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I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
Ein
führ
ung
indi
eA
stro
nom
ieI
Jörn
Wilm
s
Som
mer
sem
este
r20
11
Bür
o:D
r.K
arlR
emei
s-S
tern
war
te,B
ambe
rg
Em
Tel.:
(095
1)95
222-
13
http://pulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/intro
Erlangen−Nürnberg
Friedrich−Alexander−Universität
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–1
Intr
oduc
tion
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
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Pre
limin
arie
s1
Ast
rono
mie
imB
ache
lors
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ter:
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odul
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este
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ertie
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emes
ter
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aste
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erP
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alte
rnat
ivim
Mas
-
ters
tudi
enga
ng
I
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CO
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L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
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LGE
1–3
Pre
limin
arie
s2
Ast
rono
mie
für
LAG
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sik,
BA
Info
rmat
ikun
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athe
mat
ik
phys
ikal
isch
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chim
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este
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lor
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rmat
ik:
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eite
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S):
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teht
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usve
rpfli
chte
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ngen
und
kann
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ählt
wer
den
im
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.S
emes
ter
NF
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lor
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hem
atik
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TS
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este
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hrun
gin
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erim
enta
lphy
sik
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7.5
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TS
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este
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ston
omie
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este
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stro
nom
ieN
W-2
(10
EC
TS
),P
W-1
(5E
CT
S)
wei
tere
Fäc
her:
Anf
rage
beim
jew
eilig
enP
rüfu
ngsa
mt
WS
2009/1
0 u
nd S
S2010
1
1
NW
-1
Ein
füh
run
g i
n d
ie A
str
on
om
ie
(In
tro
du
cti
on
to
Astr
on
om
y)
10 E
CT
S
2
Leh
rvera
nsta
ltu
ng
en
WS
: V
orlesung E
inf. in d
ie A
str
onom
ie 1
(2 S
WS
) S
S:
Vorlesung E
inf. in d
ie A
str
onom
ie 2
(2 S
WS
)
Blo
ckpra
ktikum
Astr
onom
ie m
it T
uto
rium
(7+
1 S
WS
) D
as P
raktikum
kann a
uch im
WS
absolv
iert
werd
en,
we
nn
die
Wa
rte
liste
die
s e
rfo
rde
rt
3.0
EC
TS
3.0
EC
TS
4.0
EC
TS
3
Do
zen
ten
P
rof. D
r. H
ors
t D
rechsel
Pro
f. D
r. U
lric
h H
eber
Pro
f. D
r. J
örn
Wilm
s
4
Mo
du
l-vera
ntw
ort
lich
e
Die
Dozente
n d
es A
str
onom
ischen I
nstitu
ts
5
Inh
alt
Das M
odul gib
t ein
e B
eschre
ibung d
er
wesentlic
hen
Besta
ndte
ile d
es U
niv
ers
um
s u
nd d
er
natu
rwis
sensch
aftlic
hen
Meth
oden,
die
es u
ns e
rlauben,
ihre
Entfern
ungen,
Grö
ßenskale
n,
Massen u
nd p
hysik
alis
che N
atu
r zu v
ers
tehen.
Im E
inzeln
en w
erd
en b
ehandelt:
•
Geschic
htlic
her
Hin
terg
rund d
er
Astr
onom
ie
•
Sonnensyste
m:
Pla
nete
nbew
egung u
nd K
eple
rsche
Gesetz
e,
Eig
enschaften d
er
Pla
nete
n u
nd d
er
kle
inen
Ob
jekte
im
So
nn
en
syste
m (
Ausw
ahl aus:
innere
r A
ufb
au
der
Pla
nete
n,
pla
neta
re O
berf
läch
en
, A
tmo
sp
hä
ren
, R
ing
e),
extr
asola
re P
lanete
n.
•
Ste
rne
: E
ntf
ern
un
ge
n,
Te
mp
era
ture
n,
Sp
ektr
en
, M
asse
n,
Hert
zspru
ng-R
ussell-
Dia
gra
mm
, in
ne
rer
Au
fba
u,
En
tste
hu
ng
un
d E
ntw
icklu
ng
, E
nd
sta
die
n d
er
Ste
rnentw
icklu
ng,
Doppels
tern
e.
•
Milc
hstr
aß
e u
nd a
ndere
Gala
xie
n:
Aufb
au u
nd E
ntw
icklu
ng,
Kla
ssifik
atio
n,
ko
sm
isch
er
Ma
terie
kre
isla
uf,
G
ala
xie
nh
au
fen
, a
usgew
ählte M
eth
oden d
er
Entfern
ungsbestim
mung.
•
Das U
niv
ers
um
: E
nts
tehung,
Hubble
sches G
esetz
, 3K
H
inte
rgru
ndstr
ahlu
ng,
Entw
icklu
ng d
es U
niv
ers
um
s.
•
Astr
onom
ische M
essm
eth
oden:
Aufb
au u
nd B
enutz
ung
astr
onom
ischer
Tele
skope,
Spektr
oskopie
, D
ete
kto
ren
6
Lern
zie
le u
nd
K
om
pete
nzen
Die
Stu
die
renden
•
entw
ickeln
ein
physik
alis
ches V
ers
tändnis
der
wic
htigste
n
Besta
ndte
ile d
es U
niv
ers
um
s u
nd ihre
r E
ntw
icklu
ng.
•
lern
en M
eth
oden z
ur
Messung d
er
Entfern
ungen v
on
Ste
rnen u
nd G
ala
xie
n k
ennen u
nd k
önnen d
iese a
uf
Me
ssu
ng
en
an
we
nd
en
.
•
können a
us M
essdate
n M
assen u
nd T
em
pera
ture
n
astr
onom
ischer
Obje
kte
able
iten.
•
können e
infa
che a
str
onom
ische M
essungen s
elb
st
durc
hfü
hre
n u
nd a
usw
ert
en.
•
erf
ahre
n e
in V
ers
tändnis
über
die
we
ite
An
we
nd
ba
rke
it
WS
2009/1
0 u
nd S
S2010
2
na
turw
isse
nsch
aft
lich
er
Me
tho
de
n d
urc
h d
ie in
de
r A
str
onom
ie n
otw
endig
e E
xtr
apola
tion v
on E
rgebnis
sen v
on
Laborm
essungen a
uf
astr
onom
ische S
kale
n.
•
entw
ickeln
Fähig
keiten z
ur
Lösung n
atu
rwis
senschaftlic
her
Pro
ble
me,
ein
schlie
ßlic
h d
er
Fähig
keit z
ur
Bedie
nung
typ
isch
er
astr
on
om
isch
er
Instr
um
en
te.
7
Vo
rau
ssetz
un
gen
fü
r d
ie T
eiln
ah
me
Kein
e;
spezie
lles Z
ula
ssungsverf
ahre
n f
ür
Frü
hstu
die
rende.
8
Ein
passu
ng
in
M
us
ters
tud
ien
pla
n
Ab
Stu
die
nse
me
ste
r 1
, F
rüh
stu
diu
m,
Ga
sth
öre
r
9
V
erw
en
db
ark
eit
des
Mo
du
ls
•
Bachelo
rstu
die
ngang P
hysik
(nic
htp
hysik
alis
cher
Wahlb
ere
ich)
•
Le
hra
mt
Ph
ysik
am
Gym
na
siu
m (
Wa
hlb
ere
ich
)
•
Stu
die
rende a
ndere
r F
äch
er:
Wa
hlb
ere
ich
10
Stu
die
n-
un
d
Prü
fun
gsle
istu
ng
en
Z
wei 60-m
inütige K
lausure
n z
u d
en V
orlesungen (
PL),
T
eiln
ahm
e a
m T
uto
rium
und a
n d
en P
raktikum
ste
rmin
en,
Durc
hfü
hru
ng d
er
Vers
uche,
Testa
te (
SL)
11
Bere
ch
nu
ng
M
od
uln
ote
M
itte
lwert
der
Kla
usurn
ote
n
12
Tu
rnu
s d
es
An
ge
bo
ts
Jährlic
h
13
Arb
eit
sau
fwan
d
P
räsenzzeit:
180 h
E
igenstu
diu
m:
120 h
14
Dau
er
des M
od
uls
2 S
em
este
r (g
gf. 3
Sem
este
r, f
alls
das P
raktikum
im
W
inte
rse
me
ste
r a
bso
lvie
rt w
ird
) 15
Un
terr
ich
tssp
rach
e
Deuts
ch u
nd E
nglis
ch
16
Vo
rbere
iten
de
Lit
era
tur
•
H.
Ka
rttu
ne
n,
P.
Kro
ge
r, H
. O
ja, F
undam
enta
l A
str
onom
y,
Springer,
2003
•
M.
Kutn
er,
Astr
ono
my:
A P
hysic
al P
ers
pective,
Cam
bridge
Univ
. P
ress,
2003
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–6
Pre
limin
arie
s5
Ben
otun
g
Idee
:K
umul
ativ
eA
bsch
lüss
ein
den
Neb
enfä
cher
n,ke
ine
mod
ulüb
ergr
eife
nde
Prü
fung
.
=⇒
Impl
izie
rtN
oten
gebu
ng!
=⇒
KLA
US
UR
am19
.Jul
i201
1
Kla
usur
führ
tzu
eine
rN
ote
Phy
sike
r:N
oten
aus
dem
1.&
2.B
ache
lor-
Sem
este
rge
hen
NIC
HT
indi
e
Bac
helo
r-N
ote
ein.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–7
Pre
limin
arie
s6
Übu
ngen
und
Hau
sauf
gabe
n
Um
den
Sto
ffzu
vert
iefe
ngi
btes
frei
will
ige
Übu
ngen
,ver
pflic
hten
dfü
rB
A-
Info
rmat
ik.
Term
infin
dung
:10
MA
I,17
:45
(Nac
hde
rV
orle
sung
)B
etre
uung
:M
aria
Obs
t
Wir
wer
den
Übu
ngsb
lätte
rau
stei
len,
die
inde
nÜ
bung
enbe
spro
chen
wer
den.
Ebe
nso
sind
Vor
schl
äge
und
Frag
enfü
rdi
eÜ
bung
ense
hrer
wün
scht
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–8
Pre
limin
arie
s7
Pra
ktik
um
Pra
ktik
umw
irdan
der
Dr.
Kar
lRem
eis-
Ste
rnw
arte
,Bam
berg
,als
Blo
ckpr
aktik
um
durc
hgef
ührt
wer
den.
Term
ine:
•05
.09.
–16.
09.2
011
•19
.09.
–30.
09.2
011
•04
.10.
–14.
10.2
011
=⇒
21P
lätz
epr
oTe
rmin
=⇒
Wir
lass
en63
+x
Per
sone
nzu
(x≥
0).
Anm
eldu
ng:
jetz
t,vo
rläufi
geZ
ulas
sung
erfo
lgtw
irdM
itte
Juli
mitg
etei
lt,hä
ngt
aber
von
Bes
tehe
nde
rkl
ausu
rab
Zum
Bes
tehe
nde
sM
odul
ssi
ndfü
ral
leda
sP
rakt
ikum
sow
ieB
este
hen
der
zwei
Kla
usur
enA
stro
nom
ieIun
dII
erfo
rder
lich.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–9
Lite
ratu
re1
Text
book
s
KA
RT
UN
NE
N,
KR
ÖG
ER
,O
JA,
PO
UTA
NE
N&
DO
NN
ER
,200
7,F
unda
men
talA
s-
tron
omy,
5th
ed.,
Hei
delb
erg:
Spr
inge
r,e
64(h
ardc
over
),51
0pp
.G
ood
gene
ralo
verv
iew
ofas
tron
omy.
Rec
omm
ende
d,es
peci
ally
for
exam
prep
arat
ion.
KU
TN
ER
,200
3,A
stro
nom
y:A
Phy
sica
lPer
spec
tive,
2nd
ed.,
Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
-
brid
geU
niv.
Pre
ss,e
51,6
00pp
.M
oder
nph
ysic
sba
sed
text
book
,eas
yto
read
.R
ecom
men
ded.
BE
NN
ET
TE
TA
L.,
2009
,Ast
rono
mie
:D
ieko
smis
che
Per
spek
tive,
Pea
rson
Stu
dium
,e79
.95,
1200
pp.
Mod
ern
and
good
;Ger
man
tran
slat
ion
isno
tbad
,Rec
omm
ende
d.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–10
Lite
ratu
re2
Text
book
s
UN
SÖ
LD
&B
AS
CH
EK
,200
6,D
erne
ueK
osm
os.
Ein
führ
ung
indi
eA
stro
nom
ie
und
Ast
roph
ysik
,7.
Aufl
age,
Ber
lin:
Spr
inge
r,e
60,5
77pp
.In
term
edia
tele
vel:
Goo
dov
ervi
ewof
stel
lar
astr
onom
y
Goo
dse
cond
ary
read
ing.
ZE
ILIK
&G
RE
GO
RY
,199
8,In
trod
ucto
ryA
stro
nom
y&
Ast
roph
ysic
s,4t
hed
.,
Tho
mso
nLe
arni
ng,c
a.e
65,6
72pp
.In
term
edia
tele
vel,
self
cont
aine
d,bu
tsom
etim
esch
aotic
orde
r.
CA
RR
OL
L&
OS
TL
IE,2
006,
An
Intr
oduc
tion
toM
oder
nA
stro
phys
ics,
2nd
ed.,
Rea
ding
:A
ddis
on-W
esle
y,ca
.e
100
(har
dcov
er),
1400
pp.
Adv
ance
dle
vel,
expe
cts
good
phys
ics
back
grou
nd.
Rec
omm
ende
dif
you
wan
tto
spec
ializ
ein
astr
onom
y.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–11
Con
tent
s1
Con
tent
s
03M
ayO
rgan
isat
ion,
Intro
duct
ion
10M
ayH
isto
ryof
Ast
rono
my
17M
ayP
lane
tsI
24M
ayP
lane
tsII
31M
ayP
lane
tsIII
07Ju
nP
lane
ts:
Tran
snep
tuni
ans,
Ast
eroi
ds,C
omet
s,M
eteo
rites
21Ju
nM
easu
rem
entM
etho
ds:
Tele
scop
es,C
oord
inat
es
28Ju
nS
tars
,Dis
tanc
es,L
umin
osity
,HR
D
05Ju
lS
tars
:B
inar
ies,
Mas
ses
&R
adii
12Ju
lE
xopl
anet
s
19Ju
lE
xam
!
26Ju
lS
tars
:F
orm
atio
n
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–1
His
tory
ofA
stro
nom
y
Sto
nehe
nge:
2500
BC
;sol
arob
serv
ator
y?
Dis
kof
Neb
ra:
1600
BC
first
repr
oduc
tion
ofth
eni
ghts
ky,c
onst
ella
tion
ofM
oon
and
Ple
iade
s
mea
sure
sso
lstic
esan
deq
uino
xes=⇒
cale
ndar
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–4
His
tory
1
His
tory
Toge
ther
with
theo
logy
,ast
rono
my
ison
eof
the
olde
stpr
ofes
sion
sin
the
wor
ld.
Ast
rono
mic
alno
men
clat
ure
isst
illst
rong
lyin
fluen
ced
byth
istr
aditi
on.
=⇒
appr
ecia
tion
ofhi
stor
yof
astr
onom
yis
requ
ired
for
unde
rsta
ndin
gev
enof
toda
y’s
astr
onom
y.M
any
term
sus
edar
eba
sed
onth
ishi
stor
y,e.
g.m
agni
-
tude
sby
the
gree
kas
tron
omer
Hip
parc
os(∼
150
BC
)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–5
His
tory
1
Ear
lyC
osm
olog
y
Com
posi
teof
imag
esof
Mar
ssp
aced
∼a
wee
kap
art–
from
late
July
2005
(bot
tom
right
)th
roug
hF
ebru
ary
2006
(top
left)
.
Exp
lain
obse
rvat
ions
:
•da
ilym
otio
nsof
Sun
,
Moo
n,pl
anet
s&
star
s
from
Eto
W
•m
uch
slow
erm
otio
nof
Sun
&M
oon
with
re-
spec
tto
star
s
•oc
casi
onal
retr
ogra
de
mot
ions
ofpl
anet
s(E
to
W)
•so
lar
and
luna
rec
lipse
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–6
His
tory
1
Bab
ylon
Bab
ylon
ian
astr
onom
y:E
arlie
stas
tron
omy
(flou
rish∼
700
BC
)w
ithin
fluen
ceon
us:
=⇒
sexa
gesi
mal
syst
em[3
60:6
0:60
],24
h
day,
12×
30d
year
,...
=⇒
Obs
erva
tions
ofS
unan
dM
oon
=⇒
stel
lar
cons
tella
tions
,12
sign
sof
zodi
ac
=⇒
book
keep
ing
onso
lar
and
luna
r
eclip
ses,
Sar
oscy
cle:
18yr
11d
=⇒
desc
riptio
nof
plan
etm
ovem
ent
=⇒
cata
logi
ngst
ella
rpo
sitio
ns
Imag
e:M
ul.A
pin
cune
iform
tabl
et(B
ritis
hM
useu
m,
BM
8637
8,8
cmhi
gh),
desc
ribes
risin
gan
dse
tting
ofco
n-st
ella
tions
thro
ugh
the
baby
loni
anca
lend
ar.
Sum
mar
izes
astr
onom
ical
know
ledg
eas
ofbe
fore
∼69
0B
C.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–7
His
tory
2
Gre
ek
Atla
sFa
rnes
e,2c
A.D
.,M
useo
Arc
heol
ogic
oN
azio
nale
,Nap
oli
Gre
ekA
stro
nom
ers:
“Mat
hem
atic
ians
”
deve
lopm
ento
fthe
geoc
entr
icw
orld
mod
el
•T
hale
s(6
24–5
47B
C):
Ear
this
flat,
surr
ound
edby
wa-
ter.
Fou
nder
ofN
atur
alP
hilo
soph
y
•P
ytha
gora
s(c
a.57
0–51
0B
C):
Ear
this
asp
here
.
“Eve
ryth
ing
isnu
mbe
r”A
harm
onic
univ
erse
(mus
ic)
re-
quire
sor
bita
lmot
ions
ince
rtai
nra
tios
ofin
tege
rnu
m-
bers
(see
Kep
ler:
Har
mon
ices
mun
di)
•P
lato
(427
–347
BC
):th
eci
rcle
isth
epe
rfec
tgeo
met
ric
form
,uni
form
circ
ular
mot
ion
iset
erna
l=⇒
“the
hex
of
circ
les”
•E
udox
us(4
08–3
55B
C):
Geo
cent
ric,p
lane
tsaf
fixed
to
conc
entr
iccr
ysta
lline
sphe
res.
27sp
here
sto
acco
unt
for
non-
unifo
rmm
otio
ns(d
oes
notw
ork
for
Mar
san
d
Ven
us).
Firs
trea
lmod
elfo
rpl
anet
ary
mot
ion!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–8
His
tory
3
Gre
ek
Aris
totle
(384
–322
BC
,de
cael
o):
Refi
nem
ento
f
Eud
oxus
mod
el:
add
sphe
res
toen
sure
corr
ect
mot
ions
ofal
lpla
nets
:
>50
nest
edan
dlin
ked
sphe
res,
driv
enby
the
oute
rmos
tsph
ere.
=⇒
Cen
tral
philo
soph
yun
til∼
1450
AD
!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–9
His
tory
4
Gre
ek
Hip
parc
hus
(??
–∼
127
BC
):F
irstG
reek
obse
rver
:
•S
tar
cata
log:
850
star
s
•M
agni
tude
sof
star
s:0m
...6
m
•P
aral
lax
ofth
eM
oon
•Ta
ble
ofch
ords
(ear
lytr
igon
omet
ry)
•D
isco
very
ofpr
eces
sion
(shi
ftof
the
vern
aleq
uino
x)by
com
paris
onw
ith
Bab
ylon
ian
star
cata
log
•S
easo
nsha
veun
equa
llen
gth
•us
edge
ocen
tric
wor
ldm
odel
ofA
risto
tele
tom
ake
pred
ictio
ns(E
picy
cle)
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–10
His
tory
5
Gre
ek
(Ave
ni,1
993,
p.58
)
Pto
lem
aeus
(∼14
0AD
):S
ynta
xis
(aka
Alm
ages
t):
Refi
nem
ento
fAris
tote
lian
theo
ryin
tom
odel
usea
ble
for
com
pu-
tatio
ns
=⇒
Pto
lem
aic
Sys
tem
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–11
His
tory
6
Gre
ek
Dev
elop
men
toft
hehe
lioce
ntric
wor
ldm
odel
:A
rista
rchu
s(3
10–2
30B
C)
dete
r-
min
esof
the
radi
usof
the
Sun
1sta
ndla
stqu
arte
rof
Moo
n:
obse
rved
∠(M
oon,
Sun
)=
1/4
circ
le−
1/30
×1/
4ci
rcle=
87◦
=⇒
dist
ance
s:D(S
un−
Ear
th)=
19×
D(M
oon−
Ear
th)
Cas
sini
(167
2):
Par
alla
xof
Mar
s,w
hich
give
sD(S
un−
Ear
th)
=14
0M
io.
km(u
sing
Kep
ler’s
3rd
law
).
Sin
cean
gula
rdi
amet
ers
ofS
unan
dM
oon
are
alm
oste
qual
:
R(S
un)=
19×
R(M
oon)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–12
His
tory
7
Gre
ek
Dev
elop
men
toft
hehe
lioce
ntric
wor
ldm
odel
:
Aris
tarc
hus
(310
–230
BC
)ra
dius
ofth
eS
un luna
rec
lipse
s:
Moo
nfit
sin
toea
rth
shad
owtw
ice
(infa
ct:
3.68
times
)
=⇒
Rad
ii:R
(Sun
)=9.
5×R
(Ear
th)
=⇒
com
mon
sens
e:sm
alle
rbo
dy
mov
esar
ound
the
larg
eron
e!
Hel
ioce
ntric
wor
ldm
odel
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–13
His
tory
8
Gre
ek
Era
tost
hene
s(2
76–1
95B
C):
mea
sure
men
toft
heea
rth’
s
radi
us
Idea
:m
easu
recu
lmin
atio
n
ofth
eS
unat
two
plac
esof
know
ndi
stan
ce(N
toS
)on
the
sam
eda
y.
Sye
ne:
Sun
atze
nith
,Ale
xand
ria:
7.2◦
away
from
Zen
ith
=⇒
Dis
tanc
ebe
twee
nA
lexa
ndria
and
Sye
ne:d/(
2πR)=
7.2/
360
Mea
sure
d:50
00S
tade
s
Som
ehi
stor
ians
belie
veth
atth
isdi
stan
ceco
rres
pond
sto∼
820
km,s
oif
true
then
the
radi
usof
the
Ear
thw
ould
have
been
dete
rmin
edto
6264
km
infa
ct:
6378
km;r
epea
ted:
1671
:P
aris
-Am
iens
(J.P
icar
d)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–14
His
tory
9
Gre
ek
The
dist
ance
toth
eM
oon
and
the
Sun
:
angu
lar
diam
eter
ofth
eM
oon
equa
lsw
idth
offin
ger
as
seen
from
1m
away
=⇒
Rm
oon/d
moo
n=
1/20
0
Luna
roc
culta
tions
:R
moo
n=
1/2R
eart
h
=⇒
Rea
rth/d
moo
n=
1/10
0
dm
oon=
100×
Rea
rth=
6264
00km
=⇒
dist
ance
toth
eS
un: d
sun=
19×
dm
oon=
11.9
Mio
km
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–15
His
tory
10
Ren
aiss
ance R
egio
mon
tanu
s:Jo
hann
esM
ülle
r
from
Kön
igsb
erg
(Fra
ncon
ia)
(143
6–14
76):
•S
tudi
esat
Leip
zig
(144
7)an
dV
ienn
a
(145
0):
Mat
hsan
dA
stro
nom
y
•E
pyto
ma
Joan
isde
mon
tere
gio
inal
-
mag
esti
ptol
emei
(146
1–14
63):
tran
s-
latio
nto
latin
with
muc
him
prov
edm
aths
•D
etr
iang
ulis
omni
mod
is(1
462–
1464
):
foun
datio
nof
mod
ern
trig
onom
etry
•E
phem
erid
esas
tron
omic
aeab
anno
1475
–150
6:
mos
tacc
urat
e
ephe
mer
ides
=⇒
Nav
igat
ion:
Col
umbu
s&
Vas
coda
Gam
a
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
His
tory
11
Ren
aiss
ance N
icol
aus
Cop
erni
cus
(147
3–15
43):
Ear
thce
ntre
dP
tole
mai
csy
stem
is
too
com
plic
ated
,aS
un-c
entr
edsy
s-
tem
ism
ore
eleg
ant.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
His
tory
12
Ren
aiss
ance
(Gin
geric
h,19
93,p
.165
)
Nic
olau
sC
oper
nicu
s(1
473–
1543
):
Ear
thce
ntre
dP
tole
mai
csy
stem
is
too
com
plic
ated
,aS
un-c
entr
edsy
s-
tem
ism
ore
eleg
ant:
De
revo
lutio
nibu
sor
bium
coel
estiu
m:
“In
noot
her
way
do
we
perc
eive
the
clea
rha
rmon
ious
linka
gebe
twee
nth
em
otio
nsof
the
plan
ets
and
the
size
sof
thei
ror
bs.”
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
His
tory
13
Ren
aiss
ance
(Gin
geric
h,19
93,p
.165
)
Nic
olau
sC
oper
nicu
s(1
473–
1543
):
Ear
thce
ntre
dP
tole
mai
csy
stem
is
too
com
plic
ated
,aS
un-c
entr
edsy
s-
tem
ism
ore
eleg
ant:
De
revo
lutio
nibu
sor
bium
coel
estiu
m:
“In
noot
her
way
do
we
perc
eive
the
clea
rha
rmon
ious
linka
gebe
twee
nth
em
otio
nsof
the
plan
ets
and
the
size
sof
thei
ror
bs.”
Cop
erni
can
prin
cipl
e:T
heE
arth
isno
tatt
hece
nter
ofth
eun
i-
vers
e.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–17
His
tory
14
Ren
aiss
ance
Tych
oB
rahe
(154
6–16
01):
Vis
ualp
lane
tary
posi
tions
ofhi
ghes
tpre
cisi
onre
veal
flaw
sin
Pto
lem
aic
posi
tions
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–18
His
tory
15
Ren
aiss
ance
Ret
rogr
ade
mot
ion:
he-
lioce
ntric
vsge
ocen
tric
mod
el
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–19
His
tory
16
Ren
aiss
ance
Joha
nnes
Kep
ler
(157
1–16
30):
Pla
n-
ets
orbi
ton
ellip
ses
arou
ndS
un,n
ot
onci
rcle
s,la
ws
ofm
otio
n.
Gal
ileo
Gal
ilei(
1564
–164
2):
Tele
-
scop
icob
serv
atio
ns,d
isco
very
of
four
moo
nsof
Jupi
ter
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–20
His
tory
17
Ren
aiss
ance
Joha
nnes
Kep
ler
(157
1–16
30):
•bo
rn27
.12.
1571
,Wei
lder
Sta
dt
•S
tudi
esT
übin
gen
with
Mae
stlin
•15
94–1
600:
Gra
z
•15
96:
Mys
teriu
mC
osm
ogra
phic
um
•16
00–1
612:
Pra
g,as
sist
anto
fTyc
ho
Bra
he,t
hen
Mat
hem
atic
ian
ofem
pero
r
Rud
olfI
I,di
scov
ered
Sup
erno
vaof
1604
,... 16
09:
Ast
rono
mia
Nov
a
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–21
His
tory
18
Ren
aiss
ance
Ast
rono
mia
Nov
a,K
apite
l1:
mot
ion
ofM
ars
in
the
epic
ycle
theo
rybe
twee
n15
60an
d15
96
Ast
rono
mia
nova
(Pra
g,16
09)
Crit
icof
the
epic
ycle
theo
ry:
“pa-
nis
quad
rage
sim
alis
”
(Ost
erbr
ezel
)
=⇒
Inel
egan
t!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–22
His
tory
19
Ren
aiss
ance
Res
ulto
fKep
ler’s
inve
stig
atio
ns:
The
Kep
leria
nla
ws:
1.P
lane
tsm
ove
onel
liptic
alor
bits
,Sun
in
focu
s.
(“A
stro
nom
iaN
ova”
,160
9)
2.M
otio
nis
notu
nifo
rm,p
lane
tmov
esfa
st
whe
ncl
ose
toth
eS
un.
(“A
stro
nom
iaN
ova”
,160
9)
3.T
hird
law
com
es10
year
sla
ter
(“H
arm
onic
eM
undi
”,16
19)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–23
His
tory
20
Ren
aiss
ance
Tabu
lae
Rud
olph
inae
,162
7
Mos
tpre
cise
posi
tions
ofpl
anet
sev
er:
30×
smal
ler
erro
rsth
anbe
fore
(Gin
geric
h,19
93)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–24
His
tory
21
Ren
aiss
ance
Moo
nsm
ove
arou
ndJu
pite
r
(=⇒
sim
ilar
tohe
lioce
ntric
mod
el!)
...
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–25
His
tory
22
Ren
aiss
ance
Dis
cove
ryof
phas
esof
Ven
us(I
lSag
giat
ore,
1623
)
Obs
erve
dph
ases
and
angu
lar
size
chan
ges
ofV
enus
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–27
His
tory
24
Ren
aiss
ance
The
obse
rved
phas
ech
ange
sof
Ven
usca
nbe
expl
aine
dby
the
helio
cent
ric
wor
ldm
odel
,but
also
inTy
cho´
sge
ocen
tric
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–28
His
tory
25
Rø
mer
Rø
mer
,167
6
Ole
Rø
mer
(164
4–17
10):
mea
sure
men
toft
he
spee
dof
light
Tim
esof
occu
ltatio
nof
Iosh
iftby
upto
20m
inut
esdu
ring
the
year
.
(Pet
erH
orre
bouw
,Bas
isas
tron
omia
esi
veas
tron
o-m
iae
mac
hina
,Kop
enha
gen,
1735
)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–29
His
tory
26
New
ton
(New
ton,
1730
)
Isaa
cN
ewto
n(1
642–
1727
):N
ewto
n’s
law
s,
phys
ical
caus
efo
rsh
ape
ofor
bits
isgr
avita
-
tion
(De
Phi
loso
phia
eN
atur
alis
Prin
cipi
aM
athe
-
mat
ica,
1687
).
=⇒
Beg
inof
mod
ern
phys
ics
base
das
tron
-
omy.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–30
His
tory
27
Tele
scop
es
New
ton
tele
scop
e
Obj
ectiv
em
irror
Sec
onda
rym
irror
Cas
segr
ain
tele
scop
e
New
ton
(166
8),G
rego
ry(1
670)
,Cas
segr
ain
(167
2):
Mirr
orte
leco
pes
(mirr
orm
ade
polis
hed
met
al[c
oppe
r/zi
nkal
loy]
)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–31
His
tory
28
Her
sche
l
Will
iam
Her
sche
l(17
38–1
822)
:
•15
.11.
1738
:bo
rnin
Han
nove
r
•M
usic
ian
(Obo
ist)
•17
59:
emig
ratio
nto
Eng
land
•bu
ilds
larg
ere
flect
ing
tele
scop
es
•17
81:
Dis
cove
ryof
Ura
nus
•st
udy
ofN
ebul
ae
•S
tar
coun
ts(w
ithhi
ssi
ster
Car
olin
e)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–32
His
tory
29
Her
sche
l
Geo
met
ryof
the
Milk
yW
ayac
cord
ing
toW
illia
mH
ersc
hel(
1785
)
Sun
iscl
ose
toth
ece
ntre
ofth
eM
ilky
Way
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–33
His
tory
30
Her
sche
l
1 A
U
d
p
=⇒
Wan
ted:
Mea
sure
men
tofa
year
lypa
ralla
x
ofa
star
.
Par
alla
x(s
mal
lang
les)
:
p=
1A
U
d(p
mea
sure
din
radi
an)
Pro
blem
sinc
ean
tigui
ty:p
issm
allb
ecau
seth
e
star
sar
eso
far
away
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–34
His
tory
31
Bes
sel
Frie
dric
hW
ilhel
mB
esse
l
(178
4–18
46)
Bes
sel(
1839
):fir
stdi
stan
cem
easu
rem
ento
fa
star
61C
yg:
Par
alla
x0.
3′′
=⇒
dist
ance
11lig
htye
ars
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–35
His
tory
32
The
grea
tdeb
ate
Whi
rlpoo
lneb
ula
(Lor
dR
osse
,≈18
50)
19th
cent
ury:
Ast
rono
my
evol
ves
into
a
mod
ern
natu
rals
cien
ce:
•pr
ecis
est
ella
rpo
sitio
n(“
Dur
chm
uste
run-
gen”
=su
rvey
s)
•P
hoto
grap
hy
•S
pect
rosc
opy
(Ast
roph
ysic
s)
The
natu
reof
the
nebu
lae?
The
grea
tdeb
ate:
26.4
.192
0
prot
opla
neta
ryne
bula
e
or
isla
ndun
iver
se(“
Wel
teni
nsel
”):
Har
low
Sha
pley
vs.
Heb
erC
urtis
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–36
His
tory
33
Hub
ble
Mou
ntW
ilson
2.5
mTe
lesc
ope
Edw
inH
ubbl
e,19
22
2–36
Ave
ni,A
.F.,
1993
,A
ncie
ntA
stro
nom
ers,
(Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.:S
mith
soni
anB
ooks
)
Gin
geric
h,O
.,19
93,
The
Eye
ofH
eave
n–
Pto
lem
y,C
oper
nicu
s,K
eple
r,(N
ewYo
rk:
Am
eric
anIn
stitu
teof
Phy
sics
)
New
ton,
I.,17
30,
Opt
icks
,Vol
.4th
,(L
ondo
n:W
illia
mIn
nys)
,re
prin
t:D
over
Pub
licat
ions
,195
2
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–1
The
Pla
nets
:O
verv
iew
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
1
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
2
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
3
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
4
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
5
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
6
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
7
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
8
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
•18
46:
Joha
nnG
ottfr
ied
Gal
ledi
scov
ers
Nep
tune
=⇒
13pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
9
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
•18
46:
Joha
nnG
ottfr
ied
Gal
ledi
scov
ers
Nep
tune
=⇒
13pl
anet
s
•18
47:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Heb
e=⇒
14pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
10
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
•18
46:
Joha
nnG
ottfr
ied
Gal
ledi
scov
ers
Nep
tune
=⇒
13pl
anet
s
•18
47:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Heb
e=⇒
14pl
anet
s
•18
48:
And
rew
Gra
ham
:M
etis=⇒
15pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
11
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
•18
46:
Joha
nnG
ottfr
ied
Gal
ledi
scov
ers
Nep
tune
=⇒
13pl
anet
s
•18
47:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Heb
e=⇒
14pl
anet
s
•18
48:
And
rew
Gra
ham
:M
etis=⇒
15pl
anet
s
•18
49:
Ann
ibal
ede
Gas
paris
:H
ygie
a=⇒
16pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
12
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
•18
46:
Joha
nnG
ottfr
ied
Gal
ledi
scov
ers
Nep
tune
=⇒
13pl
anet
s
•18
47:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Heb
e=⇒
14pl
anet
s
•18
48:
And
rew
Gra
ham
:M
etis=⇒
15pl
anet
s
•18
49:
Ann
ibal
ede
Gas
paris
:H
ygie
a=⇒
16pl
anet
s
•18
49:
Ann
ibal
ede
Gas
paris
:P
arth
enop
e=⇒
17pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
13
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
Firs
t,ne
edto
look
atth
ede
finiti
onof
apl
anet
.
His
toric
alba
ckgr
ound
:
•an
tiqui
ty–1
781:
6pl
anet
s:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th,M
ars,
Jupi
ter,
Sat
urn
•17
81:
Wilh
elm
Her
sche
ldis
cove
rsU
ranu
s=⇒
7pl
anet
s
•18
01:
Giu
sepp
eP
iazz
i:C
eres
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
•18
02:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:P
alla
s=⇒
9pl
anet
s,H
ersc
helc
oins
term
“ast
eroi
d”.
•18
04:
Kar
lHar
ding
:Ju
no=⇒
10pl
anet
s
•18
07:
Hei
nric
hO
lber
s:V
esta=⇒
11pl
anet
s
•18
45:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Ast
rea=⇒
12pl
anet
s
•18
46:
Joha
nnG
ottfr
ied
Gal
ledi
scov
ers
Nep
tune
=⇒
13pl
anet
s
•18
47:
Kar
lHen
cke:
Heb
e=⇒
14pl
anet
s
•18
48:
And
rew
Gra
ham
:M
etis=⇒
15pl
anet
s
•18
49:
Ann
ibal
ede
Gas
paris
:H
ygie
a=⇒
16pl
anet
s
•18
49:
Ann
ibal
ede
Gas
paris
:P
arth
enop
e=⇒
17pl
anet
s
•S
omet
ime
inla
te18
00s:
Ast
eroi
dsar
eno
tpla
nets=⇒
8pl
anet
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Intr
oduc
tion
14
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
•19
30:
Cly
deTo
mba
ugh:
Plu
to(d
=24
00km
)=⇒
9pl
anet
sI
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Intr
oduc
tion
15
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
•19
30:
Cly
deTo
mba
ugh:
Plu
to(d
=24
00km
)=⇒
9pl
anet
s
•20
02:
Cha
dTr
ujill
o&
Mic
hael
Bro
wn
5000
0Q
uaoa
r(d
∼13
00km
)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Intr
oduc
tion
16
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
•19
30:
Cly
deTo
mba
ugh:
Plu
to(d
=24
00km
)=⇒
9pl
anet
s
•20
02:
Cha
dTr
ujill
o&
Mic
hael
Bro
wn
5000
0Q
uaoa
r(d
∼13
00km
)
•20
03:
Bro
wn
etal
.:90
377
Sed
na(1
200
km.
d.
1800
km)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Intr
oduc
tion
17
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
•19
30:
Cly
deTo
mba
ugh:
Plu
to(d
=24
00km
)=⇒
9pl
anet
s
•20
02:
Cha
dTr
ujill
o&
Mic
hael
Bro
wn
5000
0Q
uaoa
r(d
∼13
00km
)
•20
03:
Bro
wn
etal
.:90
377
Sed
na(1
200
km.
d.
1800
km)
•20
05:
Bro
wn
etal
.:20
03U
B31
3(a
ka“X
ena”
)(d
∼24
00km
)
=⇒
1361
99E
ris
=⇒
10pl
anet
s?!
?
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Intr
oduc
tion
18
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
•19
30:
Cly
deTo
mba
ugh:
Plu
to(d
=24
00km
)=⇒
9pl
anet
s
•20
02:
Cha
dTr
ujill
o&
Mic
hael
Bro
wn
5000
0Q
uaoa
r(d
∼13
00km
)
•20
03:
Bro
wn
etal
.:90
377
Sed
na(1
200
km.
d.
1800
km)
•20
05:
Bro
wn
etal
.:20
03U
B31
3(a
ka“X
ena”
)(d
∼24
00km
)
=⇒
1361
99E
ris
=⇒
10pl
anet
s?!
?
•B
UT
:Hig
hfr
eque
ncy
ofdi
scov
erin
gtr
ansn
eptu
nian
obje
cts
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Intr
oduc
tion
19
Wha
tis
apl
anet
?
•19
30:
Cly
deTo
mba
ugh:
Plu
to(d
=24
00km
)=⇒
9pl
anet
s
•20
02:
Cha
dTr
ujill
o&
Mic
hael
Bro
wn
5000
0Q
uaoa
r(d
∼13
00km
)
•20
03:
Bro
wn
etal
.:90
377
Sed
na(1
200
km.
d.
1800
km)
•20
05:
Bro
wn
etal
.:20
03U
B31
3(a
ka“X
ena”
)(d
∼24
00km
)
=⇒
1361
99E
ris
=⇒
10pl
anet
s?!
?
•B
UT
:Hig
hfr
eque
ncy
ofdi
scov
erin
gtr
ansn
eptu
nian
obje
cts
Sum
mer
2006
:In
tern
atio
nalA
stro
nom
ical
Uni
onG
ener
alA
ssem
bly,
Pra
gue
=⇒
Res
olut
ion
GA
26/5
and
6:D
efini
tion
ofa
plan
et
=⇒
8pl
anet
s
3–3
RE
SO
LU
TIO
N 5
Def
init
ion
of
a P
lan
et i
n t
he
So
lar
Sys
tem
Co
nte
mp
ora
ry
ob
serv
atio
ns
are
chan
gin
g o
ur
un
der
stan
din
g o
fp
lan
etar
y
syst
ems,
and
it
is i
mp
ort
ant
that
ou
r n
om
encl
atu
re f
or
ob
ject
s re
flec
t o
ur
curr
ent
un
der
stan
din
g.T
his
ap
pli
es,
in p
arti
cula
r,to
th
e d
esig
nat
ion
"p
lan
ets"
.T
he
wo
rd "
pla
net
"o
rigi
nal
ly d
escr
ibed
"w
and
erer
s"th
at w
ere
kn
ow
n o
nly
as
mo
vin
g
ligh
ts i
n t
he
sky.
Rec
ent
dis
cove
ries
lea
d u
s to
cre
ate
a n
ew d
efin
itio
n,
wh
ich
we
can
mak
e u
sin
g cu
rren
tly
avai
lab
le s
cien
tifi
c in
form
atio
n.
Th
e IA
U t
her
efo
re r
eso
lves
th
at p
lan
ets
and
oth
er b
od
ies,
exce
pt
sate
llit
es,i
n o
ur
So
lar
Syst
em b
e d
efin
ed i
nto
th
ree
dis
tin
ct c
ateg
ori
es i
n t
he
foll
ow
ing
way
:
(1)
A p
lan
et1
is a
cel
esti
al b
od
y th
at
(a)
is i
n o
rbit
aro
un
d t
he
Sun
,
(b)
has
su
ffic
ien
t m
ass
for
its
self
-gra
vit
y to
ove
rco
me
rigi
d b
od
y fo
rces
so
that
it
assu
mes
a h
ydro
stat
ic e
qu
ilib
riu
m (
nea
rly
rou
nd
) sh
ape,
and
(c)
has
cle
ared
th
e n
eigh
bo
urh
oo
d a
rou
nd
its
orb
it.
(2)
A "
dw
arf
pla
net
"is
a c
eles
tial
bo
dy
that
(a)
is i
n o
rbit
aro
un
d t
he
Sun
,
(b)
has
su
ffic
ien
t m
ass
for
its
self
-gra
vit
y to
ove
rco
me
rigi
d b
od
y fo
rces
so
that
it
assu
mes
a h
ydro
stat
ic e
qu
ilib
riu
m (
nea
rly
rou
nd
) sh
ape2
,
(c)
has
no
t cl
eare
d t
he
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
aro
un
d i
ts o
rbit
,an
d
(d)
is n
ot
a sa
tell
ite.
(3)
All
o
ther
o
bje
cts3
,ex
cep
t sa
tell
ites
,o
rbit
ing
the
Sun
sh
all
be
refe
rred
to
coll
ecti
vely
as
"Sm
all
So
lar
Syst
em B
od
ies"
.
1T
he
eigh
t p
lan
ets
are:
Mer
cury
,V
enu
s,E
arth
,M
ars,
Jup
iter
,S
atu
rn,
Ura
nu
s,an
d
Nep
tun
e.
2.
An
IA
U p
roce
ss w
ill b
e es
tab
lish
ed t
o a
ssig
n b
ord
erli
ne
ob
ject
s in
to e
ith
er d
war
fp
lan
et
and
oth
er c
ateg
ori
es.
3.
Th
ese
curr
entl
y in
clu
de
mo
st o
fth
e S
ola
r Sy
stem
ast
ero
ids,
mo
st T
ran
s-N
eptu
nia
n
Ob
ject
s (T
NO
s),c
om
ets,
and
oth
er s
mal
l b
od
ies.
3–3
RE
SO
LU
TIO
N 6
Plu
to
Th
e IA
U f
urt
her
res
olv
es:
Plu
to
is
a "d
war
fp
lan
et"
by
the
abo
ve
def
init
ion
an
d
is
reco
gniz
ed
as
the
pro
toty
pe
of
a n
ew c
ateg
ory
of
Tra
ns-
Nep
tun
ian
Ob
ject
s1.
1A
n I
AU
pro
cess
wil
l b
e es
tab
lish
ed t
o s
elec
t a
nam
e fo
r th
is c
ateg
ory
.
8P
lane
tsan
d3
dwar
fpla
nets
IAU
0603
Ven
usTr
ansi
t,20
04Ju
ne8
Elio
Dan
iele
,Pal
erm
o
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–6
Intr
oduc
tion
22
Ear
th-M
oon
syst
em
Pha
ses
ofth
em
oon
(cre
dit:
Uni
Kie
l)
tota
lsol
arec
lipse
2006
Moo
nan
dS
unha
veve
rysi
mila
rap
pare
ntdi
amet
ers:
Ecl
ipse
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–8
Intr
oduc
tion
24
Ecl
ipse
s
•E
clip
tic:
orbi
talp
lane
ofth
eE
arth
arou
nd
the
Sun
.
•or
bita
lpla
neof
the
moo
nin
clin
edw
rt.
eclip
ticby
i=
5◦
•lin
eof
node
s:in
ters
ectio
nof
the
two
or-
bita
lpla
nes
•ec
lipse
soc
cur
only
whe
nM
oon
iscl
ose
to
one
ofth
eno
des
=⇒
two
eclip
sese
ason
spe
rye
ar
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–9
Pla
nets
:O
verv
iew
1
Ove
rvie
w
Div
isio
nof
Sol
arS
yste
min
totw
om
ajor
type
sof
plan
ets:
1.In
ner
“Ter
rest
rial”
Pla
nets
:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th/M
oon,
Mar
s:
=⇒
alls
imila
rto
Ear
th(“
rock
s”).
=⇒
nom
oons
(Ear
th/M
oon
bette
rca
lled
“tw
ins”
)
The
Inne
rP
lane
ts(S
SE
,NA
SA
)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–11
Pla
nets
:O
verv
iew
3
Ove
rvie
w
Div
isio
nof
Sol
arS
yste
min
totw
om
ajor
type
sof
plan
ets:
1.In
ner
“Ter
rest
rial”
Pla
nets
:M
ercu
ry,V
enus
,Ear
th/M
oon,
Mar
s:
=⇒
alls
imila
rto
Ear
th(“
rock
s”).
=⇒
nom
oons
(Ear
th/M
oon
bette
rca
lled
“tw
ins”
)
2.O
uter
Pla
nets
:Ju
pite
r,S
atur
n,U
ranu
s,N
eptu
ne:
=⇒
“gas
gian
ts”
=⇒
allh
ave
exte
nsiv
em
oon
syst
ems
Alth
ough
notp
lane
ts(i.
e.,m
otio
nno
taro
und
Sun
),la
rge
moo
nsof
gas
gian
ts
are
very
sim
ilar
inst
ruct
ure
tote
rres
tria
lpla
nets
.
The
Out
erP
lane
ts(S
SE
,NA
SA
)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–13
Pla
nets
:O
verv
iew
5
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nets
:P
rope
rtie
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a[A
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Por
b[y
r]i
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ppen
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ihel
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ary
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unis
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esti
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inte
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easo
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atur
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atur
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ippe
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rings
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t:La
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nce
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isco
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eck
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dit:
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ceS
cien
ce&
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enee
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ter
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v.W
isco
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-Mad
ison
)
NA
SA
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SS
EN
GE
R,2
008
Jan
Mer
cury
:
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tmuc
hla
rger
than
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n
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nses
tofa
llte
rres
tria
lpla
nets
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evid
ence
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osph
ere
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otat
ion
perio
d:59
d,2/
3of
orbi
tal
perio
d.
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rfac
e:im
pact
crat
ers
•E
arly
info
rmat
ion
avai
labl
e
from
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iner
10(t
hree
flyby
s,
1974
/197
5)
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AS
Am
issi
on“M
esse
nger
”
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ched
2004
Aug
ust3
,flyb
ys20
08an
d20
09,
inor
bitf
rom
2011
on)
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SA
Mis
sion
Bep
iCol
ombo
,
plan
ned
for∼
2014
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ival
2020
ES
A/V
enus
Exp
ress
Ven
us:
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mila
rsi
zeto
Ear
th,s
imila
rst
ruct
ure
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sola
tion∼
2×E
arth
•ve
rysl
owro
tatio
n(2
43d,
retr
ogra
de;
=⇒
noB
-fiel
d)
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ryde
nse
atm
osph
ere:
surf
ace
pres
-
sure
∼90
×E
arth
•at
mos
pher
e:96
.5%
CO
2,3
.5%
N
=⇒
stro
nggr
eenh
ouse
effe
ct
=⇒
surf
ace
tem
pera
ture
∼46
0◦C
.
•ac
idra
in(y
es,s
ulph
uric
acid
!)
Info
rmat
ion
mai
nly
from
rada
rsu
rvey
ing
from
Ear
than
dfr
omM
agel
lan
(199
0–19
94),
plus
im-
ages
from
Pio
neer
Ven
usP
robe
(197
9).
Sev
eral
land
ings
(Ven
era,
1975
/198
1).
Cur
rent
lyst
ud-
ied
byE
SA
’sV
enus
Exp
ress
prob
e(la
unch
Apr
il20
05,a
rriv
alA
pril
2006
,mis
sion
until
end-
2012
).
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th/M
oon,
seen
from
Mar
s(N
AS
A/M
alin
)
Ear
th:
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uble
plan
etsy
stem
•E
arth
surf
ace:
dom
inat
edby
plat
e
tect
onic
s,er
osio
n
•at
mos
pher
e:80
%N
2,2
0%O
2
=⇒
mod
erat
egr
eenh
ouse
effe
ct
=⇒
surf
ace
tem
pera
ture
>0◦
C.
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ater
pres
ent
Moo
n:
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rysi
mila
rto
Mer
cury
,ove
rall
•M
aria
e(p
lain
sfr
omm
assi
veim
-
pact
s)an
dim
pact
crat
ers
•R
otat
ion
sync
hron
ous
toor
bit
arou
ndE
arth
NA
SA
,Mar
sG
loba
lSur
veyo
r
Mar
s:
•sm
alle
rth
anE
arth
•ve
rylo
wde
nsity
(〈ρ〉∼
3g
cm−
3)
=⇒
smal
lcor
e,pr
obab
lyF
ean
d
Fe x
Sy,
•po
lar
caps
,sea
sons
•th
inat
mos
pher
e,cl
ouds
,fog
,...
•w
ater
subl
imes
=⇒
noliq
uid
wat
erto
day
•V
olca
nism
(larg
esh
ield
volc
anoe
s
=⇒
no(?
)pl
ate
tect
onic
s)
•at
mos
pher
e:95
%C
O2
=⇒
wea
kgr
eenh
ouse
effe
ct
•tw
om
oons
(cap
ture
das
tero
ids)
Ear
lyE
xplo
ratio
nth
roug
hM
arin
erm
issi
ons
and
Vik
ing
1an
dV
ikin
g2
orbi
ters
and
land
ers
in
1970
s,re
cent
ly,s
tron
gin
tere
st(N
AS
AM
ars
Glo
balS
urve
yor
[MG
S],
ES
AM
ars
Exp
ress
,plu
s
seve
rall
ande
rs).
Cur
rent
lybe
stsu
rvey
edpl
anet
exce
ptfo
rE
arth
.
The
jovi
anpl
anet
s,c ©
C.J
.Ham
ilton
NA
SA
/ES
A,C
assi
ni-H
uygh
ens
Jupi
ter:
•La
rges
tpla
neti
nso
lar
syst
em
•ra
pid
rota
tion=⇒
seve
rely
flat-
tene
d,ba
nded
atm
osph
ere
(Cor
iolis
forc
e),G
reat
Red
Spo
t
•st
rong
mag
netic
field
(str
ong
radi
o
emis
sion
)
•at
mos
pher
e:75
%H
,24%
He
(by
mas
s),v
ery
clos
eto
sola
r
•di
ffere
ntia
lrot
atio
n(r
otat
ion
pe-
riod
9h
50m
ateq
uato
r,9
h55
mat
pole
s)
•st
rong
mag
netic
field
•fo
urm
ajor
“Gal
ilean
”m
oons
plus
59
smal
lone
s(a
sof
Nov
2010
;cap
-
ture
das
tero
ids)
Ear
lyE
xplo
ratio
n19
70s
thro
ugh
Pio
neer
11an
d12
,and
then
thro
ugh
the
Voy
ager
prob
es.
In-
tens
ivel
yst
udie
dby
NA
SA
’sG
alile
opr
ojec
t(en
ded
2003
Sep
14).
NA
SA
/ES
AC
assi
ni,2
004
Oct
.N
AS
A/E
SA
Cas
sini
Sat
urn:
•si
mila
rto
Jupi
ter,
slig
htly
smal
ler
•ra
pid
rota
tion=⇒
flatte
ned,
band
edat
mo-
sphe
re
•at
mos
pher
e:75
%H
,24%
He
(by
mas
s),
mol
ecul
eset
c.si
mila
rto
Jupi
ter
•R
ings
!
•si
xm
ajor
moo
nspl
us61
smal
lone
s(a
sof
Nov
2010
;mai
nly
capt
ured
aste
roid
s)
•E
arly
Exp
lora
tion
in19
70s
with
Pio
neer
11
and
12an
dth
eV
oyag
erpr
obes
.
Stu
died
sinc
e20
04Ju
ly1
byN
AS
A/E
SA
Cas
sini
-Huy
gens
proj
ect(
dura
tion
until
2017
)
Sat
urn’
sdu
strin
g(N
AS
AS
pitz
er):
exte
nds
from
128
to20
7RS,
40RS
thic
k.(V
erbi
scer
etal
.20
09,S
cien
ceO
ctob
er22
)
Dus
tsup
ply
byim
pact
son
moo
nP
hoeb
e,du
stpa
rtic
les
mig
rate
inw
ards
and
are
swep
tup
byIa
petu
s
NA
SA
Voy
ager
2,19
86Ja
n10
Ura
nus:
•at
mos
pher
eco
ld(5
9K
=−
214◦
C)
=⇒
amm
onia
has
froz
enou
t
•m
etha
ne,h
ydro
gen,
and
heliu
m
dete
cted
sofa
r(le
ssH
eth
anex
-
pect
edfr
omJu
pite
ran
dS
atur
n!)
=⇒
blui
shco
lor
•in
clin
atio
nof
rota
tion
axis
:98
◦
(“ro
lling
onec
liptic
plan
e”).
•sm
allr
ing
syst
em
•fiv
em
ajor
moo
nsin
equa
toria
l
plan
epl
us22
smal
lone
s(a
sof
Nov
2010
;cap
ture
das
tero
ids)
Fly
byof
Voy
ager
2in
1986
Janu
ary,
sinc
eth
enon
lyre
mot
ese
nsin
gfr
omH
ubbl
eS
pace
Tele
-
scop
e(H
ST
)an
dgr
ound
base
din
stru
men
ts.
NA
SA
Voy
ager
2
Nep
tune
:
•at
mos
pher
esi
mila
rto
Ura
nus,
but
mor
eac
tive;
brig
htm
etha
necl
ouds
abov
ege
nera
lclo
udla
yer
•rin
gsy
stem
(5in
divi
dual
rings
)
•Tw
om
ajor
moo
ns(T
riton
,272
0km
diam
eter
(!)
and
Ner
eid
355
km),
11ca
ptur
edas
tero
ids
Fly
byin
1989
Aug
ustb
yV
oyag
er2,
only
HS
Tsi
nce
then
(sho
wed
in19
95th
atda
rksp
otha
s
vani
shed
,det
ecte
dne
wst
orm
syst
em)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–31
Pla
nets
:O
verv
iew
23
Str
uctu
re
Que
stio
nsth
atw
ew
illde
alw
ith:
•H
owdo
the
plan
ets
mov
e?K
eple
r’sla
ws
and
thei
rph
ysic
alin
terp
reta
tion
•W
hatd
opl
anet
ary
surf
aces
look
like?
crat
ers,
plat
ete
cton
ics,
volc
anis
m
•W
hati
sth
ein
tern
alst
ruct
ure
ofth
epl
anet
s?hy
dros
tatic
stru
ctur
e
•H
owdo
plan
etar
yat
mos
pher
esw
ork?
hydr
osta
ticst
ruct
ure
(aga
in)
•W
hati
sth
ena
ture
ofth
em
inor
bodi
es?
•H
owdi
dth
epl
anet
ary
syst
emfo
rm?
•Is
the
sola
rsy
stem
norm
al?
Are
ther
epl
anet
sel
sew
here
?(L
ater
)
