Knowledge Based Systems

August 14, 2007

Akiyuki Goto

Faculty of Information Technology

King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology North Bangkok

1 NOV.10, 2007 First Issue Day

2 NOV.16, 2007 Biology

3 NOV.21, 2007 Biology

4 DEC.3, 2007 GP, AI

5 JAN.18, 2008 Workshop

6

7

8

9

10

Revision

CONTENTS

1. Preface 2. Biology (DNA, Brain, Neuron, Stem cell, Neural net, Genetic Algorithm, Reproduction, Cellular Automaton) 3. ARIMA 4. Frame Problem 5. Perceptron 6. Data Mining 7. Pattern recognition 8. Fuzzy 9. Expert System10. Regression Analysis11. Bioinformatics12. Artificial Life13. Tierra14. Evolution15. Swarm Intelligence16. Nanotechnology17. Carbon Nanotubes18. Genetic Programming19. Artificial Intelligence (Lisp, SQL, SVM, Ontology, Metadata, Semantic web, Dendral, Turing test)20. World Wide Web (WWW)21. Robot22. Chaos23. Fractal24. Virtual reality 25. Bayes’ Theorem 26. Workshop

Glossary

Amino AcidsARIMAArtificial IntelligenceArtificial LifeBayes' TheoremBioinformaticsCarbon NanotubesCellular AutomatonChaosCodon TableData MiningDNAEvolutionExpert SystemFractalFrame ProblemFuzzyGenetic AlgorithmGenetic ProgrammingGlue LogicGolden RatioHTMLHumanoid RobotHypermediaKBS

LispMeta DataMolecular biologyMutationNanotechnologyNeuronsNucleusOntology Organic ChemistryPattern RecognitionPerceptronRegression AnalysisRNASemantic WebStem Cells Structured Query LanguageSupport vector machinesSwarm IntelligenceTierraTRIZTuring TestVirtual RealityWorld Wide WebXML

This Book covers the wide field, such as artificial brain research, artificial intelligence, artificial life, artificial living, artificial mind research, brain science, chaos, cognitive science, complexity, computer graphics, evolutionary computations, fuzzy control, genetic algorithms, innovative computations, intelligent control and modelling, micromachines, micro-robot, neural networks, neurocomputers, neurocomputing technologies and applications, robotics, virtual reality, expert system

Knowledge-Based Systems focuses on systems that use knowledge-based techniques to support human decision-making, learning and action. Such systems are capable of cooperating with human users and so the quality of support given and the manner of its presentation are important issues. The emphasis of the book is on the practical significance of such systems in modern intelligent computer development and application usage.

As well as being concerned with the implementation of knowledge-based systems, application of knowledge-based methods, integration with conventional technologies, software tools for KBS construction, decision-support mechanisms, user interactions, organisational issues, knowledge acquisition, knowledge representation, languages and programming environments, knowledge-based implementation techniques and system architectures. Also included are publication reviews.

"knowledge" is an extremely important concept in considering the direction in which our society should move, we have not yet identified the important issues yet. For example: "What is knowledge?"; "Of what practical use is knowledge?"; or "How can knowledge be created?". Our approach is to seek the answer to such questions and consider our future with a focus on "knowledge"

1.Preface

Two kinds of R&D Methods for AI:

1. Achievement of Human Function (Thinking Algorism)2. Investigation of Human Brain (Neural Cell Network Operation)

Target of KBS:

1. Knowledge base for Machine ------ Logic operation2. Knowledge base for Human --------Training / Trouble shouting / Education / Decision making / Diagnosis / Arrangement of huge information by computer

Good knowledge base:

1. Information quality2. Searching method3. Classification4. Real Time Operation

AI

Research Result

Research Result

Evolution of AI:

Evolution

Knowledge-based Systems:

Knowledge Computer Output

- Trouble Shooting- Manual- Academic Paper- Product

- Semantic Web

- Ontology- Meta Data by XML with Tag by RDF (Resource Description Framework)

Store Search

Data Base

Quality

Input

Glue Logic :

Mechanics-A

Robot-A

Glue Logic Mechanics-B

Robot-B

Job Group

Control

(meaning)

The brain of human being is still growing, not perfect yet.

12

18 6

3.5 Billion years ago - Birth of living things

350 Million years ago - Birth of Reptile

50 Thousand years ago – Cro-Magnon

①②③

①② ③

220

23:56

①②

③

Personality

Knowledge

Information

Experience

Motivation

Improvement

Personality Knowledge

Information

Experience

Motivation

UP

UP

UP

UP

Personality impacts on Knowledge

Environment

Personality Knowledge

Information

Experience

Motivation

Eagerness

Personality & Environment impact on Knowledge

Complexity Simple

Golden ratio

1

1

History:

1642 Pascal created the first mechanical digital calculating machine.1800’s Charles Babbage & Ada Byron (Lady Lovelace) worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines.1923 Karel Capek's play "R.U.R." (Rossum's Universal Robots) opens in London (1923). - First use of the word ‘Robot' in English.1943 W.McCulloch and W.Pitts Neural Network 1947 The transistor was invented by William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen. 1950 Turing proposed his test, the Turing Test, to recognize machine intelligence. 1951 One of the students inspired by Pitts and McCulloch's work was a young Marvin Minsky, then a 24 year old graduate student. In 1951 (with Dean Edmonds) he built the first neural net machine, the Minsky was to become one of the most important leaders and innovators in AI for the next 50 years.1956 The field of Artificial Intelligence by John McCarthy was founded at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth University in the summer of 1956. The first generation of AI researchers believed could create a machine as intelligent as (or more intelligent than) a human being and that it would happen soon, in no more than a few decades.1958 The Lisp programming language was invented by John McCarthy at MIT. A perceptron was a form of neural network introduced by Frank Rosenblatt, who had been a schoolmate of Marvin Minsky at the Bronx High School of Science. John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1959 There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom (Start of Nanotechnology)

1963 The Stanford University founded the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory under John McCarthy. 1965 H. A. Simon: "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do." The Robotics Institute was started at Carnegie Mellon University under Raj Reddy. 1968 Pascal Language 1969 John McCarthy Frame Problem 1970 Marvin Minsky (in Life Magazine): "In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being." 1972 Prolog Language 1976 Ethernet 1982 TCP/IP1984 Fullerene C60 discovery

1997 Deep Blue became the first computer Chess-playing system to beat a reigning world Chess champion, Gary Kasparov. Over 40 teams fielded teams of robotic soccer players in the first RoboCup competition. 1980 First meeting of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence held in Stanford, California. 1990’s Emphasis on ontology began.1991 Carbon nanotubes discovery 1995 Data Mining

1999 Sony Corporation introduced the AIBO 2002 iRobot, founded by researchers at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab

Marvin Minsky in 2006 John McCarthy

Application Product:

machine translationoptical character recognitionindustrial roboticsspeech recognitiondata miningGameGoogle's search enginerobot car was driving on the Autobahn in traffic at up to 180 km/h autonomous drawing machine Interactive robot pets Automatic scheduling Advanced learning software that works like human tutor in teaching one-on-one with each studentFace-recognition systems Washing machinesVirtual Reality

1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick

Francis Harry Compton Crick James Dewey Watson

USA April 6, 1928~England June 8, 1916~

2. Biology

Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information and DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

In a molecule, at least two atoms are joined by shared pairs of electrons in a covalent bond. It may consist of atoms of the same chemical element, as with oxygen (O2), or of different elements, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds are generally not considered single molecules.

(Double Helix)

Structure of DNA

At top, a G,C base pair with three hydrogen bonds. At the bottom, A,T base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds are shown as dashed lines.

34Ǻ

20Ǻ

1Ǻ (angstrom)= 10-10 m = 0.1nm = 100pm

1nm=0.001µm=0.00000mm

1’3’

5’

1’3’5’

1’3’5’

1’3’5’

AT

CG

TA

G C

TA

G C

1’ 3’5’

1’ 3’5’1’

3’5’

1’

3’5’

phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

deoxyribose (C5H10O4 ) Sugar

nucleobase: Adenine, Tymine, Guanine, Cytosine

DNA

nucleobase nucleobase

Methyl (CH3)

Nucleus

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Ribosome

Protein

mRNA

amino-acid

tRNA

1. DNA →mRNA2. mRNA → Ribosome (Protein Factory)3. tRNA → 20 Amino-acid transferring 4. Genetic code → Amino-acid → Protein

60 trillion Nucleus

DNA: 3 Billion Nucleobase pair3 x 109

ATGC/ 2 bits

750Mbyte (1 CD)

DNA(2m long)

m: messengert: transfer

April 14, 2003 : Human Genome decoding completion ( The genome size is 3.0×109.)

Its takes about 15 years.

The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m.

DNA Copy

This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins.

Structures and symbols of the 20 amino acids

Alanine Arginine Asparagine Aapartic acid

Cysteine Glutamic acid Glutamine Glycine

Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine

Methionine Phenylalanine Proline Serine

Theronine Tryptophan Tyrosine Valine

Nine amino acids are generally regarded as essential for humans. They are: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, histidine, valine and phenylalanine.

Element Earth Surface Human Body Marin Living Thing

Carbon(C) 　 48.32  6.10

Oxygen(O) 48.94 23.70 79.90

Nitrogen(N) 　 12.85 1.50

Hydrogen(H)  0.74  6.60 10.20

Calcium(Ca)  3.43  3.45 0.04

Sulfur(S) 　  1.60  0.14

Phosphorus(P) 　  1.58  0.13

Sodium(Na)  2.77  0.65  0.54

Potassium(K)  2.44  0.55  0.29

Chlorine(Cl)  0.12  0.45  1.00

Magnesium(Mg)  1.98  0.10  0.03

Silicon(Si) 26.16 　 　

Aluminium(Al) 7.67 　 　Iron(Fe)  4.72 　 　

Titanium(Ti) 0.41 　 　

All living things come from the ocean

9 essential amino acid for humans in marine living things

Th

reo

nin

e

Val

in

Met

hio

nin

e

His

tid

ine

Try

pto

ph

an

Iso

leu

cin

e

Leu

cin

e

Ph

enyl

ala

nin

e

Lys

ine

: Protection of Life Style Related Disease

The protein consists of the thousand of amino acids + Peptide = Assimilation

Pressure Cooker

Press Separation

Oil

Filter

Peptide

Water

Starch

Fertilizer

Boil

Press

Mix

Bonito Sardine Kelp

Food

Flower

Leaf

Fertilizer

Sun Flower Harvest

Bio DieselSoap

Paper

Bite

Fuel Process

Sun FlowerPlant

Circulation of Sun Flower

In animals, the brain (enkephalos) (Greek for "in the skull"), is the control center of the central nervous system, responsible for behavior. The brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, equilibrioception (balance), sense of taste, and olfaction. While all vertebrates have a brain, most invertebrates have either a centralized brain or collections of individual ganglia. Primitive animals such as sponges do not have a brain at all. Brains can be extremely complex. For example, the human brain contains more than 100 billion neurons, each linked to as many as 10,000 other neurons.

Brain:

Brain Neurons

10B~100B Neurons

Synapses

Axon

Cell Body

SynapsesDendrites (Input )

( Output )

( Body )

Dendrite

Synapse

Cell Body

Axon

w1

w2

wi

IN 1

IN 2

IN i

Output

x1

x2

xi

∑ wixii=1

n

Output

Weight

Weight

Input Threshold

Dendrites receives the pulse through Synapses.

↓

Input signal supply to the Neuron.

↓

Voltage rises up.

↓

If the voltage is go over the threshold.

↓

The pulse is transferred to the Axon.

↓

The pulse is transferred to next Neurons through the Synapses.

Electrical ExcitementSynapse

Synapse Parcel

Ca ion

(Normal: -60mV)

Synapse

Threshold

-70mV

0mV

Excitement Synapse

Suppression Synapse

Spain Synapse

Axon

Cell Body

Dendrites

( 6K ~ 40K / neuron )

The Neuron They have a very high requirement for oxygen; they can't live without oxygen for more than a few minutes. They lose their ability to reproduce soon after birth, but they can regenerate cell processes if the cell body remains intact.

Axon

Cell Body

Synapse

Memory and learning are so closely connected that people often confuse them with each other. But the specialists who study them consider them two distinct phenomena.These specialists define learning as a process that will modify a subsequent behaviour. Memory, on the other hand, is the ability to remember past experiences.You learn a new language by studying it, but you then speak it by using your memory to retrieve the words that you have learned.Memory is essential to all learning, because it lets you store and retrieve the information that you learn. Memory is basically nothing more than the record left by a learning process. Thus, memory depends on learning. But learning also depends on memory, because the knowledge stored in your memory provides the framework to which you link new knowledge, by association. And the more extensive your framework of existing knowledge, the more easily you can link new knowledge to it.

Memory Learning

Knowledge

This is a model of a typical brain cell, or neuron. Your brain contains billions of brain cells. A brain cell consists of a cell body, which stores the DNA, dendrites which receive chemical signals from other cells, and an axon, which carries an electrical signal from the cell body to the axon terminals. The axon terminals contain chemicals, called "neurotransmitters," which are released in order for the cell to communicate with nearby cells. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter, and some brain cells have axons that contain only serotonin. These are called "serotonin neurons." Other brain cells produce and release different neurotransmitters, like dopamine or norepinephrine, and some produce and release more than one neurotransmitter. However, your serotonin cells only produce and release serotonin.

Neurons are the specialized cells of the nervous system. The neurons are responsible for the transmission of electrical impulses to and from the central nervous system. The main structures of the neuron are, the cell body, the axon, and the dendrite. Each neuron is equipped with hundreds of dendrites, but only one axon. This places an enormous importance on the axon. The synaptic cleft is also an important feature of neurons. The synaptic cleft is a region of the neuron. It is the area between neurons. This region is responsible for the separation of neurons. The neuron is composed of dendrites, the soma, the axon, and a cell body. The cell body contains the normal organelles; such as mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. The size of neurons differs, but neurons usually range from two to five hundred microns in diameter. Neurotransmitters are chemical substances found within the neuropodium. The purpose of the neurotransmitter is to aid in the transmission of the nervous impulse. The electrical impulse is not capable in diffusing across the synapse. Due to a lacking capabilities of the nervous impulse, a large burden is place on the neurotransmitter. The synapse is the area located between the neurons. Neurons are not connected or closely packed together, as in other tissues of the body. All communication between neurons takes place within the synapse. All nerve impulses must travel across the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitter is the chemical substance which accomplishes the task of crossing the synaptic gap. In the central nervous system, serotonin is believed to play an important role as a neurotransmitter, in the regulation of anger, aggression, body temperature, mood, sleep, vomiting, sexuality, and appetite.

The dendrite is another section of the neuron which aids in the nervous transmission. The dendrite is one of the many cytoplasmic branches of the neural body. The dendrite aids in transmission by conducting and receiving terminations of neurons. The dendrites are also responsible for receiving impulses from neurotransmitters. Dendrites are characterized as stretching out across the synapse. Dendrites are also known as dendrite processes.

The axon is the most important section of the neuron. The main purpose of the neuron is to allow a transmission of a message from one cell to another. This transmission would never occur, had there not be the axon. The axon is the long finger like projection of the neural body, the cell body of the neuron.

The human brain is composed of billions of nerve cells which communicate through specialized connections called synapses. At each synapse, a chemical neurotransmitter is released from one cell and binds to receptors on the second cell. This chemical transmission generates electrical and biochemical signals in the second cell that are then passed along to a network of nerve cells. Thus, a synapse is the basic unit of communication in the brain, and research on synaptic function is central to understanding how we think and learn. Building the correct network of synapses is essential for brain development.

Since neurons form a network of electrical activities, they somehow have to be interconnected. This connection is not a simple continuity of cytoplasm, so that every neuron has electrical continuity with all others, as happens with simple wiring, but is carried out by very specialized and complex structures called synapses. A synapse is the place where two neurons join in such a way that a signal can be transmitted from one to the other. The typical and overwhelmingly most abundant type of synapse is the one in which the axon of one neuron activates a second neuron, usually making a synapse with one of its dendrites or with the cell body. There are two ways in which this can happen, one is by the coupling of ion channels at the synapse, creating a passage way for the traveling ionic flux of the action and membrane potentials, which is called an electrical synapse, and the other is by a much more complicated way called a chemical synapse. In the case of the chemical synapse, the two neurons are not in strict contact, but have a small gap between them called the synaptic cleft. The signal is transmitted when one neuron releases a chemical (called neurotransmitter) into the synaptic cleft which is detected by the second neuron thru activation of receptors placed exactly opposite to the release site. The binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptors causes a series of physiological changes in the second neuron which constitutes the signal. Usually the release from the first neuron is caused by a series of intracellular events evoked by a depolarization of its membrane, and almost invariably when an action potential takes place. The signal that is evoked in the second neuron is in the form of a depolarization of its membrane.