach,withthewordsspokenbyIblis,"Then,byYourmight,Iwillleadthemallastray"(38:82).Indeed,hissaying"byyourmight"andhishearingGod'sresponseimplyadegreeofexperientialknowledge.

Onewhopossessesexperientialknowledge,whileheremainsinthatcondition,issafefrombeingseparatedfromGod.Separationresultsfromthecessationofmwrifa,whereasonecannotconceiveofthelossofnecessary`ilm.Forthemajorityofpeoplethisquestionisfraughtwithdifficulty.Thecruxofthematteristhatifoneistosteerclearofthedanger,onemustunderstandthat,apartfromGod'sceaselessinformingandguidance,humanbeingshavenoWmorma'rifaofHim.Itisappropriatethatindividuals'certitudeinexperientialknowledgemaywaxandwane,buttheprincipleofexperientialknowledgeitselfisnotsubjecttoincreaseordiminishment,forachangeineitherdirectionwouldamounttoadiminishment.

Uncriticalacceptanceofauthoritymustnotcharacterizeone'sknowledgeofGod.OnemustknowGodthroughtheattributesofHisperfection,aknowledgeincompleteexceptbythegoodnessofGod'sprovidenceandtheassuranceofHisfavor.FortheguidanceofmindsbelongsentirelytoGod,andtheyarewhollyunderHisdisposition.AsGodchooses,HecaneithermakeoneofHisdeedsasourceofguidancewithwhichtopointthewaytoHimselforusethesamedeedasaveilthatthwartsaccesstoHim.Jesus,forexample,wasasourceofguidancetosomepeoplethroughm&rifa,whileforothershewasahindrancetointimateknowledge:Thefirstsaid,"HeisGod'sservant,"andthesecond,"HeisGod'sson."Somepeople,similarly,havetakenidolsandmoonandsunasguidestoGod,whileforotherstheseprovedtobefalseleads.`

Ifsourcesofguidancesuchasthesewerethecauseofintimateknowledge,itwouldfollowthateveryoneguidedbythemwouldpossessintimateknowledge,butthatisclearlynotthecase.Godchoosesindividualsand[351]transformsthingsintotheirguidessothatbymeansofthosethingspeoplecometoHimandknowHim.Butasourceofguidanceisameansonlyandnotacause,andnoonemeanshasanypriorityoveranotherwithrespecttoGod,whobringsallmeansintoexistence.Thosewhopossessintimateknowledge,whoswearbyaparticularmeans,areguiltyofdualisticthinking.Acknowledgmentofanything

otherthantheobjectofintimateknowledgeisidolatry,(accordingtothedivinewords),"ThosewhomGodleadsastrayhavenonetoguidethem"(7:186).IfaccordingtothePreservedTablet,indeed,accordingtoGod'spreferenceandforeknowledge,anindividualisdestinedtomisery,howcananyevidenceordemonstrativeproofprovideguidance?AccordingtoanArabicsaying,"ThemwrifaofonewhoturnstoattendtowhatisotherthanGodisdualism(zunnar)."SuchanindividualisannihilatedandoverwhelmedinthewrathfulpowerofGod,sohowcananythingotherthanGodbeHiswitness?

Ordinarilyoneapprehendsproofmorereadily,andmarvelsaremoreapparent,byday.ButifevidencewerethecauseofintimateknowledgeofGod,andevidencesaremoreeasilyapprehendedandwondersmoreaccessiblebyday,howisitthatwhenAbrahamemergedfromthecavebyday,hesawnothing,butwhenhecameoutatnight,"hebeheldastar"(6:76)?Therefore,GodshowsthewaytowhateverservantHechoosesandinwhateverwayHechooses,andopensforhimthedoorofexperientialknowledge.Theservantthusarrivesatalevelinwhichtheessenceofmwrifaseemsalienanditsqualitiesbecomeharmfultohim.Ma`rifaitselfbecomesaveilovertheOneKnownandturnsintoavainpretense.Dhu`n-NunofEgyptsays,"Becarefulnottomakeapretenseofexperientialknowledge."[Anunidentifiedpoeticversesays:

Takecare,therefore,nottomakeapretenseofexperientialknowledge,oryouwillbedestroyed.Adhereinsteadtothemeaningofmalrifasothatyouwillfindsalvation.WhenanindividualisennobledbyarevelationofGod'sgrandeur,hisverybeingbecomesaburdenandallhispersonalcharacteristicsbecomeoccasionsofmisfortune.

AnindividualwhoisGod's,[352]andtowhomGodbelongs,remainsunassociatedwithanythingincreationandthetwoworlds.ThecentralrealityofexperientialknowledgeisunderstandingthatthedominionbelongstoGod.OnceanindividualrealizesthatGodhasdispositionofallpossessions,whywouldhecontinuedealingwithcreaturestothepointwherehebecomesveiledbythemorbyhimself?Veilsresultfromignorance,sothat,whenignorancevanishes,veils

areobliteratedandexperientialknowledgeseeslifehereintermsofthelifetocome.AndGodknowsbest.

Shaykhshavemademanyveiledreferencestothemeaningofma'rifa,and,Godwilling,Iwillmentionsomeofthoseforthereader'sbenefit.'AbdAllahMubaraksays,"Ma`rifameansnotbeingastonishedatanything."*Theobjectofastonishmentisadeedthatexceedsthecapabilityoftheagent,buttheMostHighandMostHolyOne(theagent)isomnipotent,sotheonewhopossessesexperientialknowledgecannotbeastonishedatwhatGoddoes.Ifastonishmentweretooccur,itshouldbeatthefactthatGodsoelevatesahandfulofdustthatitiscapableofreceivingHiscommandmentsandsoennoblesadropofbloodthatitspeaksofintimatefriendshipandexperientialknowledgeofGod,seeksthevisionofGod,andbecomesintentonnearnessandunionwithHim.DhU`n-NuntheEgyptiansays,"Theinnerrealityofma'rifaishumanaccesstomysteriesthroughtheimpartingofthesubtlestoflights."*Inotherwords,byHislight,Godadornstheservant'sheartwithfavorandremovesalltroublesfromit,tothepointthatintheservant'sheartcreatedearthlybeingsareoflessweightthanamustardseed.Thecontemplationofmysteries,whetherhiddenormanifest,doesnotoverpower[353]him;andonceGodhasbroughtthisabout,themerestglancebecomesacontemplation.

Shiblisays,"Ma`rifaisceaselessperplexity."Therearetwokindsofperplexity:oneatGod'sexistenceandtheotheratGod'sattribute.PerplexityoverGod'sexistenceisidolatryandunbelief,whileperplexityoverGod'sattributeisexperientialknowledge;onewhopossessesexperientialknowledgecanhavenoshredofdoubtaboutGod'sexistence,whileGod'squalitieseludetheintellectaltogether.WhatremainshereiscertitudeconcerningthebeingofGodandperplexityconcerningHismannerofbeing,aboutwhichsomeonesaid,"0Guideoftheperplexed,increasemyperplexity."Ontheonehand,heaffirmedexperientialknowledgeofthedivineexistenceandtheperfectionofthedivineattributes,whileacknowledgingthatGodisthedesireofcreationandtheonewhoanswerstheirprayersandgivesperplexitytotheperplexed.Ontheother,heaskedforgreaterperplexity,therebyacknowledgingthatwithrespecttotheobjectofitsquest,theintellectisstymiedbetweenconfusionandidolatry.

Thisisasubtleobservation,recognizing,asitdoes,thepossibilitythatexperientialknowledgeofGod'sexistencenecessitatesconfusionaboutone'sownexistence;ahumanbeingwhoknowsGodrecognizesthatheiswhollyin

thralltoGod'spower.SincebothhisbeingandnonbeingarisefromGod,andbothhisrestandmovementdependonGod'spower,hebecomesastonished,saying,"IfallthatIamrestswithGod,whoamIandforwhatpurposedoIexist?"ItwasinreferencetothisthattheProphetsaid,"Anindividualendowedwithintimateself-knowledgeknowshisLordOnewhounderstandshisownannihilationunderstandsGod'sperdurance.Asaresultofannihilation,intellectandhumanattributesvanish.Andiftheintellectcannotcomprehendtheessenceofathing,itcannotarriveatexperientialknowledgeofitexceptthroughperplexity.

AbuYazidsaid,"Ma`rifameansunderstandingthatboththemotionandreposeofhumanbeingsdependonGod."*AndnooneexercisescontroloverGod'sdominionwithoutGod'spermission:AnessenceisanessencethroughHim;aneffectisaneffectthroughHim;[354]anattributeisanattributethroughHim;anditisHewhogivesmotionandrepose.Nonehasthecapabilityofmotionorrepose,orcanperformanyactionunlessGodcreatesthepossibilityandinstillsinthehumanheartthedesire.Humanactsaresecondary;Godistheprimaryagent.Describingthepersonendowedwithexperientialknowledge,MuhammadibnWasilsays,"OnewhoknowsGodintimatelysayslittleandisceaselesslyastonished."*Foronlythatwhichfallswithinthelimitsandprinciplesofhumanexpressioncanbeexpressed,andexpressionisfundamentallylimited.Since,inthiscase,thatwhichonewouldliketotalkaboutisunlimitedandcannotbeconfinedwithintheboundariesofhumanlanguage,howcanoneaffirmit?If,therefore,thereisnowaytoexpressitinhumanlanguage,whatoptionremainsfortheservantotherthanceaselessastonishment?

Shiblisays,"Theessenceofexperientialknowledgeistheinabilitytoattainit";*thatis,apartfromtheveryincapacitytoknowthecentralrealityofathing,theservanthasnoinkling.Itfollows,therefore,thatonceaservantarrivesatexperientialknowledge,claimingpersonalcreditwouldbeinappropriate.Incapacityimpliesongoingquest,butaslongastheseekercontinuestodependonhisownresourcesandqualities,"incapacity"doesnotaptlydescribehim.Whentheseresourcesandqualitiesleavetheservant,thenhisconditionisannihilationratherthanincapacity.Afactionofcharlatanswhoaffirmhumanqualitiesandtheongoingresponsibilityforsoundjudgment,aswellasGod'seternalstandardofproof,neverthelessidentifyma'rifaentirelywith

powerlessness,claimingthathumanbeingslackthecapacitytoachieveanything.Thisviewiserroneousandharmful.Isaytothem,"Inquestofwhatobjecthaveyoubecomeincapacitated?Youmanifestneitherofthetwoindicatorsofpowerlessness,namely,theannihilationofthemeansofseeking,andtheappearanceofthedivinemanifestationoftranscendence."Wherehumanfacultiesareannihilated,[3551expressionfails.Verbalexpressionceasesinitsinabilitytospeakofincapacity,forspeakingaboutincapacityisnotincapacity.Andwherethemanifestationofdivinetranscendenceoccurs,thereisnoindicationandpowersofdiscriminationareoutofthequestion.

Sincethatisthecase,theincapacitatedindividualisunaware,eitherofbeingincapacitated,orthatonewouldcallhisconditionhelplessness.HelplessnessisotherthanGod,andaffirmingma'rifaofwhatisotherthanGodisnotm&rifa.AslongasthehearthasroomforanythingotherthanGod,andaslongasthewould-bepossessorofexperientialknowledgetalksaboutotherthanGod,thatpersondoesnotyettrulypossessexperientialknowledge.AbuHafsHaddadsays,"SinceIgainedexperientialknowledgeofGod,neithertruthnorfalsehoodhasenteredmyheart."*Whendesireandpassionariseintheheart,theindividualturnstotheheart,sothattheheartcanofferguidancetotheego-soul,wherefalsehoodresides.Butwhenapersondiscoversevidenceofexperientialknowledge,helikewisehasrecoursetotheheartsothatitcanguidehimtothespirit,thewellspringoftruthandspiritualreality.

WhentheheartisoccupiedbyanythingotherthanGod,andtheonewhoseeksexperientialknowledgehasrecoursetotheheart,thatindividualendsupinignoranceofGod.Allhumanbeingsseekevidenceofexperientialknowledgefromtheheart,andtheyseekpassionanddesirefromtheheartaswell;thatiswhytheydonotattainwhattheydesire.ApartfromGodthereisnoreposesolongastheygoonseekingthetruthfromtheheart.Whenanindicationofevidenceisrequired,theymustreturntoGod;thisisthedifferencebetweenaservantwhohasrecoursetotheheartandonewhohasrecoursetoGod.AbuBakrWasitisays,"OneendowedwithexperientialknowledgeofGodisisolated,infact,heismuteandtotallysubdued."*AndtheProphetsaid,"Icannotpraiseyouadequately."[356]WhilehewasinastateofabsencefromGod,hesaid,"IamthemosteloquentamongArabsandnon-Arabs."Whenhewastakenfromabsencetopresence,hesaid,"MytongueisincapableofpraisingYouadequately,forIhavegonefromspeechtospeechlessness,fromaspiritualstate

tobeingwithoutaspiritualstate.YouaretheonewhoisYou.MyspeechiseitherfrommeorfromYou.IfIspokeonmyown,Iwouldbeveiledbymyownspeech.IfIspokethroughYou,theapparentaccomplishmentofrealizingproximitytoYouwouldinrealitybeaflaw.SoIwon'tspeak."Camethereply[tothefirstsaying],"0Muhammad,ifyoudonotspeak,Wewillspeak.'Byyourlife'(15:72),ifyoudonotspeakinpraiseofMe,thenallofyouwillbeMypraise.SinceyoudonotconsideryourselfamongthosewhopraiseUs,Wehavemadeeverypartoftheuniverseyourrepresentative,sothattheypraiseMeinyourstead."AndinGodissuccess;GodisourportionandthebestofFriends.

Qushayra'smostfamousworkisaremarkablecombinationofhagiographyandmysticaltheory.RoughlythefirstquarterofthebookconsistsofovereightyshortlivesoffamousSufis.SectiontwoanalyzesseveraldozentechnicaltermscommonlyusedbyearlySufiauthors,sometimessingly,sometimesinpairsortriadsoftermstypicallyusedtogether.'InthethirdsectionQushayricontinueshisconceptualanalysisbutshiftsthefocusslightly,withtypicallylonger(uptofivepages)essaysonsomefourdozentermsthatrefertomajorexperientialaspectsoftheSufipath.Thesedonotpreciselyoutlineaprogressiveprogram,buttheydoingeneralrepresentanupwardseriesofstagesandstatesthatQushayriregardedascriticalindicesofspiritualdevelopment.Mostimportanthere,Qushayrisituatesma`rifawelldownthelist,afterchaptersonacknowledgmentofGod'stranscendentunity(tawhid)andspiritualstatesthataccompanyone'sdeparturefromthisworld,andbeforethoseonlove(mahabba)andlonging(shawq).2

ChapterontheMa`rifaofGod

[342]Godhassaid,"TheycannotassessGod'sscopeaccurately"(6:91).Qur'anicexegeteshaveinterpretedtheversetomean,"TheyhavenotknownGodexperientiallywithatrulyintimateknowledge."'

TheProphetsaid,4"Whatundergirdsahouseisitsfoundation,andwhatundergirdsthereligionisexperientialknowledgeofGod,alongwithcertitudeandcircumspectintelligence."Wishaasked,"Youwhoareworthyofmyfatherandmotherinransom,whatiscircumspectintelligence?"Hereplied,"StoppingshortofrebellingagainstGodwhilebeingintentonobeyingGod."

Asreligiousscholarsgenerallyusetheterm,ma'rifaissynonymouswithWm,sothateveryvarietyofWmisaformofma'rifa,andallma'rifabelongstothecategoryof`ilm.Therefore,everyonewhopossesses`ilmaboutGodpossesses

ma'rifa,andviceversa.AccordingtotheSufis,however,ma'rifaischaracteristicofanindividualwhoisintimatelyfamiliarwithGodthroughHisnamesandattributes,andwhoseactionstowardGodareentirelyauthentic,whosecharacterhasbeenridofdestructivetendenciesandfaults,whoawaitsGod'spleasure,andwhoseheartisheldendlesslyinreserveforGod.SuchapersonenjoysabeautifulclosenesstoGod,andGodinturnaccommodatesHimselftoalltheindividual'sspiritualstates.Theindividualisliberatedfromtheego-soul'smachinations,theheartnolongergiventonotionsthatdistractittowardwhatisnotGod.Suchapersonfindshumancompanyuncongenial,isfreeoftheego-soul'snoxiousqualities,isnolongerundertheswayofthingsorvaluesofthisworld,carriesonthemostsecretofintimateconversationswithGodincessantly,issurefrommomenttomomentofreturningtoGod,andbecomesapprisedthroughGod'sintimatecommunicationastowhatGodhasinstore.Andwhenalltheseconditionsarepresent,thisindividualisknownasoneendowedwithexperientialknowledge,andthecorrespondingspiritualstateisthatofexperientialknowledge.Ingeneral,thelevelofma'rifawillbecommensuratewiththedegreetowhichtheindividualhaspartedcompanywiththeego-soul.

Shaykhswhohavediscoursedonexperientialknowledgehavedonesointermsoftheirownexperienceandhavealludedtoindividualecstaticexperiencerelatedtoaparticularmysticalmoment.[343]IheardmyteacherAbu'Aliad-Daggaqsay,"AmongthecharacteristicsofexperientialknowledgeofGodisarrivalataweinGod'spresence,sothatasone'sexperientialknowledgeincreases,sodoesone'sawe."Iheardhimsayfurther,"Aconcomitantofexperientialknowledgeistranquilityofheart,muchastraditionalknowledgebringscontentment;asone'sexperientialknowledgeincreases,sodoesone'stranquility."Shiblisaid,'"Thereisnoattachmentforoneendowedwithintimateknowledge,nocomplaintforalover,noclaimforaservantonthemaster,norespiteforonewhofearsGod,andnoeludingGodforanyone."Shiblisaid,'whensomeoneaskedhimaboutmwrifa,"ThefirstofitisGod,andtherestofitisendless."

AbuHafs(al-Haddad)said,'"SinceIhaveknownGodexperientiallyneithertruthnorfalsehoodhasenteredmyheart."WhatAbuHafshassaidhereisabitproblematical,butthegistofitseemstobethis:Sufisbelievethatexperientialknowledgepresupposesthatthegodservant,possessedbytheremembranceofGod,hastakenleaveoftheego-soulandneithertakesaccountofnorhas

recoursetoanythingotherthanGod.Anintelligentpersonappealstohisheart,withitsreflectiveandrecollectivecapabilitieswithrespecttomattersofconcerntohimoraspiritualstatehemightfindhimselfin.Similarly,themysticappealstohisLord,andwhenanindividualistotallyabsorbedwithhisLord,hedoesnotrefertheissuetohisheart.Forthatmatter,howcananyconcernentertheheartofapersonwhohasnoheart?HereinliesthedifferencebetweenapersonwholivesthroughhisheartandonewholivesthroughhisLord.SomeoneaskedAbuYazidaboutexperientialknowledge,andhereplied,citingtheQur'an,"Whenkingsinvadeacountry,theyplunderitandreduceitsmostnoblepeopletoitsbasest"(27:34).AnditistothisthatAbuHafsisalluding.

AbuYazidsaid,"Humanbeingsexperiencespiritualstates,butthemysticdoesnot,forthelatter'sindividualcharacteristicsareobliterated.Theperson'sindividualityhasbeentransplantedintotheindividualityofanother,andhisfeatureshavedepartedandbeenreplacedbythoseofanother."Wasitisaid,"Ma`rifaisweaksolongasthegodservantdependson,andisinneedof,God."Wasitimeansherethatneedanddependenceareamongthecharacteristicsofagodservant'ssobrietyandresidualindividuality,fortheyareattributesoftheperson.Oneendowedwithexperientialknowledge,ontheotherhand,disappearsinthatexperientialknowledge.How,then,couldsuchaperson'sma'rifabeintactsolongastheindividualistotallyinvestedinGod'sexistenceorabsorbedinattendingtoGod?Forsuchapersonhasnotarrivedatexistence,cooptedasheisbywhatheperceivestobehisownattributes.Wasitihas,therefore,observedfurther,"OnewhoknowsGodintimatelyisisolated,infact,heisspeechlessandtotallysubdued."Muhammadsaid,[344]"IcannotpraiseyouThesecommentsrefertocharacteristicsofindividualswhosegoalisremote,butindividualswhohavesettheirsightslowerthanthathavediscoursedatlengthaboutexperientialknowledgeaswell.

Ahmadibn'Asimal-Antakisaid,'"Themoreperfectone'sexperientialknowledgeofGod,thegreaterone'sfearofGod."OneoftheSufishassaid,"OnewhoknowsGodintimatelyfindshisownongoingperdurancepainful,sothat,forallitsbreadth,thisworldbecomestoosmallforhim."Asayinghasit,"OnewhoknowsGodexperientiallyfindslivingcarefreeandlifeitselflovely;everythingthatexistsholdshiminawe,thefearofcreatedbeingsdepartsfromhim,andherelatesintimatelytoGod."Accordingtoanothersaying,"WhenapersonknowsGodexperientially,covetousnesswanes,sothathelivesbetween

self-denialandhedonism."Again,"Ma`rifaentailsshame,ontheonehand,andmagnifyingGod,ontheother,muchthewayacknowledgmentofGod'stranscendentunitypresupposescontentmentandsurrender."

Ruwaym10said,"Ma`rifaisamirrorforthemystic,forwhenhelooksintoit,hisMasterrevealsHimselftohim."ofEgyptsaid,"Thespiritsoftheprophetsracedontheopenfieldofexperientialknowledge,butthespiritofourProphetarrivedbeforethespiritsoftheotherprophetsatthegardenofunion."Healsosaid,"Themystic'srelationshipsareliketherelationshipsofGod,inthat,emulatingGod'sbehavior,hetoleratesandispatientwithyou."SomeoneaskedIbnYazdanyar,"AtwhatpointdoesthecontemplativewitnessGod?"Hereplied,"Whenthewitnesserappearsandtheobjectsofwitnessingvanish,thesensesfailandsinceritybecomesirrelevant."HusaynibnMansur(al-Hallaj)said,"Whenthegodservanthasarrivedatthestationofexperientialknowledge,Godrevealstohimthroughhiseverypassingspiritualimpulse,andprotectshisinmostbeingfromincursionbystraythoughtsofwhatisnotGod."Hesaidfurther,"OnewhoknowsGodexperientiallyischaracteristicallyunconcernedwitheitherthisworldorthenext."Sahlibn'AbdAllah(at-Tustari)said,"Thepinnacleofexperientialknowledgeinvolvestwothings:amazementandastonishment."

ofEgyptsaid,""ThosewhoknowGodmostintimatelyaretheywhoseastonishmentathimisthemostintense."[345]AmansaidtoJunayd,'2"Someofthemysticssaythatrefrainingfromexternalactivitiesispartofdevotionandpiety."Junaydreplied,"Thisisanopinionofpeoplewhoarguethatoneshoulddiscountactions-alargemistake,inmyview.Thievesandadulterersenjoyabetterspiritualstatethanthosewhosaythat,forthosewhoknowGodexperientiallygettheirdeedsfromGodandreturntoGodthroughthem.ShouldIliveathousandyears,Iwouldnotdiminishmydeedsofdevotionbythemerestparticle."

SomeoneaskedAbuYazid(al-Bistami),"Howdidyouachievethisintimateawareness?"Hereplied,"Withafamishedbellyandabarebody."AbuYalquban-Nahrajuri(d.330/941-42)said,"IaskedAbuYalqubas-Susi(latethird/ninthcentury),`DoesthemysticfeelregretoveranythingotherthanGod?'Heresponded,`AnddoeshetakenoticeofanythingotherthanGodoverwhichhemightexperienceregret?'SoI(Nahrajuri)asked,`Thenwithwhicheyedoesthemysticregardthings?'Heanswered,`Withtheeyeofannihilationandfinitude."'

AbuYazid(al-Bistami)said,"Themysticflies,theasceticwalks."Asayinghasitthat"whilethemystic'seyeweeps,hisheartlaughs."SaidJunayd,"Amystichasnottrulyattainedexperientialknowledgeuntilhebecomesliketheearth,onwhichwalkthedevoutaswellasthesinner;likethecloudsthatovershadoweverything;andliketherainthatwaterswhatitlovesaswellaswhatitdoesnot."YahyaibnMuladhsaid,"Themysticdepartsthisworldwithoutdoingasmuchasheoughtintwoareas:weepingoverhisego-soulandpraisinghisLord."AbuYazidsaid,"IndividualsattainexperientialknowledgebydivestingthemselvesofwhatbelongstothemandinvestingthemselvesinwhatbelongstoGod."

YUsufibn'Alisaid,""Amystichasnogenuineexperientialknowledgeuntil,ifsomeonegavehimthelikesofthekingdomofSolomon,itwouldnotdistracthimforaninstant."Ibn'Ata'said,""Ma`rifarestsonthreepillars:awe,shame,andintimacy."SomeoneaskedDhu`n-Nunal-Misri,15"BywhatmeansdidyoucometoexperientialknowledgeofyourLord?"Hereplied,"IknowmyLordintimatelythroughmyLord,andwereitnotformyLord,IwouldhavenoexperientialknowledgeofmyLord."Accordingtoasaying,"Oneimitatesareligiousscholar,butonereceivesguidancefromamystic."Shiblisaid,"OnewhopossessesexperientialknowledgenoticesnothingotherthanGod,expresseshimselfwiththespeechofnoneotherthanGod,andknowsofnonewhocanprotecthimotherthanGod."

[346]Itissaid:"ThemysticexperiencesintimacythroughtherecollectionofGod,soGodcauseshimtofeellonelyinthemidstofGod'screatures;heneedsGod,soGodreduceshisneedofHiscreatures;andhehumbleshimselfbeforeGod,soGodexaltshimaboveHiscreation."Abu`t-Tayyibas-Samarrisaid,"Ma`rifaistheTruth'sarisinglikethesunovertheinmostbeinginuninterruptedillumination."Someonehassaid,"Themystictranscendshiswords,whilethereligiousscholarfallsshortofhis."AbuSulaymanad-Daranisaid,"GodrevealstothemysticduringsleepthingsHedoesnotrevealtoothersevenwhiletheyperformtheritualprayer."Junaydobserved,"Themysticisonewhospeaksthetruthfromhisinmostbeingevenwhenhesaysnothing."Dhu`n-Nunsaid,"Thereisapunishmentforeverycreatedthing;forthemystic,itisbeingdisconnectedfromtheremembranceofGod."

Ruwaymobserved,16"Thehypocrisyofthoseendowedwithintimate

knowledgeismoreexcellentthanthesincerityofbeginnersonthespiritualpath."AbuBakral-Warraqsaid,"Mostusefulisthemystic'ssilence,whilehisspeechismostpleasinganddelightful."SaidDhu`n-Nun,"Theasceticsmaybethekingsofthenextlife,butbycontrasttothemysticstheyaredestitute."SomeoneaskedJunaydabouttheindividualendowedwithexperientialknowledgeandhereplied,"Thecolorofwateristhatofitscontainer"-inotherwords,themystic'sconditiondependsonhismysticalmoment.WhensomeoneaskedAbuYazidaboutthemystic,heanswered,"IndreamsheseesonlyGod;whileawake,onlyGod;heconformshimselftononebutGod,andtoGodalonedoeshelookexpectantly."

Someoneaskedashaykh,""HowdidyoucometoknowGodexperientially?"Heanswered,"Throughalightflashthatsparksfromthetongueofapersonremovedfromaccustomedmodesofperception,andthroughanarticulationthatflowsfromthetongueofapersonwhoisasgoodasdead."Healludesheretoanapparentexperienceofecstasyanddisclosesanarcanemystery:Theindividualishimselfinrelationtowhathedivulgesbutnothimselfinrelationtowhatheleavesambiguous.Thentheshaykhrecitedtheseverses:

SomeoneaskedAbuTurab(an-Nakhshabi)todescribeamystic,andhesaid,18"Onewhomnothingcansully,andthroughwhomeverythingbecomespure."AccordingtoMuhammadibnal-Husayn,Abusaid,"Theindividualendowedwithexperientialknowledgeisoneforwhomthelightsofknowledgeareresplendent,facilitatinghisvisionofwondersoftheunseenworld."IheardmyteacherAbu'Aliad-Daggaqsay,"Thepersonendowedwithexperientialknowledgeisengulfedintheseasoffullrealization,accordingtooneSufi'ssaying,`Ma`rifaisrollingswellsthatraiseandlower."'[347]SomeoneaskedYahyaibnMuladhtodescribeamystic,soheresponded,"Anindividualwho

eveninthemidstofcreatedthingsdistanceshimselffromthem."Andanothertimeheansweredthequestionbysaying,"Onewhoseveryexistenceisseparation."

AccordingtoDhu`n-Nun,"Distinguishingfeaturesofthemysticarethesethree:thelightofhisexperientialknowledgedoesnotwashoutthelightofhisspiritualreticence;hegivesnocredencetoanyaspectofinwardknowledgethatwouldrunafoulofanoutwardstatute;andthelargesseofGod'sgracestohimdoesnotimpelhimtopullbacktheveilsovertheinnersanctumofGod."Someonehassaid,"Onewhodescribedexperientialknowledgetothechildrenofthenextworldwouldnotbeatruemystic;howmuchthelesswerehetodosoamongthechildrenofthisworld!"AbuSaidal-Kharrazobserved,"Marifaistheresultofatearfuleyeandacommitmenttoself-discipline."SomeoneaskedJunayd20aboutacommentofDhU`n-Nundescribingthemysticas"onewhowashereandthenleft,"andJunaydreplied,"Thecurrentspiritualstateofoneendowedwithexperientialknowledgedoesnotrestricthimtoonestate,nordoeshiscurrentspiritualrestingplaceveilhimfromresettlingintoothers.Heisthereforepresenttotheinhabitantsofeveryplaceasifhewereoneofthem,participatinginlifemuchastheyliveit,andspeakinginawaytheywillunderstandandfindhelpful."

Muhammadibnal-Fadlsaid,'"Marifaistheheart'slifewithGod."Someoneasked22AbuSaidal-Kharraz,"Doesthepersonendowedwithexperientialknowledgecometoaspiritualstateinwhichhistearsarepermanentlydriedup?"Hereplied,"Yes,forweepingisappropriatetothespiritualcircumstancesoftheirjourneytowardGod.Then,whentheystoptorestinthespiritualrealitiesofproximitytoGodandsavorthetasteofarrival,byGod'skindness,thentearscease."

Here,fromAnsara'stwoshortpedagogicaltexts,arebriefdescriptions,firstoffilmandthenofma`rifa.TheyaresetsidebysidetogiveasenseofhowhedevelopedhisunderstandingofthetwoconceptsintheperiodbetweenthePersianandtheArabicworksinquestion.InthePersiantext,Ansarilocatesfilmatnumberseventy-one,justafter,andarisingoutof,solitude.HebeginsbyquotingtheQur'anandthendescribesthe'field"ingreaterdetail.

"Andonlythosewhopossessknowledgeunderstandtheparables"(29:43).11misknowledgeandithasthreedivisions:knowledgederivingfrominferentialdeduction,knowledgederivingfrominstruction,andknowledgederivingfromthedivinepresence.Asforknowledgederivingfrominferentialdeduction,itisthefruitofintellects,theconsequenceofexperience,anditassistsindiscrimination,forhumanbeingsareennobledbythatindistinctivelevels.KnowledgederivingfrominstructionresultswhenhumanbeingsreceiveamessagedeliveredfromGodandlearnfromteachersbymeansofpedagogy.Thoseendowedwiththatknowledgearerareinthetwoworlds.Finally,knowledgederivingfromthedivinepresenceisofthreekinds:oneformof

knowledgeiswisdomconcerningGod'screativework,andonegainsfamiliaritywithitthroughdivinesigns;thesecondformisknowledgeofspiritualrealityinthecourseofdevotionaldealingswithGodasfoundincertainsigns;andthethirdisknowledgeofGod'sjudgmentreceivedfromGodthroughthevisionoftheunseenworld.ThelastistheprerogativeofKhidr.'

InRestingPlaces,filmislocated,andthereforefunctions,differently.Inthesixthofhistenclustersof"restingplaces,"called"theValleys,"Ansaraplacesfilmsecondamongtheten(thatis,numberfifty-two),afterspiritualityandbeforewisdom,insight,discernment,awe,inspiration,repose,tranquility,andpreoccupation.HisArabicdescriptionoffilmbeginswithasacredtextthatalludestoKhidr,"AndwhomWehadendowedwithfilmfromour(divine)presence"(18:65)andcontinues:

'Ilmrestsuponproofandremovesignorance.Itconsistsofthreelevels:Thefirstlevelisclear,obviousknowledgearisingeitherfromdirecteyewitnessingoranauthenticdisclosureoragenuineexperienceoflongstanding.Thesecondlevelisacovertknowledgethatgerminatesinpuremysteriesfrominviolateseeds,thankstothewaterofsincerespiritualexercises.Itmanifestsitselfinthetruebreathingsofthepeopleofloftyaspiration,intimesofspiritualfreedom,inattentiveears.Itisaknowledgethatmakespresentthatwhichisabsent,rendersabsenttheonewhowitnesses,andpointstowardunion.Andthethirdlevelisaknowledgefromthedivinepresence,(aknowledge)whosecorroborationisitsbeingfound,theperceptionofwhichisthedirectexperienceofit,whosedescriptionisitsjudgment;andthereisnoveilbetweenitandtheunseen.'

InthePersianFields,Ansariplacesma`rifa(t)inseventyfifthplace,arisingoutofwisdom.Again,hebeginswithaQur'anictextandexpands:

"YouwillseetheireyesoverflowwithtearsbecauseoftheexperientialknowledgetheyhavereceivedfromGod"(5:86).Ma`rifaisaformofknowledgeofwhichtherearethreedoorsandthreelevels,asfollows:Thefirstofitsdoorsisknowledgeofthedivineexistenceandunity,andthedivinity'sdissimilaritytoanythingelse.Thesecondisknowledgeofthedivineomnipotence,omniscience,andlargesse.Andthethirdisknowledgeofgooddeeds,friendship,andintimacy.Ma`rifaofthefirstsortisthedoortotheedificeofIslam;thatofthesecond,totheedificeoffaith;andthatofthethird,totheedificeofsincerity.TheroadtowardthefirstdoorconsistsinthevisionoftheCreator'sarrangement

ofthedisclosureandconcealmentofthefabricationsofhumanbeings.ThewaytotheseconddoorconsistsinobservingthewisdomoftheCreatorinsuchawayastorecognizeotherprominentexamplesofthatwisdom.AndthewaytothethirddoorconsistsinobservingthegraciousnessoftheMasterinacknowledginggoodworksanddisregardingoffenses.Thislastdooristhefieldofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge,thealchemyoflovers.Itisthepathoftheelect,thepathbywhichtheheartisadorned,bywhichjoyisenhancedandaffectionexpanded.'

InthefullertreatmentoftheArabicRestingPlaces,Ansartsetsma`rifainfirstplaceinthetenthcluster,thatof"finaldestinations."Itisfollowedbyannihilation,perdurance,fullrealization,concealment,finding,castingaside,isolation,union(orpurefocus),andacknowledgingthedivinetranscendentunity.HebeginswithafullercitationofthesameQur'anicverseandthenproceedstohisanalysisofthetripartitesignificanceoftheconcept.

"WhentheyhearwhathasbeensentdowntotheMessenger,youwillseetheireyesoverflowwithtearsbecauseoftheirintimateexperienceofthetruth"(5:86).Ma`rifaisthecomprehensionoftheessenceofathingasitis.Ithasthreelevelsandhumanbeingsaredividedintothreecategoriesinrelationtoit.ThefirstlevelisintimateknowledgeofthedivineattributesandcharacteristicswhosenamesweremadeavailablethroughthePropheticoffice.Evidencesofitaremanifestincreationthroughthespiritualinsightaffordedbythelightthatsupersedesmystery,andthroughthegoodnessofthelifeoftheintellectinsowingtheseedsofthought,andthelifeoftheheartthroughtheproprietyofitsdistinguishingbetweenmagnifyingGodandundividedattention.Thisisordinaryma'rifaapartfromwhichthebondsofcertitudecannotbetiedtogether,anditrestsonthreefoundations.Thefirstofthemistheaffirmationofadivineattributeaccordingtoitsnamewithoutpositinganthropomorphism;second,thenegationofanthropomorphismwithoutdenyingthedivineattributes;andthird,despairofattainingitsfullrealityorofseekingitsinnerinterpretation.

Thesecondlevelisintimateknowledgeofthedivineessence,togetherwiththeeliminationofadistinctionbetweendivineattributesandessence.Itgerminatesintheknowledgeofunion,waxesluxuriantinthefieldofannihilation,attainscompletenessintheknowledgeofabiding,andarrivesattheloftystatusoftheessenceofunion.Itrestsonthreefoundations:thesendingof

thedivineattributesintheformoftestimonies;thesendingofmeansintheformofthevariousstagesofthepath;andthesendingofexplanationsofthewaymarkers.Thisisthemwrifaoftheelect,bywhichonebecomesfamiliarwiththehorizonoftheultimatespiritualreality.

Thethirdlevelismwrifathatisimmersedinunalloyedcommunicationofexperientialknowledge.Deductiveinferencecannotattainit,nordoesevidencepointtoit,norcananymethodrealizeitfully.Itrestsonthreefoundations:contemplationofproximitytoGod;transcendingknowledge;andtherealizationofunion.Thisistheintimateknowledgeoftheelectoftheelect.'

Inhisnext"restingplace,"thatofannihilation,Ansaraexplainsthatthefirstannihilationisthatofma`rifainthatwhichisknown(ma`ruf),andheglossesthatas"annihilationwithrespecttoFilm."5

Book21ofthefortymajordivisionsofGhazali'sRevitalizationoftheReligiousDisciplines,called"TheElaborationoftheMarvelsoftheHeart,"sets.forththeessentialsoftheimam'spsychologyandoftheepistemologythatundergirdshismysticaltheology.Infifteen"clarifications"orexpositions(bayan),Ghazalibeginswithabroadercontextualdescriptionoftheprincipalinternalorspiritualhumanfaculties-ego-soul(nafs),spirit(ruh),intellect(lagl),andheart(galb).Recallingtheconcernsofearlierauthors,suchasSarrajandKalabadhi,todistinguishSufiusagefromthatoftheotherreligiousdisciplines,Ghazaliobservesthatreligiousscholarsgenerallypossessonlyatruncatedunderstandingofthefullsignificanceoftheseterms,inthattheytypicallythinkofthemonlyintheiroutwardmeanings.Hispurposehereistopointoutbothoutwardandinwardaspectsofthesefaculties,emphasizingthecentralityofthelatterforspiritualdevelopment.

Movingquicklytofocusontheheart,whosemountisthebodyandwhoseprovisionforthejourneyisfilm,Ghazaladevotessectionstwoandthreetoamoredetaileddescriptionofthefunctionsoftheheartastheinner

battlegroundofthehumanstruggle.Heartisassistedbyits"soldiers,"theinternalpowersofappetiteordesire(including,forexample,irascibilityandotheraspectsofmotivation),thecapabilityofacquisitionortakingactiononwhatitdesiresorfears,andperception(idrak).Insections4and5,Ghazalafocusesstillmoresharplyonthedistinctivelyhumanqualitiesoftheheart,particularlyonthetwocharacteristicsthatdistinguishhumansfromanimals:knowledgeandwill.InClarification4heobservesthatfilminthiscontextreferstoknowledgeoftruthsaboutboththisworldandthenextthattranscendmeresense-awareness.

Allmaturehumanbeingsgainknowledgefromexperience,butthereisinadditionamoreadvancedleveloflearningwhosesourceisbeyondordinaryexperience,andthatincludesvarietiesofdivineinspirationandrevelationavailableonlytothemostadvanced(suchasProphetsandFriendsofGod).Mosthumanbeingscanarriveataninwardfilmthatencompassestheirpresentandpastspiritualstatesbutdoesnotextendforward.AndthehighestformofknowledgeavailabletomostpeopleisthatofGod'sattributes.Then,insectionfive,Ghazalisumsupthebalanceofthepositiveandnegativepotentialoftheheartasrepresentedbyitspredatory,animal,diabolical,anddivinequalities,symbolizedrespectivelybythepig,dog,devil,andwiseperson.

Whatfollowsherearethekeyepistemologicalsections(6,7,9,and10)ofBook21notcurrentlyavailableinMcCarthy's,oranyother,Englishtranslation.'Evertheconsummatepedagogue,Ghazalasayshewillmakeuseofimagestocommunicateasubjectthatmostpeoplewouldotherwisefindtoodaunting.

[14]Clarification6:Thelikenessoftheheart,particularlyinrelationtothereligiousdisciplines

Knowthatthedwellingplaceof`ilmistheheart.Iamreferringtothesubtlefacultythatgovernsallthelimbs,andwhichallofthemembersobeyandserve.Itsrelationshiptothetruenaturesofthingsknownislikethatofamirrortoevanescentimages.Justastheevanescentimageandthelikenessofthisimageareimprinteduponthemirrorandappearthere,soeverythingknownhasatruenaturewhoseimageisimprinteduponthemirroroftheheartandbecomesvisiblethere.Andjustasthemirrorisadistinctitem,andtheimagesofpersons

areaseparateitem,andtheoccurrenceoftheirlikenessuponthemirrorstillanother,sothatitisaquestionofthreedistinctitems,sothethreeinthisinstanceare,specifically,theheart,thetruenaturesofthings,andtheoccurrenceofthosetruenaturesintheheartandtheirpresencethere.Thetermknowerisareferencetotheheartinwhichthelikenessofthetruenaturesofthingsdwell,whilethatwhichisknownreferstothetruenaturesofthings,andknowledgereferstotheoccurrenceofthelikenessesinthemirror.

Justasintheactofgrasping,thatwhichdoesthegraspingislikethehand,andthatwhichisgraspedislikethesword,andthe"reception"thatcharacterizestherelationshipbetweenswordandhandresultingfromthehand'stakingtheswordisknownasgrasping-sotheheart'sreceptionofthelikenessofthethingknowniscalledknowledge.Nowthetruenatureofathingexists,asdoestheheart,evenwhenknowledgeisnotinprogress,forknowledgereferstotheoccurrenceofthetruthintheheart.Similarly,boththeswordandthehandexistindependentlyevenwhenonedoesnotspeakoftheoccurrenceofgraspingandseizingwhenthereisnoswordinthehand.Onemustnotethat"grasping"referstothepresenceofthesworditselfinthehand,whereasthatwhichisknowndoesnotitselfenterintotheheart.So,forexample,fireitselfdoesnotenterintotheheartofonewhoknowsfire;instead,whatentersthereisitsdefinitionandthetruenatureofitthatiscongruentwithitsimage.Thecreationofitslikenessinthemirror,therefore,isfundamental,fortheindividualpersonassuchdoesnotenterintothemirror-onlythelikenessthatiscongruentwiththepersondoesso.Thatishowthepresenceintheheartofalikenesscongruentwiththetruenatureofthethingknowniscalled`ilm.

Therearefiveconditionsunderwhichanimageisnotrevealedinamirror:

[15]First,deficiencyinitsreflectivecapabilitywhenitisrawiron,beforeitisrounded,trimmed,andburnished.

Second,thepresenceofablemish,rust,ortarnish,evenifitisperfectlyshaped.

Third,itsbeingdeflectedawayfromfacingtheimageandtowardsomethingelse,aswhentheimageisbehindthemirror.

Fourth,theinterpositionofaveilbetweenthemirrorandtheimage.

Andfifth,ignorancewithrespecttowherethedesiredimageis,sothatonebecomesunabletoorientthemirrordirectlytowardtheimage.

Theheart,too,functionsasamirrorsubjecttoalloftheselimitations,inthattheessentialnatureoftheTruthisrevealedinit,eventhoughheartsmayattimesbedevoidofknowledge,forthefollowingfivereasons:

First,aninherentdeficiency,asintheinstanceoftheheartofachildtowhichthingsknownarenotrevealedbecauseofitsundevelopedstate.

Second,thetarnishofsinsandtheimperfectionsthathaveaccumulatedonthefaceoftheheartasaresultofamultitudeofcravings,robbingtheheartofitspurityandclarity,sothattheefflorescenceofthetruthinitisforeclosedbyitsdarknessanditsaccretionofblemishes.TheProphetalludestothatwhenhesays,"Whenapersonyieldstosin,understandingwithdrawsfromhimnevertoreturn."Inotherwords,tarnishsettlesontheindividual'sheartanditstracesdonotdisappear.Supposethatitistheindividual'sintentiontopursue(understanding)withsomepositiveactionbywhichtoruboff(thetarnish).If,atthatpoint,hebringsagoodacttobearuponitthatisnotoffsetbyanevilact,thentherewillsurelybeanincreaseofilluminationintheheart.Butwhenanevilacttakesprecedence,thebenefitofagooddeediscanceledoutbuttheheartrevertstherebytotheconditioninwhichitwaspriortotheevilact.Asaresult,lightdoesnotincreaseintheheart.Thisisanobviousdeteriorationanddiminishmentforwhichthereisnoremedy.Butcannotthemirrorthathasbeensulliedthenbepolishedbyburnishing,thewayoneispolishedbyburnishingtoincreaseitsclaritybeyonditsformersulliedcondition?Itis,then,theconcernforobediencetoGodandturningawayfromtheimportunitiesofthepassionsthatclarifiesandpurifiestheheart.OnthatpointGodhassaid,"ThosewhostruggleonOurbehalfWewillsurelyguidetoOurways"(29:69),andtheProphetsaid,"Toanyonewhoactsuponwhatheknows,Godbequeathsasaninheritanceknowledgeofwhathehadnotknown."

Third,theheartmightbedeflectedfromthedirectionofthespiritualrealitythatoneseeks,soeveniftheheartofanobedientanduprightpersonispure,theeffulgenceoftheTruthmightnotshineforthinitsinceitisnotseekingtheTruthanditsmirrorisnotorientedintherequisitedirection.Indeed,anxietyoverfulfillingspecificnecessarybodilydeedsorsecuringmeansoflivelihoodoftenintrudes.Theindividualdoesnotturnhisthoughtstowardfull

attentivenesstotheLordlypresenceandthehiddendivinetruths.Onlytheminutiaeofthedeleteriousactionsandsecretfaultsoftheego-selfuponwhichtheindividualreflectsarerevealedtotheindividualasheisreflectinguponthem,ortheexigenciesofmakingalivelihoodwhenheisreflectingonthem.Nowifpreoccupationwithactionsandthedetailsofordinarycompliancewithlife'sdemandscanrestrictdisclosureoftheTruth'seffulgence,howdoyouthinkapersonwhoturnshisconcerntowardworldlycravingsandpleasuresandattachmentscouldbutmissoutondisclosureofthetruth?

Fourth,thereistheveil.Itmaybethatanobedientheartthatisvictoriousoveritscravingsandhasdedicateditsthoughtsexclusivelytooneaspectoftheultimaterealitystillexperiencesnorevelationbecauseitisveiledfromitbyadherencetoimmatureviewsarisingfromunquestioningacceptanceofauthorityandconcernforgoodrepute.ThatconditionmayintervenebetweentheindividualandtherealityoftheTruth,sothattheincongruityofwhathehaslatchedontofromtheoutwardmeaningsaffordedbyuncriticalassentpreventsdisclosureinhisheart.Thisis,inaddition,agreatveilthatveilscountlessspeculativetheologiansandpartisansofthevariousschoolsoflegalmethodology.Indeed,manyuprightindividualswhoreflectontherealmsofheavenandearthareveiledbyvarietiesofadherencetouncriticalassentthatcongealintheirsoulsandtakedeeprootintheirhearts,sothataveilcomesbetweenthemandtheperceptionofrealities.

Fifthcomesignorancewithrespecttothesourceofdiscoveryofthatwhichoneseeks.Thepersonwhoseeks`ilmcannotattainknowledge[16]oftheunknownexceptthroughmindfulnessofthedisciplinesthattogetherbearuponthatwhichheseeks,tosuchanextentthathereflectsonthemandcoordinatestheminternallywithaspecificorderingthatreligiousscholarsrecognizefromtheirperspective.Whenthatoccurs,theindividualhitsuponthedirectionoftheobjectofthequest,sothatitsspiritualrealityismanifesttohisheart.Butonecannotavailoneselfofthedesiredformsofknowledge,whicharenotinnate,exceptthroughthematrixofthesumtotalofthesciences.Infact,onecannotattainanyknowledgeexceptbylinkingtogetherasapairtwopreviouslyknownspecificbitsofknowledge.Onthebasisoftheirpairing,oneattainsathirdbitofknowledge,muchthewayabroodofyounganimalscomesaboutasaresultoftheconjoiningofthemaleandfemaleofthespecies.Then,justaswhenonewishestoproduceamareandcannotdosofromajackassoracamelorahuman

being,butonlyfromthespecificstockofthemaleandfemalehorse,andthatonlywiththespecificconjoiningofthetwo,soeverycognitionhastwospecificsourcesthataremeanttobepairedandfromwhoseconjunctionthedesiredbeneficialknowledgecomesabout.

Ignoranceastothenatureoftheconjunctionofthesesourcesisanobstacletoknowledge.Ihavealreadyalludedtoananalogytothisinrelationtoignoranceofthedirectioninwhichtheimagelies.Theanalogyisthis:Supposetheindividualwantstoseeareflectionofthebackofhisheadinthemirror.Ifheraisesthemirroroppositehisface,itisnotorientedtowardthebackofhishead,andasaresulthedoesnotseethebackofhisheadinit.Ifhethenraisesitbehindandoppositethebackofhishead,hehasturnedthemirrorawayfromhiseyesothathedoesnotseethemirrorortheimageofthebackofhisheadinit.Theindividualmustthereforehavesomeoneelseholdamirrorupbehindthebackofhishead,whilethefirstmirrorisinfrontwheretheindividualcanseeit.Bymaintainingajuxtapositionofthetwomirrors,then,theimageofthebackofhisheadisimprinteduponthemirrororientedtowardthebackofhishead.Thentheimageinthisrearmirroristransferredtotheothermirrorthatisbeforetheeye,andtheeyeperceivestheimageofthebackofthehead.Similarly,therefore,inthecourseofavailingoneselfofthesciencestherearewondrouspathsalongwhichtherearedeviationsanddetoursevenstrangerthanwhatIhavementionedoccuronthemirror.Peoplecapableofdiscerningawaybeyondthesedeviationsarescarcelytobefoundanywhereonearth.Thesethenarethecausesthatpreventheartsfromtheintimateknowledgeofthetruenaturesofthings.

Ontheotherhand,everyheartisnaturallydisposedtoexperientialknowledgeofspiritualrealities,foritisadivineexaltedchargethatdistinguishes(humankind)fromtheotherelementsoftheuniversethroughthisuniquenessandnobility.ThewordofGodalludestothis,"Wedidofferthetrusttotheheavensandtheearthandthemountains,buttheydeclinedtobearit,fortheyfearedit,butthehumanbeingundertookit"(33:72).Thisindicatesthathumanbeingspossessauniquecharacteristicthatdistinguishesthemfromtheheavensandtheearthandthemountains,thatrendersthemcapableofundertakingthetrustofGod.Thistrustisexperientialknowledgeandtheacknowledgmentofthedivinetranscendentunity,andtheheartofeveryhumanbeingispreparedforundertakingthetrustandinherentlycapableofit.However,theconditionsIhave

beendiscussingimpedeitfromassumingitsburdensandattainingthefullrealizationofit.ItwasonthisaccountthatMuhammadsaid,"Everyonebegottenisbornwithanaturalinclination,thoughhisparentsmakehimaJeworaChristianorMagian."AndthewordsofGod'sMessenger,"IfthedevilsdidnotswarmabouttheheartsofthechildrenofAdam,theywouldlooktowardthekingdomoftheheavens,"arealludingtooneoftheseconditionsthatstandasaveilbetweenhumanheartsandthekingdomofheaven.

AnotherallusiontothisisatraditionwehavereceivedfromIbn`Umar:SomeoneaskedGod'sMessenger,"0MessengerofGod,whereisGod-onearthorinheaven?"Hereplied,"Intheheartsofhisfaithfulservants."AndinasacredHadith,Godsaid,"NeithertheearthnortheheavensarewideenoughforMe,butthereisroomforMeinthegentle,meekheartofmyfaithfulservant."Andaccordingtoareport,someoneasked,"0MessengerofGod,whoisthebestperson?"Heanswered,"Everybelieverwhoseheartissweptclean."Someoneasked,"Andwhatisitthatsweepstheheartclean?"Heanswered,"Itisthepietyandpurityinwhichthereisneitherdeceitnorinjusticenorbetrayalnorenvy."Itwasinthisconnectionthat`Umarsaid,"MyheartseesmyLord,"forhehadliftedtheveilthroughpiety.Andwhen[17]theveilhasbeenliftedbetweenanindividualandGod,theimageoftheKingandtheDominionismanifestinthatperson'sheart,sothatheseesaGardensoexpansivethatitcontainsHeavenandearth.Thewholeofitiswiderthantheheavensandtheearthbecause"Heavenandearth"isanexpressionfortherealmofearthlysovereigntyandwitnessingthroughthesenses.Evenifthebreadthofitslimitsweretoexceedallbounds,itwouldstillcometoanendafterall.ButtherealmofLordlyDominioncomprisesmysteries,hiddenfromthesightofeyes,thatarereservedfortheperceptionoftheinwardvisionandtowhichthereisnoend.Howfortunatetheheartthatreceivesevenafleetingglimpseofthatrealm,thoughitis,initselfandinrelationtotheknowledgeofGod,limitless!

Ifyoutookitinallatonetime,youwouldcallthecombinationoftherealmoftheearthlysovereigntyandtheLordlyDominiontheLordlyPresence:TheLordlyPresenceencompassesallexistentthingssincenothingexistsapartfromGodandHisactions.HiskingdomandHisservantsaretheresultsofHisactions,andwhatismanifesttotheheartfromthat,is,accordingtotheSufis,theGarden,and,accordingtothepeopleofTruth,ameansofrealizingtheGarden.ThebreadthofHiskingdomintheGardeniscommensuratewiththebreadthof

experientialknowledgeofHimandisproportionatetowhatismanifesttotheindividualconcerningGodandHisattributesanddeeds.Tobesure,thedesiredresultofdeedsofobedienceandtheactionsofallthebodilylimbsisthepurification,cleansing,andpolishingoftheheart:"Onewhopurifiesitissuccessful"(91:9).Thedesiredresultofitspurificationisthedescentofthelightsoffaithintoit,bywhichImeantheilluminationofthelightofexperientialknowledge.ThatisthegoalaccordingtothewordsoftheMostHigh,"WhenGoddesirestoguideaperson,Heexpandsthecenterofthatperson'sbeingtowardsurrender(islam)"(6:125)and"Doesnotaperson,thecenterofwhosebeingGodhasexpanded,havethelightofhisLord?"(39:22).

Howwonderfulisthismanifestationandthisfaith!Ithasthreedegrees:Thefirstdegreeisthefaithofthegeneralityofpeople,thefaithofsimpleuncriticalacceptanceofauthority.Thesecondisthefaithofthespeculativetheologians.Itisalloyedwithavarietyofdeductiveinference,anditrepresentsalevelclosetothatofthefaithofthegeneralityofpeople.Thethirdisthefaithofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge,anditinvolvescontemplatingwiththelightofcertitude.Letmeexplainthesedegreestoyoubymeansofathree-partanalogywithhowoneascertainsthatZaydisinsideahouse.

Thefirstisthatsomeonewhoseveracityyouhavecheckedout-andyouneitherknowhimtobeguiltyofmendacitynordoubtwhathesays-passesalongtoyounewsaboutZayd.Soyourheartisconfidentabouthimandtrustshisreportonthebasisofhearingalone.Thisbeliefisbasedpurelyonuncriticalacceptanceofauthorityandislikethefaithofthegeneralityofpeople:WhentheyarriveattheageofdiscriminationtheyhearfromtheirfathersandmothersabouttheexistenceofGodandHisknowledge,will,power,andotherattributes,andthesendingofthemessengers,andtheirveracity,andwhatGodrevealedtothem.Theyacceptwhattheyhear,dependuponit,andhaveconfidenceinit.Itneveroccurstothemtodisagreewithwhattheyhavebeentoldbecauseoftheirrespectfortheirfathers,mothers,andteachers.Thisfaithisthemeansofsalvationinthenextlife.ItsproponentsareamongtheforemostranksoftheCompanionsoftheRightHand,buttheyarenotamongthosewhodrawneartoGodbecausetheirfaithdoesnotencompasstherevelation,inwardvision,andexpansionofthecenterofone'sbeingthroughthelightofcertitude.

Errorispossibleinconnectionwithwhatonehearsfromanyone,evenwhenitisaquestionofnumerousindividuals'adherencetocreedalstatements.Sothe

heartsoftheJewsandChristiansaswellwereconfidentinwhattheyheardfromtheirfathersandmothers,buttheirbeliefinthattowhichtheyassentedwaserroneousbecausetheirparentshadpassedalongerroneousbelieftothem.TheMuslimsholdtothetruth,notasaresultoftheirstudyofit,butbecausethewordoftruthwasdeliveredtothem.

TheseconddegreeisthatyouhearZayd'sspeechandhisvoicefrominsideofthehouse,butfrombehindawall.Onthatbasis,then,youinferhisexistenceinthehouse.Yourfaith,verification,andcertitudeastohisexistenceinthehouseareinthisinstancestrongerthanyourverificationonthebasisofhearsayalone.If,therefore,someoneweretotellyouhewasinthehouse,andthenyouheardhisvoice,yourcertitudewouldbeincreasedbecausevoicesleadtheonewhohearsthevoicetoinfertheshapeandimageasifoneactuallywitnessedtheimage.Soyourheartmakesthejudgmentthatthisisthevoiceofthatperson.Thisfaithisalliedtoevidence,butherealsoonecanbeledintoerror.[18]Ifthevoiceissimilartoanothervoice,itcouldbemimicryemployedasaruse,butithasnotoccurredtothelistenerthathehasanygroundsforsuspicion,nordoeshesuspectthatthisinvolvesadeliberatedeceptionandruse.

ThethirddegreeisthatyouenterthehouseandlookatZaydwithyourowneyesandwitnesshimdirectly.Thisisauthenticexperientialknowledgeandcertainwitnessing,anditissimilartotheexperientialknowledgeofthosewhodrawneartoGodandthosewhoattesttothetruthbecausetheybelieveonthebasisofcontemplativevision.Ontheonehand,theirfaithisconsistentwiththefaithofthegeneralityofpeopleandofthespeculativetheologians,butontheother,theyaredifferentbyvirtueofthesuperiorityoftheevidentproofbywhichtheyeludethepossibilityoferror.

Inaddition,theydifferwithrespecttoboththescopeoftheirknowledgeandthelevelsofdisclosure.Asforthelevelsofdisclosure,ananalogywouldbethattheindividualseesZaydinthehousefromcloseproximityandinthecourtyardofthehouseasthesunilluminesit,sothathisperceptionofZaydiscomplete.Supposethat,bycontrast,anotherindividualperceivesZaydinaroomorfromadistanceorlaterintheevening.TheformresemblesZaydinsuchawaythatthevieweriscertainthatitisZayd,butthefinedetailsandhiddenfeaturesofhisimagearenotvisible.Withregardtodisparityastothescopeofknowledge,thefirstindividualseesZaydand'AmrandBakrandothersinthehouse,whiletheotherindividualseesonlyZayd.Thustheexperientialknowledgeofthefirst

personmostdefinitelyincreasesinproportiontothenumberofthingsknown.This,then,isthespiritualstateoftheheartinrelationtothevarietiesofknowledge,andGodknowsbestwhatiscorrect.

[18]Clarification7:Thestateoftheheartinrelationshiptothedivisionsofthescientificdisciplines-rational,religious,secular,andotherworldly

Knowthat,asalreadyindicated,theheartisnaturallydisposedtoreceivethetruenaturesofthingsknown,butthekindsofknowledgethatabideintheheartaredividedintotherationalandthedivinelyrevealed.Therationalisfurtherdividedintothenecessaryandtheacquired,andtheacquiredstillfurtherdifferentiatedintothethisworldlyandtheotherworldly.ByrationalknowledgeImeanthatwhichthenaturaldispositionoftheintellectcallsforandwhichisnotfoundinuncriticalacceptanceofauthorityandhearsay.Initsnecessaryaspecttheindividualdoesnotperceivewhenceorhowithascomeabout,aswhenanindividualknowsthatonepersoncannotexistintwoplacesandthatasinglethingcannotbesimultaneouslynewandold,orexistentandnonexistent.Doesnottheindividual,fromchildhoodon,findhimselfnaturallyendowedwiththeseformsofknowledgewithoutperceivingwhenorwhencetheycametohim?Imeanthatheperceivesnoproximatecauseforthem,otherwiseitwouldnotbehiddenfromhimthatitisGodwhocreatedhimandguideshim.

Asforacquiredformsofknowledge,theyarederivedfrominstructionanddeductiveinference,andbothofthetwoaspectsarecalledintellectualunderstanding.'Alisaid,

ThefirstaspectofintellectiswhattheProphethadinmindwhenhesaidto'Ali,"Godfashionednocreaturemorenoblethantheintellect."Hewasreferringtothesecondwhenhesaidto'Ali,"IfthepeopleapproachGodthroughallmanner

ofpiety,youdrawnearthroughyourintellect,"fordrawingneartoGodisnotpossiblethroughinnatedispositionornecessaryformsofknowledgebutthroughacquiredknowledge.

Thustheheartfunctionsmuchasdoestheeye,andthenaturaldispositionoftheintellectintheheartfunctionsmuchasdoesthepowerofvisionintheeye.Thepowerofvisionisasubtlefacultyofwhichtheblindpersonisbereftbutwhichispresentinthesightedperson,eveniftheeyesareclosedornighthasdescended.Theknowledgethatarisesfromthatpowerintheheartfunctionsmuchasdoestheperceptivepowerofsightintheeyeanditsvision[19]oftheessencesofthings.

Thelaggingofknowledgebehindtheeyeoftheintellectduringtheperiodofchildhoodonuptotheageofdiscriminationormaturityislikethelaggingofactualvisionbehindsightuntilthemomentofthesun'srisingandthefloodingofitslightuponthethingstowhichthepowerofsightisdirected.ThepenwithwhichGodinscribesthevarietiesofknowledgeuponthefoliosofheartsfunctionsmuchlikethediskofthesun.However,knowledgedoesnotariseintheheartofachildpriortotheageofdiscriminationbecausethetabletoftheheartisnotreadytoreceiveknowledgeitself.PenisanexpressionforoneofGod'screaturesthatHemadeameansforthearising,likethesun,oftheinscriptionofknowledgeupontheheartsofhumanbeings.Godsaid,"HewhotaughtbythePen,taughtthehumanbeingwhatheknewnot"(96:4-5).ThePenofGodisnotlikeacreatedpen,justasonecannotdescribeGodasonedescribesHiscreation;HisPenisnotmadeofreedorwood,evenastheMostHighhimselfisnotcomposedofsubstanceandaccident.

Thusthecomparisonbetweeninnerspiritualinsightandoutwardvisionisappropriatefromthisperspective,exceptthatthereisnocomparisonbetweenthetwowithrespecttonobility.Innerspiritualinsightistheeyeofthesoul,aperceptivefacultythatisliketheriderofahorse-thebody.Therider'sblindnessismoreharmfultotheriderthantheblindnessofthehorse,butthereisnoconnectionbetweenthedeficitoftheoneandthatoftheother.GodmadereferencetothecomparisonbetweeninwardspiritualinsightandoutwardvisionwhenHesaid,"Andtheheartdidnotlieastowhatitsaw"(53:11),referringtotheheart'sperceptionas"vision."Likewise,withHiswords,"AndwegaveAbrahamavisionofthekingdomsofheavenandearth"(6:75),Hewasnotreferringtooutwardvision,forthatwasnotconferredonAbrahamspecifically

inorderforhimtodisplaygratitude.ForthatreasonGodcalledtheoppositeofperceivingHimblindness,soHesaid,"Itisnottheireyes,buttheirheartsinthecenteroftheirbeingthatareblind"(22:46).AndtheMostHighsaid,"Thosewhoareblindherewillbeblindinthenextlifeandthemosterrantfromthepath"(17:72).This,then,clarifiesrationalknowledge.

Asforthevarietiesofreligiousknowledge,theyaregainedalongthewayofunquestioningacceptancefromtheProphets,andthatbeginswithinstructionintheBookofGodandtheSunnaofHisMessenger.Profoundcomprehensionofthemeaningsofthesetwosourcesgoesbeyondhearingandcomprisestheheart'sperfectionanditsfreedomfromillnessanddisease.Thevarietiesofrationalknowledge,therefore,arenotsufficientforthehealthoftheheart,thoughitdoeshaveneedofthem.Justso,theintellectisnotadequatetoensurethecontinuedsoundnessofthebody'soperations.Thatrequiresaspecializedawarenessofhealingremediesandmedicinesbywayofinstructionfromphysicians,sincetheintellectdoesnotnaturallyleadonetothem.Butfullcomprehensionofsuchinstructionuponhearingitisnotpossibleexceptthroughtheintellect,sotheintellectcannotdispensewithhearingandhearingcannotgetalongwithouttheintellect.Itisthusignorantfollyeithertoappealtosimpleacquiescencetoauthoritydetachedfromtheintellect,orassertthesolesufficiencyofintellectapartfromthelightsoftheQur'an.Youmustbecareful,therefore,nottooptsolelyforoneofthetwoelementsbutmust,rather,combinethetwoprinciples.

Thevarietiesofrationalknowledgearelikeformsofnourishment,andthevarietiesofdivinelyrevealedknowledgelikeremedies;thepersonwhoisillmustseeknourishmentwhenthemedicaltreatmentisover.Inthesameway,treatmentsofthemaladiesofheartscannotbedesignedexceptwiththemedicamentsavailablefromthedivinelyRevealedLaw,namely,dailydosesofworshipandthedeedsinwhichtheprophetsengagedforthewelfareofhearts.Anyonewhodoesnottreathisailingheartwiththeregimenofdivinelyordainedworship,relyinginsteadentirelyonthevariousformsofrationalknowledge,willneedtohaverecoursetoworshipthewayasickpersonneedsnourishment.Thenotionthatthevarietiesofrationalknowledgearecontradictorytothevarietiesofdivinelyrevealedknowledge,andthatthereisnopossibilityofcombiningthetwo,isanotionthatoriginatesfromblindnessintheeyeofspiritualinsight,andfromthatwetakerefugeinGod.

Onewhomakessuchanassertionmaywellthinkthatsomedivinelyrevealed

knowledgeisatoddswithotheraspectsofknowledgeandthusmaybeunabletointegratethem.Consideringthatincompatiblewithreligion,theindividualbecomesconfusedaboutitandslipsawaygraduallyandimperceptibly.Thatisonlybecausetheindividual'spersonalincapacityappearstohimasareligiousconflictandasourceofconfusion.Suchanindividualisliketheblindpersonwhoenterssomeone'shouse,knocksoversomehouseholdvessels,andsays,"What'sgoingonwiththesevesselsleftintheway-whyweretheynotreturnedtotheirplaces?"Thehouseholderreplies,"Thesevesselsareintheirplaces!Itisyourblindnessthatkeepsyoufromknowingwhereyou'regoing.Thewonderisthatyouhaven'tblamedyourstumblingonyourblindness,buthaveinsteadblameditonsomeoneelse'snegligence!"Thisthenistherelationshipofreligiousknowledgetorationalknowledge.

[20]Therationaldisciplinesaredividedintothis-worldlyandotherworldlytypes.Asfortheformer,itincludes,forexample,thescienceofmedicine,mathematics,engineering,astronomy,aswellastheotherprofessionsandtrades.Theotherworldlyformsofknowledgeinclude,forexample,knowledgeoftheheart'sspiritualstatesandofdeleteriousactions,andtheknowledgeofGodandHisattributesanddeeds,asIhavelaidoutintheBookofKnowledge.Thesetwokindsofknowledgeareincompatiblewitheachotherinthesensethatwhenoneturnshisattentiontotheformerofthemuntilhebecomesabsorbedinit,hisspiritualinsightintothelatterislargelydiminished.Forthatreason'Alicoinedthreeanalogiesforthisworldandthenextwhenhesaid,"Theyarelikethetwopansofabalancescale,liketheeastandthewest,andliketwowives:Whentheoneiscontent,theotherisresentful."

Forthatreasonyouwillobservethatthoseastuteinworldlymattersandinthedisciplinesofmedicine,calculation,engineering,andphilosophyareignorantinotherworldlymatters.Those,ontheotherhand,whoareshrewdinthefinepointsofthesciencesofthenextlifearelargelyignorantofthesecularsciences,forthepoweroftheintellectisnotsufficienttointegrateamasteryofthetwomatters,sothatoneofthemmilitatesagainstcompletenessinthesecond.OnthispointtheProphetsaid,"Indeed,mostoftheresidentsofParadiseareuneducated,"thatis,untutoredinthis-worldlymatters.

Inoneofhisexhortations,Hasan(al-Basri)said,"Wehaveencounteredfolkwhom,ifyousawthem,youwouldcallcrazy;andiftheyencounteredyou,theywouldcallyoudevils."Wheneveryouhearfromthemastrangereligiousmatter

thatthosewhoareeducatedintheothersciencesrepudiate,donotlettheirdisavowalseduceyouawayfromacceptingthestrangematter,foritisinconceivablethatatravelerboundfortheeastshouldarriveinthewest.Thatisthewaytheissueofthisworldandthenextgoes,andaboutthattheMostHighsaid,"ThosewhodonothopeinmeetingUsandwhoarecontentwiththelifeofthisworldandtakecomfortinit..."(10:7).2AndtheMostHighsaid,"Theyknowonlytheexternalsofthelifeofthisworldandareheedlessofthenext"(30:7).AndHesaid,"KeepclearofthosewhoturnawayfromourReminder,intentonlyonthelifeofthisworld.Thatfaronlydoesknowledgereachthem"(53:29-30).Nonewillsucceedinintegratingtheperfectionofspiritualinsightintobothsecularandreligiouswell-beingexceptthosewhomGodhasgroundedinthedirectionofHisservantsintheirearthlylivesandtheireternaldestiny.Theyaretheprophetswhoareconfirmedbytheholyspiritandwhodrawuponthedivinepowerthatcanachieveallthingsandfallsshortofnothing.Andasfortheheartsoftherestofhumankind,whentheyrelyonaffairsofthisworld,theyturntheirattentionawayfromthenextlifeandfailtoreachtheirconsummationinit.

Clarification8[20-22],translatedbyRichardMcCarthy,'analyzesthedistinctionbetweeninspiration(ilham-whichGhazalidefinesaslearningnotdependentonproof,butwhichsimply`fallsinto"thehearteffortlesslyfromunknownsources)andinstruction(talallum-whichGhazalidefinesasapathtoknowledgethatrequiresinferenceandeffort),andbetweenSufiepistemologyandtheacquisitionofreason-basedknowledge.Thecrucialdifferenceunderlyingthedisparitybetweenthetwomodesofknowingliesinthediversityofthesourcesofknowledgeandthepossibilityofascertainingthereasonswhytheheartfindsitself"knowing"certainthings.Hence,forexample,onewhoreceivesknowledgebyilhamisunawareofitssource,whereastheprophetwhoreceives"revelation"knowsthatitcomesfromGod.Inspirationinvolvesthegraced(ratherthaneffortful)removalofaveilbetweenthemirroroftheheartandthemirrorofthePreservedTablet.SufispreferthistolearningbyinstructionandstrivetomaximizetheirpredispositiontoreceiveitasandwhenGodchoosestobestowit.

Clarification 9 [22-25]: Explaining the difference between the twosituations4usingananalogywithsensation

Understandthatthemarvelsoftheheartextendbeyondtheperceptionsofthesenses,fortheheartitselfalsogoesbeyondsenseperception.Theonlywaytocomprehendtheattainmentofwhatonedoesnotperceivesensiblyisbycomparisonwithsensation.Wecanclarifythematterofweakperceptivefacultieswithtwoanalogies.

First,supposeweneededapoolexcavatedinthegroundanddesignedtocontainwaterfromtheriversaboveitthatflowintoit.Onewouldprobablyneedtoexcavatethepoolverydeeplyandremovedirtfromitthebettertoensureasupplyofpurewater.Thewaterwouldthenflowfromthedepthsofthepool,andthatwaterwouldbethepurestandmostcontinuouslysupplied,aswellasthemostplentifulandabundant.Nowtheheartislikethepool,knowledgeislikethewater,andthefivesensesareliketherivers.Itmaybethatthevarietiesofknowledgeareconveyedfreelytotheheartthroughthemediumoftheriversofthesenses,thatis,fromdirectexperience,untiltheheartisfilledwithknowledge.Buttheseriversmightalsobedammedbyseparationandsolitude,sothatthevisionisturneddownwardandbecomesintentonthedepthsoftheheartinordertopurifyit,therebyliftingvariouslayersofveilsfromituntilitoverflows,allowingatorrentofknowledgetoflowfromwithintheheart.

Supposeoneweretoobject,"Buthowcanknowledgeflowoutfromtheheartitselfwhenitisemptyofit?"Understandthatthisisoneofthemostmarvelousmysteriesoftheheart.Butonecannotdiscussitinthecontextoftheknowledgeofexternalrelations;rather,onecandiscussitonlytotheextentthattheinnernaturesofthingsareinscribedonthePreservedTabletandevenintheheartsoftheangelswhohavedrawnneartoGod.Justasthearchitectmakesadrawingofthestructureofahouseonablankpageandthenbringsitoutintorealityinaccordancewiththisprototype,sotheCreatorofheavenandearthinscribedtheprototypeoftheuniversefrombeginningtoendonthePreservedTabletandthenbroughtitforthintoexistenceinaccordancewiththisexemplar.Theuniversethatemergesintoexistenceintheimageoftheprototypegivesrisetoyetanotherimagethatistheobjectofsensation[231andimagination.

Iftheindividualwhogazesuponheavenandearththencloseshiseyes,heseestheimageofheavenandearthinhisimaginationasthoughhewerestillactuallylookingatthem.Evenifheavenandearthweretogooutofexistenceandtheindividualstayedashewas,hewoulddiscovertheimageofheavenandearthwithinhimselfasthoughhewerewitnessingandgazinguponthem.Then

tracesproceedfromhisimaginationtotheheartsothattruenaturesofthethingsthatenteredbythesensesandimaginationsettlethereintheheart.Thatwhicharisesintheimaginationaccordswiththeactualuniverseasitis,emergingfromtheindividual'simaginationandheart.AndtheactualuniverseisinaccordwiththeprototypethatexistsonthePreservedTablet.

Itisasthoughtheuniversehadfourlevelsofexistence.ItsexistenceinthePreservedTabletispriortoitsphysicalexistence;afterthatcomesitsexistenceinreality,andafteritsexistenceinrealitycomesitsexistenceinimagination-Irefertotheexistenceofitsimageintheimagination-andafteritsexistenceinimaginationcomesitsintellectualexistence,bywhichImeantheexistenceofitsimageintheheart.

Someoftheselevelsofexistencearespiritualandothersphysical,andsomeofthespirituallevelsaremoreintenselyspiritualthanothers.Thisisagraciousgiftofthedivinewisdom,thatHehasarrangedthatthepupilofyoureye,althoughsmallinsize,receivesonitselftheimprintoftheimageoftheuniverseofheavenandearthinallitsexpansivebreadth.Then,fromitsexistenceinthesensesHebringsaboutitsexistenceintheimagination,andfromthereitsexistenceintheheart,sothatyoualwaysperceiveonlywhatcomestoyou.Therefore,ifHedidnotcreatealikenessofthewholeuniversewithinyourbeing,youwouldhavenoinformationwithwhichtoelucidateyourownexistence.PraisedbetheOne,therefore,whodevisedthesemarvelsinheartsandeyesandthenblindedheartsandeyesfromperceivingthem,sothatmostcreaturesareignorantoftheirselvesandoftheirmarvels.

Toreturntothefocusofmytopic:Isaythattheheartimaginesthatthetruenatureoftheuniversesettlesinit,andtheuniverse'simageissometimesaresultofsensationandsometimesderivedfromthePreservedTablet.Thishappensmuchthewaytheeyeimaginesthattheimageofthesunhassettledinit,sometimesasaresultofgazingatthesunandsometimesasaresultofgazingatwaterthatreceivesthesunandmakesacopyofitsimage.WhenevertheveilisliftedbetweentheheartandthePreservedTablet,theheartseesthingsuponitandknowledgebreaksforthintoitfromtheTablet.Theresultisthatthehearthasnoneedofsensoryinput,andthatisanalogoustowater'sburstingforthfromthedepthsoftheearth.Andwheneveroneoccupiesoneselfwiththeproductsofimaginationthatarisefromsensibleobjects,thisveilstheindividualfromreadingthePreservedTabletmuchthewaythatwatercontainedinriversis

preventedfromflowingforthupontheearth.Sowhenapersongazesuponwaterthatproducesacopyoftheimageofthesun,heisnotgazingatthesunitself.

Thereis,then,adoortotheheartthatopenstotherealmofLordlyDominion,whichisthePreservedTabletandtherealmoftheangels,aswellasadooropenedtothefivesenses,whichgivesaccesstotherealmofearthlysovereigntyandexperience.Inaddition,therealmofexperienceandearthlysovereigntyresemblestherealmofLordlyDominionthroughakindofimitation.

Theopeningofthedoorofthehearttosensoryinputisnothiddenfromyou.AsfortheopeningofitsinwarddoortowardtherealmofLordlyDominionandofreadingthePreservedTablet,youcometoknowthatwithcertainknowledgebycontemplatingthemarvelsofvisionandtheheart'scognizanceduringsleep,concerningwhatwillbeinthefutureorwhathasbeeninthepast,withoutinputfromthesenses.Nevertheless,thatdooropenstoanyonewhosingle-mindedlyrecollectsGod,astheProphetsaid,"Thesingle-mindedareinthelead."Someoneaskedhim,"Andwhoarethesingle-minded,0MessengerofGod?"Hereplied,"ThosewhoseremembranceofGodispureHeunburdensoftheheavyloadofrecollectionsothattheycomelighttotheResurrection."Thenbywayofdescribingthemfurther,MuhammadquotedGodassaying,"ThenIwillturnMyfacetowardthemandask,`DoyouseebeforeMyfaceanyonewhoknowswhatIdesiretogivehim?'ThentheMostHighsaid,`ThefirstthingIwillgivethemistocastthelightintotheirheartssothattheyareinformedaboutMeasIaminformedaboutthem."'Accesstothisinformationisthedoor,andthedifferencebetweenthekindsofknowledgeoftheFriendsofGodandtheProphets,ontheonehand,andthoseofthereligiousscholarsandsages,ontheother,is[24]thattheknowledgeoftheformercomesfromwithintheheartthroughthedooropenedintotherealmofLordlyDominion,whereastheknowledgeofwisdomcomesthroughthedoorsofthesensesopenedontotherealmoftheearthlysovereignty.Themarvelsoftherealmoftheheartanditsoscillationbetweentherealmsofexperientialwitnessingandoftheunseencannotbethoroughlyexaminedinthecontextofthescienceofdeeds.Thisanalogy,then,willteachyouthedifferencebetweenthemodesofentrytothetworealms.

Thesecondanalogywillfamiliarizeyouwiththedifferencebetweentwokindsofaction,thatis,thedeedsofthereligiousscholarsandthedeedsoftheFriendsofGod.Religiousscholarsworkontheacquisitionofthevarietiesofknowledgethemselvesandonprocuringthemfortheheart.SufiFriendsofGod,

ontheotherhand,worksolelyontheclarification,cleansing,purification,andburnishingoftheheart.AstoryistoldofhowsomeChineseandGreekscompetedwitheachotherbeforeacertainkingonthegroundsoftheexcellenceoftheircreationofapaintingandanimage.ThekingdecidedtosubmittothemadescriptionthattheChinesewoulddepictononeside,andtheGreeksontheother,andtohangacurtainbetweenthetwosidestopreventeithergroupfromspyingontheother,andhedidso.TheGreeksmixedmarvelouspigmentswithoutlimit,whiletheChineseproceededwithoutpaintandbusiedthemselvespolishingandburnishingtheirwall.WhentheGreekshadfinished,theChinesecalledoutthatthey,too,werefinished.ThekingwassurprisedatwhattheysaidandthattheChinesehadcompletedtheirpaintingwithoutpaint.Someoneasked,"Howdidyouaccomplishthatwithoutpaint?"Theyanswered,"Nevermind.Justraisethecurtain."Sotheyliftedit,andthereontheChinesewallshimmeredthemarvelsoftheGreekcreationbutevenbrighterandmoresparkling,forithadbecomelikeabrilliantmirrorhighlyburnished,andthemoreitwaspolishedthemorebeautifulitbecame.

JustsotheFriendsofGodareconcernedwithcleaning,shining,purifying,andclarifyingtheheartuntiltheresplendenceofthetruthgleamsuponitwiththeutmostillumination,asintheworkoftheChinese.Theconcernofthesagesandreligiousscholars,ontheotherhand,isacquiringanddepictingthevarietiesofknowledgeandinstillingalikenessofthemupontheheart,astheGreeksdid.Whateverthecase,theheartofthebelieverdoesnotdie,andhisknowledgeisnotobliteratedwhenhedies,noristheheart'sclarityblurred.Hasan(al-Basri)alludedtothiswhenhesaid,"Earthdoesnotswallowupthedwellingplaceoffaith;rather,itbecomesameansandasourceofnearnesstoGod."

Theknowledgeandclarityandinclinationtoreceiveknowledgeitselfthattranspireintheheartareessentialtotheheart,andnonecanbehappyexceptthrough`ilmandma'rifa.Sometypesofhappinessareloftierthanothers,asinthecaseofapersonwhoisrichonlyinpossessions.Onewhopossessesagolddirhamisrich,asistheownerofoverflowingstorehouses.Similarly,thelevelsofthosewhoarehappydifferwithrespecttodisparityofexperientialknowledgeandfaith,justasthelevelsofthewealthydifferinrelationtothescarcityorabundanceofpossessions.Nowthebenefitsarelights,andbelieversruntomeetGodonlywiththeaidoftheirlights,asGodsaid,"Theirlightrunsbeforethemandbytheirrighthands"(57:12).Traditionhasitthat"someofthemaregiven

lightlikeamountainandsomeofthemless,untilthelastofthemisamanwhoisgivenlightonthebigtoeofhistwofeet,sothatatonemomentitshinesandatanotheritgoesout,andwhenitshineshistwofeetproceed,butwhenitgoesouthestandsstill.Theirprogressalongthepathisproportionatetotheirlight,andamongthesepeoplearesomewhomovealongliketheblinkofaneye,otherswhoprogresslikelightning,somelikeclouds,otherslikefallingstars,someasfastasahorsechargingacrossitsfield.Theindividualwhoisgivenlightonhisbigtoecreepsonhisfaceandhandsandfeet,puttingonehanddownandextendingtheother,andtheFirelapsathissides,andhedoesnotceaseuntilheissafe(fromtheFire)."

Inthisrespectthedisparityamongpeoplewithregardtofaithisapparent.IfthefaithofAbuBakrwereweighedagainstthefaithoflearnedonesotherthantheProphetsandMessengers,hiswouldweighmore.Thisisalsothegistofsomeone'sobservation,"Ifthelightofthesunwerecomparedwiththelightofalllanterns,itwouldsurpassthem."Evenso,thelightofsomeamongthemassesofpeoplewouldbelikethelightofalamp,whilethelightofotherswouldbelikethatofcandle.Thelightofthefaithoftheauthenticonesislikethemoonandstars,whilethefaithoftheprophetsislikethesun.Justastheimageofthehorizonsinthefullbreadthoftheirexpansivenessisrevealedinthelightofthesun,whileonlyasmallcornerofahouseisrevealedbythelightofalamp,sodiversearethedegreesoftheexpansionofthecenterofone'sbeingwithrealizations[25]anddisclosureoftheexpanseofLordlyDominionfortheheartsofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledge.Concerningthatpointthetraditionhascomedowntous,"Onthedayofresurrectionitwillbesaid,`BringoutoftheFireanyonewhohasanatom'sweightoffaithinhisheart-orevenahalforafourthofabarleycornoratom'sweight."'

ThatrangeofdegreesoffaithindicatesthatthesevaryingcapacitiesforfaithdonotforestallentryintotheFire.Itisthusunderstoodthatwhentheweightofaperson'sfaithincreases,thatpersonwillnotentertheFire,since,ifapersondidenterit,thematterofhisescapingwouldtakeprecedence.Itisunderstoodthatifonewithanatom'sweightoffaithinhisheartshouldentertheFire,hewouldnotremainthereforever.InthiscontexttheProphetsaid,"Theindividualbelieverisathousandtimesbetterthananythingelse."HeisreferringtotheexcellenceoftheheartofthepersonendowedwithexperientialknowledgeofGod,theOnewhobestowscertitude,indicatingthatsuchaheartisbetterthana

thousandheartsofthegeneralityofpeople.TheMostHighhassaid,"Andyouaresuperiorifyouarebelievers"(3:139),givingpreferencetobelieversovermostMuslims,referringtothebelieverwhopossessesexperientialknowledgedevoidofuncriticalimitation.AndGodsaid,"Godwillelevateinrankthoseofyouwhobelieveandwhoaregivenknowledge"(58:11),referringthere,withthephrase"thosewhobelieve,"tothosewhoaretruthfulapartfromknowledgeanddistinguishingthemfromthosewhoaregivenknowledge.Thatindicatesthattheterm"thebeliever"issynonymouswith"onewhofollowsauthorityuncritically"iftheperson'sassentisnottheresultofspiritualinsightanddivinedisclosure.

IbnAbbascommentedonthewordsoftheMostHigh,"inrank...andthosewhoaregivenknowledge"(58:11),bysayingthatGodelevatesthepossessorofknowledgeabovethebelieverbysevenhundredranksbetweeneachtwolevels,asHehaselevatedheavenaboveearth.AndtheProphetsaid,"MostofthepeopleoftheGardenareuntutoredand(yet)areabovethoseendowedwithinsight"and"OneendowedwithknowledgeissuperiortothedevoteeasIamsuperiortothenearestmanamongmyCompanions."Onenarrativehas,"asthemoonontheNightofBadrissuperiortotherestofthestars."ThesecitationsthusmakecleartoyouthedisparityintheranksofthepeopleoftheGardenwithrespecttothedifferencesintheirheartsandtheirexperientialknowledge.Thereforethedayofresurrectionisthedayofdeception,sincegreatfraudanddepravityareexcludedfromthemercyofGod,andtheoneexcludedwillseeloftyranksabovehisownrank;hewillgazeatthemthewayawealthypersonwhohastendirhamsgazesuponthewealthypersonwhoownstheearthfromtheeasttothewest.Bothofthemarewealthy,butwhatanimmensegapbetweenthem!Andwhatanenormousdefraudingofonewhohasforfeitedhisportionofthat,"forinthenextlifethereareimmensedifferencesinrankandhugedisparitiesinexcellence"(17:21).

Clarification 10: Testimonies of the Revealed Law concerning thesoundnessofthepathoftheSufiswithrespecttotheacquisitionofma`rifaotherthanthroughinstructionandtheaccustomedpath

Understandthatonetowhomsomethinghasbeendisclosed,evenifitisamatterofminorsignificanceonthepathofinspirationanddescendsintotheheartfromanunknownsource,becomesendowedwithexperientialknowledgethroughtheintegrityofthePath.Andonewhodoesnotperceivethatatallonhisownmusthavefaithinit.Forthelevelofexperientialknowledgeinsuch

mattersisextremelyrare,asthetestimoniesoftheRevealedLawandexperienceandanecdotalevidencewillattest.

Asforthetestimonies,thereisthewordoftheMostHigh,"AndthosewhostruggleonOurbehalf,WewillsurelyguidethemtoOurways"(29:69).Allwisdomthatarisesfromtheheartasaresultofassiduousdevotioncomesnotfrominstruction,butbelongstothepathofdivinedisclosureandinspiration.TheProphetsaid,"Toonewhoactsonwhatheknows,Godwillbequeathasaninheritanceaknowledgeofwhathedidnotknow[26]andwillgivehimsuccessinwhathedoessothathedeservesParadise.Butonewhodoesnotactuponwhatheknowswillbelostinwhatheknowsandwillnotbesuccessfulinwhathedoes,sothathedeservesHell."AndGodhassaid,"ForthosewhofearGod,Hemakesawayout"ofdilemmasanddoubts,"andprovidessustenanceforthemfromunanticipatedsources"(65:2-3).Thatis,Heinstructstheminknowledgewithoutneedofconventionalinstructionandsuppliesthemwithunderstandingindependentofordinaryexperience.

AndGodhassaid,"Oh,youwhobelieve,ifyoufearGod,Hewillcreateforyouthepowerofdiscrimination"(8:29),a"criterion"thatiscalledalightbywhichonecandistinguishbetweentruthandfalsehoodandbywhichonecanescapefromdoubts.ForthatreasonMuhammadusedtoprayoften,requestingthelight,saying,"0God,givemelightandincreaselightinme,makelightformeinmyheartandlightinmygrave,lightinmyhearingandlightinmysightuntilitspeaksinmyhairandinmyhumanityandinmyfleshandbloodandbones."SomeoneaskedMuhammadabouttheword"expanded"inthewordsofGod,"IstheonethecenterofwhosebeingGodhasexpandedtobereceptivetoIslamsothathebenefitsfromthelightofhisLord...?"(39:22).Sohereplied,"Itisawidening,sothatwhenGodinfusesthelightintotheheart,thecenteroftheindividual'sbeingbecomesmorespaciousandisamplified."MuhammadsaidonbehalfofIbnAbbas,"0God,givehimfiqhinreligiousmattersandteachhimtheinterpretationofinnermeanings."

'Alisaid,"WeknowofnothingthattheProphetconcealedfromus,butthatGodgivesaservantfahmofHisBook,andthisisnotbywayofordinaryinstruction."AnexegeteobservesinacommentaryontheMostHigh'sword,"HegiveswisdomtowhomHewishes"(2:269),thatitreferstotheprofoundcomprehensionofGod'sBook.AndGodsaid,"SowegaveSolomonfahmofit"(21:79),specifyingwhatthewords"profoundcomprehension"disclose.Abu`d-

Darda'usedtosay,"BelieversarethosewhoseewiththelightofGodwhatisbehindagossamerveil,andGodinfusesitintotheirheartsthatGodisthetruthandcausesittoflowontheirtongues."Andoneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Eventhebeliever'smeresuppositionisperspicacity."TheProphetsaid,"Bewarethediscernmentofthebeliever,forheseeswiththelightofGod."AlludingtothatarethewordsoftheMostHigh,"Inthataresignsforthosewhoknowhowtointerpretthetraces"(15:75),asalsoHiswords,"Wehavemadethesignscleartoanypeoplewhoholdthefaithsurely"(2:118).

HasantransmittedfromGod'sMessengerthathesaid,"Ilmisoftwokinds,andinwardknowledgeintheheart-thatisthe`ilmthatistrulybeneficial."Someoneaskedoneofthereligiousscholarswhatinwardknowledgeis,andhereplied,"ItisoneofGod'smysteriesthatGodinfusesintotheheartsofthoseHelovesmost,andneitherangelnorhumanbeingcangaininsightintoit."AndtheProphethassaid,"Ifthereareinmycommunity(even)twoHadithtransmitters,twoteachers,ortwospeakers,surely`Umarisoneofthem."

IbnAbbasrecited,"NeverhaveWesent[27]beforeyouamessengeroraprophet[oraspeaker]"(22:52),5referringtotheauthenticones.Thespeakeristheoneinspired,andtheoneinspiredistheonewhohasreceivedadivinedisclosureinthedepthsofhisheart,inthesenseofsomethingthatentersfromoutsideratherthansomethingthatresultsfromexternalsensoryinput.

TheQur'anmakesitclearthatfearofGodisthekeyofguidanceanddivinedisclosure,andthatisknowledgeindependentofinstruction.Godhassaid,"WhatGodhascreatedinheavenandeartharesignsforthegod-fearing"(10:6);andtheMostHighfurtherspecifiedthosepeoplebysaying,"Thisisaclarificationforthepeople,andguidanceandadmonitionforthegod-fearing"(3:138).AbuYazid(alBistami)andothersusedtosay,"Thelearnedpersonisnottheonewhomemorizesfromabook,andwho,whenheforgetswhathehadmemorized,becomesignorant;thelearnedpersonistheonewhoreceiveshisknowledgefromhisLordwheneverHewishes,withoutmemorizingandwithoutstudying.AndthisistheLordlyknowledgeasindicatedinthewordoftheMostHigh,`AndWehavetaughthim(Khidr)aknowledgefromOurpresence"'(18:65).Thoughallknowledgeisfromthedivinepresence,neverthelesssomeofitoccursthroughthemediumofhumaninstruction;thatisnotcalledknowledgefromGod'spresence.KnowledgefromGod'spresenceisthatwhichisrevealedinthedepthsoftheheartwithoutanidentifiablesecondarycause.These,then,

arethetestimoniesoftradition,andifonegatheredtogetheralloftherelevantexamplesofverses,reports,andtraditions,theywouldbebeyondcounting.

Asforactualcontemplativevision,thatbelongstothecategoryofexperience,andthatwouldlikewiseexceedourreckoning.ThatwasfamiliartotheCompanionsandtheFollowersandtheirsuccessors.AbuBakrtheTruthfulOnesaidtoWishawhenhewasatthepointofdeath,"Thesetwoareyourbrothersandyoursisters."Hiswifewaspregnantandgavebirthtoadaughter,andhealreadyknewbeforethebirththatitwasadaughter.`UmarsaidinthecourseofhisFridaysermon,"0Sariya!Themountain!"whenitwasdivinelydisclosedtohimthattheenemywasapproaching,so(`Umar)warned(Sariyathemilitarycommander)asaresultof(Umar's)mwrifaofthatsituation.Thusthecommunicationof(Umar's)voiceto(Sariya)wasoneofthegreatmarvels.'

AnasibnMaliksaid,"AsIwasgoingtovisit`Uthman,Iencounteredawomanalongtheway.Igaveherasidelongglance,andthenItookagoodlookatherbeauty.WhenIwentinto`Uthmanhesaid,"Oneofyouhascometovisitmewiththevestigesofadulteryevidentinhiseyes.DoyounotknowthatadulteryoftheeyesisalookyouneedtorepentoforforwhichImustreprimandyou?"SoIasked,"IsthereRevelationaftertheProphet?""No,"hereplied,"butthereisvisionandproofanddiscernmentandauthenticity."AbuSaidal-Kharrazsaid,"IenteredthemosqueofthesanctuaryinMecca,andIsawabeggarwearingtwopatchedfrocks,soIsaidtomyself,`Thisoneandhiskindareeverywhereamongthepeople.'Sohecalledouttomeandsaid(quotingtheQur'an),`Godknowswhatiswithinyourselves,sobewaryofHim'(2:235).SoIaskedforgivenessofGodinsecret,andthemancalledouttome,`HeitiswhoacceptsrepentancefromHisservants'(42:25).ThenhewasgonefrommeandIsawhimnomore."

ZakariyaibnDawudsaid,"Abu`I-AbbasibnMasruq(d.c.298/910)wenttovisitAbu`1-Fadlal-Hashimi-whowasillandhadafamilyandhadnoobviousmeansofsupport-andsaid,`WhenIleftIsaidtomyself,Howdoesthismaneat?'So(Abu`1-Fadl)calledouttome,"0Abu`I-Abbas,rejectthisworldlyconcern,forGod'sarehiddenkindnesses.""'AndAhmadan-Nagibsaid,"IwenttovisitShibli,andhesaidcharmingly,`OAhmad.'Ireplied,`What'snew?'Heanswered,`Iwassittinganditoccurredtomethatyou'reacheapskate.'Ireplied,`Iamnotacheapskate.'ThenasIwaslettinggoofmyirritation,hesaid,`Butyouareacheapskate.'SoIretorted,`ThisdayhadscarcelybegunbutthatI

handedsomethingovertothefirstpoorpersonwhoencounteredme.'ButmypiquewasnotcompleteuntilacompanionofMu'nistheservant,whohadfiftydinars,cametovisitme.Hesaid,`Igivethistoyouforyouruse.'SoIstoodandtookthemoneyandleft,andtherebeforemewithapoorblindpersonwasabarbershavingtheman'shead,soIapproachedhimandgavehimthedinars.Thenhe(thepoorperson)said,"Giveittothebarber."SoIreplied,"Eventhoughitissuchasum?"Hesaid,"Didn'twetellyouthatyouareacheapskate?"SoIgaveittothebarberandthebarbersaid,"WemadeadealwhenthispoorpersonsatdownwithmethatIwouldnotchargehimafee."SoItossedthemoneyintotheTigrisRiverandsaid,"NooneelevatesyoubutthatGodhumbleshim."-

Hamzaibn'AbdAllahal-,Alawisaid,"IwenttovisitAbu'1Khayrat-Tinati(d.349/960-61),andIdecidedprivatelythatIwouldgreethim[28]butwouldnoteatfoodinhishouse.So,whenIlefthispresence,hecaughtupwithme.Hewascarryingallsortsoffood,andsaid,"Youngman,eat,foryouhavepassedthetimelimitofyourdecisionnottoeat."NowthisAbu`1-Khayrat-Tinatiwasfamousforworkingwonders.Ibrahimar-Raggi(d.342/953-54)said,"Iintendedtogreethim(T-coati),soIattendedtheeveningritualprayer.TherecitationoftheopeningseraoftheQur'anwasalmostfinished,andIsaidtomyself,`Myjourneyhasbeeninvain(becauseIwaslate).'Thenafterthefinalgreeting,Iwentoutforpurification.Alionwasfollowingme,soIhurriedtoAbu`1-Khayrandsaid,`Alioniscomingafterme,'sohewentoutandcalledtothelion,`Didn'tItellyounottoharassmyguests?'Thelionthenwenthisway,andIperformedmypurification.WhenIcamebackhesaidtome,`Youwerepreoccupiedwithexternalstandardsandyouwereafraidofthelion;Iwaspreoccupiedwithinternalstandards,sothelionwasafraidofme."'

Countlessstoriesaretoldabouttheperspicacityoftheshaykhsandtheirbeingawareofpeople'sbeliefsandthoughts.Indeed,theirnarrativesaboutvisionsofKhidrandinquiriesofhim,abouthearingthevoiceofanunseenspeaker,andaboutthevariouskindsofmarvelsarebeyondreckoning.Narrativeaccountsareofnoavailtotheunbelievertotheextentthatsuchanindividualhasnopersonalexperienceofthingslikethis.Whoeverrefusestoacknowledgetheprinciple,disavowsitsimplications,andtheconclusiveevidencethatnoonecanrefuteconsistsoftwomatters:First,thewondersofauthenticvisionaryexperiencedisclosetheunseen,andifthatoccursduringsleep,thenitisalsopossibleinthe

wakingstate.Forsleepdoesnotdifferfromthewakingstateexceptwithrespecttothesuspensionofsensationandthelackofengagementwiththeobjectsofsensation.Howmanypeopleareawakebutwitheyescastdown,neitherhearingnorseeingbecauseoftheirself-absorption!

Second,thereisthemannerinwhichGod'sMessengerwasinformedabouttheunseenworldandquestionsofreceptionoftheQur'anwhenitwasmadeknowntohim.IfthathappenedtotheProphet,ithappenedtootherstotheextentthatprophetisatermforanindividualtowhomtheultimatetruthsofthingsaredisclosed,andwhoisconcernedwiththewelfareofhumankind.Itispossiblethatanindividualcouldexperiencedisclosuresoftheultimatetruthsandnotbeoccupiedwiththewelfareofhumankind,butthensuchapersonisnotcalledaprophet,butaFriendofGod.Whenapersonbelievesintheprophetsandhasasound,authenticvisionaryexperience,itfollowsnecessarilythatonemustconcludethatthehearthastwodoors:adoortotheoutsidethatisthesenses,andadoortotheLordlyDominionwithintheheartthatisthedoorofinspiration,ofinfusingintothespirit,andofpropheticrevelation.Thoughitisentirelyimpossibleforthemoreproximateofthetwodoorstogiveaccesstothevarietiesofknowledgethroughinstructionandthepursuitofordinarymeans,itis,nevertheless,conceivablethatspiritualstrugglemightprovideapathtothat.This,then,pointstothespiritualrealityIhavebeendiscussingintermsofthewonderthatholdstheheartbetweentherealmofexperienceandtherealmofLordlyDominion.Asforthemeansofthedisclosureofthematterinadreamthroughsimilitudesthatrequireinterpretation,thatishowtheangelsdeliversimilitudestotheprophetsandFriendsofGod,namely,bymeansofvariousimages,andthattooisamongthemarvelsoftheheart.Thisisnotappropriatesubjectmatterexceptthroughtheknowledgeofdivinedisclosure,soIwilldiscussthematternofurther,sincewhatIhavesaidissufficientpromptingtowardspiritualstruggleandthequestfordivinedisclosure.

Oneofthosewhodisclosehassaid,"Therecordingangelappearedtomeandaskedmetodictatetohimsomeofmysecretrecollectionofmycontemplationofthedivinetranscendentunity.Hesaid,`Whatdeedshallwerecordforyou?WewouldliketoimproveyourstandingthroughanactionbywhichyouwoulddrawneartoGod.'SoIasked,`Arethetwoofyourecordinglegalduties?'Thetwosaid,`Yes.'Isaid,`That'senoughforyoutwo."'Thisindicatesthateventheexaltedrecordersarenotacquaintedwiththemysteriesoftheheart,eventhough

theyarefamiliarwithexternalactions.Oneofthoseendowedwithexperientialknowledgesaid,"IaskedoneoftheAbdalaboutamatteroftheexperienceofcertitude,soheturnedtowardhisleftandasked,`Whatdoyousay,Godbemercifultoyou?'Thenheturnedovertowardhisright,andasked,`Whatdoyousay,Godbemercifultoyou?'Thenheorientedhimselftowardhiscenterandasked,`Whatdoyousay,Godbemercifultoyou?'HisresponsewasthestrangestanswerIhaveeverheard,soIaskedhimabouthisturning,andhesaid,`Ididn'thaveareadyreplytothequestion,soIaskedthecompanionontheleftandhereplied,"Idon'tknow";soIaskedthecompanionontheright,whoismoreknowledgeable,andheanswered,"Idon'tknow";soIlookedintomyheartandaskedit,anditinformedmehowIshouldansweryou,andindeed,itismoreknowledgeablethantheothertwo."'Andthiswasthemeaningof(theProphet's)saying,"IftherearetwoHadithspecialistsinmyCommunity,`Umarisoneofthem."

[29]TraditionreportsthatGodsays,"Whateverarisesintheheartofaservant,sothatIseedevotionovercominghimwithremembranceofMe,IseetohisgovernanceandIbecomehiscompanionandconfidantandintimatefriend."AndAbuSulaymanad-Daranisaid,"Theheartdwellsbeneathanelaboratedomearoundwhicharecloseddoors,sowhichdoordoestheheart'sactionopenforit?TheopeningofoneofthedoorsoftheheartlookstowardtheLordlyDominionandthesublimeassembly.Thatdooropensthroughinnerstruggle,spiritualreticence,andturningawayfromworldlycravings."Onthissubject`Umarwrotetothecommandersofthearmy,"Taketoheartwhatyouhearfromthosewhoareobedient,forauthenticmattersaremanifesttothem."Oneofthelearnedonessaid,"ThehandofGodisoverthemouthsofthewise,sothattheyutteronlythetruththatGoddesires."Anothersaid,"OnemightsaythatGodprovidesthelowlywiththeapexofinsightintosomeofHismysteries."

InClarifications11through15Ghazalifocusesontherangeofproblemswithwhichtheevermutableheartmustdeal.Theseinclude,mostofall,thetemptationsandinsinuationsthatthedevilmanagestointroducethroughtheheart'smanyopenings.Theheartthatdoesnotstruggletofendoffthesesuggestionsisblameworthy,buttheheartcanalsohopeforforgiveness.Likewise,GhazalidiscussesthequestionofwhetherthedeliberaterecollectionofGodrenderstheheartimpervioustodiabolicalinfluences.Heconcludesthat,becauseitsstatechangessorapidly,noheartcanhopeto

befreeoftemptationforlong.Thisconclusionsetsthestageforhisconsiderationoftheprocessof"training"theheartasthefoundationofadvancedIslamicethics(inBook22).

WebeginwithIbnal-'Arifsbriefintroductorysectiononma`rifaasthefirststageoftheadvancedspiritualpath.Then,laterinthetreatise,hesetsma`rifawithinalargercontext:knowledgeasafundamentalneed,andadvancedmysticalknowledgeasamarvelbestowedontheservanthereafter.Thesetwoaspectsofknowledgefunctionasasetofbookends,sotospeak,oneithersideofma`rifa,itselfonestageonthepathoftheseeker.'

Chapter1:Ma`rifa

[75]Ma`rifaismy(pilgrim)goaland`ilmismyproof.Thereligiousscholarasksmefordemonstrativeargument,butoneendowedwithma'rifaacceptsguidancefromme.Religiousscholarsbecomeattachedtome,whilemysticsbecomeattachedthroughme.Worshiperslookforactions,spiritualseekersforspiritualstates,andmysticsformovementsofthespirit.Godisbeyondallthat,andtheonlyconnectionbetweenHim[76]andthedevoteesisdivinefavor,whiletheonlycausesarethedivinedecrees.Godhasno"presentmoment"buteternity.Whatremainsforhumanbeingsisblindnessanddeceit,sothattheyregardtheirdeedsascauseforrecompense,theirspiritualstatesasintendedtoconjureupsaintlywonders,andmovementsofthespiritasmeanttoproduceunionwithGod.TheTruth,however,isevidentonlywhenthepersonalattributesofindividualitydisappear,sothatthemysticalallusionisacallfromthedistantsummitandadisclosureofaspecificinstructiontotheservant.

Discursiveknowledgeistoheartswhatthesearchforsecondarycausesistomysteries;everythingthatisnotGodisaveiloverthem.Ifnotforthedarknessofcreatedreality,thelightofmysterywouldbemanifest,andbutfortheego-soul'sseductiontherewouldbenoveilsovermystery.Ifnotfordistractions,spiritualrealitieswouldbeunveiled,andifnotforthesearchforcauses,amazingpowerswouldbeevident.Ifnotforhumanaffectation,therewouldbepureexperientialknowledge,andwereitnotforcupidity,lovewouldtakeroot.Ifnotforthewaywardglancetowardpassingdelights,spiritswouldyearnfor

God,andwereitnotforthegodservant'sdistance,hewouldwitnesstheLord.[76]Whentheveilsarepulledasidewiththedisruptionofsecondarycauses,andthebarriersareliftedthroughtheseveringofattachments,thenitwillbeas(Hallaj)said:

Chapter13:TheWiderContextsofMysticalKnowledge

Thischapterlistsma`rifaasthetwenty-secondofthemarvelsofthenextlife.HereIbnal-Ariflaysouthisbriefcharacterizationsofeachofthefortymarvels.Then,linkingfaithwithexperientialknowledge,heturnstoanexplicitlyepistemologicalcontextualizationofeverythinghehasbeendiscussing,placingma`rifainthewidercontextsofmysticalknowledgeingeneral.

[101]Twenty-two:Steadfastnessinexperientialknowledgeandfaith,fromwhichcomefearofGodandconfusionaswellastearsandsadness.Godhassaid,"Godwillfirmlyestablishthosewhobelieve,withtheunshakablewordinthislifeaswellasthenext"(14:27).

[103]Andwhatimpelsustoseektoknowallofthat?Afterall,ourLordsays,"Nooneknowswhatdelightsarekeptinsecretforthem"(32:17),andGod'sMessengerhassaid,"HehascreatedthereinParadisewhateyehasnotseennorearheard,norhumanheartimagined."ConcerningthewordsoftheMostHigh,"TheseaofinkwouldrunoutbeforethewordsofmyLordwerefinished"(18:109),theexegetehasobservedthatthesearethewordsthatHewillsayinParadisetotheinhabitantsoftheGardenasawayofbeinggracioustothemandennoblingthem.Howcouldapersoninthisconditionofoursattainevenathousandthofathousandthoftheircondition,humanasweare?AndhowcouldcreaturelyknowledgeembraceHim?Indeed,spiritualaspirationsfallshortandintellectsgetnowhereclosetoHim.Appropriatelyso,forsuchunderstandingisagiftoftheAll-powerful,All-knowinginaccordwithHisenormousbountyandcommensuratewithHistimelesslargesse.Ipursuethematterinorderthatthosewholaborwillworktowardthelikesofthis,andthatthosewhostrivededicatetheireffortswhollytothistremendousgoal,sincetheyknowthattheireffortsaremeagerindeedbycontrastwiththatwhichtheyneed,forwhichtheysearchandtowhichtheyhaveturnedtheirattention.

Understandthat,onthewhole,therearefourthingsessentialtotheservant:First,`ilmoftheessenceofGodastheone,theeternal;second,knowledgeofGod'sattributes,namely,life,`ilm,will,power,[104]hearing,seeing,speech-whichhasnolettersandnosoundandHisperceptions;third,inrecognitionofHisperfectbeing,denialofanydivinedeficienciesormaladiesalongwithaffirmationofHisbeautifulnames;finally,theessentialdeedsassociatedwiththisknowledgetotheextentthatitisarequiredlegaldutyandischaracterizedbysincerityandfearofGod.

Inotherwords,theservantfirstacquires`ilmofthepath,persuadedoftheneedforinvestigation,withoutwhichheisblind.Thenheeitheractsuponwhatheknowsconceptuallyorisveiledfromauthenticknowledge.Then,heeitheractsentirelyoutofgenuinemotivesorheisdeceivinghimself.Finally,eitherhelivesinceaselessfearofGodandscrupulousattentiontohisfaultsuntilsecurityfromthemdescendsuponhim,orhebecomesarrogant.Dhu`n-Nunwasrightwhenhesaid,"Apartfromthereligiousscholars,allhumanbeingsaredead;apartfromthereligiousscholarswhoputtheirknowledgeintoaction,allofthemaredeadtoo;andexceptfortheproductivescholarswhoaresincere,allofthemaredeluded;andallthosewhoaresincereareinseriousdanger."

Thesefourtypesareverypeculiar,itseemstome.Thefirstisintelligentbutknowsnothing.Hashenoconcernforinsightintohissituation?Doeshenotunderstandwhatawaitshimatdeath?Lethimexaminetheseclues,heedthesesignsandwarnings,experiencediscomfortatthesepassingspiritualimpulsesandsuggestions,andkeeptheego-soulincheck.Godhassaid,"Havetheynotreflected...onthekingdomsoftheheavensandtheearthandeverythingGodhascreated?"(7:184-85).Andagain,"Dothesepeoplenotthinktheywillberaiseduponanawfulday?"(83:4-5).

Asforthesecond,thelearnedpersonwhodoesnotactonwhatheknows,doeshenotbearinmindthetremendousterrorsandseverepunishmentsheknowsawaithim?Thisisaseriousmessagefromwhichyouturnaway!

Thethird,thelearnedpersonwhoactsbutwholackssincerity,shouldmeditateontheMostHigh'swords,"LetanywhohopetomeettheirLorddogoodworksandservenootherLord"(18:110).

Andfourth,theonewhoissincerebutlacksfearofGod,doesthatpersonnottakestockofhowGodtreatsHischosenonesandFriendswhostandbetweenGodandHiscreatures,eventothepointofsayingtothebestofHiscreatures,Muhammad,[105]"Wehaverevealedtoyouandtothosewhoprecededyou..."(39:65).3WhenMuhammadcametothepointofsaying"SuratHudanditssistershaveturnedmyhairwhite,"hewasreferringto"Remainsteadfastasyouwereenjoined"(11:112).

HereareSuhrawardi'sfirstthreechapters,dealing,respectively,withtheoriginsoftheSufidisciplines;thesuperiorityoftheSufisin"keenattentiveness,"aprerequisitetoknowledge;andthesuperiorityofthedisciplinesoftheSufis.TheyformthefoundationoftheentireworkandfunctionasadefenseagainstclaimsthattheSufisdevaluedthefundamentalsofIslamictradition.LikeMakkiandseveralotherauthors,Suhrawardicombinesvariousgenres,interweavingexegesisandnarrativewithextensivecitationofparadigmaticSufifigures.'

Chapter1:[55]OntheoriginsofthedisciplinesoftheSufis

InthemonthofShawwaloftheyear560/1165,ourshaykh,Shaykhal-IslamAbu`n-Najib'Abdal-QahiribnAbdAllahibnMuhammadas-Suhrawardi,dictatedtousthefollowingaccountofhisrecollection,saying:God'sMessengersaid,'"IandthemessagewithwhichGodhassentmearelikeamanwhocametoapeopleandsaid,`Omypeople,Ihaveseenthearmywithmyowneyes,andIamthenakedherald.Runforyourlives!Saveyourselves!'Agroupofhispeopleobeyedhimandsetoutundercoverofnightatacomfortablepaceandweresaved.Someofthepeopledismissedhiswarningandspentthenightintheirplace,sothatthearmycameuponthematdawn,slaughteredandannihilatedthem.Thatisananalogywith,respectively,thosewhoobeymeandfollowthemessageIhavebrought,andthosewhorebelagainstmeandrejectthemessageIhavebroughtfromGod."[Theexpression"annihilatedthem"means"it(thearmy)uprootedthem,"andderivedfromthisisthecalamitythat

resultsinthedestructionofacrop'syield.]

AndMuhammadsaid,"TheguidanceandknowledgewithwhichGodhassentmearelikeanabundantrainthatshoweredtheearth.Someoftheearthreceivedthewater,sothatitsproutedgrassandabundantherbage.Someoftheearthhadcisternsthatgatheredthewater,sothatGodbenefitedthepeoplewithit,andtheydrankandirrigatedandplanted.Anotherportionoftheearthwaslowflatlandsthatdidnotcollectwaterandsproutednoverdure.Soitis,respectively,withthosewhopossessdeeperunderstandinginthereligionofGod,towhomthemessagewithwhichGodhassentmeisbeneficial,sothattheyknowandteachandact,andwiththosewhopaynoheedtothatanddonotaccepttheguidancewithwhichGodsentme."

GodhaspreparedthepurestheartsandtruestsoulstoreceivewhatGod'sMessengerhasbrought.Variationinpurityandclarityisevidentinthedisparityofprofitandutility.Someheartsarelikethegoodearththatsproutsgrassandherbageinabundance,andthesearetheywhobenefitfromknowledgeinteriorlyandareguided,andwhoseknowledgeandguidanceorientsthemtothestraightpathoffollowingGod'sMessenger.Otherheartsarelikecisterns-thatis,pools,fromthepluralofikhadha,anenclosureorreservoirinwhichwatercollects.ThesoulsoftheasceticallearnedindividualsamongtheSufisandtheshaykhsareclearandtheirheartspure.Asaresulttheyreapespeciallygreatbenefitsandbecomecisterns.Masrug3said,"IhaveassociatedwiththeCompanionsofGod'sMessengerandhavefoundthemtobelikecisterns.Theirheartsareattentivesothattheybecomemostreceptivetotheformsofknowledgebyvirtueofthepureprofoundcomprehensionbestowedonthem."

'AbdAllahibnal-Hasanreportedtome,'"When[56]thisversewasrevealed,`thatattentiveearsabsorb(theQur'an'sreminder)'(69:12),God'sMessengersaidto'Ali,`IhaveaskedGodtomakeyourearattentive,0CAli.'Alisaid,`Ihaveforgottennothingsincethen,andIhavenotbeenabletoforget."'AbuBakral-Wasitireferredto"earsreceptivetomysteriesfromGod."Healsosaid,"(ears)thatarereceptiveintheirmines(i.e.,theirinnermostcapacities),butwithoutactuallyexperiencinganything(outwardly),sothattheyareemptyofanythingotherthan(God)."Temperamentalrestlessnessisthusnoneotherthanatypeofignorance.

TheheartsoftheSufisareattentive,fortheydisciplinethemselvesinthis

worldafterbecomingfirmlygroundedinreverentialfear.Theirsoulsarecleansedbyreverentialfear,andtheirheartsarepurifiedbyself-denial.When,throughfullyrealizedrenunciation,theirpreoccupationwiththisworldhasvanished,theporesoftheirinnerselvesareopenedandtheearsoftheirheartshear.Theirrenunciationofthisworldassiststheminthat.

Theexegeticalspecialists,theauthoritiesinHadithstudies,andthelegalscholarsofIslammasteraknowledgeoftheBookandtheSunna.Fromthosetwosourcestheyderivelegalrequirementsandrefernewlyrealizedcircumstancestoprinciplesderivedfromthesourcetexts,andGodprotectsthereligionthroughthem.Specialistsinexegesisareintimatelyfamiliarwiththefieldofscripturalinterpretationandthescienceofsymbolicexegesis,withthewaysoftheArabsinspeech,thefinepointsofsyntaxandinflection,andwiththeprinciplesofnarrativestorytellingandthedifferencesinthevariantQur'anicreadings.Theyhavecomposedbooksonthesethings,andthroughthemtheQur'anicscienceshavebeenmadeaccessibletothecommunityofMuslims.

TheauthoritiesonHadithhavedistinguishedbetween"sound"and"good"traditionsandhavemadeaspecializationoftheknowledgeoftransmittersandtheirnames.TheyhavecritiquedHadithsonthebasisofunreliabilityandcredibilitysoastodistinguishclearlythehealthyfromthesickandtoseparatethecrookedfromthestraight.ThroughthemthemethodoftransmissionandthechainsoftransmittershavebeenpreservedasawayofsafeguardingtheSunna.Specialistsinjurisprudencearededicatedtodrawingoutlegalrequirementsandelaboratingonquestions,knowinglegalexplanation,referringnewcasestotheoriginalcasesthroughcommonlegalcauses,andincludingnewconditionswithintheprinciplesofthesourcetexts.Fromtheknowledgeofreligiouslawandlegalrequirementsthedisciplinesoftheprinciplesofjurisprudenceandofvariantopinionsbranchoff.Fromtheknowledgeofvariantviewsthescienceofdialecticbranchesoff,andthedisciplineoftheprinciplesofjurisprudencerequiressomeknowledgeoftheprinciplesofreligion.Partoftheirdisciplineistheknowledgeoftherulesofinheritance,andfromthat,knowledgeofarithmeticandalgebra,amongothers,isneeded.

ThustheRevealedLawhasbeensetinorderandconfirmed,theHanifite5religionhasbeensetstraight,andthepropheticguidanceandlawoftheChosenOne(Muhammad)hasbeensetforthinprincipleandramification.Sothesoiloftheheartsofthereligiousscholarshassproutedgrassandherbageasaresultof

thewatersoflifeithasabsorbedintheformofguidanceandknowledge.Godhassaid,"FromtheheavensHehassentwaterdownsothattheriverbedsflowintheirfullness"(13:17).IbnAbbascommented,"Thewaterisknowledge,andtheriverbedsarehearts."AbuBakral-Wasitisaid,"Godcreatedapurepearlandbehelditwiththeeyeofmajesty.ItmeltedawayoutofshameinHispresencesothatitflowed,andGodsaid,`FromtheheavensHehassentwaterdownsothattheriverbedsflowintheirfullness"'(13:17).Thepurityofheartsisaresultofthatwater'scomingtothem.Ibn'Ata'said,"FromtheheavensHehassentwaterdown.ThisisasimilitudeGodhascoinedforthegodservant:Whenthetorrentflowsthroughthewatercourses,noimpurityremainsinthewatercoursesbutthatthewaterwashesitaway.Asaresult,whenthelightthatGodhasapportionedfortheservantflowsinhissoul,thereremainsinitneitherheedlessnessnordarkness.""Fromtheheavenshehassentwaterdown"referstotheallottedportionoflight,and"sothattheriverbedsflowintheirfullness"meansthatthelightsflowintheheartsaccordingtoGod'sapportioningfrompre-eternity."Butthescumvanisheslikeloathsomewaste"(13:17)sothatheartswaxluminouswithnoresidueofroughness."Whilewhatprofitshumankindabidesontheearth"(13:17continues);inotherwords,inanefalsehoodsdisappearandthespiritualrealitiesremain.

Someoneelsesaid,"`FromtheheavensHehassentdownthewater'ofvarietiesofblessings,sothateveryhearttookitsportionandshare."And"theriverbeds"oftheheartsofthespecialistsinexegesis,Hadith,andjurisprudence"flowintheirfullness."Andthe"theriverbeds"oftheheartsoftheSufisamongthereligiousscholarswhorenouncethisworldandwhoholdfasttothespiritualrealitiesofreverentialfear"flowintheirfullness."Thepersonwithinwhomresidesthepollutionofloveofthisworld,intheformofpossessionsandprestigeandlustforrankandhighstanding-theriverbedofthatperson'sheartlikewise"flowsaccordingtoitscapacity."Thatpersongarnersagoodlybitofusefulknowledgebutdoesnotshareinthespiritualrealitiesofknowledge.Thewatercourseoftheheartofapersonwhorenouncesthisworldbroadenssothatitflowswiththewatersofknowledgethataccumulate,anditbecomesacistern.

SomeonesaidtoHasanal-Basri,"Thosewhopossessdeeperunderstandingsaythus-and-so."Hereplied,"Andhaveyoueverseenapersonwhopossessesdeeperunderstanding(faqih)?Forthefaqihisonewhorenouncesthisworld."TheSufishaveclaimedforthemselvesaportionofacademicstudy,andthat

learningthroughstudyhasbroughtthemtoactaccordingtowhattheyknow.Whentheyactaccordingtowhattheyknow,[57]thisactionhasbroughtthemknowledgeofhereditarytransmission.So,ontheonehand,theyarewiththeotherreligiousscholarsintheirdisciplines,whileontheother,theydistinguishthemselvesfromthemwithrespecttoadditionaldisciplines,namely,thesciencesofhereditarytransmission.Andknowledgebyhereditarytransmissionisdeepreligiousunderstanding.Godhassaid,"Fromeverycohortamongthemletacontingentsetouttodevotethemselvestoin-depthstudyofthereligion,sothattheymightwarntheirpeoplewhentheyreturntothem"(9:122).Thewarningthereforearisesfromtheprofoundcomprehension.Thewarningresultsintherevitalizationofthosebeingwarnedbymeansofthewaterofknowledge,andrevitalizationthroughknowledgeistheroleofthefaqih.Thereforereligiousfiqhhasbecomeamongthemostperfectandloftiestofreligiousspecializations.Theonewhopossessesthisknowledgeisthegod-fearingpersonwhorenouncesthisworldandwho,byreasonofhisknowledge,arrivesatthestatusofwarner.

ThewellspringofknowledgeandguidanceisfirstandforemostGod'sMessenger.GuidanceandknowledgecameuponhimfromGodsothatitquenchedhisthirstbothoutwardlyandinwardly.Fromhisoutwardimbibingthereligionbecamemanifest.Thetermreligion,whichmeans"complianceandhumblesurrender,"derivesfromarootmeaning"lowly."Everythingthathumblesitselfislowly,andreligionimpliesthatindividualpersonshumblethemselvesbeforetheirLord.Godhassaid,"He(God)hasordainedforyouthereligionHeenjoineduponNoah,andthatwhichWehaverevealedtoyouandenjoineduponAbrahamandMosesandJesus,thatyouabidebythereligionandmakenodistinctionsconcerningit"(42:13).Forasaresultofdivisivenessinreligionawitheringovercomesthememberssothatthebloomofknowledgefadesfromthem.Theheart'simbibingmakespossibleanoutwardfreshnessbyadorningthememberswithspiritualandmaterialsurrender.

Initsimbibingthroughknowledgetheheartislikeanocean.TheheartofGod'sMessenger,therefore,becameasurgingoceanthroughknowledgeandguidance,someofwhichthenflowedfromtheoceanofhishearttohislowerselfsothatthefreshnessofknowledgeanditsquenchingofthirstweremanifesttohisnoblesoul.Thebasequalitiesandcharacteristicsofhislowerselfweretherebytransformed[andinvestedwiththeexemplaryqualitiesthatbelongtotheheart],whenceastreamflowedtothemembersandtheygrewlushand

verdant.Andwhenhisluxuriancewascompleteandthemoistnessfull,Godsenthimtohumankind.Hedevotedhimselftotheummawithaheartbrimmingwiththewatersofknowledge.Thestreamsofprofoundcomprehensionreceivedhimsothatineverystreamaportionandmeasureflowedfromhisocean.Now,thatportioncomingtotheintellectisdeepreligiousunderstanding.'AbdAllahibn`UmarreportsthatGod'sMessengersaid,"NothingcomprisesmoreexcellentworshipofGodthandeepreligiousunderstanding.Indeed,asinglepersonendowedwithfiqhisharderonSatanthanathousanddevotees.Allthingshavetheirmainstays,andthemainstayofthisreligionisfiqh."

Ourshaykh,Shaykhal-IslamAbu`n-Najib,dictatedtous,6"IheardMulawiyasayinanaddress,`IheardGod'sMessengersay,"OnthepersonforwhomGoddesiresgoodthingsHeconfersdeeperreligiousunderstanding.Asforme,Imerelydividethingsup,butitisGodwhobestows.""'

Whenthewaterofknowledgecomestotheunderstanding,theheart'svisionclearssothatitperceivesthetrueandthefalse,andthedifferencebetweenrightguidanceanderrorbecomescleartoit.WhenGod'sMessengerrecitedtotheBedouin,'"Anyonewhodoesevensolittleasanatom'sweightofgoodwillseeitatjudgment,andanyonewhodoesevensomuchasanatom'sweightofevilwillseeitthen"(99:7-8),theBedouinreplied,"Enough,enough!"SaidGod'sMessenger,"Themanhasdeepunderstanding."

'AbdAllahibnAbbasrecountedthatMuhammadsaid,"Themostexcellentformofworshipisdeeperreligiousunderstanding."AndGodhasmadefilthanattributeoftheheart.SoHehassaid,"Theyhaveheartswithwhichtheydonotunderstanddeeply"(7:179).Therefore,whentheyunderstanddeeply,theyknow;andwhentheyknow,theyactaccordingly;andwhentheyact,theypossessexperientialknowledge;andwhentheypossessexperientialknowledge,theyareguided.Thegreateraperson'scomprehensionthemorequicklyhissoulassents,thegreaterhisadherencetothetenetsofthereligion,andthemoreamplehisshareinthelightofcertitude.Thus,knowledgeisanintegralrealitygrantedbyGodtohearts,whileexperientialknowledgeistheabilitytodiscernallofthat,andguidanceistheheart'sdiscoveryofthat.Therefore,whentheProphetsaid,"TheguidanceandknowledgewithwhichGodhassentmearelike...,"hewasindicatingthattheprophetichearthadexperiencedknowledgeandwasthereforeguidingandguided.HisknowledgeincludesacongenitalinheritancefromAdam,thefatherofhumanity,inthatheknewallthenames

(2:31)ofcreatedthings,andthenamesarethesignsofthings.God,therefore,ennobledAdamwithknowledge,andhassaid,"Hetaughtthehumanbeingthatwhichhehadnotknown"(96:5).Thusasaresultoftheknowledgeandthewisdominstilledinhim,Adamwasendowedwithprofoundcomprehension,[58]sagacityandexperientialknowledge,kindlinessandgrace,loveandhatred,joyandsorrow,equanimityandindignation,andintellectualacuity.

ThenGoddecreedthatAdamputallofthattouse,creatingspiritualinsightforhisheartsothathewasledtowardGodbythelightGodhadgrantedhim.SotheProphetwassenttothecommunitywiththelightbestowedonhimashisuniqueinheritance.AnditissaidthatwhenGodaddressedtheheavensandtheearthwiththewords,"`Comeforwardeitherwillinglyorreluctantly.'Thetwoofthemreplied:`Wecomeforwardwillingly"'(41:11);itwastheplaceoftheKalbathatspokefromtheearthandanswered,andfromtheheavensitwasthatwhichliesparalleltotheKalba."AbdAllahibnAbbassaid,"TheclayofGod'sMessengerisfromthenaveloftheearthinMecca."Oneofthelearnedhassaid,"ThisindicatesthatwhatcamefromtheearthbywayofresponseisatinyparticleofMuhammadtheChosen."BeginningfromtheplaceoftheKalbatheearthspreadout,sothatGod'sMessengerhimselfbecametheoriginofcreation,andcreatedbeingsaresecondarytohim.Thisistheimportofhissaying,"IwasaprophetwhenAdamwasbetweenwaterandclay,"or,asavarianthasit,"betweenthespiritandthebody."Itissaid,"Hewascalledummi(unlettered)becauseMeccaistheMother(umm)ofcitiesandthattinyparticleofhimistheMotherofcreation."Aperson'splotofearthishisburialground,whichwouldmeanthathisburialplacewouldbeinMeccawhencecametheearthofhisbody.Butitissaidthat"whenthewaterwasagitated,itcastthefoamoffinalldirections,"andinthatway,theessenceoftheProphetfelluponwhatcorrespondstohisplotofearthinMedina.God'sMessengerwasbothaMeccanandaMedinanwhoselongingwasforMeccaandwhoseearthwasinMedina.

AnallusiontowhatIhavementionedconcerningthe"tinyparticle"ofGod'sMessengeriswhatGodhassaid,"AndwhenyourLordtookfromthechildrenofAdam,outoftheirbacks,theirprogenyandmadethemwitnessconcerningthemselves,askingthem,`AmInotyourLord?'theyreplied`Yes"'(7:172).AstheHadithhasit,"GodrubbedthebackofAdamandcollectedhisprogenyoutofitintheformoftinyparticles.HeextractedthetinyparticlesfromtheporesofAdam'shair,andthetinyparticlescameoutthewaysweatexudes."Somesay

oneoftheangelsdidtherubbing,andMuhammad,intheHadith,attributedtheactiontotheOnewhocausedtheaction.Accordingtoothers,themeaningofthesayingthatHe"rubbed"isthatHetooktheirreckoning,justastheearthisreckonedbywayofsurveyingit.'ThattookplaceinBatnNu`man,ariverbednear'Arafa,betweenMeccaandat-Ta'if.WhenGodaddressedthetinyparticles,theyrepliedwitha"Yes."Godrecordedthecovenantonparchmentandhadtheangelswitnessit,andmadeAdamswallowtheBlackStone.ThetinyparticleofGod'sMessenger,therefore,iswhatrepliedfromtheearth.Knowledgeandguidancewerekneadedintohim,andhewassentwiththeknowledgeandguidancethatwerehisinheritanceandprerogative.

ItissaidthatwhenGodsentGabrielandMichaeltocollectahandfulofearth,itrefused;soGodsentAzra'zl,whocollectedahandfulofearth.ButIblishadtrampledtheearthwithhisfeet,sothatsomeearthlaybetweenhisfeetandsomeintheplaceunderhisfeet.Theego-soulwasfashionedfromthatwhichthefootofIblishadtouched,sothatitbecametherefugeofevil.Iblis'sfootdidnotcoverpartoftheearth,andfromthisdusttheProphetsandFriendsofGodoriginated.ThetinyparticleofGod'sMessengerwasinaportionof1Azra'il'shandfuluponwhichGodgazedandwherethefootofIblishadnotstepped.AsaresultMuhammaddidnotreceiveashareofignorancebutinsteadcametobedevoidofignoranceandreceivedanabundantshareofknowledge.

Godthereforesenthimwithguidanceandknowledgethatweretransferredfromhishearttotheheartsofhispeopleandfromhissoultotheirsouls.TheresultisanaffinitywithMuhammadthroughtherootpurityoftheprimalclay,andanintimacythroughtheoriginalmutualfamiliarity.ThemoreintimatewithMuhammadeachpersonis,throughtheconnectionofthepurityoftheprimalclay,themoreamplehisorhershareinreceivingwhattheProphethasbrought.ItistheheartsoftheSufisthatarethenearestinintimacy,sothattheygatheranampleshareofknowledgeandtheirinnerbeingsbecomecisterns.Theylearnandtheyteach,likecisternsthatfacilitateirrigationandplanting.Theyunitetheutilityofformalstudyandinheritedknowledgebymeansofmeticulousadherencetothefundamentaldemandsofreverentialawe.Andwhenthesoulshavebeenpurified,thepolishingeffectofreverentialaweburnishesthemirrorsoftheirhearts,sothattheimagesofthingsaremanifestinthemaccordingtotheiractualformandessence.Thisworld'suglinessbecomesclearlyapparent,sothattheyrejectit,andtheworldtocomeappearsinitsbeauty,sothattheyseek

it.Whentheyrenouncethisworld,thetributariesofthesciencesflowprofuselyintotheirinnerbeingsandknowledgegainedthroughinquirycomestogetherwithinheritedknowledge.

KnowthateveryloftyspiritualstatethatIattributetotheSufisinthisbookisthespiritualstateofonewhoisclosetoGod,andtheSufiisonewhoisclosetoGod.ThetermsufiisnotintheQur'an,forthewordsufiwasomittedandwascoinedinreferencetotheonewhoisclosetoGod,asIwillexplainintheappropriatechapter.[59]ButneitherintheeasternnorthewesternquartersoftherealmsofIslamisthistermcommonforthoseclosetoGod.Thetermis,however,commontothosewhocopytheminexternals.HownumeroushavebeenthoseclosetoGodinthewesternlandsandtheregionofTurkestanandTransoxianawho,becausetheydidnotassumetheoutwardtrappingsoftheSufis,werenotcalledSufis!Butthereisnoquibblingoverterminology.OneneedonlyknowthatbythetermsufiImeanthosewhoareclosetoGod.TheSufishaykhsnamedinbiographicalanthologiesandsimilarworkswereallonthepathofthosewhodrewneartoGod,andtheirdisciplinesarethesciencesofthespiritualstatesofthosewhoareneartoGod.OnewhostrivesforthestationofthoseamongallthedevoutwhoarenearGodisknownasaSufi-striver,insofarasthatpersonhasnotfullyrealizedthespiritualstateoftheSufis.OnewhohasfullyachievedtheirspiritualstatehasbecomeaSufi.AsidefromthesetwogroupstherearethosewhosetthemselvesapartbymeansofexternalaccoutermentsandassociatewithSufis,andtheyarecopycats."ButaboveeveryoneendowedwithknowledgethereisanAll-knowingOne"(12:76).

[60]Chapter2:OntheSuperiorityoftheSufisinKeenAttentiveness

God'sMessengersaid,""MayGodmakeradiantamanwhohasheardaHadithfromusandhascommittedittomemoryinordertopassitalong.Manyaretheywhoconveydeepunderstandingtoonewhounderstandsmoredeeplythantheythemselvesdo.Andmanyaretheywhoconveydeepunderstandingwithoutthemselvesbeingactuallyendowedwithdeepunderstanding!"

Thefoundationofeverygoodthingiskeenattentiveness,asGodhassaid,"HadGoddiscernedanygoodinthem,Hewouldhavemadethemlisten"(8:23).OneoftheSufishassaid,"Thesignofgoodnessinlisteningisthatthegodservanthearsthroughtheannihilationofhischaracteristicsandattributes,sothathelistenstotheTruthbymeansofthetruth."Anotherofthemsaid,"Had

Goddeterminedthattheywereworthyofhearing,Hewouldhaveopenedtheirearsforattentiveness."Ifdemonicinsinuationtakesholdofapersonandtheprattleoftheego-soulovercomeshiminwardly,thatpersonisincapableofkeenattentiveness.

WhentheSufisandthepeoplenearGodunderstandthatthewordofGodisHispropheticmessagesandHisaddressestoHisservants,theyseethateveryverseofGod'swordisaseaamongtheoceansofknowledgethatencompassboththeoutwardandinward,manifestandhiddenaspectsofknowledge.TheyperceivethewordasoneofthegatesoftheGardenofParadise,inviewofthewarningitprovidesandofthedeedstowhichGod'swordcallsthem.TheyregardthespeechofGod'sMessenger,which"hedoesnotarticulateofhisownaccord"andis"noneotherthanapropheticinspirationrevealed"(53:3-4),ascomingfromGod,andtheymustbeattentivetoit.TheSufisthereforeconsiderreadinesstolistenattentivelyofthehighestimportance,andtheyregardkeenattentivenessasknockingonthedooroftherealmofLordlyDominionandinvokingthedescentofblessingfromtherealmoflongingandfear.Theyconsidersatanicinsinuationsassomuchsmokerisingfromthefireofthesoulthatincitestoevil,"andasadeepgloomgatheredfromSatan'swhisperedinsinuations.Theybelievethatthemundanepleasuresandworldlyspoilsthataredependentupondisorderedcravingandthecauseofruin,arelikethewoodthatincreasesafire'sblazeandredoublestheheart'sanguish.Thustheyrejectthisworldandrenounceit.

When,therefore,thewoodisnolongersuppliedtothefireoftheego-soul,sothatitsflamessubsideanditssmokedissipates,theirinmostbeingsandheartsbecomewitnessestothesourcesofknowledge,sothattheymaketheirwellspringsreadyfordrinkingbythepurityofprofoundcomprehension.Andwhentheybecomeaware,theyhear.Godhassaid,"Thereinisareminderforthosewhohaveaheartorwholistenandareaware"(50:37).Shiblisaid,"TheQur'an'ssummonsisforthepersonwhoseheartispresenttoGodanddoesnotloseitsfocusonHimforevenaninstant."YahyaibnMu,adhar-Razisaid,"Therearetwokindsofheart:Oneistheheartthatissototallypreoccupiedwiththisworldthatwhensomematterofdevotionaldutyarises,theindividualdoesnotknowwhatheisdoingbecauseofhisheart'sfixationonthisworld.Theotheristheheartsofullofthespiritualstatesofthenextworldthatwhensomethis-worldlymatterarises,theindividualdoesnotknowwhatheisdoing

becauseofhisheart'sjourneyingtotheotherworld.Markwellthedifferencebetweentheblessing,inthelatterinstance,ofwell-foundedunderstanding,andintheformer,thecurseofephemeraldistractionsthatholdsyoubackfromobedience."AnotheroftheSufisglossedtheQur'anictext,bysaying,"`Forthosewhohaveaheart'freeofnegativetendenciesandinfirmities...."HusaynibnMansur(al-Hallaj)said,"`thosewhohaveaheart'inwhichthereisnothoughtbutawarenessoftheLord...,"andherecited(thisverseofpoetry):[611

Ibn'Ata'saidtheversemeans,"WhenaheartregardsGodwiththeeyeofexaltation,itmeltsbeforeHimandisdevotedtoHimapartfromallelse."Wasitisaid,"Inotherwords,it`servesasareminder'(50:37)forachosengroup,notfortherestofhumanity.`Forthosewhohaveaheart'meansinpre-eternity,andtheyaretheonesofwhomGodsaid,`OrthosewhoweredeadandwhomWebroughtbacktolife"'(6:122).Wasitialsosaid,"Witnessingcausesperplexity,whileconcealmentbringsunderstanding;forwhenGodmanifestsHimselftosomething,ithumblesitselfbeforeHimandsurrenders."WhatWasitihassaidisapplicableonlytoaparticulargroup,butthisQur'anicversepassesadifferentkindofjudgmentonsomeotherpeople,namely,thosewhosespiritualstatusischaracterizedbyfixity,forwhomcontemplativewitnessingandprofoundcomprehensionareunited:Thelocusofprofoundcomprehensioniswhereconversationandmutualcommunicationoccur,namely,intheheart'shearing;andcontemplativewitnessingoccursintheheart'svision.Bothhearingandvisionhavetheirownconditionsandfunction.

Whenapersonisinastateofintoxication,hishearingisswallowedupinhisvision.Butwhenapersonisinastateofsobrietyandsteadiness,hishearingisnotswallowedupinhisvisionbecauseheisincontrolofhiscondition.Hethereforeunderstandsbymeansofanexistentialreceptivitypreparedtocomprehendspeech.Thatisbecauseprofoundcomprehensioniswhereinspirationoriginates,andhearingandinspirationrequireanexistentialreceptivity.Thisexistentialreality,however,isagiftthatarisesfromasecondcreationfortheindividualwhostandsfirminthestationofsobriety.Forthepersonwhohasprogressedfromthepassingawayofannihilationtothedwelling

placeofsurvival,itisnottheexistentialrealitythatcomestonaughtintheglowofthelightofcontemplativewitnessing.

IbnSamIun`2said,"`Thereinisareminderforthosewhohaveaheart'thatknowsexperientiallythepropercomportmentofservice.Theheart'spropercomportmentconsistsofthreethings:Whenthehearthastastedthefoodofworshipfulness,itisliberatedfromthebondageoflust.Apersonwhokeepshislustatadistancediscoversonethirdofpropercomportment.Onewhostillfeelstheneedofthepropercomportmentthathehasnotfoundevenafterbeingoccupiedwithwhathehasfoundhasdiscoveredanotherthirdofpropercomportment.Andthefinalthirdistheheart'sbeingfilledbytheOnewhobestowsbountytoonewhosefidelityisabundant.[So,then,onehasdiscoveredthewholeofpropercomportment]."

Muhammadibn'Ali(al-Bagir,d.114/732)said,"Deathoftheheartresultsfromthecravingsoftheego-soul.Wheneveritrejectslust,itgainsaproportionalshareoflife."Hearingthereforebelongstotheliving,nottothedead.Godhassaid,"Surelyyoucannotmakethedeadhear"(27:80).Sahlibn'AbdAllah(at-Tustari)said,"Theheartisdelicate,andsinfulpassinginclinationsleaveanimpressiononit,sothatevenalittlebecomessignificant."Godhassaid,"WhenapersonisnotopentotheremembranceoftheMerciful,weappointSatantobehisconfidant"(43:36).Theheartisincessantlyactiveanddoesnotslacken,whiletheego-soulisevervigilantanddoesnotslumber.SoletthegodservantstrivetobeattentivetoGod,forotherwisehewillbeattendingtoSatanandtheego-soul.Everythingthatbarsthedoorofattentivenessarisesfromamovementoftheego-soul,andthroughitsinitiativesSatanfindsawayin.Thesayinghascomedowntous,"HadtheSatansnotswarmedabouttheheartsofthechildrenofAdam,theywouldhavebeenabletogazeintothekingdomoftheheavens."

Husaynsaid,"Theinnervisionofthespirituallyinsightful,andtheexperientialknowledgeofthemystics,andthelightofthoselearnedinLordlymatters,andthepathsofthesuccessfuloneswhohavegonebeforeus,andpre-eternityandpost-eternityandallthatisnoteternalthatcomesbetweenthesetwo-are`forthosewhohaveaheartorwholistenattentively"'(50:37).Ibn'Ata'said,"TheheartisthatwhichregardsGodintentlyandcontemplatesHimandisneithermomentarilynorintermittentlyunawareofHim,sothatitnotonlyhearsthroughHim,buthearsfromHim,notonlycontemplatesthroughHimbut

contemplatesHim.ForwhentheheartregardsGodwithaviewtotheunapproachablemajesty,itquakesinterror;butwhenitlooksuponHimwithaviewtotheintimateattractiveness,thenitbecomestranquilandcalm."

OneoftheSufissaid,"Thetext`Forthosewhohaveaheart'thatisspirituallyinsightful,meansbeingcapableof`peelingoffone'sshell'withGodandofestablishingauniquerelationshipwithHim,untilonehastakenleaveofthisworldandhumanityandtheego-soulandisnotinvolvedwithotherthanGodandisdependentonnonebutHim."WhentheheartoftheSufiisfreedofthehuskofcreatedthings,itlistensattentivelyanditsvisionwitnesses.Itthereforehearswhatisaudible,seeswhatisvisible,andwitnesseswhatistheretocontemplate,becauseithasbeenpurifiedforGodandgatheredintoGod'spresence.[62]AllthingsarewithGodandtheindividualiswithHim.Asaresult,thehearthears,sees,andwitnesses,butitseesandhearsthingsaccordingtotheirtotalityanddoesnothearandviewthemintheirparticularity.Forthetotalityisapprehendedaccordingtothecapacityoftheeyeofwitnessing,whiletheparticularitiesarenotapprehendedbecauseofthenarrownessofexistentialreceptivity.ItisGodwhoknowsboththeuniversalandtheparticular.

Oneofthewisecoinedaparableofthedisparityofattentivenessamonghumanbeingswhenhesaid,"Asowerwentoutwithhisseed.Hefilledhishandwithitandsomeofitfellontheopenpath.Beforelongthebirdsalightedonitandsnatchedit.Someoftheseedfellonthesafwan-smoothstones-coveredbyathinlayerofdampsoil.Itgerminateduntilitsrootsreachedthestones,butfindingnochanceforfurthergrowththere,itwithered.Stillotherseedfellongoodearthwherethornsweregrowing.Itgerminated,butwhenitbegantogrowthethornschokedit,sothatitweakenedandbecameentangledwiththethorns.Andsomeoftheseedfellongoodsoilthatwasneitherontheopenpath,norstony,nordidithavethornsgrowingonit.Theseedgerminated,grew,andflourished.Now,thesowerislikethewisepersonandtheseedislikethetrueword.Whatfellontheopenpathislikethepersonwhohearsthewordbutdoesnotwanttohearit,sothatSatansoonplundersitfromhisheartandheforgetsit.Whatfellonthestonygroundislikethepersonwhostrivestolistentothewordandfindsitappealing,butthenthewordcomestoaheartthatlackstheresolvetoactonit,sothatthewordiseradicatedfromhisheart.Whatfellongoodgroundwherethornsweregrowingisliketheindividualwhohearsthewordandintendstoactonit.Butwhencravingsbesethimandpreventhimfrommoving

forwardinimplementinghisintention,heabandonstheactionhehadintendedbecauseofthevictoryoflust,astheseedisoverwhelmedbythethorns.Andwhatfellongoodsoilislikethepersonlisteningcarefullywhointendstoactonwhathehears.Hecomprehendsitandactsaccordingly,andkeepshislustfulcravingsatbay.""

ThisindividualwhosteersclearoflustfulcravingsandpursuesthepathsofguidanceistheSufi.Thereisasweetnessinlustfuldesire,andwhentheego-soulimbibesthesweetnessofpassionatecraving,itbecomesaddictedtoitanddelightsinit.Thatdelightinlustfulcravingiswhatchokesoffgrowthlikethorns.ButthesweetnessofpurelovealightsupontheheartoftheSufi,andpureloveistheattachmentofthespirittothedivinepresence.Throughthepowerofthespirit'sbeingdrawntothedivinepresenceatlove'sbeckoning,thespiritmakestheheartandtheego-soulfollowalong.Thesweetnessofloveforthedivinepresenceovercomesthesweetnessoflustfuldesire.Forthesweetnessoflustislikeaninferiortreelackingsubstantialfoundationthatisuprootedatgroundlevel,sinceitcannotriseabovetheegosoul.Butthesweetnessofpureloveislikeagoodtreewhoserootsarefirmandwhosebranchesreachtotheheavens.Becauseitisfoundedonthespirit,itsbranchesextendtoGodanditsrootsintotheearthofthesoul.WhenapersonhearsthewordoftheQur'anorasayingofGod'sMessenger,heimbibesitinspirit,heart,andsoulsothathegiveshisallforit,saying:

Themelodyofthewordpervadesandencloseshimsothateveryhairofhimbecomesanear,andeveryatomofhimtheabilitytosee.Hethushearstheallthroughtheallandseestheallthroughtheall,andhesays:

Godhassaid,"AnnouncegoodtidingstoMyservants,thosewhoattendtothewordandfollowthebestofit,thosewhomGodguides.Itistheywhopossessunderstanding"(39:17-18).Oneofthemhassaid,"Thereareahundredportions

ofspiritualperceptionandintellectualunderstanding:ninety-ninebelongtotheProphetandonetoalltherestofthebelievers.Andtheportionbelongingtoalltheotherbelievershastwenty-oneparts.Allthebelieversareequalinoneofthem,namely,theconfessionthatthereisnogodbutGodandthatMuhammadisGod'sMessenger.Inthetwentyremainingpartsthebelieversdifferamongthemselveswithrespecttothescopeofthesubstanceoftheirfaith."Ithasbeensaid,"InthisverseisamanifestationoftheexcellenceofGod'sMessenger";inotherwords,"thebest"isthatwhichhehasbrought.Forwhen,beforethecreationoftheworld,hefoundhimselfinthecompanyoffixityandalliedwithastateofabiding,thelightsinallthespiritualstatesappeareduponhim.Hiswasthebestspeech;his,too,preeminenceinallofthespiritualstations.Doyounotnote[63]hissaying,"Wewhoarethelastaretheforemost"?Itreferstothelastinbeingandtheforemostinthefirstverbalcommunicationinexcellenceintheplaceofholiness.

TheMostHighhassaid,"Oh,youwhobelieve!RespondtoGodandtheMessengerwhenheinvitesyoutothatwhichgivesyoulife"(8:24).Junaydsaid,"Theybreathethelife-givingbreathofthattowhichhehasinvitedthem.ThereforetheyhastentoeradicatetheassociationsthatdistractthemfromGod.Theyattackwiththeirsoulstheembraceoftimidity,andtheychokedownthebitterpilloflongsuffering.TheyaresincereintheirdealingswithGodandstriveforthebestdemeanorintheireveryapproachtoHim.Theyattachlittleimportancetocalamitiesbutareintimatelyacquaintedwiththevalueofwhattheyseek.TheyrestraintheirattentionfromturningtowardrecollectionofanybuttheirMaster,sothattheylivethelifeeternalthroughtheLivingOnewhoeverwasandeverwillbe."Wasitisaid,"Thelifeoftheheartandsouldependsontheirbeingclearofeveryilleffectinwordanddeed."Oneofthemsaid(glossing8:24),"`RespondtoGod'inyourinnermostbeing,`andtotheMessenger'throughyouroutwardactions."

ThelifeofsoulscomesfromfollowingtheMessenger,andthelifeofheartsfromcontemplatingone'sfaults,andthatmeansdiffidencebeforeGodwhenone'slimitationsareevident.Ibn'Ata'said,"InthisQur'anicverse`responding'meansfourthings:first,theresponseofacknowledgingGod'stranscendentunity;second,theresponseofacknowledgingGod'sreality;third,theresponseofsurrender;andfourth,theresponseofstrivingtobeclosetoGod.""Responding,"therefore,hastodowithlistening,andlisteningderivesfrom

profoundcomprehension.Profoundcomprehensionhastodowithexperientialknowledgeofthemeaningofwhathasbeensaid,andexperientialknowledgeofwhathasbeensaidhastodowithintimateawarenessandknowledgeoftheOnespeaking.Buttherangeofmodesofcomprehensionislimitlessbecausetherangeofmeaningsofwhathasbeensaidinthisscripturaltextislimitless.

Godhassaid,"Say:IftheseawereinkwithwhichtowritethewordsofmyLord,theseawouldrunoutbeforethewordsofmyLordwereexhausted"(18:109).IneverytextoftheQur'an,God'swordsaresuchthattheseawouldbeexhaustedbutthewordswouldnot.ThewholeofGod'sspeechisbutasinglewordwhenonelooksattherealityoftheacknowledgmentofthedivinetranscendentunity,andeachindividualwordisasifallwordscombinedwhenoneconsidersthebreadthoftheeternalknowledgeofGod.

TheProphetsaid,""NotaverseoftheQur'anhasbeenrevealedbutthatithadbothanoutwardandaninwardmeaning.Everyletterhasafundamentalsense'sandeveryfundamentalsensehasanapexofinsight.""'AliibnZaydsaid,"SoIinquired,`OAbuSaid(HasanalBasri),whatistheapexofinsight?'Hereplied,`Agroupofpeoplewillappearwhowillactuponit."'AbuUbaydsaid,"IhaveconcludedthatthissayingofHasan(al-Basri)relatestothesayingof'AbdAllahibnMasud,thenAbuUbaydquoted"'AbdAllahibnMasudassaying,"Notaletterorverse(ofscripture)butsome(particular)groupofpeoplehasmadeacauseofaction-or,thatsomegroupwill(soonerorlater)makeacauseforaction."So,theapexofinsightistheplaceofascenttowhichoneascendsfromexperientialknowledgeofwhatoneknowsdiscursively.(Inotherwords,)theapexofinsightistheprofoundcomprehensionthatresultsfromGod'sopeningofeveryheartwiththelightHeprovides.

Peopledisagreeastothesignificanceofthe"outward"and"inward"meanings.Somesay,"TheoutwardistheverbalexpressionoftheQur'an,whiletheinwardisitsinterpretation."Otherssay,"TheoutwardistheapparentformofanarrativethroughwhichGodinformsusaboutHisdispleasurewithapeopleandHispunishmentofthem.Sotheoutwardisthataccountaboutthem,whileitsinwardaspectistheadmonitionanditsannouncementtothoseamongtheMuslimcommunitywhoreciteandlistentothetext."Stillotherssay,"Theoutwardreferstotherevelation,towhichpeoplemustrespondinfaith,whileitsinwardaspectreferstotherequirementofactinguponit."Again,somesay,"Theoutwardreferstothescripture'sbeingrecitedjustasitwassentdown,asthe

MostHighhassaid,`RecitetheQur'aninameasuredchant'(73:4).Anditsinwarddimensionconsistsinreflectionandmeditationonit,asGodhassaid,`ABook,blessingladen,thatWehavesentdowntoyousothattheymightreflectonitsversesandthatthosepossessedwithinsightmightmeditate"'(38:29).

IthasbeensaidthattheHadith,"Foreveryletterthereisafundamentalsense,"meansthatinrecitationonedoesnottakelibertieswiththewrittentext,whichistheexemplaryversionestablishedby`Uthman;andinexegesis,onedoesnotgobeyondthatwhichhasbeenheardandhandeddown."Adistinctionbetweentafsirandta'walisthattafsirinvolvesthescientificknowledgeoftherevelationoftheverse,itsprincipletheme,itsnarrative,andthecircumstancesunderwhichitwasrevealed.Inthisitisoff-limitsforpeople[64]tocommentonthetextbeyondwhathearingandtraditionsupply.Asforta'wal,itorientsthescripturalversetowardapossiblemeaning,solongasthepossiblemeaningthattheinterpreterseesthereisconsistentwiththeBookandtheSunna.Ta'wal,therefore,variesinrelationtodisparityofspiritualstateoftheoneengaginginsymbolicalinterpretation,asIhavementioned,accordingtothepurityofunderstanding,thedegreeofexperientialknowledge,andthelevelofproximitytoGod.

Abu`d-Darda'hassaid,"AhumanbeingdoesnotarriveatdeeperunderstandinguntilheseesthattheQur'anhasmanydimensions."Howastonishingisthesayingof'AbdAllahibnMasud,"Thereisnotascripturalversethatsomegroupwillnotmakeacauseofaction!"Thiscommenturgeseveryseekerofseriousintenttopurifythesourcesfromwhichthewordspringsandtocomprehendprofoundlyinhisheartitsrarifiedmeaningsandthehiddenrecessesofitsmysteries.TheSufiwhohasfullyrenouncedtheworldandde-huskedtheheartfromwhatisnotGod,findsanapexofinsightineveryverse.ForthatSufieveryoccasionofrecitationisanewapexofinsightandanunfoldingofprofoundcomprehension.Everyinstanceofprofoundcomprehension,inturn,impliesnewactionforhim,forprofoundcomprehensionsummonsonetoaction.Actioninturnbringsaboutpurityofunderstandingandrefinedinsightintothemeaningsofthedivinecommunication.Fromknowledge,therefore,comesaction,andknowledgeandactionreinforceeachotherintheindividual.

Butthisaction,fromtheoutset,istheactionofhearts,andtheactionofheartsisnottheactionofthebody.Becauseoftheirsubtletyandinaccessibilitythe

deedsofheartsarelikeformsofknowing,fortheyarethespirit'sintentionsandinmostthoughtsandcajoleries,theheart'scourtesies,andtheinmostbeing'sprivatewhisperings.WheneverSufisengageinoneoftheseactions,oneoftheescutcheonsofknowledgerisesforthem,andtheycomeupontheapexofinsightofanewprofoundcomprehensionofthescripturalverse.Myinmostbeingisfulloftheconvictionthattheapexofinsightisnottobefoundindwellinguponthepurityofprofoundcomprehensionoftherefinedmeaningandobscuresecretoftheverse.Rather,theapexofinsightarisesinconnectionwitheachverseupontheexperienceoftheonewhoisspeakingit,fortheverseistherepositoryofoneofthedivinecharacteristicsandattributes.Inthiswaythedivinemanifestationsarerenewedfortheindividualthroughtherecitationandauralreceptionoftheverses,soeachversebecomesamirrorthatcommunicatestohimGod'ssublimegrandeur.

ItisreportedthatJa'faras-Sadiq'8said,"GodhasbeenmanifesttoHisservantsinHisspeech,buttheydidnotsee."Fromthisperspectiveeveryversehasanapexofinsight.Asforthefieldoffundamentalsense,itisthesemanticfieldoftheword,whereastheapexofinsight"isanascentfromthespeechtothecontemplationofthespeaker.ItisalsoreportedthatJalfarfellintoaswoonwhileperformingtheritualprayer.Someoneaskedhimaboutthat,andheanswered,"IcontinuedrepeatingtheverseuntilIhearditfromtheOnewhospokeit."

Whenthe[lightofthe]forelockofGod'stranscendentunityappearswithintheSufi'sfieldofvision,he"givesear"(50:37)whileattendingtothedivinepromiseandthreat.WithhisheartprescindingfromwhatisnotGod,hebecomesawitnessintheverypresenceofGod.ThenheseeshistongueorthetongueofanotherduringrecitationasliketheBushofMoses,inthatGodcausedhimtohearHisaddressfromit,"BeholdIamGod"(28:30).IfhishearingisfromGodandhisattentivenessisorientedtowardGod,hishearingbecomeshisseeingandhisseeinghishearing.Hisknowledgebecomeshisactionandhisactionhisknowledge;hislastbecomeshisfirstandhisfirsthislast.ThatmeansthatGodaddressedtheseedofhumankindyetunborn,saying,"AmInotyourLord?"(7:172),andtheyheardthesummonstotheultimatepurity.Thentheseedswriggleceaselesslyintheloinsandareconveyedintothewombs.Godsaid,"(He)whoseesyouwhenyoustand(inritualprayer)and(sees)yourmovementamongthosewhoprostratethemselves"(26:218-19).Thatrefersto

yourseed'swrigglingintheloinsofthepeopleofprostrationamongyourforefathers,theprophets.Sotheseedcontinuedtobepassedalonguntilitemergedintheirbodies.Throughthedivinewisdomtheywereveiledfromseeingthedivinepower,andthroughtherealmofwhatcanbeseentheywereveiledfromtherealmoftheunseen,andtheirdarknessgatheredthroughtheirconstantmovementintheunfoldingphasesofcreation.20

When,therefore,GodwantsaservanttohavekeenattentivenessinordertomakeofhimapureSufi,Heleadstheindividualunceasinglythroughthedegreesofpurificationandadornment,untilheisdelivered[fromtheconfinementoftheworldofwisdom]intotheexpansivenessofdivinepower.Thenwilltheveilsofwisdombewithdrawnfromhispenetratingspiritualvisionsothathishearingof"AmInotyourLord?"becomesarevelationandaneyewitnessing,andhisacknowledgmentofthedivinetranscendentunityandexperientialknowledgebecomeanillustrationandproof,andthedarknessofcreation'sunfoldingphasesgraduallygivewayforhimintheshimmeringflashoflights.OneoftheSufishassaid,"Irecallthedivineaddress,`AmInotyourLord?"'(7:172),therebyalludingtothisspiritualstate.ForwhentheSufihasfullyrealizedthisquality,hismysticalmomentbecomeseternal,hispersonalwitnessingendless,andhishearinguninterruptedandeverrenewed.HethushearsthewordofGodandthewordofHismessengerwithperfectacuity.

SufyanibnUyaynasaid,"Knowledgestartswithattentiveness,followedbyprofoundcomprehension,followedbysafeguardinginmemory,followedbyaction,and,finally,bydissemination."Someonehassaid,"Learnkeenattentivenessaswellasyoulearneloquence."[65]Andithasbeensaid,"Keenattentivenessinvolveswaitingforthespeakertocompletewhathehastosay,alongwithminimalattentiontoone'sresponse,communicatinganopennesswithone'sfacialexpression,lookingdirectlyatthespeaker,andfocusedreceptivity."GodsaidtoHisProphet,"HastennotwiththeQur'anbeforeitsrevelationtoyouisfinal.(Say,rather,MyLord,increasemeinknowledge.)"(20:114);andagain,"Donotmakeyourtonguemovewithitinordertohasten(therevelation)"(75:16).ThisisGod'sinstructingHisMessengerinkeenattentiveness.Someonehassaidthatthismeans,"DonotdictatetherevelationtotheCompanionsuntilyouhaveinteriorizeditsmeaningssothatyoubecomethefirsttobenefitfromitsmysteriesandwonders."Someonehassaid,"WhenGabrielcamedownandmadearevelationtohim,theMessengercontinuedtoreciteQur'anforfearthat

hemightletitslipawayandforgetit.Godthereforerestrainedhimbysaying,`DonotanticipateitsrecitationbeforeGabrielhasfinisheddeliveringittoyou."'

Itissometimesthecase,therefore,thatthestudyofthereligiousdisciplinesandthetraditionsofGod'sMessengeristheequivalentofhearing.Onewhoinvestigatesthereligioussciencesandtraditions,andthelifestoriesandhagiographicalnarrativesofthedevout,aswellasthevariousaphorismsandparables[thatcontaindeliverancefromthepunishmentsofthenextworld],mustbehaveinallthoseendeavorswithkeenattentivenessbornofself-disciplineandreverentialfear.Justashederives"thebest"(39:18)fromallthathehears,sohegleansthebestofeverythinginhisstudy.

Propercomportmentinstudymeans,amongotherthings,thatwhenthegodservantwishestoinvestigatesomeaspectoftheHadithandreligiousscience,hemustknowthatsuchstudymaymotivatetheego-soul,withitsmeagerpatience,torecollection,recitation,andaction.Oneought,therefore,toseekrefreshmentinstudymuchthewayonerelaxesbysocializingandconversingwithpeople.Inthatprocesstheperceptivepersonshouldmonitorhimselfandoughtnottakesuchpleasureinreadingastoletitconsumeallhistime.Whenhedecidestostudyabookorsomeaspectofreligiousscience,heshouldnotrushintoitwithoutpriorpersonalexamination,heartfeltpenitence,andturningtoGod,seekingconfirmationfromthemercyofAllah.ForGodsometimessuppliesthroughstudythatwhichaugmentsone'sspiritualstate.Shouldtheindividualaskfordivineguidance,'wellandgood.Godwillopenforhimthedoorofprofoundcomprehension;andbringingonetoprofoundcomprehensionisagiftofGodaboveandbeyondthatwhichisevidentintheformalitiesofreligiousknowledge.Religiousknowledgehasbothanoutwardformandaninwardsecretthatisprofoundcomprehension.GodspokeofthenobilityofprofoundcomprehensionwhenHesaid,"WegaveSolomonprofoundcomprehensionofit,andtoallWegavewisdomandknowledge"(21:79).Hethusalludedtoprofoundcomprehensionbyreferringtoitpointedlyanddistinguishingitfromwisdomandknowledge.

Godhassaid,"GodcauseswhomeverHewilltohear"(35:22).IfGodbringsabouthearing,HedoessoattimesthroughthemediationofthetongueandattimesbywayoftheelucidationHeprovidesthroughthestudyofbooks.Therefore,thatwhichGodopensupthroughthestudyofbooksislikeGod'sprovidingwhatHedoesfromwhatthegodservanthearsthroughtheblessingof

keenattentiveness,sothathetakesaccountofhisspiritualstateinthatsituationandappropriatestheknowledgeandbehaviorpertinenttoit.Thisisoneofthegreatestofthedoorstogoodness,andoneofthemosthelpfulofthedeedsoftheshaykhsandSufisandself-disciplined,devoutreligiousscholarsforopeningthedoorsofmercyandforreceivinganincreaseofeverything[usefulfortravelerstothehereafter].

[66] Chapter 3: On the excellence of the disciplines of the Sufis withreferencetospecificexamples

Ourshaykh,Shaykhal-IslamAbu`n-Najibas-Suhrawardisaid(citingaHadith):22"AmanaskedtheProphetaboutevil,andhereplied,`Donotaskmeaboutevil.Askmeaboutthegood,'andhesaiditthreetimes.Thenhesaid,`Themosteviloftheevilarethewickedlearnedones,andthebestofthebestarethegoodlearnedones."'Thosewhopossessknowledgearetheguidesofthecommunityandthepillarsofthereligion,lanternsdispellingthedarknessofnaturalignorance,thechiefleadersofIslam'scouncil,minesofthewisdomoftheBookandtheSunna,God'strustedonesinthemidstofHiscreation,thephysiciansofgodservants,thecriticalmindsoftheHanifitereligiouscommunity,andthebearersofthedivinetrust.Theyare,therefore,ofallhumankindmostboundbytherealitiesofreverentialfear,ofallgodservantsthemostinneedofrenunciationofthisworld.Fortheyneeditforthemselvesandforothers,sothatiftheygobad,othersdotoo;andiftheyarerighteous,sowillothersbe.

SufyanibnUyaynasaid,"Themostignorantofpeoplearethosewhorefusetoputtheirknowledgeintoaction,whilethemostknowledgeablearethosewhoactonwhattheyknow,andthemostexcellentarethosemosthumblebeforeGod."Thisisasoundobservationthatmakesitclearthattheknowledgeablepersonwhodoesnotactonhisknowledgeis,inreality,notalearnedperson.Therefore,donotletsuchaperson'sglibness,airofsuperiority,affectedcleverness,andskillindebatinganddialecticdeceiveyou.Suchanindividualisignorantandnotknowledgeable,unlessGodshouldturnagaintohimwiththeblessingofknowledge.KnowledgeonthepathofIslamdoesnotbringtoruinthosewhopossessit,andthereishopethattheknowledgeableindividualwillreturnthroughtheblessingofknowledge.

Knowledgeisareligiousdutyandasupererogatoryvirtue.Asfortheduty,it

iswhattheindividualmustknowinordertofulfilltheessentialreligiousrequirements.Supererogatoryvirtue,ontheotherhand,goesbeyondwhatisrequiredinthatthepersonacquiresavirtueinthesoulthatisconsonantwiththeBookandtheSunna.AndallknowledgethatdoesnotaccordwiththeBookandtheSunnaandwiththatwhichfollowsfromthosetwosources,andeitherassistsinthecomprehensionofthemorrestsdirectlyuponthem,whateveritmightbe,isnotavirtuebutashamthroughwhichtheindividualonlyincreasesinshameanddepravity,bothinthisworldandthenext.Ignoranceoftheknowledgethatisadutyisnotpermissible,asourshaykh,Shaykhal-IslamAbuNajibindicatedbyhandingontous23thatGod'sMessengersaid,"Seekknowledge,evenasfarasChina.Thus,thequestforknowledgeisadutyforeveryMuslim."

Scholarsareofvaryingopinionsconcerningtheknowledgethatisaduty.Someofthemhavesaidthatitisthequestfortheknowledgeofsincerityandintimateawarenessofthedestructivetendenciesoftheego-soulandofthatwhichvitiatesaction.Thatisbecausesincerityhasbeenenjoinedjustasactionhasbeenenjoined.Godhassaid,"TheyhavebeencommandednothingbuttoworshipGodinsincerity"(98:5).Thereforesincerityiscommanded,buttheego-soulisdeceptive[67],anditsseductions,machinations,andcovertlustsreducetorubbletheedificeofthesinceritythathasbeenenjoined.Knowledgeofthatisthusadutyinsofarassincerityisaduty.Inotherwords,thatwithoutwhichthegodservantcannotarriveatthedutyisitselfaduty.

Oneofthemhassaid,"Experientialknowledgeanddiscernmentofmomentaryspiritualinclinationsisaduty,forthosemovementsofthespiritaretheroot,origin,andevolutionofaction.ThuscanoneknowthedifferencebetweentheurgingoftheangelandtheurgingofSatan.Anactionisonlyasreligiouslysoundasitsinstigation.Knowledgeofthatisthereforeaduty,sothatthegodservant'sactionsaresound."Anotherofthemhassaid,"Itisthequestforknowledgeofthemysticalmoment."Sahl'AbdAllah(at-Tustari)said,"Itisthequestforknowledgeofthespiritualstate,"thatis,thetermsofthespiritualstatethatcharacterizesaperson'srelationshipwithGodinthislifeandthenext.Someonehasalsosaid,"Itisthequestfortheknowledgeofwhatislegallypermissible,totheextentthatitisadutytoeatonlywhatispermissible."Ithasbeenhandeddownthat,"Thequestforthepermissibleisadutybeyondduty,"and,asaresult,knowledgeofthatisalsoaduty,totheextentthat(thepermissible)isitselfaduty.

Someonealsosaid,"Itisthequestforinwardknowledge,"throughwhichthegodservantgrowsincertitude.Andthisistheknowledgethatonegainsthroughcompanionshipandbykeepingcompanywithdevoutlearnedpersonspossessedofcertitude,andwithasceticsclosetoGodwhomGodhasappointedasHistroops.Heurgestheseekersontowardthemandstrengthensthembytheirexampleandprovidesguidancetothem.ThosearetheheirsoftheknowledgeoftheProphet,andfromthempeoplelearntheknowledgeofcertitude.Someonehassaid,"Itistheknowledgeofsellingandbuying,ofmarriageanddivorce.Whenonechoosestobecomeinvolvedinoneofthosethings,onemustseekoutknowledgeofit."Anotherhassaid,"ItmaybethatagodservantwishestodosomethingbutdoesnotknowwhatGodrequiresofhiminthatcase.Butitwouldnotbefittingthatheactonhisownopinion,sincehedoesnotknowhisrightsanddutiesinthatmatter.Hethereforehasrecoursetoareligiousscholarandaskshimaboutit,sothathemightofferaninsightfulresponseandsothattheinquirermightnotsimplyactonthebasisofpersonalopinion."Onewholacksthisknowledgemustseekitout.Someonehassaid,"QuestfortheknowledgeofGod'stranscendentunityisaduty."Somesaythattheapproachtothisquestshouldbespeculativethinkingandmarshalingevidence,whileotherssaytraditionisthewaytoapproachit.

Someonesaid,"AgodservantisatpeacewhenheexperiencesinnerintegrityandahighlevelofsurrenderandobedienceinIslam,andwhennodoubtoccursinhismind.Shouldheentertainsomevainconcerninthecenterofhisbeing,orexperienceanxietyasaresultofsomethingthatrunscountertoreligiousdoctrineorplagueshimwithspeciousdoubtsthatthreatentoleadhimintotheologicalinnovationorerror,thenhemustseektoresolvehisdoubtsbyrecoursetoreligiousspecialistsandthosewhocanaffordhimanunderstandingofthecorrectapproach."

ShaykhAbuTalibal-Makkihassaid,"ThisistheknowledgeofthefivereligiousdutiesuponwhichIslamisfounded,fortheyhavebeenrequiredofMuslims.Sinceperformanceofthosethingsisaduty,knowledgeoftheirperformancebecomesaduty."AbuTalibalsomentionsthattheknowledgeofthedivinetranscendentunityispartofthat,sincethefirstofthefivedutiesisthedualaffirmationoffaith.Sincerity,too,ispartofthat,sinceitisoneoftheessentialsofIslam,andtheknowledgeofsincerityiscrucialtotheintegrityofIslam.God'sMessengerexplainedinaHadiththatthisknowledgeisadutyfor

everyMuslim,whichmeansthatignoranceofitisnotpermissibleforanyMuslim,whereasthesayingsmentionedabovedeallargelywithmattersofwhichaMuslimispermittedtobeignorant.Thatisbecause,asyoualreadyunderstand,suchapersondoesnotpossessknowledgeofthepassingspiritualimpulses,ortheknowledgeofthespiritualstate,ortheknowledgeofalltheaspectsofwhatispermitted,orthecertainknowledgethatoneacquiresfromthoseknowledgeableaboutthenextworld.MostMuslimshavenoknowledgeofthesethings,andifthesematterswererequiredofthem,mostpeoplewouldnotbecapableofhandlingthemexceptsuchasGodwills.

FromamongthesesayingsmyownpreferenceisforthoseofShaykhAbuTalibal-Makki,andthatoftheonewhosaid,"Knowledgeofsellingandbuyingandofmarriageanddivorceisincumbentuponapersonwhowantstoengageinthesethings."AndIamcertainthatknowledgeofthesethingsisadutyfortheMuslim,andsimilarlywhatShaykhAbuTalibhassaidonthesubject.Ihaveacomprehensivedefinitionofthereligiouslyenjoinedquestforknowledge-butGodknowsbest-namely,thattheknowledgewhosequestisadutyforeveryMuslimisknowledgeofthecommandandtheprohibition.Whatis"commanded"meansthatwhoseperformanceissubjecttorewardandwhoseomissionresultsinpunishment,whiletheterm"prohibited"meansthatwhoseomissionresultsinrewardandwhoseperformanceresultsinpunishment.Amongthingscommandedandthingsprohibitedaresome(suchasfaithormurder)thatarealwayscriticalforthegodservant[68]inthelegaljudgmentofIslam,andsome(suchasritualprayerorfasting)towhichcommandandprohibitionapplyaccordingtocircumstance.Therefore,theknowledgeofthatwhichisatalltimesincumbentaccordingtoIslamiclegaljudgmentisinnowayoptionalforMuslims.Ontheotherhand,theknowledgeofthingswhosecommandingandforbiddingisrelatedtocontextisadutyfromwhichnoMuslimisinanywayexemptwhenthespecificsituationrequiresit.Thisdefinition(ofknowledgethatisaduty)isbroaderthanalltheaspectsalreadymentioned.AndGodismostknowledgeable.

TheSufishaykhsandthoseendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlifewhorenouncethisworldbentalltheireffortstothequestfortheknowledgethatisaduty,untiltheyhadanintimateawarenessofitandcarriedoutthecommandandtheprohibition,dischargingthatresponsibilitythankstothesuccessGodgrants.Sowhentheyhavestoodfirminthat,followingafterGod'sMessengerasGod

enjoinedhimtostandfirmwiththewords,"Thereforestandfirmasyouhavebeencommanded,alongwiththosewhoturntoGodwithyou"(11:112),thenGodopensforthemthedoorsofthoseformsofknowledgeIhavebeendiscussing.

Oneofthemsaid,"Whocouldmanagetodothelikesofwhatthis(Qur'anic)injunctiontostandingfirmenjoins,exceptonewhohasenjoyedthesupportofpotentexperiencesofcontemplation,lightsofexplication,andveracioustraditionsbywayofanimmensedivinegraceandconfirmation,astheMostHighsaid(toMuhammad),`AndifWehadnotconfirmedyou...'(17:74),and,moreover,hassustainedinthemomentofcontemplationand(God's)oraladdress?ThepersonisMuhammadadornedwiththestationofnearnesstoGodandcommunicationonthecarpetofintimacy,andwasthereafteraddressedwithHisword,`Thereforestandfirmasyouhavebeencommanded'(11:112).Butfortheseconditions,hewouldnothavebeenabletomanagethesteadfastnessthatwasenjoineduponhim."

SomeoneaskedAbuHafs(al-Haddad),"Whichdeedisthemostexcellent?"Hereplied,"Steadfastness,fortheProphetsaid,Besteadfastandyouwillnotbeheldtoaccount."'CommentingonGod'sword,"Besteadfastasyouhavebeenenjoined"(11:112),Jalfaras-Sadiqsaid,"Inotherwords,experienceyourneedofGodwithfirmresolve."OneofthedevoutonessawGod'sMessengerinadreamandsaid,"Isaid,`OMessengerofGodithasbeenreportedthatyousaid"SuratHad(11)[andits`sisters']turnedmyhairwhite."'Hereplied,`That'sright."'Thedreamerwenton,"SoIaskedhim,`Whatwasitthatturnedyourhairwhite?Wasitthestoriesoftheprophetsandthedestructionofthenations?'`No,'hereplied,`itwasGod'sword,"Besteadfastasyouhavebeenenjoined.""'JustastheProphetwasaddressedwiththisinjunctionaftertheprecedingvisionsandchargedwiththefullrealizationofsteadfastness,sohasGodbestoweduponthoseendowedwithknowledgewhodisciplinethemselvesforthenextlife,andupontheSufishaykhswhoareneartoGod,ashareandportionthereof.ThenHehasinspiredthemtocarryoutsteadfastnessasitisstrictlyrequired.They,inturn,haverealizedthatsteadfastnessisthemostexcellentthingonecanseekandthenoblestthingforwhichonecanhope.

Abu'Alial-Juzjanisaid,"Beaseekerofsteadfastness,notaseekerofephemeralmarvels,forwhileyourego-soulfreneticallyseeksoutthespectacular,yourLordlooksforsteadfastnessfromyou."Whathehaspointed

outisamajorprincipleinthismatterandamysterywhosefullrealizationmanyspiritualtravelersandseekersneglect.ThatisbecausethosewhostrivespirituallyandseektoserveGodhaveheardthelifestoriesofpiouspersonsoftimespastandofthemiraculousdeedsandextraordinarycapabilitiesbestoweduponthem.Theirego-souls,therefore,ceaselesslypantafterthatsortofthingandlovetohavethingsofthatkindprovidedtothem.Morethanoneofthemhashadtheongoingexperienceofaheartbrokenfromanxietyoverthesoundnessofhisdeeds,sincenoneofthat(inthewayofmarvels)wasdisclosedtohim.Hadtheyknownthemysteryofthatmatter,itwouldhavebeenoflittleconsequencetothem.

OnemustknowthatGodsometimesopensadoortothat(reality)forsomesincerespiritualstrivers.Thewisdominthismatteristhathegrowsincertaintyintheexperienceofextraordinarycapabilitiesandtheevidenceofdivinepower,sothathisdeterminationtorenouncethisworldandavoidtheenticementsoflustwaxesstrong.Goddisclosestosomegodservantsapurecertaintyandliftstheveilfromtheindividual'sheart.Onetowhomthepurecertaintyisrevealedistherebysparedtheneedforthevisionofextraordinarycapabilities,forthedesiredresultofthosethingsistheachievementofcertainty,yetcertaintyhasalreadyarrived.If,however,somethingofthatkindwererevealedtothisindividualendowedwithpurecertainty,hiscertaintywouldnotincreasebecauseofit.Forthewisdomdoesnotrequiredisclosureof(divine)powerthroughextraordinarycapabilitiestothisindividual,sincehedoesnotneedit.Thewisdomdoes,however,requirethedisclosureofthattotheotherinsofarashehasneedofit.Thissecondpersonisthereforemorecompleteandaptthanthefirst,totheextentthatheissuppliedthepointofthat(miracle),namely,purecertaintyunmediatedbythevisionof(divine)power;forthereisanegativeaspectinit,andthatispride,soheissparedproblemsofthatkind.Thereforethepathoftherighteouspersonistorequiresteadfastnessoftheego-soul,forthatiswhollymarvelous.Then,ifalonghispaththeindividualencounterssomethingofthatsort,wellandgood,butifheshouldnotencounterit,hedoesn'tcareandlosesnothingasaresult.Hedoes,however,sufferalossifheviolatestherequirementofsteadfastness.Oneneedstoknowthis,foritisamajorprincipleofseekers.

Thoserenunciantsendowedwithknowledge,theSufishaykhs,andthoseplacedinproximitytoGod,insofarastheyaregracedwithfulfillingthedutyof

steadfastness,[69]aresustainedwiththeotherformsofknowledgethat,asIhavementioned,theancestorshaveconsideredaduty.Inthiscategoryaretheknowledgeofthespiritualstate,knowledgeofspiritualstewardship,knowledgeofmomentaryspiritualimpulses-andIwillanalyzetheknowledgeofmomentaryspiritualimpulsesinalaterchapter,Godwilling-knowledgeofcertitude,knowledgeofsincerity,knowledgeoftheego-soulandintimateawarenessofitsbehavior-andtheknowledgeoftheego-soulandintimatefamiliaritywithitisamongtherarestdisciplinesoftheSufis.ThemostfirmlyestablishedofthepeopletravelingthepathofthosewhodrawneartoGodandtheSufisarethosemostfirmlyestablishedintheintimateknowledgeoftheego-soul.Alsointhiscategoryisthedisciplineoftheexperientialknowledgeofthedivisionsofthisworldandoftherealityofthesubtledetailsofdisorderedcravingandofthehiddenpassionsoftheego-soulanditsravenousappetitesandevilways.Soalsotheknowledgeofnecessityrequiringtheego-soultorestinnecessarythings-inspeech,action,clothing,shoes,food,andsleep;andtheexperientialknowledgeoftherealitiesofrepentance,theknowledgeofcovertsinfulness,andtheexperientialawarenessofevildeeds-whicharethegoodactsofthepious,andrequiringtheego-soultoomitwhatdoesn'tconcernit,andthedemandoftheinnerpart(ofone'sbeing)tocombat(first)thebarrageofrebelliousspiritualimpulsesandthensuperfluousinclinations.

Thenthereisthedisciplineofself-scrutinyandtheknowledgeofwhatisharmfulinself-scrutiny;andthedisciplineofexaminingone'sconscienceandintrospection;theknowledgeoftherealitiesoftrustinGodandofthetrustingperson'sfailingsintrustfulnessandofwhatdiminishestrustandofwhatdoesnotdiminishtrustfulness,andofthedifferencebetweennecessarytrustinrelationtofaith,andthespecialtrustpropertothepeopleofexperientialknowledge;andtheknowledgeofcontentmentandofthesinsofthestationofcontentment;theknowledgeofasceticismandthedefinitionofwhatitspracticerequires,aswellaswhatdetractsfromitsspiritualreality,theexperientialknowledgeoftherenunciationofself-denial,andtheexperientialknowledgeofathirdlevelofasceticismaftertherenunciationofrenunciation;theknowledgeofcompunctionandoftakingrefugeinGod;andtheexperientialknowledgeofappropriatemomentsforsupplicatoryprayerandofatimemoresuitedtorefrainfromsupplicatoryprayer;theknowledgeofloveandofthedifferencebetweentheordinaryloveofGodthatisexplainedasobediencetothecommandandpureloveofGod.(HereSuhraward►makesanaside:)Somethis-worldlyscholars

repudiatetheclaimofthoseendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlifetothepureloveofGodjustastheyrejectthenotionofcontentment,saying"It'snothingbutpatience!"(Hethenreturnstohisenumeration,withthesciencesof:)thedivisionofpureloveintoloveoftheessenceandtheloveoftheattributes;andofthedistinctionamongtheloveoftheheart,theloveofthespirit,theloveoftheintellect,andtheloveoftheego-soul;andofthedistinctionbetweenthestationoftheloverandthebeloved,theseekerandthesought.

Inaddition,therearethedisciplinesofcontemplation,suchastheknowledgeofaweandintimacy,contractionandexpansion,andofthedifferencebetweenanxietyandthespiritualdesolationofcontraction,ontheonehand,andbetweennaturalenthusiasmandthespiritualconsolationofexpansion,ontheother.Thereis,further,theknowledgeofannihilationandsurvivalandofthedistinctionofthespiritualstatesofannihilation,ontheonehand,andknowledgeofbeingveiledanddivineself-manifestation,ofsimplicityandcomplexity,oflightflashes,breakthroughsofinsight,andclearmanifestations,andofsobrietyandintoxication,andsoon,ontheother.

GivenadequatetimeIwouldhavediscussedandexpoundedonthesemattersforseveralvolumes,butlifeisshortandtimeprecious.Andbutforashareofinattentiveness(toGod),'therewouldhavebeentoolittletimetodoeventhismuch.Nevertheless,thisbriefsurveyencompassesacrediblesampleoftheSufidisciplines,andIhopethatthebountifulGodwillrenderitusefulandconsiderittomycreditratherthanmydiscredit.Allofthesearedisciplines,amongothers,inaccordwithwhichthoseasceticsendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlifelaborandinwhichtheyaresuccessful.Ontheotherhand,covetousthis-worldlyscholarshavenoaccesstothem,forthesearedisciplinesoneneedsto"taste."Merelyspeculatingonthemdoesnotremotelyapproachactuallytastingandexperiencing,justasameredescriptiondoesnotsufficeforaknowledgeofthenatureofsugar'ssweetness;onlyonewhohastastedithasexperientialknowledgeofit.

WhattellsyouaboutnobilityofthescienceoftheSufisandtheasceticscholarsisthatallothersciencescanbeattainedintandemwithloveoftheworldandfailuretosatisfyreverentialfear.Sometimesloveofthisworldisevenanaidtotheiracquisition,forpreoccupationwiththesesciencesisdifficult.Ego-soulsgravitatenaturallytotheloveoffameandadulation.Whentheysensethatitispossibletoachievethisbyattainingknowledge,theyarewillingtotolerate

hardships,sleeplessnights,patiencethroughseparationandjourneysandthedifficultyoffindingpleasuresandamenities.Butthedisciplinesofthese(Sufi)folkarenotconsistentwiththeloveofthisworld.Theybecomeaccessibleonlytothedegreethatoneavoidsdisorderedattachment,andonecanstudythemonlyintheschooloffearofGod.Godhassaid,"FearGodandGodwillteachyou"(2:282),therebymakingknowledgetheheritageofthefearofGod.DisciplinesotherthanthoseoftheseSufisarenodoubteasytogainwithoutthatfearofGod.Thus,knowledgeisavirtueofthoseknowledgeableofthenextlifetotheextentthatitsveilisremovedonlyforthoseendowedwithinsight,andthoseendowedwithinsightarenoneotherthanthosewhorenouncethisworld.

Oneofthejuristshassaid,"Ifamanweretobequeathhispossessionstothemostintelligentofpersons,theywouldreverttotherenunciants,becausetheyarethemostintelligentofpeople."Sahlibn,AbdAllahat-Tustarisaid,"Understandinghasathousandnames,andeveryoneofthosenameshasathousandnames,andthebeginningofeveryoneofitsnamesisrejectionofthisworld."

[70]Abu~AbdAllah(Ibrahim)al-Khawwas,acompanionofHatim,passedalongatraditiontous,25"ItraveledtoRayywithAbu(Abdar-RahmanHatimal-Asamm.ThreehundredandtwentymenwhowantedtomaketheHajjaccompaniedhim.Theyworewoolandcoarsegarmentsbuthadneithertravelingbagnorfood.SoinRayywevisitedthedwellingofamerchantwhowasreligiouslystrictandlovedtheascetics,andhewelcomedusasgueststhatnight.Whenmorningcame,hesaidtoHatim,`Abu'Abdar-Rahman,areyoucurrentlyobligated?Iwanttovisitalocalfagihwhoisill.'SaidHatim,`Ifyouhaveasickfagihhere,thenvisitingthefagihwouldbeavirtuousdeed,and,indeed,seeingafaqihisaworshipfulact,soI'llgoalongwithyou.'NowthesickmanwasMuhammadibnMugatil(d.236/850),themagistrateofRayy.Thehostsaid,`Comewithus,Abu'Abdar-Rahman,'andtheycametothegate,anditwasloftyandpalatial.SoHatimspentamomentinthought,sayingtohimself,`Ascholar'sresidenceofsuchquality?'Thentheyweregrantedpermissiontoenter.Inside,thehousewasspaciousandgrandandexudedanairofelegancewithitswallhangingsandstaffofservants.AgainHatimremainedpensive.

Theythenwentintothesittingroomwherethejuristwas,andtherehewasrecliningonasoftcarpet,whileathisheadwasaservantwithafly-whisk.ThemanfromRayysatdownandquestionedthejurist,whileHatimstood.Sowhen

IbnMugatilmotionedtohimtohaveaseat,Hatimsaid,`Iwillnotsit.'AskedIbnMugatil,`Perhapsthereissomethingyouneed?T'Yes,'Hatimreplied.`Andwhatisit?'askedIbnMugatil.`Ihaveaquestiontoaskyou,'heanswered.`Askme,'saidIbnMugatil.Hatimsaid,`Allright,then,situpstraightsothatIcanaskyouthequestion.'Sothejuristorderedhisservantstoprophimup,andHatimsaidtohim,`Wheredidyoucomebythisknowledgeofyours?'Hereplied,`Trustworthytransmitterspasseditalongtome.'Hatimasked,`Fromwhom?T'FromtheCompanionsofGod'sMessenger,'hereplied.`Fromwhom?'heinquiredfurther.SaidIbnMugatil,`FromGod'sMessenger.'`AndfromwheredidGod'sMessengergetit?'Hatimpressedon.`FromGabriel,'heresponded.SaidHatim,`AndwheredidGabrielgetit?'Hesaid,`FromGod.'`AndconcerningwhatmattersdidGabrielpassalongfromGodtoGod'sMessengerandGod'sMessengerpassalongtohisCompanionsandhisCompanionspassalongtothetrustworthytransmittersthatthetrustworthytransmitterspassedalongtoyou?HaveyouheardinthisknowledgethattheonewhoisthecommanderinhishouseorwhosegrandeuristhegreatestwillhavethemostextensiveplaceofreposewithGod?T'No,'hereplied.SoHatimasked,`Thenhowhaveyouheard?'Saidthejurist,`IhaveheardthatonewhorenouncesthisworldandyearnsforthenextlifeandwholovesthepoorandputshisnextlifefirstistheonewhowillhavethemostextensiveplaceofreposewithGod.'Hatimresponded,`Thenonwhomdoyoumodelyourself?TheProphetandhisCompanionsandthepiousones?OrPharaohandNimrod,thefirstpeopletobuildwithmortarandbakedbrick?0wickedscholars!Theignorantpersonwhoseeksthisworldandyearnsforitlooksatpeoplelikeyouandsays,"Withthescholarlivingintheseconditions,Icouldhardlybemoreevilthanhe!"'Hatimlefthiscompany,andIbnMugatil'sillnesstookaturnfortheworse.

"WhathadtakenplacebetweenHatimandIbnMugatilcametotheattentionofthepeopleofRayy,sotheysaidtoHatim,`OAbu'Abdar-Rahman,thereisascholarinQazwinevenmoregrandiosethanthisman'-theywerereferringtoTanafisi(d.204/819-20).Sohetraveledtherepurposefully,wentintohimandsaid,`Godbecompassionatetoyou!IamaPersianwhowouldlikeyouteachmethefirstfundamentalofmyreligion,andthepreparationformyritualprayer,thatis,howIshouldperformablutionsfortheritualprayer.'`Yes,'themanreplied,`gladly.Youngman(thatis,aservant),bringabasinfullofwater.'Sohebroughtabasinofwater.ThenTanafisisatdown[andperformedthetripleablution,andsaid,`There.Nowyouperformtheablution.']SoHatimsatdown

andperformedthetripleablutionuntilhecametothecleansingofthetwoarmsuptotheelbows,andthatheperformedfourtimes.SoTanafisisaidtohim,`Hey,you'veoverdonethis.'Hatimasked,`Howso?'Repliedtheotherman,`Youcleansedyourarmsfourtimes.'Hatimresponded,`Godbepraised!WithahandfulofwaterIhavegonetoofar,whileyouwithyourstaffofservantshavenot!'ThenTanafisirealizedthatthislessonwaswhatHatimhadintendedforhim,andthathehadnointentionoftakinginstructionfromhim.Sohewentintothehouseanddidnotmeetthepublicforfortydays.

"ThemerchantsofRayyandQazwznwrotetothemerchantsofBaghdadaboutwhathadtranspiredbetweenhimandIbnMugatilandTanafisi.SowhenHatimwenttoBaghdad,thepeopleofBaghdadgatheredaroundhimandsaidtohim,`Abu'Abdar-Rahman,youareaPersianwhospeaksflawedArabic,andyetnoonecanspeakwithyouwithoutyourrenderinghimspeechless.'Hereplied,`IhavethreespecialcharacteristicsbywhichIsurpassmyadversaries.'`Andwhatarethey?'theyasked.Saidhe,`Irejoicewhenmyopponentiscorrect,I'msadwhenhemakesanerror,andItakecarenottobehavefoolishlytowardhim.'WordofthatgottoAhmadibnHanbal,sohewenttoHatimandsaid,`PraisedbeGod!Howintelligentheis!'SowhenIbnHanbalandcompanionswenttoHatim,theysaid,`Abu'AbdarRahman,whatwillsaveapersonfromthisworld?'Hatimreplied,`Abu'AbdAllah(IbnHanbal),oneisnotsafefromthisworlduntilonepossessesfourqualities.'`Whatarethey,Abu'Abdar-Rahman?'heasked.Hatimresponded,`Forgivethepeopletheirignorance;safeguardthemfromyourownignorance;bestowonthemwhatyouhave;anddonotcovetwhatistheirs.Giventhatstateofaffairs,youaresafe.'ThenhetraveledbacktoMedina."

Godsaid,"OnlythelearnedamongGod'sservantsfearGod"(35:28).Byusingtheword"only"Hehasruledoutknowledgeonthepartofthosewhodonotfear[71]God,justaswhenonesays,"OnlyacitizenofBaghdadenteredthehouse,"therebyrulingoutentryintothehousebysomeonenotacitizenofBaghdad.ThusitisevidenttothoseendowedwithknowledgeofthenextlifethattheonlypathtoparticipationinexperientialknowledgeandthespiritualstationsofnearnesstoGodisthroughrenunciationandfearofGod.AbuYazid(al-Bistami)saidtohiscompanions,"YesterdayIkepttryinguntildawntosay,`ThereisnodeitybutGod,'butIcouldn'tmanageit.""Whynot?"someoneasked.Hereplied,"IwasrecallingawordthatIhadsaidinmyyouth,butthenI

wasstruckbyhowawfulthatwordwasandthatpreventedmefrom(affirmingGod'soneness).IwouldbeastonishedifanindividualcouldrecollectGodwhilepreoccupiedwithoneofhisownfoibles."Thusisthegodservant"firmlyrootedinknowledge"throughpurefearofGodandperfectrenunciation.

Wasitisaid,"`Thosefirmlyrootedinknowledge'(3:7,4:162)aretheoneswhohaverootedtheirspiritsintheunseenoftheunseeninthesecretofsecrets,sothatHehasmadethemintimatelyfamiliarwiththatofwhichtheyhaveexperientialknowledge.Theyplungeintotheoceanofknowledgethroughprofoundcomprehensioninquestofanincreaseofit,sothatthetreasuresofprofoundcomprehensionandthemarvelsofdivinecommunicationstoredawaybeneatheveryletterofthedivinewordareunveiledforthem,andtheyspeakwithwisdom."Oneofthemsaid,"TheonewhoisfirmlyrootedistheonewhoexperiencesabreakthroughofinsightintothemeaningofGod'scommunication."Kharrazsaid,"Thosefirmlyrootedinknowledgearetheywhosecommandofallthedisciplinesissocompletethattheyknowthemexperientiallyandthattheyhaveexperiencedabreakthroughofinsightintothetotalityofcreaturelyspirituallongings."ThissayingofAbuSaid(al-Kharraz)doesnotmeanthatonewhoisfirmlyrootedinknowledgemustgainperfectmasteryofallofthesubdisciplines,for`Umaribnal-Khattabwasthereforedefinitelyoneofthosefirmlyrootedinknowledge,andevenhewasnotentirelycertainofthemeaningoftheMostHigh'swords,wa-abb°""(80:31).Heasked,"Whatisal-abb?"Thenhesaid,"Thisisnothingbutaverbalaffectation."ThishesitationconcerningthemeaningofthewordalabbhasbeenattributedtoAbuBakraswell.Surely,then,thatwasAbuSalid'sfullmeaningwhenhesaid,"Theyexperienceabreakthroughofinsightintoallthespirituallongingsofcreatures."ThatisbecausewhensomeaccesstothePreservedTabletdescendsupononewhofearsGodtrulyandengagesintruerenunciationofthisworld,whoseinnerbeingispureandwhohasburnishedthemirrorofhisheart,thatpersonperceivesthroughhisinwardpuritythefoundationsandprinciplesofallformsofknowledge.Thisindividualthuscomestoknowthehighestaccomplishmentsofthescholarsintheirdisciplines,aswellasthebenefitsofeveryformofknowledge.

Thevarioussubdisciplinesofknowledgehavebecomedifferentiatedasaresultof(varyingmethodsof)instructionandapplication,sothatone'sgeneralknowledgedoesnotspareonehavingtoavailhimselfof(theexpertise)ofthose

whospecializeinthesubdisciplines.Thesoulsofthese(latter)individualsarefilledandpreoccupiedwiththe(knowledgeof)thesubdisciplines,andtheyhavelimitedthemselvestoaspecialization,totheexclusionofcomprehensive(knowledge).OncetheyhavepartakenoftheessentialprinciplesandfundamentalsofthereligiononthebasisoftheRevealedLaw,thesoulsofthelearnedrenunciantsadvancetowardGodandarecompletelyfocusedonHim.TheirspiritsarriveatthestationofproximitytoHim,sothattheirspiritsinfusetheirheartswithlightsthroughwhichtheirheartsaremadereadytoattain(thevariousformsof)knowledge.TheirspiritstherebyriseupbeyondthelimitsoftheattainmentofknowledgebyreasonoftheirtotalengagementwiththeEternalKnowerandarenolongerseparatedfromsuchbeingasisaptforacapacitytoholdknowledge.Theirhearts,byvirtueoftheirnearnesstotheirsouls,becomereceptaclesofbeingthatarecompatiblewiththebeingofknowledgethankstoanexistentialrelationship.The(formsof)knowledgehaveanaffinitywiththeminrelationtothedifferentiationofthedisciplinesasaresultoftheirbeingincontactwiththePreservedTablet-theirbeingdifferentiatedmeansmerelythattheyareinscribedonthePreservedTablet.Theseparationofheartsfromthestationofthespiritsresultsfromtheirbeingdrawntotheegosouls,sothatbetweenthetwoseparatedentitiesthereoccursarelationshipofcooperationnecessitatingamutualaffinity.Inthatwaytheindividualattainsthe(various)disciplinesandthelordly(possessorofknowledge)becomesfirmlyrootedinknowledge.26

Godrevealedinoneofthescripturessentdown,"0childrenofIsrael,donotsay,`knowledgeisintheheavens-whowillbringitdown?Orinthedepthsoftheearth-whowillbringitup?Oracrosstheseas-whowillcrossoverandbringit?'Knowledgehasbeeninstilledinyourhearts.ComportyourselvesbeforeMeinthemannerofthosewhoarespirit-guidedandemulatethemoralqualitiesoftheauthenticones.Iwillmakeknowledgearisefromyourheartsuntilitenvelopsyouandimmersesyou.""Behavingaccordingtothecomportmentofthosewhoarespirit-guidedconsistsindeterringego-soulsfromindulgingtheirnaturalpropensitiesandinsubduingthembyuncontaminatedknowledgeineverywordanddeed.Thatisfeasibleonlyforthosewhoknow,areneartoGod,andareledalongthepathtothepresenceofGod,andarethusguardedbyGodforGod.

Ourshaykh,Abu`n-Najib'Abdal-Qadiras-Suhrawardihandeddowntousthe

authorizedtradition,28[72]"IthasreachedmethatShaddadibnAwsenteredadwellingandsaid,`Bringusthetableclothsothatwecanplaywithit.'Butpeopletookexceptiontothat,sohesaid,`Asidefromthis,IhavenotutteredawordsinceIbecameaMuslimthatIdidnotcontrolandreinin.Sodon'tholditagainstme."'Thisiswhatbehavinginthemannerofthosewhoarespiritguidedislike.

Itiswritteninthegospel(non-canonical),"Donotseekknowledgeofwhatyoudonotknow,aslongasyouarenotputtingintoactionwhatyoualreadyknow."Accordingtoareport,"God'sMessengersaid,`Satanwilloftengetthebetterofyou(Or:stealfromyou)whenitcomestoWeasked,`OMessengerofGod,howdoeshegetthebetterofusthroughknowledge?'Hereplied,`Hesays,"Seekknowledgeandtakenoactionuntilyouknow,"sotheindividualgoesontalkingaboutknowledgeandprocrastinatinguntilhedieswithouttakingaction."'IbnMasudsaid,"Knowledgedoesnotconsistintransmittingcopioustraditions;onthecontrary,knowledgeisfear."Hasan(al-Basri)said,"Godcouldhardlycarelessaboutthepersoninvestedinacquiredknowledgeanditstransmission.Heis,rather,interestedinthepersonwhoisendowedwithprofoundcomprehensionandunderstanding."

Thehereditarydisciplines,therefore,arederivedfromlearningacquiredthroughstudy.Thedisciplinesacquiredthroughstudyarelikepuremilkthatispalatabletothosewhodrinkit,whereastheinheriteddisciplinesarelikethecreamderivedfromthemilk;withoutthemilktherecouldbenocream,butthecreamistherichsubstancedesiredfromthemilk.Thewaterysubstanceinthemilkisabodyinwhichtherichsubstanceofthespiritrests,whilewaterysubstancesupportsit.Godsaid,"FromwaterWemadeeverythingthatlives"(21:30),andagain,"OrsomeonewhowasdeadandwhomWebroughtbacktolife"(6:122)-thatis,apersondeadinunbeliefwhomWebroughtbacktolifeinIslam.RevivificationinIslamisthefirstvitalityandthefirstprinciple;Islamhasitsdisciplines,andtheyaretheformsofknowledgethatundergirdIslam.Islam,understoodaspureassent,comesafterfaith,butthefaithbranchesoutaftertherealizationofIslam,onvariouslevels,suchastheknowledgeofcertitude,theessenceofcertitude,andthetruthofcertitude.Peoplealsospeakofaffirmationofthedivinetranscendentunity,experientialknowledge,andcontemplativevision.Eachofthebranchesoffaithhasitsramificationsinthedisciplines,sothedisciplinesofIslamarethedisciplinesofthetongue,whereasthedisciplines

offaitharethedisciplinesofhearts.

Inaddition,thedisciplinesofheartshavebothrestrictedandgeneralcharacters.Asforthegeneralcharacter,itistheknowledgeofcertitudethatonecanattainthroughspeculativethoughtandinference,andlearnedpersons,boththis-worldlyandotherworldly,haveashareinit.Buttherestrictedcharacterisuniquetootherworldlylearnedpeople,anditisthedivinetranquilitythatdescends"intotheheartsofbelieverssothattheymightaddfaithtotheirfaith"(48:4).Thetermfaithinitsrestrictedsenseencompassesalloftheselevels,butnotinitsgeneralsense.So,fromtheperspectiveofitsrestrictedsense,certitudeinitsvariouslevelsispartoffaith;andwithrespecttoitsgeneralsense,certitudegoesbeyondfaith.Contemplationisauniquefeatureofcertitude,anditistheessenceofcertitude,whereasaspecificfeaturewithintheessenceofcertitudeisthetruthofcertitude.Thetruthofcertitudeis,therefore,abovecontemplation,andthehomecountryandabodeofthetruthofcertitudeisthenextlife.Inthisworldonlyapassingglimpseofitisavailabletothoseworthyofit.ItisamongtherarestbitsoftheknowledgeofGodonecanfind,foritisnolessthanecstaticexperience.

ThereisthusaconnectionbetweentheknowledgeoftheSufisandthelearnedrenunciants,andtheknowledgeofthis-worldlylearnedindividualswhoattaincertitudebywayofspeculativethoughtanddeductiveinference.ItisliketheconnectionIdiscussedbetweeninheritedknowledgeandknowledgeacquiredthroughstudy.Thelatterknowledgeislikethemilkbecauseitisthecertitudeandthefaiththatarefundamentals,whereastheknowledgeofGodthattheSufispossessisapartofcontemplation.Andtheessenceofcertitudeandthetruthofcertitudearelikethecreamderivedfromthemilk.Theexcellenceoffaith,therefore,isbasedontheexcellenceofknowledge,andthegravityofone'sactionsisproportionatetoone'sshareofknowledge.AccordingtoatraditionofMuhammad,"ThelearnedpersonissuperiortothedevoteeasIamsuperiortomycommunity."Heisnotreferringheretotheknowledgeofbuyingandsellingandofdivorceandfreeingaslave;thereferenceisrathertotheknowledgeofGodandthepowerofcertitude.

ItispossiblethatagodservantmightbecomeknowledgeableaboutGodandendowedwithperfectcertitudewithouthavingaknowledgeofthecollectiveduties.IndeedtheCompanionsofGod'sMessengerweremoreknowledgeablethantheFollowers[intherealitiesofcertitudeandthefinepointsofmwrifa],

butsomeamongthelearnedFollowerswerebettergroundedintheknowledgeoflegaladvisoryand(divine)injunctionsthansomeamongthem(thatis,theCompanions).Traditionhasitthat'AbdAllahibn`Umarusedtosaywhensomeoneaskedhimaquestion,"AskSaidibnal-Musayyib,"while'AbdAllahibnAbbaswaswonttosay,"AskJabiribn'AbdAllah.IfthepeopleofBasraacquiesceinhislegaladvisories,thatwillbesufficientforthem."AnasibnMalikusedtosay,"AskourMasterHasan.Herememberedwhereasweforgot."

TheCompanionsthereforeusedto[73]referpeopletothem(theFollowers)inquestionsofthedisciplineoflegaladvisoryandstatutes,buttheCompanionstaughtthepeopletherealitiesofcertitudeandtherefinedpointsofexperientialknowledge.TheCompanionshadastrongerfoundationinthosemattersthantheFollowers,becausethefreshnessofthepropheticrevelationthathadbeensentdownhadanimpactontheCompanionsandtheywerefilledtooverflowingwiththeluxurianceofknowledgebothcomprehensiveandspecialized.Onegroupamongthemschooledthemselvesinboththecomprehensiveandthespecializedaspectsofknowledge,anotherinthecomprehensivewithoutthespecialized,whileanotherfocusedonthespecializedwithoutthecomprehensive.Thecomprehensiveaspectistherootofknowledge,anditsgistisacquiredthroughthepurificationofhearts,thepowerofpenetratinginsight,andperfectreceptivity,anditisreservedtotheselectfew.

GodsaidtoHisProphet,"InvitepeopletothecauseofyourLordwithwisdomandbeautifulexhortation,anddebatethemwiththefinestofarguments"(16:125),andagain,"Proclaim:Thisismyway,toinvitetoGodonthebasisofspiritualinsight"(12:108).Therearepassersbyonthisroad,andthereareheartsreceptivetothisinvitation.Someofthemarerecalcitrant,impervioussoulsmiredinthecrudenessoftheirnaturalproclivities,whomGodsoftenswiththefireofadmonition,exhortation,andwarning.Othersamongthemarepuresoulsmadeofgoodsoil,harmoniouswiththeirheartsandclosetothem.Whenanindividualego-soulbulliesitsheart,theProphetinvitesit"withanexhortation,"andwhenanindividual'sheartholdstheascendancyoveritsego-soul,theProphetinvitesit"withwisdom."Piousindividualsrespondtotheinvitationcouchedinexhortation,whichinvitesbycallingtomindHeavenandHell.ThosewhoareneartoGod,ontheotherhand,respondtotheinvitationcouchedinwisdom,whichinvitesbyalludingtothebestowalofproximity,withpureexperientialknowledge,andbypointingtotheacknowledgmentofthedivine

transcendentunity.WhenthosewhohavearrivedinGod'sproximityexperiencethedivineallusionsandthetutelageoftheLord,theirspiritsandheartsandsoulsrespond.Inthatwaytheirverbalacquiescencebecomestheresponseoftheirsouls,theirfollowingthroughdeedsbecomestheresponseoftheirhearts,andtheirrealizationofthespiritualstatesbecomestheresponseoftheirspirits.Sufisthereforerespondtotally,whereasothersrespondonlypartially.

`Umarsaid,"MayGodbecompassionatetoSuhayb(ibnSinan,d.38/659),forhadhenotfearedGod,hewouldnothaverebelledagainstHim."Inotherwords,ifhissafetyfromtheFirehadbeenassuredaheadoftime,pureexperientialknowledgeofGod'ssublimecommandwouldhavebroughthimdirectlytothefullaccomplishmentofwhatisrequiredofagodservantbywayofrealizingwhatheknewexperientiallyofthedivinemajesty.30TheresponseoftheSufistotheinvitation,therefore,istheresponseofthelovertotheBeloved,experiencedasdelightfulandeasy-going,whereasthatofothersistheresponseofonewhosuffersandstruggles.Andtheeffectofthisresponseappearswithtimeintheaccomplishmentoftherealitiesofsteadfastnessandservanthood.

Godsaid,"ForthepersonwhoisgenerousandfearsGod,andwhoatteststowhatisbest,Wewillsurelysmoothhiswaytosalvation"(92:5-7).Oneoftheminterpretedtheseversesbysaying,"`Onewhoisgenerous'tothisworldandthenextandseesthemasnothing,andwho`fears'foolishtalkandevilacts,andwho`atteststowhatisbest'hasadheredtothequestforthehighdegreeofnearnesstoGod"(cf.34:37).Accordingtotradition,thisversewasrevealedinconnectionwithAbuBakrtheAuthenticOne.Onemightalsointerpretthephrase"isgenerous"inrelationtounflaggingpersistenceindeeds;andthephrase"andfears"asreferringtofearofdemonicinsinuationsandthesuggestionsoftheego-soul;andthephrase"atteststowhatisbest"asmeaningthatheapplieshimselftoinwardmattersthroughmaintaininghiswaysofdesiringmysticalvisionsfreeoftheinterferenceandclutterofordinaryexistence;andthephrase"Wewillsurelysmoothhiswaytosalvation"as"Wewillopenforhimthedooroffacilityinaction,dailylife,andrelationships."Asforthephrasesinthenextthreeverses,""Butasforonewhoisstingy"indeedsand"believesheisnotinneed"inthathisspiritualstatesareampleenough,and"wholiesaboutwhatisbest"becausehisspiritualinsightdoesnottravelabroadandpenetrateintotheunseenworld,"Wewillsurelysmoothhiswaytohardship"means"Wewillshutbeforehimthedooroffacilityindeeds."

Oneofthemsaid,"WhenGoddesiresevilforagodservant,Heclosesbeforehimthedoorofactionandopensforhimthedoorofindolence."Butwhenthesouls,hearts,andspiritsoftheSufisrespondtotheinvitationbothoutwardlyandinwardly,theirshareofknowledgeismoreextensiveandtheirportionofexperientialknowledgemorecomplete,sothattheirdeedsarepurerandmoreexcellent.AmancametoMuladh(ibnJabal)andsaid,"Explaintometwokindsofpeople:Oneofthemdedicateshimselfassiduouslytoactsofworship,multipliesgooddeeds,andminimizessins,butheisweakincertitudeandovercomewithdoubt."Muladhresponded,"Hisdoubtscertainlynegatehisdeeds."Themanwenton,"Nowtellmeaboutamanwhosedeedsarefew,whosecertitudeisstrong,butwhosesinsareneverthelessnumerous."Muladhkeptsilent,sothemansaid,"ByGod,ifthefirstman'sdoubtsnegatehisdeedsofpiety,surelythisman'scertitudenegatesallofhissins!"Muladhtookhimbythehandandsaid,"Ihaveneverseenanyoneendowedwithdeeperunderstandingthanthisman."[74]Lugmansaidbywayofadvicetohisson,"Myson,actionapartfromcertitudeisimpossible.Amancanactonlyinproportiontohiscertitude,andonewhoactswillnotactinadequatelyunlesshiscertitudeisinsufficient."

Certitudeisthemostexcellentaspectofknowledge,foritcallsforactionmostinsistently;andthatwhichcallsmostinsistentlyforaction,callsmostinsistentlyfordeedsofworship;andthatwhichcallsmostinsistentlyfordeedsofworship,callsmostinsistentlyfortheaccomplishmentofwhattheLordhasarighttodemand.TheSufis,andthetrulyknowledgeablerenunciants,possessthecompleteshareofcertitudeandknowledgeofGod,andinthatliestheirsuperiorityandthesuperiorityoftheirknowledge.

Nowthen,letmeillustrateacasebywhichtheobservermightcometoaclearerunderstandingofthesuperiorityoverothersofthelearnedrenunciantendowedwithexperientialknowledgeoftheproclivitiesofhisego-soul.Supposethatalearnedpersonentersastudycircleandsitsdown,choosingforhimselfaplacetositthatheconsidersappropriatetohisstatusandlearning.Thenoneofhispeersentersandsitsinahigherplacethanhis,sothatthefirstlearnedpersonfeelscrowdedandtheworldturnsdarkbeforehim:Hewouldattacktheinterloperifhecould.Thisresponseisanobstaclethatgetsinhiswayandadiseasethatafflictshim.Butheisnotawarethatthisisahiddeninfirmityandamaladyforwhichheneedsacure,andhedoesnotreflectonthesourceof

thisillness.Ifonlyheknewthatthiswastheego-soulbestirredandovercomebyitsignorance,andthatitsignorancewasaresultofitsarrogance,andthatitsarrogancewasaresultofhisego-soul'sbeliefthatitisbetterthananother!Theindividual'sconvictionthatheisgreaterthananotherisarrogance,andmanifestingthatinactionisgrandiosity,andgrandiositymeansactingoutthefeelingofbeingsnubbed.

Thelearned,self-disciplinedSufi,ontheotherhand,doesnotsethimselfapartinanywayfromMuslims,andhedoesnotthinkofhimselfasholdingaplaceofdistinctioninwhichheissetapartinastudycircle.Ifthisindividualwerepredestinedtobeafflictedwiththiskindofsituation,sothatheweretofeelsnubbedwhenanotherpersontookprecedenceoverhimandwereelevatedabovehim,hewouldidentifyitasamanifestationoftheego-soul.Hewouldrecognizethatthisisadisease,andthatifheweretogiveintoitbypayingattentiontotheego-soulanditssenseofconstraint,thatwouldbecomeasinofhisspiritualcondition.HewouldthusforthwithliftuphismaladytoGodandcomplaintoHimofhisego-soul'smanifestationandmakeanefforttoturnthesituationaroundbyrootingouttheego-soul'ssenseofconspicuousness.HewouldraisehishearttoGod,seekingrelieffromtheego-soul.Hispreoccupationwithseekingtoremedythediseaseoftheego-soulwouldkeephimfromobsessingaboutthepersonwhosatinahigherplace.Hemightoftenturntowardtheonewhosatabovehim,inincreasedhumilityandbrokenness,inordertoexpiatehisactualsinsandtohealthemaladyhewasexperiencing.This,then,clarifiesthedistinctionbetweenthetwopeople.

Asaresult,whentheobserverconsidersandexaminestheconditionofhisego-soulinthisstation,hewillrecognizethathisego-soulis,likethegeneralityofpeople'ssouls,lookingtomakeamarkonthisworld.Butwhatadifferencethereisbetweenthispersonandanotherwhohasnoknowledge!Werewetomultiplyillustrationsofsuchcases,whichgiveproofofthesuperiorityoftherenunciantsandthedeficiencyofthecovetous,itwouldinduceboredom.Atanyrate,thisisaprimerontheSufidisciplines,sowhatdoyouthinkofthegemsoftheirdisciplinesandtheheightsoftheirspiritualstates?[AnditisGodwhoestablisheswhatiscorrect.]

Introduction

1.InToshihikoIzutsu,"MysticismandtheLinguisticProblemofEquivocationintheThoughtof`Aynal-QudatHamadan,"StudioIslamica31(1970),156,citingWittgenstein'sPhilosophicalInvestigations78,p.36.

2.Forbroadertheologicalandotheraspectsofthediscussionofthemeaningsandinterrelationshipsof`ilmandmalrifa,seeKT97-154,194-341.

3.InthissectionIsummarizeandsupplementKT1-40.

4.Forafurtherdiscussionof"kitabasfilm,"andonrelatedvocabularyandsemanticfieldof`ilminQur'an,seeDanielMadigan,TheQur'dn'sSelf-Image:WritingandAuthorityinIslam'sScripture(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001),113-17,149-51;seealsoToshihikoIzutsu,GodandManintheQur'an(Tokyo:KeioUniversity1964),49-50,59-63.

5.Forausefuloverviewofthisgeneraltopic,seeJohnBurton,AnIntroductiontotheHadith(Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,1994).

6.KT71;seealso71-94forfurtheranalysisofchapters/booksonknowledgeinthemajorHadithcollections.

7.SeeJamesRobson,trans.,Mishkatal-masabih,2vols.(Lahore:Sh.MuhammadAshraf,1975),50-63.

8.SeefurtherJaneD.McAuliffe,"TextandTextuality:Q.3:7asaPointofIntersection,"inLiteraryStructuresofReligiousMeaningintheQur'an,ed.IssaJ.Boullata(Richmond,Surrey:Curzon,2000),56-76.

9.HarrisBirkeland,"OppositionagainstKoranInterpretation,"inTheQur'an:FormativeInterpretation,ed.AndrewRippin(Brookfield,Vt.:Ashgate,1999),65-69;seealsoJaneD.McAuliffe,"Ibnal-Jawzi'sExegeticalPropaedeutic:IntroductionandTranslation,"JournalofComparativePoetics8(1988),101-13,and"Qur'anicHermeneutics:TheViewsofal-TabariandIbnKathir,"inApproachestotheHistoryoftheInterpretationoftheQur'an,ed.AndrewRippin(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1988),46-62.

10.SunanibnMajah(Beirut:Daral-ma`rifa,1996),as-Sunna,224.

11.KT165.

12.IamincorporatinginthissectionalsomaterialfromKT155-93.

13.SeefurtherSchimmel,MDI42-46;Arberry,"Dhu`l-Nun,"SEI77.

14.Onthisandotherearlytheologicalschools,seeEIM304-20.

Rosenthal,KT178,alsoindicatesthatinthisworkMuhasibioftenusesfilmandmalrifaas"practicalsynonyms,"andthattheformertermcanreferto"thefullnessofknowledgeofanygivensubject,"whilethelatter"oftenexpressesacquaintance,awareness,afirstrealizationoforknowledgeaboutsomething."

16.IhavereliedonthefollowingforbackgroundonMuhasibi:Rosenthal,KT177-79;Smith,Muhasibi(A.D.781-857):AnEarlyMysticofBaghdad(Amsterdam:PhiloPress,1974),44-45,53,57,98-110;Massignon,"AlMuhasibi,"SEI410;JosefvanEss,DieGedankenweltdesHarithal-Muhasibi(Bonn:SelbstverlagdesOrientalischenSeminarsderUniversitatBonn,1961),70-81;Massignon,EO161-71.Foratranslationoftextsonhis"moralpsychology,"seeEIM171-95.

17.Myprincipalsourceshere,inadditiontoA.J.Arberry,TheBookofTruthfulness(Kitabas-sidq)(London:HumphreyMilford/OxfordUniversityPress,1937),includeMassignon,EO,203-5;Rosenthal,KT167-68,170-72;andW.Madelung,Eh4:1083-84.

18.ArabictextinArberry,TheBookofTruthfulness,11-17,45-47.

19.AccordingtoKT167,however,Kharrazexpressesadifferentviewinhis

Rasa'il:"(Kharraz)...alsoclaimedthattheknowledge(film)ofGodwassomethingwideranddeeperthanthegnosis(orknowledgeabout,malrifah)ofGod,althoughbothwereinfinite.TheknowledgeofGodleadstothecognitionofgnosis(maTifatal-ma(rifah)atthetimeofthepassingofthe(mere)knowledgeofgnosis(`ilmal-ma(rifa)."

20.MytranslationfromArberry'sArabictextofKitabas-Sidq,69-70;Arberrytrans.56-57.Seep.151forsimilartraditionregardingDavid.

21.MytranslationfromArberry'sArabictext73;Arberrytrans.59.

22.MytranslationfromAberry'sArabictext77-78;seeArberrytrans.62-63.

23.HereIrelyonKT179-81;BerndRadtke,Al-Hakimat-Tirmidhi:einislamischerTheosophdes3.19.Jahrhunderts(Freiburg:KlausSchwarz,1980),esp.74-82((ilm)and96-99(maTifa);Massignon,EO192-99.

24.CitedinKT179.

25.TranslatingfromRadtke'sGermanrenderingofTirmidhi,128.

26.LouisMassignon,ThePassionofAl-Hallaj:MysticandMartyrofIslam,trans.HerbertMason(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1982),3:4-5.

27.Ibid.,20.

28.Ibid.,289-92,321-34.ArabictextinPaulNwyia,ed.,Hallag:KitabAl-Tawasin(Beirut:ImprimerieCatholique,1972),194-95;andL.Massignon,ed.Kitabattawasin(Paris:P.Geuthner,1913).ThelatterincludesboththeArabicofHallajandthePersiantranslationandcommentaryofRuzbihanBagli(d.606/1209),amajorPersianSufi.ForotherrelevantviewsofRuzbihan,seeHenryCorbin,ed.andtrans.,CommentairesurlesparadoxesdesSoufis(Paris:Adrien-Maisonneuve,1966).

29.A.J.Arberry,ed.andtrans.,TheMawaqifandMukhatabatofMuhammadibn(Abdi`l-Jabbaral-Niffari.(London:Luzac&Co.,1935),summarizingandparaphrasingherefrom14-24,33-45,50-52,72-77,93-101,111-15,142-43,177-79,andoccasionallyretranslatingfrompertinentArabictextsprovidedatthebackofthatvolume.ForanewtranslationofselectionsofNiffari,seeEIM

281-301,whereSellsincludes"Standing59:Ontherealityofmalrifa."

30.W.Chitticktranslatesthetermas"overview"inhisTheSelf-DisclosureofGod:Principle'sofIbn'Arabi'sCosmology(Albany,N.Y.:SUNY,1998),219.ThisisatermofconsiderableimportanceforlaterSufis,suchasSuhrawardi,andwillbediscussedbelow.

31.TranslatedinEIM196-211.

32.HamidAlgargivestheyear391/1000asthedateofhisdeath("Introduction,"inB.vonSchlegell,trans.,PrinciplesofSufism[Berkeley,Calif.:MizanPress,1990],xi).

33.SeeA.J.Wensinck,TheMuslimCreed(NewYork:BarnesandNoble,1966)forspecificdetailsonthisandotherearlycreedalstatements.

34.Forfurtherdetails,seeA.J.Arberry,TheDoctrineoftheSufis(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1978reprint),ix-xviii.

35.SeealsoG.-C.AnawatiandLouisGardet,MystiqueMusulmane(Paris:J.Vrin,1961),129-45,ontheknowledgeofGod,withspecialfocusonKalabadhi.

36.Forthefollowingsummaryofhislife,IrelyonGQ1:11-23;LouisMassignon,"Salimiya,"EI'7:115;andW.Mohd.Azam,"AbuTalibAl-Makki:ATraditionalSufi,"HamdardIslamicus22:3(1999),71-79.

37.Amongwhichheincluded(1)theJahmiya,(2)theRafidiya,(3)theNazzamiya,(4)theMu`tazila,and(5)theMurji'a.

38.Or:"becauseofGod'slackofneedforthesuccess(tawfiq)thatmalrifapresupposes"-anobscurephrasethatmaymeanthatmalrifaimpliesprocessandextraordinaryexperiencethatGodalonecanbringtofulfillmentinahumanbeing,whereasGod's(ilmiseternallycompleteandtimelessandnotsubjecttobeingbroughttocompletion.

39.ForfurtherdetailsaboutQushayri'slife,seeH.Halm,"Al-Kushayri,"El25:526-27.

40.HamidAlgar,"Introduction,"inPrinciplesofSufismbyAl-Qushayrt,

trans.BarbaraR.VonSchlegell(Berkeley,Calif.:MizanPress,1990),iv-v.

41.Ibid.

42.IhaveinsertedrelevantArabictermsinbracketsintothetranslationbyFritzMeier,inhis"Qushayri'sTartibal-suluk":EssaysonIslamicPietyandMysticismbyFritzMeier,trans.anded.JohnO'KaneandBerndRadtke(Leiden:Brill,1999),111[Arabictext],124-25.SeealsoQassimal-Samarrai,TheThemeofAscensioninMysticalWritings(Baghdad:NationalPrint.andPub.Co.,1968),179-82.

43.FromthePersiantextofS.deLaugierdeBeaurecueil,Khwaja(AbdAllahAnsari(Beirut:ImprimerieCatholique,1965),259.

44.Forfurtherdetails,seeRichardMcCarthy,trans.,FreedomandFulfillment(Boston:Twayne,1980),ix-lx,andtranslationofGhazali's"autobiography,"61-114;alsoW.M.Watt,"Al-Ghazali,"Ell2:1038-41.

45.Ghazali,TheBookofKnowledge,trans.NabihAminFaris,rev.(Lahore:Sh.MuhammadAshraf,1966),106.

46.SummarizedfromFaris'stranslationofTheBookofKnowledge.

47.FaridJabre,LanotiondelaMalrifachezGhazali(Beirut:L'institutedelettresorientales,1958),16.SeealsohisLanotiondecertitudeselonGhazalidanssesoriginespsychologiquesethistoriques(Paris:J.Vrin,1958).ForotheraspectsofGhazali'sepistemology,see,forexample,VictorChelhot,"Al-Qistasal-mustagimetlaconnaissancerationnellechezGhazali,"Bulletind'EtudesOrientales15(1955-57),7-98.

48.Forewordto"MarvelsoftheHeart,"Daral-kutubal-`ilmiyaedition,3:3-4.SeealsoGhazal-i'streatmentofmalrifainrelationtolovelaterintheIhya',4:325-40.

49.RichardMcCarthy,S.J.,translatedsectionsonethroughfive,andeight,asAppendix5inFreedomandFulfillment,363-82.MyfurthercommentsarebasedonthetextoftheBeirut:Daral-kutubal-'ilmiyaedition,n.d.,3:14-29.

50.AtraditionaltripartitecosmologicalstructureranksthetheRealmof

AbsoluteDeity,towhichhumanbeingshavenodirectaccess,abovethatofLordlyDominion.

51.SeethetranslationbyWilliamShepardinJohnRenard,ed.,WindowsontheHouseofIslam(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1998),355-59.

52.Ghazali,Treatiseon(Knowledge)fromGod,trans.MargaretSmith,JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety(London,1938),Part2(April),177-200,Part3(July),353-74.

53.B.Halff,"LeMahasinal-majalisd'Ibnal-`Arifetl'oeuvredusoufihanbaliteal-Ansari,"RevuedesEtudesIslamiques39:2(1972),321-35.

54.FurtherseeClaudeAddas,"AndalusiMysticismandtheRiseofIbn`Arabi,"inSalmaKhadraJayyusi,ed.,TheLegacyofMuslimSpain,2vols.(Leiden:Brill,2000),909-33.

55.SeeG.Bowering,"`Ayn-al-QozatHamadhani,"EIr3:140-43;L.Lewisohn,"InQuestofAnnihilation:ImaginalizationandMysticalDeathintheTamhidatof`Aynal-QudatHamadhani,"ined.L.Lewisohn,TheHeritageofSufism(Oxford:Oneworld,1999),1:285-336.

56.Izutsu,"MysticismandtheLinguisticProblemofEquivocationintheThoughtof`Aynal-QudatHamadan,"154.

57.ThankstoLeonardLewisohnforadviceonthesubjectandforallowingmetosummarizeandquotehistranslationofselectionsofHamadhani'sTamhidat.

58.FromPersiantextofMajorJ.Stephenson,ed.andtrans.,TheFirstBookoftheHadigatu`l-HagiqatortheEnclosedGardenoftheTruth(NewYork:SamuelWeiser,1972),3-4.

59.AfkhamDarbandiandDickDavis,trans.Faradud-DinAttar:TheConferenceoftheBirds(NewYork:Penguin,1984),179ff.;Faridad-Din`Attar,Mantiqat-tayr,ed.MuhammadJavadMashkur(Tehran:1353/1974),231ff.

60.SeeJohnRenard,AlltheKing'sFalcons:RumionProphetsand

Revelation(Albany,N.Y:SUNY,1994);M.Este'lami,"TheConceptofKnowledgeinRumi'sMathnawi,"inClassicalPersianSufism:FromItsOriginstoRum,ed.LeonardLewisohn(London:KNP,1993),401-8.

61.Fortranslatedtextsonknowledgesee,forexample,SPK147-70,212-30;SDG150-55,245-50,277-79,315-17,345-49.SeealsoSouadHakim,"KnowledgeofGodinIbn`Arabi,"inMuhyiddinIbnArabi:ACommemorativeVolume,ed.S.HirtensteinandM.Tiernan(Rockport,Mass.:Element,1993),264-90.

62.ForacompletelistingofhisSuficonnections,seeGA1-9.

63.GerhardBowering,TheMysticalVisionofExistenceinClassicalIslam:TheQur'anicHermeneuticsoftheSufiSahlAt-Tustart(d.283/896)(Berlin:deGruyter,1980),138-42.Boweringsuggests(140)thathaddmayoriginallyhavereferredtoacelestialbody's"descendant"orlimit,whilethematla,referredtothebody's"ascendant."SeealsoJohnWansbrough,Qur'anicStudies:SourcesandMethodsofScripturalInterpretation(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1977),242-44.

64.See,forexample,ValerieJ.Hoffman,Sufis,Mystics,andSaintsinModernEgypt(Columbia,S.C.:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1995),218-25.Forpersonalreflectionsonthethemeofknowledgeintheexperienceindividualspiritualdirection,seeMichaelaOzelsel,FortyDays:TheDiaryofaTraditionalSolitarySufiRetreat(Brattleboro,Vt.:ThresholdBooks,1996);andFrancesTrix,SpiritualDiscourse:LearningwithanIslamicMaster(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1993).

65.SyedMuhammadNaguibal-Attas,TheMysticismofHamzaFansurt(KualaLumpur:UniversityofMalaya,1970).

66.G.W.J.DrewesandL.F.Brakel,ThePoemsofHamzaFansun(Dordrecht:ForisPublications,1986),47,51,53,61,65,79.

67.Jean-LouisMichon,LeSoufiMarocainAhmadIbn'AjtbaetsonMilraj:glossairedelamystiquemusulman(Paris:LibrairiePhilosophiqueJ.Vrin,1973),193,264.

68.J.-L.Michon,"L'autobiographie(fahrasa)dusoufimarocainAhmadIbn'Agiba,"Parts1-4,Arabica15(1968),225-69;16(1969),25-64,113-54,225-68;citingpt.4,225-48.

69.Ja`farSajjadi,Farhang-ilughatvaistilahatvata'btrat-ilirfani(Tehran:KitabkhanaTahouri,1350/1971),439-43.

1.AbuNasras-Sarraj

1.TextstranslatedfromKitabal-lumalfi'l-tasawwuf,ed.R.A.Nicholson,E.J.W.GibbMemorialSeries22(London:Luzac&CompanyLtd.,1963).WithpermissionofArisandPhillips.

2.Theupper-caseuseofthewordsCompanionsandFollowersrefers,respectively,tothefirstandsecondgenerationsofMuslims,thatis,thosewhoactuallylivedinthepresenceofMuhammad,andtheirimmediatedescendants.

3.SeeS.MurataandW.Chittick,TheVisionofIslam(NewYork:Paragon,1994)foranintroductiontoIslamstructuredonthisfamousHadith.

4.ThepluralofSunna,withlowercase"s,"canindicateeitherindividualsayingsofMuhammadorspecificpracticesthatcametohavetheforceoflongstandingtraditionorpositivelaw.

5.ReferringtothetheologicalprinciplethatGod'srevelationisnecessarilyprogressiveandincremental,andthecorrespondinghermeneuticalprincipleaccordingtowhichscholarsmustdeterminewhichscripturalversesmustbeunderstoodassuperseding,andthereforeabrogating,others.

6.Qur'an,Sunna,ijmal,andgiyasaretheso-calledfourrootsofreligiouslaw,fundamentalelementsinthelegalmethodologiesofalltheIslamicschools(madhahib)ofreligiouslaw.

7.InArabic,respectively,mugayasa,mushakala,mujanasa,mugarana,possiblygrammaticalorlogicaltermsthatSarrajisusingtoindicatetheprecisionandspecificityofthedisciplineofthejurists.

8.Continuing:"sothattheymightwarntheirpeopleontheirreturn,thattheymightprotectthemselves"(9:122).Pickthall'stranslationsuggeststhat,inthis

textthatreferredoriginallytosendingonlyapartofthecommunityouttofight,itisthosewhostaybehindwhoaretostudythereligioncarefully(TheMeaningoftheGloriousKoran[NewYork:Mentor,1953],156).

9.I.e.,thespiritualconditioninwhichoneadvancedonthePathbecomes"ashewasbeforehecameintobeing."

10.Uwaysibn`AmiribnJaz'ibnMalikal-Qarani(d.c.37/657)nevermetMuhammad,buttheProphetheldthisYemeniupasanexampleofloftyspiritualqualities.

11.Yaktuwuna,heretranslated"branded,"canalsomean"cauterized."Cauterizationisnotinitselfforbiddenasamedicaltreatment,butthepointhereseemstobethatundersomecircumstancespeopleengagedinthepracticeofbrandingforreligiouslyobjectionablereasons.

12.See,forexample,AbuSaidal-Kharraz'suseofthisHadithinA.J.Arberry,trans.,TheBookofTruthfulness(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1937),28;andGhazali'scitationinDavidB.Burrell,trans.,FaithinDivineUnityandTrustinDivineProvidence(Louisville,Ky.:FonsVitae,2001),6.

13.AbuSaidibnAbi`l-HasanYasaral-Hasanal-Basri(d.110/728)wasoneoftheFollowersbestknownforhisasceticismandmostoftencitedinSufitexts.

14.The"vowofabstinence,"zihar,literally"back,"fromthepre-Islamicpracticeofdivorceinwhichthehusbandtellsthewifesheis"likemymother'sback"tohim.

15.Hudhayfaibnal-Yaman(d.36/656-57)wasanearlyconvertandtransmitterofHadithsdealingespeciallywithhypocrisyandeschatology.

16.`Umaribnal-Khattab(d.23/644)wasthesecondCaliph(r.13/634-23/644).Inotherwords,Hudhayfa'seruditioninthesubjectwassohighlyregardedthatnolessthanthemanwhowouldbecomethesecondCaliphwaswillingtorelyonHudhayfa'sknowledge,eveninsofarasitmightimplicatehim.

17.`AliibnAbiTalib(d.40/661)wasMuhammad'scousinandson-in-law,husbandofFatimaandfatherofthetwoShi`imartyrsHasanandHusayn,andthefourthCaliph,accordingtoSunnireckoning.

18.SeeSells,EIM281-301,foradiscussionofNiffari'sidiosyncraticdevelopmentoftheterm"standing."

19.AbuSaidAhmadibn`Isaal-KharrazofBaghdad(d.277/890-91)wastheauthorofanearlytreatisecalledTheBookofAuthenticity(Kitabas-sidq),inwhichheanalyzedvariousspiritualstatesandlaidouttheconditionsforauthenticityineach(seeIntroductionabove).

20.`AskaribnHusaynAbuTuraban-Nakhshabi(d.245/859)wasoneoftheleadingKhurasaniteachersandwasnotedforhisobservationsonknowledge.

21.Abu`1-'AbbasibnMuhammadAhmadibn`Ata'(d.309/921-22or311/923-24)wasaclosefriendofthemartyr-mysticHallaj.

22.AbuBakr(d.13/634)wasapreeminentCompanionandMuhammad'sfather-in-lawandfirstCaliph,knownforhisuprightnessandthuscalledasSiddiq,theAuthenticOne.

23.AbuBakribnJahdarash-Shibli(d.334/945-46),aMalikilegalspecialist,wasadiscipleofJunaydofBaghdad,afriendofHallaj,teacherofNasrabadhi.

24.CommonlyknownasBayezid,AbuYazidibn`Isaal-Bistami(d.261/874-75),aCentralAsianandoneofthemostoftenquotedSufis,aprototypeofthe"intoxicated"Sufinotedforhisecstaticutterance,"Glorybetome!"

25.Abu`1-QasimibnMuhammadal-Junayd(d.298/910-11)wasthearchtypical"sober"Sufi,regardedastheleaderoftheBaghdadischool,thoughhewasborninIran.AShafi`ilegalscholar,hetaughtthedoctrineof"secondsobriety,"namely,theimportanceofreturningtoaheightenedlevelofspiritualsobrietyafterecstaticexperience.

26.YahyaibnMu`adhar-Razi(d.258/872)wasanIranianSufiknownforhispreachingandinfluentialintheformingoftheNishapurschoolofSufisminKhurasan,amongwhomAbu`Uthmanal-Hrri(d.298/910)wasamajorfigure.

27.Le.,anindividualwhojoinstheranksofpossessorsofexperientialknowledgeofGoddisappearsasanindividualpersonality.

28.Abu`I-Husaynan-Nan(d.295/907)wasafriendofJunaydanddiscipleofSarias-Sagati(d.c.251/865),notedespeciallyforhisemphasisonloveofGodandearlyanalysisof"stationsoftheheart."

29.AbuBakrMuhammadal-Wasiti(d.c.320/932)wasalegalspecialistwhocamefromFarghanainCentralAsiaandbecameamemberoftheBaghdadischoolofSufism.

30.AbuSulayman'Abdar-Rahmanad-Darani(d.either205/820or215/830probablythelatter)wasanotedasceticofSyriainfluencedbytheschoolofHasanal-Basri.

31.`AbdAllahIbn`Abbas(d.68/687)wasaCompanionandcousinofMuhammad,bestknownasanauthoritativetransmitterofHadithsandQur'anicexegete.

32.AnAsh`aritheologicalexpressionindicatingreticencetoinquireaboutwhatonecannotknowfullyconcerningthemysteryofGod.

33.TheseattributesareallitemsspecifiedinvariousearlyIslamiccreeds,andSarrajiscarefultomentionthemheresothatthereaderwillhavenoreasontosuspectthatSufishavedepartedfromthemainstreamteaching.

34.Heretheoperativeconceptsaretashbih,anthropomorphism,anditsopposite,talti1,namely,claimingthatthedivineattributesarenotonewiththedivineessence.

35.Literally,"makesaHijra,"thussymbolicallyimitatingMuhammadinhisfullygod-trustingdeparturefromMeccain622.

36.Yusufibnal-Husaynar-Razi(d.304/916),anassociateofAbuTurabanNakhshabiintheIraniancityofRayy,wasanexpertonsincerity.

37.Samnun(alternatelyspelledSunman)al-Muhibb(theLover)ibnHamzaalKhawwas(d.c.298/910)wasaBaghdadimysticandfriendofNunwhorankedloveaboveexperientialknowledge.

38.AbuHafsan-Naysaburial-Haddad(d.c.265/878-79)wasanotedasceticofNishapurinKhurasanwhosesometimesextremebehaviorwaslinkedtohis

associationgroupsidentifiedasMalamati,thosewho"broughtblameonthemselves"throughtheirpracticeofself-denial.

39.Conversation,kalam:MoseswasknownasKalimAllah,"whoconversedwithGod."

40.Risala,thetechnicaltermusedtodistinguishthemissionofcertainprophetswhosemissionextendsbeyond"prophethood"(nubawa)inthattheyaresenttoallpeopleandaregivenascripture.

41.Thefulltextofthetwoversesreads,"SotheyfoundoneofOurservantstowhomWehadgivenmercyfromOurselvesandtowhomWehadtaughtknowledgefromwithinUs.Mosessaidtotheservant,ShallIfollowyousothatyoumightteachmerightguidancefromwhatyouhavebeentaught?"TheservantthenwarnedMosesthathewouldnotbepatientenoughtobearwithhim(18:67).

42.SarrajhasconflatedsectionsofseveralHadithshere,thelastpartbeingfromasayinginwhichMuhammadwishesthatGodhadoriginallycreatedhimasatreewhosefruit,oncefelled,wouldbeeaten.Thesuggestionmaybethathewouldthennothavesufferedtheconsequenceofaknowledgetoohardtobear.

43.MuwarriqibnMushamrijal-`Ijli(d.105/723or108/726)wasaBasrantraditionist.

44.AbuDharral-Ghifari(d.c.32/652)wasanearlyconverttoIslamandHadithtransmitterknownforhisasceticismandspiritualpoverty.

45.TheintendedpointisapparentlythatwhiletheQur'anreferstoknowledgetheProphetisrequiredtocommunicate,theHadithreferstoknowledgegiventohimprivately.

46.`Umaribnwasaswellafather-in-lawof

47.Anabridgedexcerptofasayingof`AliinanextendedconversationwithKumaylrecordedinMuhammadibnal-Husaynash-Sharifar-Radi,Nahj-ulbalagha,ed.Muhammad'Abduh(Cairo:n.d.),4:587-89;cf.sameworkbyunnamedtranslator(Elmhurst,N.Y.:TahrikeTarsileQuran,1977),290.

48.Shathissometimestranslated"theopathic/ecstaticutterance,"fromarootthatsuggestsanoverflowingorsuperabundance,aswhenflouroverflowsasieveduringtheprocessofsifting.

49.ForM.Sells'stranslationofchapters123through127,seeEIM212-31.

2.AbuBakral-Kalabadhi

1.TranslatedfromAt-talarrufli-madhhabahlat-tasawwuf,ed.MahmudAminan-Nawawi(Cairo:Maktabatal-Kulliyatal-Azhariya,1969).

2.MinnoteintheArabiceditionreads:Thatis,intermsoffaithinHimandinHisexistencebymeansofinfusedknowledgeofHimthroughthetracesinHiscreation,[astheQur'ansays]"andtheywillnotencompassit/Himwithdiscursiveknowledge"(20:110).Arberrytranslatesthephraseas"postulation."

3.Thesetwoare,respectively,basedonacquaintanceandfamiliarity(talarruf),andcommunicationofinformation(taTff).

4.Individualswhosemalrifaderivesfromthesetwosourcesarereminiscentoftheclassicdistinctionbetweentwotypesofindividualseekers:themajdhub,whois"drawn"toGodimmediatelyordirectly,andthesalik,who"journeys"alongthemoreprotractedpathofgradualrealizationofGodthroughthetracesofHiscreation.See,e.g.,Ibn`AbbadofRonda,LettersontheSufiPath,trans.JohnRenard(Mahwah,N.J.:PaulistPress,1986),25-26.

5.MuhammadibnWasi`al-Azdi(d.either123/740-41or127/744-45)wasanasceticactiveintheMuslimconquestofCentralAsia,saidtohavehadsignificantconnectionswithHasanal-Basri,andismostfamousforthesayingcitedhere.

6.Followedbysimilarreferencestothesky,mountains,andtheearth.

7.Massignonhas"Hereisthetransfiguringexplicationofthedivinefires,flaming(inme)/Brilliant,liketheeasternsideofapearl,irrefutable"(PassionofAl-Hallaj:MysticandMartyrofIslam,trans.HerbertMason,3vols.[Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1982],3:62).

8.Literally,"knowerandknown,"larifandmalruf,anunusualexplanation,

sincealthoughGodisoftencalledal-lalim,Godisnotgenerallyidentifiedasal-larif.

9.MuhammadSahlibnAbdAllahat-Tustari(d.283/896),studentofSufyanath-ThawriandteacherofHallaj;hisQur'aniccommentarywasawatershedofmysticalexegesis(seeGerhardBowering,TheMysticalVisionofExistenceinClassicalIslam[Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,1980]).

10.AbuBakrMuhammadibn`Umaral-Balkhiat-Tirmidhial-Hakimal-Warraq(d.either280/893or295/908)wasaCentralAsianSufiwhospecializedinasceticaldisciplineandwroteTheBookoftheLearnedandtheSeekerofKnowledge.

11.AbuBakrMuhammadibnMusaal-Wasiti,a.k.a.Ibnal-Farghani(d.c.320/932)wasastudentofJunaydandNor!andacknowledgedbysomeasamajortheoristofSufism.

12.Arberryglossesrasm(here"outlines")as"unrealimpress,"andwasmas"divineimpress,"134.

13.PossiblyAbuBakral-Husaynibn`AliibnYazdanyaral-Urmawi(fourth/tenthcentury).

14.UbayyibnKa`b(d.c.19/640),oftheMedinantribeofKhazraj,wasaCompanion.

15.Al-Haritha,orHarith,ibnMalikal-Ansari(d.2/624)wasaCompanionwhodiedattheBattleofBadr.

16.Somecommentatorsidentifyal-A`rafasthebridgeoverheavenandhell,andthementhereasangelsorpastprophets.Othersregardthemassoulsbalancedprecariouslybetweengoodandevil,heavenandhell,butwhoyethopeindivinemercy.

17.Thelastfewwords,atleast,arethoseofJunayd,andthewholetextreferstogreatSufiswho,eventhoughpossessedofexperientialknowledge,remainedhardtoidentify,someevenborntoroyaltybutrefusingtobeassociatedwithit.

3.AbuTa1ibal-Makki

1.TranslatedfromQuital-qulub,2vols.(Beirut:Daral-kutubal-`ilmiya,1997).

2.GQ4:57suggeststhathemaybeidenticalwithan`Abdar-RahimadDaybuli,butgivesnofurtheridentification.

3.MalikibnDinaran-Naji(d.131/748-49),aQur'anicscribeoftheasceticalschoolofHasanal-Basri.

4.Farqadas-Sabakhi,ratherthanas-Sinjiasintheprintedversions(d.131/748-49),anasceticofBasra.

5.Abdal-WahidibnZayd(d.after160/767,possibly177/793)wasaBasranasceticwhoemphasizedtheimportanceofkeepingvigilandfastinginsolitude.

6.IbrahimibnAdham(d.161/778),fromtheAfghancityofBalkh,wassaidtohaveundergonearadicalrenunciationofroyalwealthinhisconversiontoIslam,astorybearinginterestingsimilaritiestothatoftheBuddha.

7.YusufibnAsbatash-Shaybani(d.either195/810,196/811,or199/814),citedmanytimesbyMakki,wasanassociateofBishral-Haft.

8.Wuhaybibnal-Wardal-Makki(d.153/770)wasanasceticalHadithspecialistwithwhomIbnal-Mubarakstudied.

9.(AbuSalih)Shu'aybibnHarbal-Mada'inal-Baghdadi(d.197/812-13)[ratherthanHabibibnHarb,asinprintedversion].

11.AbuHanifa(d.150/767)ofKufawasthefoundingfigureofoneofthefoursurvivingSunnilegalschools,theHanafi,currentlydominantinTurkeyandpartsofIndia.

12.Ibnal-Mubarak(d.181/797)wasanotedlegalspecialistoftheMalikiand(nolongerextant)Awza`ischools.

13.AbuThawrIbrahimibnKhalidal-Kalb!(d.240/854),whoselawschool

Junaydfollowed.Thenow-defunctschooldeclinedafterthefourth/tenthcentury.

14.Abu'AbdAllahal-HarithibnAsadal-Muhasibi(d.243/857)wasamajorcontributortoearlyIslamicmysticaltheology.SeeSells,EIM171-95,foratranslationofselectionsonhispsychology.

15.Intheformercase,therequirementisknownasfardkifaya,thatis,arequirementbindingonthecommunityasawholetoseetoitthata"sufficientnumber"ofthemactonthematter,andinthelatter,fardlayn,adutyencumbentuponeverysingleMuslim,regardlessofspecificroleorstatuswithinthecommunity.

16.`AbdAllahibn`Umar(d.73/693)wasaCompanionoftencitedforhiscompletededicationtotheProphet.

17.AnasibnMalik(d.91-93/709-12)wasaCompanion(whoknewtheProphetonlyasaveryyoungboy)notedfortransmittingwelloverahundred

18.`AbdAllahibnMasud(d.32/653),oneoftheearliestconvertstoIslam,wascelebratedasaprimesourceofexegesisaswellaslaw.

19.MalikibnAnas(d.179/795)wasanearlylegalscholarofMedinaafterwhomtheSunnischooloflegalmethodcalledtheMalik!wasnamed.

20.AhmadibnHanbal(d.241/855)wasatraditionistafterwhomtheHanbaliSunnilegalschool,currentlydominantinSaudiArabia,wasnamed.

21.Fudaylibn`Iyad(d.178/803)wasanearlyKhurasaniSufi,who,accordingtolegend,hadbeenanotorioushighwayrobber;hewasnotedforhisasceticism.

22.Bishribnal-Harith"al-Haft"(TheBarefoot)(d.227/841)wasacolorfulassociateofFudayl,and,ashisnicknamesuggests,ahardcoreascetic.

23.`Abdar-RahmanibnAbiLayla(d.c.83/702)wasoneoftheHelpersoftheAwstribeinMedina.

24.AHadithlikethisoneisassociatedwiththeearlytransmitterHudhayfa

ibnal-Yaman,whospecializedinHadithsonhypocrisy.

25.ForhistoricalbackgroundofMakki'sviewsonthissubject,seeIbnalJawzi'sKitabal-qussaswa'l-mudhakkirtn,ed.andtrans.MerlinL.Swartz(Beirut:Daral-Machreq,1986),andJonathanBerkey,PopularPreachingandReligiousAuthorityintheMedievalIslamicNearEast(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2001).

26.AbuHurayra(d.c.58/677),dubbedFatheroftheKittenbecauseofhisloveofcats,becameaMuslimlateinMuhammad'slifeandtransmittedsomethirtyfivehundredHadiths.Heisidentifiedamongthe"companionsofthebench"(ashabas-suffa),socalledbecausetheywerethedevoutpoorwhogatheronabenchoutsideMuhammad'sresidenceinMedina.

27.Sadaqa,non-mandatoryalmsgiving,beyondtherequired"pillar"calledzakat.

28.Punningonthesoundsofriwaya,transmissionofHadiths,andrilaya,takingcare,protecting,responsiblecustody.

29.BattleofBadr(Ramadan2/623),inwhichthebadlyoutnumberedMuslimswerevictoriousagainsttheMeccanQuraysh;i.e.,eventhegreatsecondsuccessoroftheProphetwouldhaveconsultedwiththegenerationreveredforhavingsupportedtheearlycommunitythroughitsmostdifficulttimes.

30.Mu`awiyaibnAbiSufyan(d.60/680)wasthefirstUmayyadCaliph,rulinginDamascus(41/661-60/680)wherehehadpreviouslyservedasgovernor.

31.A"client"(mawla)isanon-ArabconverttoIslamwhohasbeengrantedtheequivalentofhonorarymembershipinasponsoringArabtribe.

32.Ma'mun(d.218/833)wasan`AbbasidCaliphmostnotedforhisimpositionofaninquisition(mihna)whoselitmustestwasadherencetothedoctrineofthecreatednessoftheQur'an.ThatwasacrucialiteminthecreedoftherationaltheologianscalledtheMu`tazila,whoseviewsMa'munhadelevatedtothelevelofastatecreed.

33.Mu`adhibnJabal(d.c.18/639)wasnotedforhisexpertiseinlegalmatters

andiscitedoftenbyMakkiinthissection.

34.`Umaribn`Abdal-`AzizibnMarwan,alsoknownas`UmarII,ruledasUmayyadCaliph(r.99/717-101/720)andwasnotedforhisintensepiety.

35.SalamaibnDinarAbuHazimal-Madani(d.140/757)andRabi`aal-Madani(d.136/753)wereasceticsofMedinanorigin.

36.BannMarwan,atermsometimesrenderedas"Marwanids,"referstotheUmayyadrulersdescendedfromthe"counter-caliphMarwan"(claimtorule64/684-65/685),amongwhomwas`UmarII.

37.LugmanisaQur'anicfigureafterwhomSara31,muchofwhichisframedasthesage'sadvicetohisson,isnamed.

38.AprooftextinwhichMakkikeysinonthetermsyaqinandwajadtu-termshenowusesinamysticalsense,clearlyengaginginsymbolicexegesis.

39.ThefullnarrationhasMuhammaddescribeanightvision(framedasadream)inwhichGodappearstohimandaskshimwhetherheknowswhatisasourceofargumentinhighestcouncilofangels(perhapsanallusiontoQ38:69).Whenheanswers"No,"GodplacesHishandbetweenMuhammad'sshoulderssothattheProphetfeelsachillinhisbreast.AtthatpointMuhammad"knewallthatwasinheavenandonearth"(GQ435).

40.Malakut,atermthatreferstotheinvisibleworldasopposedtotherealmofmulk,earthlysovereignty.

41."CompanionsoftheRightHand"isaQur'anicexpression(56:27-40)forthosewhowillenjoythedelightsofParadise.

42.Literally,"isamujtahid,"atermsometimesappliedtoalegalscholarwhoisvestedwiththeauthoritytoexerciseindependentjudgmentinjurisprudence.

43.`AmiribnSharahilibnAbdash-Sha`bi(d.103/721)wasaleadingtraditionistofKufa.

44.Muhammadibnal-Hanafiya(d.81/700),youngestsonof`All'ssecondwife,becamethefocusofhisownlegendarybraveryinavengingthemartyrdom

ofhishalf-brotherHusayn.

45.IntheBattleoftheCamel(36/656),AlidefeatedtherebelforcesofTalhaandZubayr.Itwassonamedbecausefightingceasedwhenitreached`A'isha,whowasbeingconveyedbycamelandwasthereinsupportoftherebels.

46.`Aliibnal-Husayn(d.94/712),alsoknownasZaynal-`Abidin(AdornmentoftheDevotees),wasgrandsonof`AliandthefourthSh!'!Imam.

47.MuhammadibnIdrisash-Shafi`i(150/767-205/820)wasastudentofMalikinMedina;theShafi`iSunnilegalschoolisnamedafterhim.

48.Abu'AbdAllahal-Mahdi(r.158/775-169/785),anAbbasidCaliphandfatherofthecelebratedHarunar-Rashid.

49.`AbdAllahibnRawaha(d.8/629)wasaMedinanconvertcelebratedforbraveryinbattle.

50.ThisisareferencetotheQur'anicstatement,"TheJewssayEzra(`Uzayr)isthesonofGod,whiletheChristianssaytheMessiahisthesonofGod"(9:30).

51.Referring,withavarianttext,toDeuteronomy30:11-14.

52.WahbibnMunabbihal-Yamani(d.c.110/728)wasdevoutjuristduringthecaliphateof`UmarII.

53.DahhakibnMuzahim(d.105/723)wasanexegeteandHadithscholarofBalkh(nowinAfghanistan)oftencitedasatransmitter.

54.AbuYusuf(d.182/798)wasthechiefmagistrateofBaghdadandamongIraqijuristswassecondonlytoAbuHanifaininfluenceandauthority.

55.AbuSaidal-Khudri(d.c.74/693)wasaMedinanCompaniontowhomahighvolumeofHadithtransmissionhasbeenattributed.

56.SadibnAbiWaggas(d.55/675)wasanimportantearlymilitaryleaderwhofoundedtheIraqigarrisontownofKufa.

57."...willbesuccessful,"theversecontinues.GQ1:447translatestheverse,

"ThescalethatwillweighonthatdayistheTruth."

58."DaysofGod"referstotimesduringwhichpeopleexperienceGod'smercyandblessingsinaheightenedmanner.

59.Literally,"confusion,ambiguity"(iltibas).Makkiisextending,throughplaysonwords,themetaphorofGod'sconferringahue,usinglanguageofvesture(fromtherootlabasa).

60.Perhapsanalogoustoatypeof"taxshelter"tactic,wherebyonecansidesteptherequirementofholdingwealthforafullyearinordertoavoidzakat.

61.Ka`bal-Ahbar(d.c.32/652)wasaYemenirabbiwhoconvertedtoIslamnotlongafterMuhammad'sdeath.

62.Islamiclawprovidesfor"permittedexceptions"(rukhas)inextenuatingcircumstances,suchasnotfastingduringRamadanifoneistraveling.

63.ThewordAbuTalibusedheretorefertodeadbonescomes,ironically,fromarootthatmeans"tobegrandormagnificent."

64.ZawiyasisatermthateventuallycametorefertothesmallresidencesororatoriesinwhichSufishaykhsheldsessionswiththeirdisciples.

65.Ayyubas-Sakhtiyani(d.131/748)wasanotedtraditionistandstudentofAnasibnMalik.

66.Ibrahimal-Khawwas(d.c.290/903)wasanIraqiasceticwhoemphasizedtheneedfortotaltrustinGod.

67.MujahidibnJabral-Makki(d.104/722)wasconsideredthepreeminentexegeteamongtheFollowersandwasaspecialistinasbaban-nuzul,the"circumstancesoftherevelation."

68.Abdalarethe"substitutes,"aclassofseventypersonsintheSuficosmologicalhierarchy,amongwhomarenumberedthe"veraciousones"(siddiqun)-thechiefofwhomiscalledthequtb(axisorpole)-andthefourawtad("pegs").Wheneveroneofthemdies,hisroleisassumedbyanother,hencethename.

69.Continuing:"Ifyouarebanished,wewillgooutwithyou...."Heisusinghereanexampleofpeoplewhoexemplifyvaluesquiteopposedtothoseoftheprophetsandtheirspiritualkinbutexhibitqualitiesoffraternalaffinitynonetheless.

70.Infull,theversereads:"ThosewhoobeyGodandtheMessenger,theyarewiththoseuponwhomGodhasbestowedHisgrace,theprophets,theperfectlytruthful,thewitnesses,andtheupright.Andwhatgoodfriendstheyare."

71.Or:"inGod'spresence."Inbetweenthetextcontinues:"andinwhatHehasrevealedtothem,inhumilitybeforeGod.TheywillnottradeGod'sverses/signsforapaltryprice."

72.Sayyid("master,lord")andSharif("nobleperson")bothrefertoanindividualdescendedfromMuhammadthroughhisdaughterFatimaandherhusband`Ali,withtheMoroccanandJordanianroyallinesclaimingthislineagetoday.

73.ShagiqibnIbrahimal-Balkh!(d.194/809),aleadingfigureinKhurasaniSufismandfollowerofIbrahimibnAdham,taughttheneedforradicaltrustandspiritualhunger.

74.Jabiribn`AbdAllah(d.c.78/697),aMedinanconvertandHelpertowhomnumerousareattributed.

75.GQ1:467notesthattwoofhisfourmss.placetheHadithbeforethesayingof'AbdAllahibnMasud.

76.Le.,apersonwhomGodhasgratifiedordelighted,usingtermsreminiscentofatraditionaltextdescribinghowtwoangelsdescendeduponthechildMuhammad,openeduphisbreast,andcleanseditwithsnow;andaQur'anictextthatreferstoGod's"expandingthecenter"ofMuhammad'sbeing-anactionofteninterpretedmetaphoricallyasGod'senlighteningMuhammadandsealinghisintimaterelationshipwithhim(94:1).

77.InthisdifficultpassageMakkiseemstobesuggestingthatgoodguidanceisveryhardtofind,andthatonemustbeverycarefultowhomonegoesforanswerstothemostimportantquestions.Makkigivesonlythefirstfourtypes

immediately,returningtothefifthlater.

78.FullnameAbuBakrMuhammadibnMuslimibn'UbaydAllahibnAbdAllahibnShihabaz-Zuhri(d.124/742).

79.QatadaibnDi`ama(d.c.117/735)wasaBasranexegeteandcolleagueof

80.SaidibnJubayr(d.95/713)wasamajortraditionistandlegalscholaramongtheFollowers.

81.IamunabletofindanequivalentTorahcitation;Sirach38seemstocomeclosest.

82.Salmanal-Faris!(d.36/657),aPersianCompanionknownforhisasceticismwhomtheSufisregardasamodelofattachmenttoMuhammad.

83.Abu`d-Darda'(d.32/652)wasaMedinanCompanionwhooccupiedhimselfwithcollectingtextsoftheQur'anandwasoneofthe"peopleofthebench."Mada'inwastheformerSasanianPersianimperialcapitalontheTigrisinIraq,southeastofBaghdad,whereSalmanhadbeenanearlyMuslimadministrator(seeM.Streck,"Al-Mada',in"E125:945-46).

84.JabiribnZaydal-Azdi(d.93/711or103/721-22)wasaKharajiteexegeteandtraditionistfromBasra,andatransmissionlinkbetweenIbn`AbbasandQatada.

85.Saidibnal-Musayyib(d.94/713)wasanasceticandimportantjuristamongtheFollowersinMedina.

86.AbuMusaal-Ash`ari(d.42/662-63),militarycommanderunder,`Umar,wholaternegotiatedforAliinhisbattlewithMu`awiyain37/657atSiffin.

87.MuhammadIbnSirin(d.110/728),bestknownforhisworkondreaminterpretation,wasalsoalegalscholarinBasra.

88.Thabital-Bunani(d.127/744)wasaFollowerassociatedwithagroupofasceticsknownastheWeepers.

89.Anallusiontotheimageryof24:35,theVerseofLight,whichlikens

God'slighttoanicheinwhichthereisalamp.

90.`Uthmanibn'AffanwasthefourthCaliph(r.23/644-35/656)andmarriedtwodaughtersofMuhammad,mostfamousastheonewhopromulgatedthefirst"official"writtenversionoftheQur'an.

91.ThoseaboutwhomMuhammadhadsaidthattheywouldenterParadise:Muhammad,AbuBakr,`Umar,Uthman,Ali,Talhaibn'UbaydAllah(d.36/656),Zubayribnal-`Awwam(d.36/656),Sa'dibnAbiWaggas,'Abdar-Rahmanibn'Awf(d.32/652),andSaidibnZayd(d.51/671).

92.Le.,thatthegoodwouldalwaysbewaitingtobedone.

93.AccordingtoGQ1:479,HudhayfaknewthenamesofthetwelvepeopleMuhammadhadconsideredhypocritesamonghisCompanions.

94.Yazidar-Ragashi(d.c.115/733)ofBasrawasastudentofHasan,amagistrateandspecialistinHadith.

95.SulaymanibnMihranal-A`mash(d.147/764)wasaKufan-trainedexegeteandtraditionistwhowasveryinfluentialinestablishingthereadingofQur'anictext.

96.EithertomarktheendofRamadan(Idal-fitr)orinobservanceofthedayofsacrifice(Idal-adha)performedaspartofthemajorpilgrimage(Hajj)toMecca.

97.ProbablyAbu'AbdAllahal-Hudhali(d.c.192/807).

98."Scale"(mizan)referstotheeschatologicalsymbolofaccountabilityforone'sdeeds."Punishmentofthegrave"referstothebeliefthatthedeadexperiencetheterroranddiscomfortofconfinementandmustundergointerrogationinthegravebytwoangels,MunkarandNakir,senttotestthedeceasedonhisorherbeliefs.

99.Helpers:theansar,thosecitizensofMedinawhohaveaspecialplaceinIslamictraditionbecauseofthewaytheycametotheProphet'said.

100.I.e.,(AbuSalim)Wabisa(ibnMa`badal-Asadi),aCompanionwho

becameaMuslimin9/630,themantowhomMuhammadwasspeaking.

101.Or,possibly:"whoatteststothepermanenceofhiswitness/witnessing."ThisobscureexpressionmaybeanallusiontoQ50:37,"Areminderforanyonewhohasaheartandgivesearandwitnesses."

102.Ma`rufal-Karkhi(d.c.200/815)wasamajorearlyBaghdadimystic,possiblyaconvertfromChristianity,whotaughtbothSariandIbnHanbal,whosesonisquotedhere.

103.Mansuribn`Ammar(d.225/839)ofKhurasanwascreditedwithbringingpopularpreachingtoBaghdad.

104.GQrendersthisveryenigmaticsaying:"Leaveus!theproduceofathornbushisnotbitter,soithasburdeneduswithyousothatwewillbeincinerated."Otherpossibilities:"Leaveusnow!Apalaceguard(bearingspikesorarms)willpassbyand,findingyouwithus,wewillallbeincinerated."Or,callingforareadingnotattestedinGramlich'ssources:"Noloadofthornshaspassedby,so(God)hastossedyouatussothatwewouldgetscratched!"(readingtherootofthefinalverbaskharaqa,"scratch/puncture,"ratherthanharaqa,"burn").

105.HereMakkiisglossingthevariousmeaningsoftheverbqassa,whichinclude"topursueortrackdown"aswellas"tonarrate."

106.QasimibnMuhammad(d.106/724)wasagrandsonofAbuBakr,thefirstCaliph.

107.Thiswould,ofcourse,bethepinnacleofmiserliness,torefusetosharewithsomeoneinneedwhatoneclearlyhadnopersonalneedorusefor.

108.Ibrahimat-Taymi(d.92/710)wasaHadithscholar,ascetic,andpopularpreacherofKufa,whomayhavediedinprisonafterHajjajconfinedhim.

109.Ibrahiman-Nakha`i(d.96/714),aKufantraditionistassociatedwithHasanal-BasriandthejuristAbuHanifa.

110.Sufyanibn`Uyayna(d.c.198/813)wasyetanothertraditionistofKufaandastudentofIbnShihabaz-Zuhri.

111.I.e.,bydefault,forhehadoutlivedalltheotherauthoritiesonHadith.

112.Iamunabletolocatetextssimilartothefirsttwointhecanonicalgospels;forthelastsaying,seeMatthew7:6and13:45.

113.AbuBakral-Kattani(d.322/934)wasanearlymemberoftheBaghdadschoolofSufism.

114.Rabi'aal-'Adawiya(d.185/801),whospentmanyyearsinBasra,isoftencalledapivotalfigureinthetransitionfromasceticismtogenuinemysticism,andherpoetryissomeoftheearliestextantSufiverse.

115.GQ1:499providesthefollowingvariationfrommanuscriptversions:(Sufyan)ath-Thawrihadsaidbeforehim,"ThetemptationoftheHadithismoreintensethanthetemptationofwoman,money,andchildren."AndRabi`aal`Adawiyasaid,"WhatafinemanSufyanwouldhavebeenhadhenotbeensoattachedtotheHadith!"Andsheoncesaid,"Ifonlyhehadnotbeenattachedtothisworld."

116.Isma`IlibnIshaqal-Qadi(d.282/896)wasamagistrate(gadi)inchargeofeasternBaghdadundertheCaliphMutawakkilfrom860to861,and,eventually,thechiefgadiofBaghdad.

117.HereGQinsertsthesayingsmarkedbyanasteriskbelow,accordingtomanuscriptevidence.

118.GQ1:505saysthisHammadibnAbiLaylaofKufa(d.772/73)wasnotedforhistransmissionofearlyArabicpoetry.

119.`Ata'ibnAbiRabah(d.c.114/732)wasaMeccanlegalscholarwhospecializedinmatterspertainingtopilgrimage.

120.EarlytraditionrankedCompanionsusingsuchcriteriaasdateofconversiontoIslam,makingtheHijrain1/622,participatingintheBattleofBadrin2/623,beingamongthosewhoprayedinbothdirections(i.e.,wereMuslimsbeforetheqiblachangedfromJerusalemtoMecca,c.3/624),andbeingpresentatthetreatyofHudaybiyain11/628(forgreaterdetail,seeM.Muranyi,"Sahaba,"Ef8:827-29).

121.MakkimaybealludingheretoatextinSuratLuqmaninwhichthesageremindshissonthat"themostannoyingofvoicesisthatofthejackass"(Q31:19).

122.ZaydibnThabit(d.45/665)wasaCompanionassociatedwithparticulardiligenceinpreservingQur'anicutterancesinwriting.

123.Philosophicallyspeaking,thatis,apropertythatcaninhereinasubstance.

124.ReferringtoQ2:106,andtodiscussionastowhatprecisereadingwascorrect.

125.Le.,readingthetextinsuchawaythatitdoesnotmean"orsituateitlaterorpostponeit."Theversecontinues:"thenWesubstituteforitsomethingbetterorequivalent."

126.Therefollowsaseriesoftraditionsbelongingtothecategoryofahadithalfitan,Hadithsaboutthecomingtrialsthatwillbesignsofanimminentendofhistory.

127.GQ1:513notesthat,asindicatedinQ5:3,thefleshofananimalthathasdiedasaresultofbeingrammedisrituallyimpureandthuscannotbeeaten;hence,Makkiappearstobereferringtoapersonwhowillbeshunned.

128.GQ1:516notesthat`Imwas(or`Amawas)wasadistrictnearJerusalembelievedtohavebeentheplacewhereamajorplaguebeganduringthecaliphateof`Umar(13-23/634-44C.E.).

129.AhmadibnAbi`l-Hawari(d.c.230/844)wasaSyrianmemberoftheasceticalschoolofBasraandfollowerofSulaymanad-Darani.

130.Theversebegins:"Ifyoufindnooneathome,donotenterunlessyoureceivepermission."

consonants,called"sunletters,"arethosethatareineffectdoubledwhenprecededbythedefinitearticle,"al-,"soforexample:Abu`d-Darda',ratherthanAbual-Darda'.Thenon-assimilatedconsonants,called"moonletters,"arenotdoubledwhenprecededbythedefinitearticle,soforexample:Hasanal-Basri.

132.TheKhawarij,pluralofKharij,meaning"thosewhosecede,"wereoriginallyafactionamong`All'sarmythatbrokeawaywhen`AlifoughttoastalematewithMu`awiyaatSiffinin36/656.TheKhawarijinsistedthat`AlihadtooquicklyacquiescedinmerehumanarbitrationratherthanrelyingonthejudgmentofGod'sword.

133.Referringtothefullrangeoflanguagestudies,fromcorrectgrammarandpronunciationtoembellishmentforthesakeofeloquence.

134.Theminbarwasastaircaseusuallysituatedtotherightofthemihrab,sometimeswithasmallcupolaatopthesteps,fromwhichtheimamdeliveredhisFridayorfeast-daysermon.

135.GQ1:529citesanaccountthatidentifiesthisAbu`AbdAllahasachiefjudgeoftheMu`tazilacalledIbnAbiDu'ad(d.240/854),whohadbeeninvolvedinthecaseagainstAhmadibnHanbal.

136.FollowingtheorderGQnotedinthemanuscriptversions;printedversionsplacethisparagraphaftertheparagraphonthesayingsofIbnMahdiandMalikibnAnasbelow.

137.GQ1:531notesthatIbnHanbal'srelationshiptoMuhasibiwasambivalent,forherespectedMuhasibiasanindividualbuthadseriousreservationsabouthisteachings,taintedastheywerebycontactwiththespeculativetheologians.

138.FollowingtheorderofsayingsthatGQ1:531indicatesoccursinthemanuscripts.PrintedversionsgivenMalik'ssayingbeforethatofIbnMahdi.

139.Shurayhibnal-Harith(d.c.76/695)wasastoriedjudgeofKufa.

140.Mansuribn`Ammar(d.225/839)wasa"preacher"(waliz)andIbnas-Sammak(d.183/799)wasa"reminder"(mudhakkir).

141.Themagsura,analcoveorelevatedplatformreservedfortherulerandhisfamily,oftenaccessiblethroughaseparateentrancesothatthesultan,forexample,couldbypassthegatheredcrowdifhewished.

142.Asin28:38:"Haman,makemeakilnforclaybrickssothatyoucan

buildmeapalaceandIcanascendtotheGodofMoses."

143.BishribnMarwanibnal-Hakam(d.75/694)wasamemberoftheUmayyadfamily,whichmanyearlypietistsfaultedforitssinfulpenchantforregalsplendor.

144.Fromatermthatcanalsoreferbothtocamelsaddlesandthewrappingofaturban.

145.A"measure"varyingregionallyfromabouta"forearm"inlengthtotwofeet.

146.HajjajibnYusuf(d.95/714)wasamajoradministratorfortheUmayyadCaliph'Abdal-Malik(r.73/692-87/705),sonofcounter-caliphMarwan.Sha`bi'spointisthatsuchaturnofeventswouldsignaladramaticdeteriorationofreligiousvalues,becauseHajjajbecamenotoriousforintroducingcountlessinnovations,asMakkiisabouttodetail.

147.Or"points,"visualdevicesintroducedto(1)makesurethatcertainconsonantsthatmightnototherwisehavebeeneasilydistinguishedfromsimilarletterswouldbereadcorrectly;and(2)indicatecorrectvocalizationbymeansofredmarksaboveandbelowthelinetospecifythevowelsnototherwiseincludedinmostArabictexts.AlthoughHajjajwaspopularlybelievedtohaveintroducedtheseadditions,itisnotcertainwhodid.

148.Butyouarenotallowedtoprofitbysellingatextthatyouhaveembellished.

149.Majnun,meaning"possessedbyajinn,"or"madman,"wasthenicknameofafictionalBedouincharacternamedQaysibnal-Mulawwah,whowentmadforloveofthecoyLayla.

150.Inotherwords,MakkifurtherinterpretsAnas'ssarcasticcommentthattheirapparentsimilaritytotheProphet'sCompanionsissuperficialandacoverupforaseriousunderlyingproblem.

151.GQ1:538translatesthelastclause,"Thesepeoplehavenoshare,"andglossesbysayingtheyhavenoshareinthegoodthingsofthenextworld,referringto2:102,200,and3:77.

152."Younggentleman"and"rogue"and"gentlemanlydemeanor"areallfromtherootfata,whichcancarrytheconnotationofbeingarascalorne'er-do-well,memberofafutuwachivalricorganization,oranobleyouth.

153.GQ1:540notesthatthiswasasayingofMuhammadtransmittedbyAbuHurayra.

154.Heretwoversionsinsertthesayingfromabove:Oneoftheancestorsinfaithsaid,"Alittlehumilitysufficesforalotofaction,andalittlespiritualreticencesufficesforalotofknowledge."

155.Thekinshipname,ornisba,indicatesone'striballineage."Al-Quraz1"indicatesthatthemanbelongedtotheBanuQurayza,oneoftheJewishtribesofMedina,and`Umarsuggeststhat,instead,themansayhewasoneofthe"Helpers"orAnsar,so-calledbecausetheysupportedMuhammad'seffortsinMedina.

156.Makkireferstothesubtle,insidioustemptationtobelievethatoneismakingmoreprogressthanoneactuallyhasmade.Thedivineruseorstratagem(makr)isaclassicIslamictheologicalconceptdesignedtoimpressonthebelievernotthatGodliesinambushoranysuchcrueldevice,butthatonemustbeeveronguardagainstthetemptationofthinkingoneknowsthemindofGod.Theonlysafecourseistobeevervigilantandreadyforsurprises.

157.Usingaderivativeoftherootjahada,oftenassociatedwiththescholarlyexertionrequiredininterpretingmattersoflaw,ijtihad.

158.GQ1:544:Thistraditionappearshereinmanuscripts,butafterthenextoneinprintedversions.

159.GQ1:544-45suppliesherethetextofaHadithfrom`A'ishaaboutthree"diwans"orregistersofwhichGodkeepstrack,composed,respectively,ofthingsGoddoesnotworryabout,thingsGoddoesnotdisregard,andthingsGoddoesnotforgive.Thefirstincludesfaultssuchasfailingtofastorpray;thelastreferstopolytheism;andthesecond,relevanthere,includesinjusticespeopleperpetrateagainsteachother.

160.Thefollowingtext,translatedherefromGQ1:547,para.225,appearsin

onlyoneofhismanuscriptsandnotinprintedversions:Peoplehaveintroducedasinnovationsalsotherefutationofinnovatorsusingspeculativeandrationalscience,forthattooqualifiesananinnovation.Anyonewhoemployssuchargumentationisaninnovator.Butinourtime,thishasbecomeascienceandtheignoranthaveregardedthedialecticiansaslearnedpeople.Itwasthemethodoftheancestorsinfaith,however,torefuteinnovatorsusingonlysacredHadithsandtraditions,andneverrationaltheology,analogicalreasoning,speculation,anddisputation.Someonesaidto`Abdar-RahmanibnMahdi,"So-and-sohasproducedabookinwhichherefutestheinnovators.""How?"heasked,"Withthescriptureandtradition?"Cametheresponse,"No,withrationalscienceandspeculation."Soheresponded,"Hehasdisregardedsacredtraditionandhasrefutedoneinnovationwithanother."

161.Makkiherereflectsthelongstandingcontroversyastotheimportanceofreproducingtheprecisewordingasopposedtocommunicatingthegeneralsenseofthetradition.

162.Usingthetechnicaltermmarasil(pl.ofmursal),indicatingthatthechainoftransmissionlacksthenameofaCompanion,onlybeginningwiththesecondgeneration.

163.Makkiactuallyusesthedualformhere,buthethengoesontoenumeratefiveissuesexplicitly,andfollowsthosewithanongoinglistofothersuncounted.

164.Literally,"thetribes"(al-asbat),butherereferringtoJoseph'sbrothersspecifically.

165.Theseareactuallywordsthat,accordingtheQur'anicaccount,Joseph'sbrotherJudahinstructedhisbrotherstosaytoJacob,astheytriedtodecidehowtorespondtothechargethattheiryoungerbrotherBenjaminhadstolenJoseph'sdrinkingcup.

166.Asin39:23,"Atwhichyourskinandyourheartwillbecomesupple."

167.GQ1:554notesthatthesesayingsoccurindifferentorderinthemanuscripts.

4.`Aliibn`UthmanHujwiri

1.TexttranslatedfromV.A.Zhukovskij,ed.Kashfal-mahjab(Leningrad:Daral-`ulum,1926).

2.Le.,ofconditionsunderwhichobservanceofreligiouslawmightbedeleterioustoone'shealthorthatmightotherwiseexemptonefromreligiousobligation.

3.Literally,"ofthemenstrualperiod,"theterminationofwhichmustbedeterminedbeforeawomanwouldbeallowedtoremarryafterdivorce.

4.Itmightstillbespirituallyworthwhilepersonal,non-requiredprayer,butitwouldnotfulfilltheritualstipulationsofrequiredor"liturgical"prayerperformedfivetimesdaily.

5.Hatimal-Asamm(d.237/851)wasfromthepresent-dayAfghancityofBalkhandwasfamousforhissageaphorisms.

6.Thetermwaqtreferstotheindividual'sspiritualconditionatanygiveninstant,sothatapersonwhoisfullyintouchwiththatconditioniscalleda"sonofthemoment."

7.Hujwiri,likehisfellowSufitheorists,waseverawareoftheneedtoemphasizetheinterdependenceofoutward,apparentandinward,hiddendimensionsofallreligiousmatters.

8.Literally,"roots"and"branches,"termsreferringtolegalprinciplesandtheirimplicationsforaction.

9.Muhammadibnal-Fadlal-Balkh-1(d.319/931)isassociatedwithafurtherdevelopmentofMuhasibi'sandKharraz'slevelsofknowledgeinto:knowledgeof(malrifabi-)God'sattributes;knowledgefromGodconcerningoutwardandinwardmeaningsofGod'slaw;andknowledgewithGodconsistingoffearandhope,desire,andlove.HecarriedonimportantcorrespondencewithTirmidhi.KT178,note1.

10.AlludingheretotheritualsMuslimsshouldreserveforpilgrimagetotheKa`ba,tothearchitecturalfeatureineverymosque(mihrab,niche)thatindicatestheMecca-warddirectionofritualprayerthatiscalledtheqibla.

11.Reading"Qur'anreciters,"asNicholsondid,ratherthan"mendicants,"asZhukovskij'stextreads,wouldhavetheprecedentofothertraditionalsayingsinitsfavor.

12.AbuJahlwasactually`AmribnHisham(d.2/624),anenemyofMuhammadwhoseoppositionwonhimthenicknameFatherofIgnorance.

13.Dil-gusha,possiblyanindirectreferencetotheQur'anicnotionthatGodexpandedthecenterofMuhammad'sbeing(94:1),anexperiencethatSufitheoristsadaptedasanessentialaspectofspiritualexperiencealongthePath.

14.Hujwiriispunninghere,suggestingthatcauseandmeansbythemselvesarerahbur(highwayrobber,roadinterrupter)ratherthanrahbar(onewhoshowstheroad,guide),astheymightbewiththehelpofGod'sgraceorfavor.

15.AbuTalib(d.619)wasMuhammad'suncle;hetookcareoftheorphanedboyafterthechild'sgrandfatherdiedbutneverconvertedtoIslam.

16.MainstreamMuslimtheologyheldthattheonlyacceptablepositionmeantbalancingprecariouslybetweentheaffirmativeapproachofinterpretingtheanthropomorphismsoftheQur'anentirelyasmetaphors,therebyputtingatriskdivineunitybyeffectivelymakingGod'sattributesseparatefromthedeity;andthenegativeapproachofdenyingaltogetherthatGodpossessesattributes,therebycompromisingthedivineconnectionwithcreation.

17.Thetermdarunhasalsobeentranslated"intuitive."However,inthefollowingparagraphsIhavealternatelyused"necessary"-theoppositeofcontingentinthephilosophicalsense-and"innate"inordertocapturesomethingofthesubtletyoftheidea.

18.AbuAliad-Dagqaq(d.405/1015)wasfather-in-lawandimportantteacherofQushayri(seeJ.Chabbi,"AbuAliDagqaq,"EIr1:255-57).

19.Ballam,SonofBar(thebiblicalBaalaminNumbers22-24)wasafigureofancienttimeswhomsomeblamedforIsraelitesexualdalliancewithMoabiteandMidianitewomen.ThusmanyMuslimmysticsregardBallamasthe"prototypeofthespiritualmanledastraybylustandpride"(G.Vajda,"Ballam,"Eh1:984).

20.Barsisawasaquasi-legendaryreclusewhosestoryisassociatedwithtalesofSaintAnthonythedesertfather,inthatBarsisafellvictimtothediabolicaltemptationtodenyGod(A.Abel,"Barsisa,"Eh1:1055).

21.Hujwlnalludes,apparently,toAbraham,whorepudiatedtheidolshisfathercarvedforalivelihoodandlearnedfromthesettingoftheheavenlylightsthattheywereotherthanGod(see6:76ff.).

5.Abu`1-Qasimal-Qushayri

1.Foratranslation,seeEIM97-150.Foratranslationofthematerialdescribedbelow,seeBarbaraR.vonSchlegell,trans.,PrinciplesofSufism(Berkeley,Calif.:Mizan,1990).

2.TranslatedfromAr-risalaal-qushayriya(Beirut:Daral-kutubal-`ilmiya,1998),342-47.

3.AttributedinGR429toAbu'UbaydaMa`maribnal-Muthanna(d.210/825orlater).

4.Afteranisnadincluding`Abdar-RahmanibnMuhammadibn`AbdAllahal`Adl,Muhammadibnal-Qasimal-`Ataki,Sulaymanibn`Isaash-Shajari(Gramlichgivesvariantofas-Sijzi),`AbbadibnKathir,HanzalaibnAbiSufyan(d.151/768-69),al-QasimibnMuhammad(ibnAbiBakras-SiddiqAbuMuhammad(d.106/724-25)-oneofsevenlegalspecialistsinMedina-and(Muhammad'swife)`A'isha(d.58/678).

5.AsreportedbyShaykhAbu`Abdar-Rahmanas-Sulam!andAhmadibnMuhammadibnZayd.

6.AsreportedbyAbu`Aliad-DaggaqandMuhammadibnMuhammadibn,Abdal-Wahhab.

7.AsreportedbySulam!'sfather,whomGramlichidentifiesasHusaynibnMuhammadibnMusaibnKhalidibnSalimal-Azd!(d.348/959);Sulam!himself;andAbu`l-`Abbasad-Dlnawar!(d.c.340/951),whowasaCentralAsianpreacherandassociateofAbuSa`!dal-Kharraz.

8.Hujwiricitesthesametwosayingstogether[355].GR431notesthatthese

wordsoccurinaHadithreportedby`A'isha,inwhichMuhammadsaidthesewordsduringprostrationinprayerinthemiddleofthenight.

9.AsreportedbyMuhammadibnal-Husayn;AbuJa`farMuhammadibnAhmadibnSaidar-Razl;`Ayyash(Gramlichreads`Abbas)ibnHamza(d.288/901);andAhmadibnAb!`l-Hawar!(d.c.230/844),whostudiedwithAbuSulaymanad-Daran!inSyria.

10.RuwaymibnAhmadofBaghdad(d.303/915)wasanassociateofJunaydandwasamoderatemysticwhoputlittlestressonmaintainingtheappearanceofasceticism.

11.AsreportedbyMuhammadibnal-Husayn,MuhammadibnAhmadibnSaid,MuhammadibnAhmadibnSahl(as-Sayrafi,d.347/958),andSa'Idibn`Uthman(d.294/906-7).

12.AsreportedbyMuhammadibnal-Husayn,AbuBakrar-Razi(d.376/986),andAbu`Umaral-Antaki.

13.AsreportedbyAbu'Abdar-Rahmanas-Sulam!(d.412/1021)andAbu`l-Husaynal-Farisi.

14.AlsoasreportedbyAbu`Abdar-Rahmanas-Sulam!andAbu`l-Husaynal-Farisi.

15.AsreportedbySulam!,MuhammadibnAbdAllahibnShadhan(d.376/986),andYusufibnal-Husayn(d.304/916-17).

16.AsreportedbyAbuHatimas-Sijistanl;AbuNasras-Sarraj;Wajlhl;andAbu`Allar-Rudhbarl(d.c.322/933),whowasanIraqiassociateofJunaydandNurl.

17.AsreportedbyMuhammadibnal-Husaynand`AbdAllahibnMuhammadad-Dimashq!.

18.AfteranisnadincludingMuhammadibnal-Husayn,`AllibnBundarasSayrafiandJurayrl.

19.Abu`Uthmanal-Maghribi(d.373/983)wasaTunisianSufiwhotraveled

widelyinthecentralMiddleEast.

20.AfteranisnadincludingMuhammadibnal-Husayn,Muhammadibn`AbdAllah(possiblyibnShadhan),andJa'far(al-Khuldl,d.348/959-60,aprominentBaghdadiSufiinthecircleofJunayd).

21.ProbablyMuhammadibnal-Fadlas-Samarqandi,afteranisnadincludingJunaydand'AbdAllahar-Razi(d.353/964).

22.AfteranisnadincludingAhmadibn`Al!ibnJa'farand(AbuBakr)al-Kattan!(d.322/934).

6.`AbdAllahAnsari

1.S.deBeaurecueil,"LeKitab-esadmaydande`AbdallahAnsari,"MelangesIslamologiques2(1954),1-90;Persiantexts,45-46.KhidristhenameattachedtotheenigmaticfigureofSara18whofunctionsasMoses'guide.

2.MytranslationoftextinRavanFarhadl,ed.andtrans.(Persian),Manazilas-sa'irin(Tehran:Intisharat-iMawla,1361/1982),130-32.

3.Beaurecueil,"LeKitab-esadmaydande`AbdallahAnsari,"texton42-43.

4.Farhadi,Manazil,212-14.

5.Ibid.,216.

7.Abual-Ghazal!

1.RichardMcCarthy,S.J.,publishedatranslationofSections1-5,and8,asAppendix5inhisFreedomandFulfillment(Boston:Twayne,1981),363-82.SectionstranslatedherearebasedonthetextoftheBeirut:Daral-kutubal-`ilmiyaedition,n.d.,3:14-29.

2.Continuing:"andthosewhoareheedlessofOursigns,(8)willdwellintheFirebecauseofwhattheyhaveearned."

3.McCarthy,FreedomandFulfillment,

4.Le.,theheart'sknowingbythetwomeansofeitherinspirationorinstruction.

5.ThebracketedsectiondoesnotappearinstandardversionsoftheQur'an;theversecontinues:"butthatifheconceivedadesire,Satanmeddledinhisdesire."

6.AccordingtoaHadithrecordedinMishkatal-masabih,trans.JamesRobson(2:1302),`UmarbecamemiraculouslyawareoftheapproachoftheenemyatthesceneofanimpendingbattleandshoutedoutawarningwhileaddressingtheMuslimcommunity.Amessengercamelaterandreportedto`Umarthattheenemywasgainingtheupperhandwhensomeoneshouted,"Sariya,keepnearthemountain!"andthetideturnedinfavoroftheMuslimforces.

8.Ibna1-`Arif

1.UsingthetextinMiguelAsinPalacios,Ibnal-`Arif.•Mahasinal-majalisTexteArabe,Traduction,etCommentaire(Paris:LibrairieOrientalistePaulGeuthner,1933),75-76,101,103-5[thesearethenumbersinbrackets];supplementedbythatinIbnal-`Arif,AhmadibnMuhammad,Mahasinal-majalis:TheAttractionsofMysticalSessions,trans.WilliamElliottandAdnanK.Abdulla(U.K.:AveburyPublishing,1980),20-25,109-15.

2.Translatinglillaas"instruction"followingAsinPalacios(29n.8)thatthisishowIbn`Arabidefinedthetermfromamysticalperspective.

3.ThestandardArabictextoftheQur'anreads"ithasbeenrevealed"(uhiya),butthistext(aswellasthems.reproducedintheAveburypublication)reads"Wehaverevealed"(awhaynd).

9.Abu`Umaras-Suhrawardi

1.Translatedfrom'Awarifal-ma'arif,inAbuHamidal-Ghazali,Ihyd''ulumad-din(Beirut:Daral-kutubal-'ilmiya,n.d.),5:55-74.

2.AfteranisnadincludingSharifNoral-HudaAbuTalibal-HusaynibnMuhammadaz-Zaynabi,KarimahintAhmadibnMuhammadal-MarwaziyaalMakki,Muhammadibn(al-)Makkial-Kushamayhani,Abu`AbdAllah

MuhammadibnYusufal-Firabri,Abu`AbdAllahMuhammadibnIsmailal-Bukhari,AbuKurayb,AbuUsama(d.201/817),Burayd,AbuBurda(ibnAbiMusa,d.c.103/721),andAbuMusaal-Ash`ari(d.c.42/662).

3.MasruqibnalAjda`(d.c.62/681)wasatraditionistassociatedwithmanyfrom`A'isha.

4.AfteranisnadthatincludesAbu`l-KhayrAhmadibnIsmailal-Qazwini,AbuSaidMuhammadal-Khalili,AbuSaidMuhammadal-Farrukhzadhi,AbuIshaqAhmadibnMuhammadath-Tha'alibi,IbnFanjuya(variant:Fathuya),IbnHayyan(variant:Habban),IshaqibnMuhammadandhisfather,Ibrahimibn`Isa,`Aliibn`Ali,andAbuHamzaath-Thumali.

5.Muhammad,likeAbraham,wasahanif,aseekeraftertheoneGod.

6.AfteranisnadincludingAbuTalibaz-Zaynabi,KarlmahintAhmadibnMuhammadal-Marwaziya,Abu`l-Haytham,al-Firabri,al-Bukharl,SaidibnHafs,IbnWahb,Yunus,IbnShihab,and'Abdal-Humaydibn'Abdar-Rahman.

7.TheArabtraditionallyidentifiedastheaddresseehereis(accordingtoGA30n.66)eitherSa`sa`aibnMu`awiyaorSa`sa`ibnNajiya,thelatterofwhomwasthegrandfatheroftherenownedUmayyaderapoetFarazdaq.

8.Thatis,theheavenlycounterpartorprototypeoftheKa`ba,aspiritualstructurecalledtheal-baytal-malmur,"theestablishedhouse."

9.Underlyingthecommentisapunon"herubbed"(masaha)and"surveying"(misaha).

10.FollowinganisnadthatincludesAbuMansural-Muqri',theImamandHafizAbuBakral-Khatib,Abu`Amral-Hashimi,AbuAlial-Lu'lu'i,AbuDawudasSijistani,Musaddad,Yahya,Shu`ba,`UmaribnSulayman(adiscipleof`Umaribnal-Khattab),'Abdar-RahmanibnAbanandhisfather,ZaydibnThabit(d.c.45/656).

11.An-nafsal-ammarabi`s-su',oneofthefourwaysinwhichtheQur'ansaysthenafsfunctions.

12.IbnSam`unAbu`I-HusaynibnAhmadibnIsma`Il(d.387/997)wasa

Hanbal!favorabletoSufismandaBaghdad!preacherlegendaryforhispowertostiremotions.

13.TheParableoftheSoweroccursintheGreekTestamentintheSynopticGospels(Matt.13:3-9;Mark4:3-9;andLuke8:5-15).

14.AfteranisnadincludingRa'isAbu`AliibnNabhan,HasanibnShadhan,Da`lajibnAhmad,Abu`I-Hasanibn'AbdAllahal-'Azizal-Baghawi,Abu'Ubayd(ibn)al-QasimibnSallam,Hajjaj,HammadibnSalama,`AliibnZayd,andHasan(whomonetextglossesasal-Basri).

15.Or:"limit/endpoint"-hadd,alsomeaningpossiblysemanticfieldatonelevel,butmorelikelyreferringtotheprescriptiveorethicalsenseofatext;GA39translatesas"sphereofmeaning."

16.Matlallmuttalal,"pointofarising,"possiblyareferencetothespiritualorsymbolicmeaningofatext.Qashanidefinedthis"PointofDeparture"as"thestageinwhichthespeakeractuallyexperiencestheversesoftheQur'anwhichheisreciting.Hisspeechisilluminatedbythequalitywhichisthesourceofthatparticularverse"(`Abdal-Razzaqal-Qashani,comp.,GlossaryofSufiTechnicalTerms,trans.NabilSafwat[London:Octagon,1991],47-48).GA39optsfor"pointoftranscendence."

17.AfteranisnadthatincludesHajjaj,Shu`ba,and`AmribnMurra,Murra.

18.Ja`faras-Sadiq(d.148/765)wasthesixthSh!`!imam,afterwhosedeathdissentingviewsastowhowashislegitimatesuccessoreventuatedinthedivergenceoftwogroupsthathavecometobecalledSevenerSh!`is,orIsma`ilis,andTwelvers,orImamis.Ja`fariswidelyacknowledgedasapioneerinsophisticatedQur'anicexegesis(see,e.g.,PaulNwyia,ExegeseCoranique[1970],156-208).

19.`Abdar-Razzaqal-Qashani'sGlossaryofSufiTechnicalTerms,47-48,quotestheabovesayingofJa'far,andQashanithennotesSuhrawardi'scommentthatJa`far'stonguebecameliketheBurningBushandfurtherspecifiesthemeaningoftheterm:"ItisthestageofwitnessingtheTruthineverythingthatisirradiatedbyitsqualities-ofwhichqualitiesthatthingisanoutwardmanifestation.ButbecauseitwassaidinatraditionoftheProphet:`Thereisno

verseoftheQur'anwithoutanoutwardandaninwardmeaning;foreveryletterthereisanendpoint,andforeveryendpointapointofdeparture,'themeaninghasbecomerestrictedtothissense."L.Massignon,EO82,callsmuttalalthe"anagogicsense"ofatext,"whichisadivinecall.Thenadialoguebeginsbetweenthehumble,meditatingsoulandthetranscendentDivineWisdom.Forthesoul,wordstakeonthefullnessspecifictotheirmomentaryrealityinwhichGodisheardtospeak;thesoulreformsitsvocabularyintheimageofthedivinespeech."

20.AsGA41n.90observes,theauthorplaysoffthedivinerealm,withitspower,itshiddenness,anditslight,againstthecreatedrealm,characterizedbyorderedwisdom,visibility,andunfoldingphases.

21.IstikharareferstothepracticeofprayingtwoprostrationcyclesoftheritualprayerbeforegoingtobedandaskingGodforaresponse,toberenderedperhapsinadreamorsomeothermanifestation(seeCyrilGlasse,TheConciseEncyclopediaofIslam[NewYork:Harper&Row,1989],201).

22.AfteranisnadthatincludesAbu`Abdar-Rahmanas-Sufi,`Abdar-RahmanibnMuhammad,AbuMuhammad`AbdAllahibnAhmadas-Sarakhsi(oras-Sijziaccordingto3variants),Abu`Imranas-Samarqandi,AbuMuhammad`AbdAllahibn`Abdar-Rahmanad-Darimi,Nu`aymibnHammad,Baqiya,al-AhwasibnHakim,andhisfather.

23.ThroughanisnadincludingHafizAbu`1-Qasimal-Mustamli,Abu`1-Qasim`Abdal-KarimibnHawazinal-Qushayri,AbuMuhammad`AbdAllahibnYusufal-Isfahan,AbuSa`Idibnal-Arabi,Ja`faribn`Amiral-`Askari,Hasanibn`Atiya,andAnasibnMalik.

24.Inattentiveness(ghafla),whileobviouslynotdesirableassuchonthespiritualpath,isneverthelessagiftofGodinthatitallowsonetopursuecertaingoalsinlife.

25.Afterthefollowingisnad:Abu`I-FathMuhammadibnAbdal-Bagi,Abu`1-FadlHamdibnAhmad,HafizAbuNu`aymal-Isfahan,MuhammadibnAhmadibnMuhammad,AbbasibnAhmadash-Shashi,and[701AbuAqilalWassafi.

26.Inotherwords,theheartistwo-sidedand"rotates"(therootfromwhichtheword"heart"comescanmean"toturnaround")betweenattentivenesstothepromptingsofthespirit,ononeside,andtheimportunitiesoftheego-soulontheother.GA54n.61indicatesthataglossononems.explainsthatonesideor"face"oftheheartclosesttothespiritisorientedtowardthestationofcontemplationsolongasitisinclinedtowardthespirit.Theothersideoftheheartthatfacesthesoul,however,iscapableofreceivingknowledge.Themarginalglossconcludes,"Inshort,thebasisforthemutualaffinitybetweenknowledgeandtheheartrestsonthefactthatknowledgeisdistinctfromthebeing(ofGod)evenasitisjoinedwiththePreservedTablet,whileheartisseparatedfromthespiritandjoinedwiththesoul."

27.SeeDeuteronomy30:11-14,inwhichthesubjectisnotknowledgebutthedivinecommandment.

28.Afteranisnadincludingthefollowingnames,thefirsttwo"withijaza":AbuMansuribnKhayrun,AbuMuhammadal-Hasanibn`Alial-Jawhari,Abu`UmarMuhammadibnal-`Abbas,AbuMuhammad[72]YahyaibnSaid,HusaynibnalHasanal-Marwazi,`AbdAllahibnal-Mubarak,Awza`i,Hassanibn`Atiya.

29.AccordingtoFakhrad-Din`Iraqi,thisreads,"Satanoftenstealsfromyou(ordeprivesyouof)yourknowledge,"exceptinSufitexts.ThankstoAronZysowforthisinformation.

30.I.e.,GodwouldnothavebeenabletoenjoySuhayb'sworshipintheordinarycourseofthings,sincehewouldhavecircumventedallthethings"ordinary"servantsmustperform?

31.HereSuhrawardiproceedstoglossthenextthreeverses(92:8-10),whichread:"Butasfortheonewhoisstingyandbelievesheisnotinneed,andwholiesaboutwhatisbest,Wewillsurelysmoothhiswaytohardship."

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Brackets[]indicateareferencetothesuraandversenumberonly,withoutactualcitationofthetext.ParenthesesOindicatethenumberoftimesareferenceappearsonthatpage.

AbrahamIsaacKook•THELIGHTSOFPENITENCE,LIGHTSOFHOLINESS,THEMORALPRINCIPLES,ESSAYS,LETTERS,ANDPOEMS

AbrahamMiguelCardozo•SELECTEDWRITINGS

AlbertandThomas•SELECTEDWRITINGS

AlphonsusdeLiguori•SELECTEDWRITINGS

AnchoriticSpirituality•ANCRENEWISSEANDASSOCIATEDWORKS

AngelaofFoligno•COMPLETEWORKS

AngelicSpirituality•MEDIEVALPERSPECTIVESONTHEWAYSOFANGELS

AngelusSilesius•THECHERUBENTICWANDERER

Anglo-SaxonSpirituality•SELECTEDWRITINGS

ApocalypticSpirituality•TREATISESANDLETTERSOFLACTANTIUS,ADSOOFMONTIER-EN-DER,JOACHIMOFFIORE,THEFRANCISCANSPIRITUALS,SAVONAROLA

Athanasius•THELIFEOFANTONY,ANDTHELETTERTOMARCELLINUS

AugustineofHippo•SELECTEDWRITINGS

BernardofClairvaux•SELECTEDWORKS

BerulleandtheFrenchSchool•SELECTEDWRITINGS

BirgittaofSweden•LIFEANDSELECTEDREVELATIONS

Bonaventure•THESOUL'SJOURNEYINTOGOD,THETREEOFLIFE,THELIFEOFST.FRANCIS

CarthusianSpirituality•THEWRITINGSOFHUGHOFBALMAANDGUIGODEPONTE

CatherineofGenoa•PURGATIONANDPURGATORY,THESPIRITUALDIALOGUE

CatherineofSiena•THEDIALOGUE

CelticSpirituality•

ClassicMidrash,The•TANNAITICCOMMENTARIESONTHEBIBLE

CloudofUnknowing,The•

DevotioModerna•BASICWRITINGS

EarlyAnabaptistSpirituality•SELECTEDWRITINGS

EarlyDominicans•SELECTEDWRITINGS

EarlyIslamicMysticism•SUFI,QUR'AN,MI`RAJ,POETICANDTHEOLOGICALWRITINGS

EarlyKabbalah,The•

ElijahBenamozegh•ISRAELANDHUA-IANITY

ElisabethofSchonau•THECOMPLETEWORKS

EmanuelSwedenborg•THEUNIVERSALHUTAIANANDSOUL-BODYINTERACTION

EphremtheSyrian9HY\-1NS

Fakhruddin`Iraqi0DIVINEFLASHES

FrancisandClare•THECOMPLETEWORKS

FrancisdeSales,JanedeChantal•LETTERSOFSPIRITUALDIRECTION

FranciscodeOsuna•THETHIRDSPIRITUALALPHABET

GeorgeHerbert•THECOUNTRYPARSON,THETEMPLE

GertrudeofHelfta•THEHERALDOFDIVINELOVE

GregoryofNyssa•THELIFEOFMOSES

GregoryPalamas•THETRIADS

Hadewijch•THECOMPLETEWORKS

HenrySuso•THEEXEMPLAR,WITHTWOGERMANSERMONS

HildegardofBingen•sC1VIAS

Ibn`AbbadofRonda•LETTERSONTHESUFIPATH

IbnAl'-Arabi•THEBEZELSOFWISDOM

Ibn`Ata'Illah•THEBOOKOFWISDOMANDKWAJAABDULLAHANSARI:INTIMATECONVERSATIONS

IgnatiusofLoyola•SPIRITUALEXERCISESANDSELECTEDWORKS

IsaiahHorowitz•THEGENERATIONSOFADAM

JacobBoehme•THEWAYTOCHRIST

JacoponedaTodi•THELAUDS

JeanGerson•EARLYWORKS

JeremyTaylor•SELECTEDWORKS

JewishMysticalAutobiographies•BOOKOFVISIONSANDBOOKOFSECRETS

JohannArndt•TRUECHRISTIANITY

JohannesTauler•SERMONS

JohnBaptistdelaSalle•THESPIRITUALITYOFCHRISTIANEDUCATION

JohnCalvin•WRITINGSONPASTORAL.PIETY

JohnCassian•CONFERENCES

JohnandCharlesWesley•SELECTEDWRITINGSANDHYMNS

JohnClimacus•THELADDEROFDIVINEASCENT

JohnComenius•THELABYRINTHOFTHEWORLDANDTHEPARADISEOFTHEHEART

JohnoftheCross•SELECTEDWRITINGS

JohnDonne•SELECTIONSFROMDIVINEPOEMS,SERMONS,DEVOTIONSANDPRAYERS

JohnHenryNewman•SELECTEDSERMONS

JohnRuusbroec•THESPIRITUALESPOUSALSANDOTHERWORKS

JulianofNorwich•SHOWINGS

LuisdeLeon•THENAMESOFCHRIST

MargaretEbner9MAJORWORKS

MargueritePorete•THEMIRROROFSIMPLESOULS

MariaMaddalenade'Pazzi•SELECTEDREVELATIONS

MartinLuther•THEOLOGIAGERA-IANICA

MaximusConfessor•SELECTEDWRITINGS

MechthildofMagdeburg•THEFLOWINGLIGHTOFTHEGODHEAD

MeisterEckhart•THEESSENTIALSERMONS,COMMENTARIES,TREATISESANDDEFENSE

MeisterEckhart•TEACHERANDPREACHER

MenahemNahumofChernobyl•UPRIGHTPRACTICES,THELIGHTOFTHEEYES

NahmanofBratslav•THETALES

NativeMesoamericanSpirituality•ANCIENTl-IYTHS,DISCOURSES,STORIES,DOCTRINES,HYMNS,POEMSFROMTHEAZTEC,YUCATEC,QUICHE-MAYAANDOTHERSACREDTRADITIONS

NativeNorthAmericanSpiritualityoftheEasternWoodlands•SACREDMYTHS,DREAMS,VISIONS,SPEECHES,HEALINGFORMULAS,RITUALSANDCEREMONIALS

NicholasofCusa•SELECTEDSPIRITUALWRITINGS

NicodemosoftheHolyMountain•AHANDBOOKOFSPIRITUALCOUNSEL

NilSorsky•THECOMPLETEWRITINGS

Nizamad-dinAwliya•MORALSFORTHEHEART

Origen•ANEXHORTATIONTOMARTYRDOM,PRAYERANDSELECTEDWORKS

PhiloofAlexandria•THECONTEMPLATIVELIFE,THEGIANTS,ANDSELECTIONS

Pietists•SELECTEDWRITINGS

Pilgrim'sTale,The•

Pseudo-Dionysius•THECOMPLETEWORKS

Pseudo-Macarius•THEFIFTYSPIRITUALHOMILIESANDTHEGREATLETTER

PursuitofWisdom,The•ANDOTHERWORKSBYTHEAUTHOROFTHECLOUDOFUNKNOWING

QuakerSpirituality•SELECTEDWRITINGS

RabbinicStories•

RichardRolle•THEENGLISHWRITINGS

RichardofSt.Victor•THETWELVEPATRIARCHS,THEMYSTICALARK,BOOKTHREEOFTHETRINITY

RobertBellarmine•SPIRITUALWRITINGS

SafedSpirituality•RULESOFMYSTICALPIETY,THEBEGINNINGOFWISDOM

Shakers,The•TWOCENTURIESOFSPIRITUALREFLECTION

SharafuddinManeri•THEHUNDREDLETTERS

SpiritualityoftheGermanAwakening,The•

SymeontheNewTheologian•THEDISCOURSES

Talmud,The•SELECTEDWRITINGS

TeresaofAvila•THEINTERIORCASTLE

TheatineSpirituality•SELECTEDWRITINGS

`UmarIbnal-Farid•SUFIVERSE,SAINTLYLIFE

ValentinWeigel•SELECTEDSPIRITUALWRITINGS

VincentdePaulandLouisedeMarillac•RULES,CONFERENCES,AND

WRITINGS

WalterHilton•THESCALEOFPERFECTION

WilliamLaw•ASERIOUSCALLTOADEVOUTANDHOLYLIFE,THESPIRITOFLOVE

Zohar•THEBOOKOFENLIGHTENMENT

TheClassicsofWesternSpiritualityisaground-breakingcollectionoftheoriginalwritingsofmorethan100universallyacknowledgedteacherswithintheCatholic,Protestant,EasternOrthodox,Jewish,Islamic,andNativeAmericanIndiantraditions.

Toorderanytitle,ortorequestacompletecatalog,contactPaulistPressat800-218-1903orvisitusontheWebatwww.paulistpress.com

TableofContents

PrefacebyAhmetT.KaramustafaForewordChoiceofThemeandTextsinthePresentVolume2PrioritiesandPracticalities4Acknowledgments8IntroductionFoundationalSourcesandtheIslamicReligiousDisciplines12EarlyConceptionsofKnowledge:Pre-IslamicPoetry,Qur'an,HadithEvolutionoftheIslamicReligiousDisciplinesExperientialKnowledgeofGodinClassicalandMedievalSufiTexts19NinthCentury:Dhu`n-Nun,Muhasibi,Kharraz,Tirmidhi,HallajTenthCentury:Niffari,Sarraj,Kalabadhi,MakkiEleventhCentury:Hujwiri,Qushayri,Ansari,Ghazali38Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries: Ibn al-lArif, 'Ayn al-Qudat al-Hamadhani,Sam'!,`Attar,Rumi,Ibn

BeyondtheClassics60AbuNasras-Sarraj:TheBookofFlashes(Kitabal-luma')AbuBakral-Kalabadhi:TheExplorationofSufiTeachings(Kitabat-ta`arruf)AbuTa1ibal-Makki:TheBookofKnowledge(Kitabal-`ilm):PartThirty-OneofTheSustenanceofHear

'Aliibn`UthmanHujwiri:TheRevelationofRealitiesVeiled(Kashfal-mahjub)Abu`1-Qasimal-Qushayri:TheTreatiseonSufism(Ar-Risalatal-qushayriya)'Abd Allah Ansari: The Hundred Fields (Sad maydan): Resting Places of theWayfarers(Manazilas-sa'i

AbuHamidMuhammadal-Ghazali:TheElaborationoftheMarvelsoftheHeart(KitabsharhIaja'ibal-g

Ibnal-IArif:TheBeautiesofSpiritualSessions(Mahasinal-majalis)AbuHafs`Umaras-Suhrawardi:TheBenefitsofIntimateKnowledge(`Awarifal-malarif)

AbbreviationsinNotesandBibliographyNotestoIntroductionandTranslationsSelectedBibliographyIndexofQur'anicCitationsGeneralIndex