Knorr Cetina, Karin (1983). The ethnographic study of scientific work: towards a constructivist interpretation of science

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En Knorr Cetina, Karin y Mulkay, Michael (Eds.). Science observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science, Sage. Págs. 122-140.

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