Kcom111 Boot Camp 2012

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LAYOUT KCOM111

100 marks

Two sections

Section 1 50 marks: multiple choice andshort questions

Section 2 50 marks: longer questionsranging from 5 20 marks

PLEASE READ THE QUESTIONSCAREFULLY in section 2 there is achoice question

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TIME LINE

Read the question carefully

You should know it in chronological order thus the time line should make sense.

Speech, writing, printing, information age,electronic mass media

You should be able to discuss each eraread through the text and sum up at least5 major issues that impacted each era.

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Multiple choice questions:

A = Hypodermic Needle Model

B = Magic Bullet Theory

C =Two Step Flow Model D = Uses and Gratification Model

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THE EXCEL DOCUMENT

Study the table it is on eFundi.

Do not study off by heart, let each of theissues make sense to you.

Multiple choice format read theinstructions carefully and answer on theanswer sheet provided.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MASSMEDIA

Know and understand the characteristicsof the mass media.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE MASSMEDIA

Know and understand the functions of themass media.

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RADIO, TELEVISION ANDPRINTED PRESS

In your activity book, list at least fiveadvantages and five disadvantages ofeach of the different types of the above

mass media.

Your answers must make sense DONOT STUDY THEORY, you can derive

your own answers, as long as they makesense!

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DEFINITION OF MASS MEDIA

Mass media consists of the various means by whichinformation reaches large numbers of people, such as:

Television

Radio

Movies

newspapers, and the Internet.

Sociologists study mass media especially to see how itshapes people's values, beliefs, perceptions,and behavior.

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DEFINITION OF MASS MEDIA

For example, mass media contributes to socialization,including gender socialization, as when movies implicitlyteach young people that it is wrong for females to havemany sexual partners.

Mass media also affects social movements; for example,news coverage of the U.S.-Vietnam War helped sparkthe 1960s anti-war movement.

Another topic is the relation between media and social

power. For example, if mass media powerfully influences

beliefs and behavior, and it is controlled by relativelyfew individuals, those individuals have significantpower even in democratic societies.

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Mass media are media, which can beused to communicate and interact with a

large number of audiences.

Pictorial messages of the early ages, or the high-technology media that are available today, one thing thatwe all agree upon, is that mass media are an

inseparable part of our lives. Entertainment and media always go hand in hand, but in

addition to the entertainment, mass media also remain tobe an effective medium for communication,dissemination of information, advertising, marketing andin general, for expressing and sharing views, opinionsand ideas.

Mass media is a double-edged sword which means thatthere are positive effects of the media as well asnegative influences of media.

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POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THEMEDIA

The media like television, radio and the Internet increasean overall awareness of the masses.

They enhance the general knowledge by providing uswith information from all over the world.

News broadcast through different media helps us knowabout the day-to-day events in the world.

News, tele-films and documentaries revolving aroundsocial issues increase a social awareness in childrenand develop their concern towards society.

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Newspapers, apart from updating us with thelatest news and new information, also contributeto the enhancement of our vocabulary.

Newspapers are the best beginners indeveloping reading habits in children.

Through the print media, they provide thegeneral public with a platform to give updatesabout their parts of the city, exchange theirviews over different issues that the society facesand share their thoughts on a larger scale.

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Media serve as the best means for a speedy spread ofnews about important incidents or events taking place.

What has happened in the remotest corner of the worldcan reach us within minutes, thanks to media.

The speed that technology has achieved is helpful intimes of crisis when media is to be used for reportingnews needing immediate attention.

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Research has revealed that media is responsible forinfluencing a major part of our daily life.

Media contribute to a transformation in the cultural andsocial values of the masses.

Media can bring about a change in the attitudes andbeliefs of the common man.

The persuasive nature of the content presented overmedia influences the thoughts and behavior of thegeneral public.

Media has a direct impact over the lifestyle of society.

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The recent advent of blogging in the mediaworld and practices like public polls andcitizen journalism, have led to the

achievement of a social control.

These concepts have strengthened therelationship between the media and the

common man.

They have brought the general massescloser to their society.

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Media has brought about a majortransformation in the way people think.

Media has given them an excellentplatform to present themselves before theworld and contribute in their own way tothe changing world scenario.

Media has been responsible for makingthe world a smaller place to live.

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NEGATIVE INFLUENCES OFTHE MASS MEDIA

When you try to imitate your role models of theglamour industry, are you thoughtful enough todistinguish between the right and the wrong?

It is often seen that young girls and boys imitatetheir role models blindly.

The negative things the celebrities do are oftentalked about.

The controversies in the lives of the celebritiesare often highlighted by the media.

This leads to a blind imitation of what appears in

the news.

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Media often hypes the scintillating things about thecelebrities.

The negatives in society are highlighted with an

intent to awaken the people about the society of themodern days.

But this hype is actually having a negative effect onsociety.

Masses are seeing only the negatives around them.

Controversies are constantly being bombarded onthem. All this is responsible for influencing the

society negatively.

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Some say that it is media to be blamed forthe eating disorders in the youths ofsociety as also for the unhealthy lifestyle

that has recently emerged.

Be it television, magazines or the Internet,media is almost omnipresent, affecting

various aspects of our life.

The products advertised by the media andthe ways they are advertised are bound to

affect the practices of the youths.

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The negative effects of media on children aremanifested in terms of their changing mentalsetup and the declining quality of their lifestyle.

Children, who should invest their time in readinggood books, studying, playing outdoors,exercising and engaging in social activities,today, spend their evenings glued to the

television.

The Internet that is easily accessible to evensmall children, exposes them to things they need

not know and will not understand.

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Media affects the physical well-being ofindividuals to a certain extent.

People spending hours in front of atelevision or surfing the Internet have tosuffer from eye problems and obesity.

Long hours of media exposure add to thesedentary nature of your lifestyle.

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The negative psychological effects of media are seen in terms of mediachanging the people's outlook of looking towards life.

Media being one of the prominent sources of looking at the outside worldhas changed the cultural and moral values of society.

A majority of the audiences believe in what is depicted by the media.Many think all of it as true.

Youngsters and children are bound to mix the reel and the real worldand get highly influence by the mass media.

While a certain amount of exposure to the ever-evolving media isessential for introducing ourselves to the world outside, an excessiveone is detrimental to the overall well-being of society.

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New-age Media With the advent of new

technologies like Internet, we arenow enjoying the benefits of hightechnology mass media, which isnot only faster than the old-schoolmass media, but also has a

widespread range.

Smartphones, computers andInternet are often referred to asthe new-age media.

Internet has opened up severalnew opportunities for masscommunication which includeemail, websites, blogging,Internet TV and many other massmedia which are booming today.

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Compare the

differences/similaritiesbetween mass communicationand interpersonal

communication. Compare attributes,the message, the audience and thefeedback in the two differentcommunication processes.

In your activity book, make two columnsand work out answers to the headings

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EXAMPLE: feedback

Interpersonal INSTANT

CAN LOOK AT NON-

VERBAL MESSAGES FEEDBACK CAN BE

GIVEN IMMEDIATELY

DISCUSSION CAN TAKE

PLACE ....and and and

Mass media Not all media has instant

feedback

Masses of feedbackSMSes about a specific

topic

Sometimes cost money to

give feedback Non very personal

general view of people

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Radio, television and other massmedia...

Indicate how community radio stationschanged the South African mass medialandscape with regards to democracy,

freedom of speech and cultural pluralism.

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Radio, television and other massmedia

Explain how domestic and internationaleconomical pressure and globalisationinfluence the programmes that are flighted

on television.

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TWO-STEP FLOW

The two-step flow of communicationmodel hypothesizes that ideas flow from

mass media to OPINION

LEADERS and from them to a widerpopulation.

Unlike the hypodermic needle model,which considers mass media effectsto be direct, the two-step flow model

stresses human agency.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hypodermic-needle-modelhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hypodermic-needle-model

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TWO-STEP FLOW

According to Lazarsfeld and Katz, massmedia information is channeled to the"masses" through OPINION

LEADERSHIP.

The people with most access to media,and having a more literate understanding

of media content, explain and diffuse thecontent to others.

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TWO-STEP FLOW

Based on the two-step flow hypothesis,

the term personal influence came to

illustrate the process interveningbetween the medias directmessage and the audiences

reaction to that message.

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TWO STEP FLOW

Opinion leaders tend to be similar tothose they influencebased on

personality, interests,demographics, or socio-economic factors. These leaderstend to influence others to change theirattitudes and behaviors.

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TWO-STEP FLOW

The two-step theory refined the ability topredict how media messages

influence audience behavior andexplains why certain mediacampaigns do not alter

audiences attitudes.

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What is USES ANDGRATIFICATION?

Uses and Gratifications Theory is anapproach to understanding why peopleactively seek out specific media outlets

and content for gratification purposes. The theory discusses how users

proactively search for media that will notonly meet a given need but enhanceknowledge, social interactions anddiversion .

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What is USES ANDGRATIFICATION?

It assumes that members of the audience arenot passive but take an active role ininterpreting and integrating media into theirown lives.

The theory also holds that audiences areresponsible for choosing media to meet theirneeds.

The approach suggests that people use the

media to fulfill specific gratifications. This theory would then imply that the mediacompete against other information sourcesfor viewers' gratification.

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Uses and Gratifications Model According to Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch's

research there were 5 componentscomprising the Uses and GratificationsModel. The components are:

The audience is conceived as ACTIVE

In the mass communication process muchinitiative in linking gratification and mediachoice lies with the audience member

The media compete with other sources ofsatisfaction

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Uses and Gratifications Model

Methodologically speaking, many of the

goals of mass media use can be derivedfrom data supplied by individual audiencemembers themselves

Value judgments about the culturalsignificance of mass communicationshould be suspended while audience

orientations are explored on their ownterms

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The Active Audience

Jay Blumler presented a number of interesting points, as to whyUses and Gratifications cannot measure an active audience.

He stated, "The issue to be considered here is whether what hasbeen thought about Uses and Gratifications Theory has been anarticle of faith and if it could now be converted into an empiricalquestion such as: How to measure an active audience?" (Blumler,

1979). Blumler then offered suggestions about the kinds of activity the

audiences were engaging with in the different types of media.

Utility: Using the media to accomplish specific tasks Intentionality: Occurs when peoples prior motive determine use of

media Selectivity: Audience members use of media reflect their existing

interests

Imperviousness to Influence: Refers to audience membersconstructing their own meaning from media content

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New Media

The application of New Media to the Uses andGratifications Theory has been positive.

The introduction of the Internet, social media andtechnological advances has provided another outlet forpeople to use and seek gratification through those

sources. Based on the models developed by Katz, Blumler,

Gurevitch and Lasswell, individuals can choose to seekout media in one outlet, all falling within the proscribedcategories of need.

The only difference now, is that the audience does nothave to go to multiple media outlets to fulfill each of theirneeds.

The Internet has created a digital library, allowingindividuals to have access to all content from various

mass medium outlets.

New Media Example of Uses and Gratifications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet

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New Media Example of Uses and GratificationsTheory

Being Immersed in Social Networking

Environment: Facebook Groups, Uses andGratification, and Social Outcomes

In 2007 a study was conducted to examine the Facebook groups usersgratifications in relation to their civic participation offline.

The Web survey polled 1,715 college students, ranging in age from 18-29,

who were members of Facebook groups. The respondents were given 16 statement through an electronic survey andasked to rate their level of agreement with specific reasons for usingFacebook groups, including information acquisition aboutcampus/community, entertainment/recreation, social interaction with friendsand family, and peer pressure/self satisfaction.

The Likert scale indicated the 1 was strongly agree and 6 was strongly

disagree. To ensure those results were not skewed, the respondents were also asked

to complete a set of level of agreement questions to properly gauge theirlevel of life satisfaction.

The study ultimately yielded results through principal components factoranalysis with varimax rotation. The results showed that there were fourneeds for using Facebook groups, socializing, entertainment, self-status

seeking, and information.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook

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Gratification Received from Use ofFacebook Groups

Socializing: Students interested in talking andmeeting with others to achieve a sense ofcommunity and peer support on the particulartopic of the group

Entertainment: Students engaged with thegroups to amuse themselves Self-Seeking: Students maintain and seek out

their personal status, as well as those of theirfriends, through the online group participation

Information: Students used the group to receiveinformation about related events going on andoff campus

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AGENDA SETTING

the media have the abilityto determine which issuesare important to the public

The ability of the media to tell peoplewhat and whom to talk and thinkabout. Also refers to those media thathave more credibility than theircompetition.

The selective nature of what members of the media choose for publicconsumption influences how people think about health issues, and what they think

about them. ...

The agenda setting function has multiple

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The agenda-setting function has multiplecomponents:

Media agenda are issues discussed in themedia, such as newspapers, television,and radio.

Public agenda are issues discussedamong members of the public.

Policy agenda are issues that policy

makers consider important, such aslegislators.

Corporate agenda are issues that bigcorporations consider important.

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_media

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HYPODERMIC NEEDLEMODEL

The "hypodermic needle theory" implied

mass media had a direct, immediate

and powerfuleffect on its audiences. The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s wereperceived as a powerful influence onbehavior change.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oTp94_JN7JE

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE

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Several factors contributed to this "strong effects" theoryof communication, including:

- the fast rise and popularization of radio and

television - the emergence of the persuasion industries, such asadvertising and propaganda

- the Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which focused on

the impact of motion pictures on children, and - Hitler's monopolization of the mass media during

WWII to unify the German public behind the Nazi party

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE

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The theory suggests that the mass mediacould influence a very large group ofpeople directly and uniformly by

shooting or injecting them withappropriate messages designed to triggera desired response.

Both images used to express this theory (abullet and a needle) suggest a powerfuland direct flow of information from the

sender to the receiver.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yd88H 5k-rY

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MAGIC BULLET THEORY The bullet theory graphically suggests that the

message is a bullet, fired from the "mediagun" into the viewer's "head".

Population is seen as a sitting duck. People are seen as passive and are seen as

having a lot of media material "shot" at them.

People end up thinking whatthey are told because there is

no other source of information.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v Yd88H_5k rY

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CULTIVATION THEORY MODEL

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THE CULTIVATION THEORY

Cultivation theory is a social theory which examines the long-termeffects of television.

"The primary proposition of cultivation theory states that the moretime people spend living in the television world. The morelikely they are to believe social reality portrayed on television."

Developed by George Gerbner and Larry Gross of the University of

Pennsylvania, cultivation theory derived from several large-scaleresearch projects as part of an overall research project entitled'Cultural Indicators'.

The purpose of the Cultural Indicators project was to identify andtrack the 'cultivated' effects of television on viewers.

They were "concerned with the effects of television

programming (particularly violent programming) on theattitudes and behaviors of the American public.

Gerbner asserts that the overall concern about the effects oftelevision on audiences stemmed from the unprecedented centralityof television in American culture.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gerbnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Grosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Grosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gerbnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_theory

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"The theory clearly posits that the cultivation effect occurs only afterlong-term, cumulative exposure to television.

He claimed that because TV contains so much violence, peoplewho spend the most time in front of the tube develop anexaggerated belief in a mean and scary world.

He posited that television as a mass medium of communication had

formed in to a common symbolic environment that bound diversecommunities together, socializing people in to standardized rolesand behaviors.

Today, the TV set is a key member of the household, withvirtually unlimited access to every person in the family.

He compared the power of television to the power of religion,

saying that television was to modern society what religion oncewas in earlier times.

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Cultivation Analysis is a positivistic theory,meaning it assumes the existence ofobjective reality and value-neutral research.

A study conducted by Jennings Bryant andDorina Miron (2004), which surveyed almost2,000 articles published in the three top masscommunication journals since 1956, found thatCultivation Analysis was the third most

frequently utilized theory, showing that itcontinues to be one of the most popular theoriesin mass communication research.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivistic

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Cultivation theory in its most basic form, then,suggests that exposure to television, over time,subtly "cultivates" viewers' perceptions of reality.

Gerbner and Gross say "television is amedium of the socialization of most peopleinto standardized roles and behaviors. Itsfunction is in a word, enculturation.

Gerbner draws attention in his work to threeentitiesinstitutions, messages, andpublicswhich he seeks to analyze.

Th M j Fi di f C lti ti
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enculturationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enculturation

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The Major Findings of CultivationAnalysis

Since Gerbner believed that violence was thestructure of TV drama and knowing that peoplediffer in levels of television consumed, Gerbnerwanted to find the cultivation differential.

He referred to cultivation differential rather thanmedia effects because the latter term implies acomparison between before-TV exposureand after-TV exposure.

But Gerbner believed there was no before-television condition. Television enters peopleslives in infancy. His surveys have revealedsome provocative findings:"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential

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Positive correlation between TV viewing and fear ofcriminal victimization.

"In most of the surveys Gerbner conducted, the resultsreveal a small but statistically significant relationship

between TV consumption and fear about becoming thevictim of a crime.

The question at the start of the chapter is illustrative:

Those with light viewing habits predict their weekly oddsof being a victim are 1 out of 100; those with heavy

viewing habits fear the risk 1 out of 10. Actual crimestatistics indicate that 1 out of 10,000 is more realistic


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Perceived Activity of the Police

"People with heavy viewing habits believethat 5 percent of society is involved in law

enforcement.

Their video world is peopled with policeofficers, judges, and government agents.

People with light viewing habits estimatesa more realistic 1 percent

The Major Findings of C lti ation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement

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General Mistrust of People

"Those with heavy viewing habits aresuspicious of other peoples motives.

They subscribe to statements that warnpeople to expect the worst.

Effect of Cultivation Theory on

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Effect of Cultivation Theory onChildren

There was a positive relationship between childhoodtelevision viewing levels and social reality beliefs inyoung adulthood.

The results of this study suggest that television viewedduring childhood may have an impact on the social

reality beliefs a person holds as an adult. Accordingly, the present study focuses on the potential

impact of childhood television viewing on social realitybeliefs during adulthood.

The focus of the present study will be childhood

exposure to television genres that tend to be violent. Given that it has been argued and demonstrated that

measuring exposure to violent content is a moreappropriate method for cultivation analyses thanmeasuring overall television exposure levels.

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Music Videos and the Cultivation

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Music Videos and the CultivationTheory

Kathleen Beullens, Keith Roe, and JanVan den Bulckconducted research relating to alcohol consumption inmusic videos.

The research revealed that high exposure to music

videos develops an unrealistic perception of alcoholconsumption.

Musicians in these videos endorse alcohol in their songsand create a false reality about alcohol and its effects."[21] Beullens, K., Roe, K., & Van den Bulck, J. (2012).

Music Video Viewing as a Marker of Driving After theConsumption of Alcohol. Substance Use & Misuse,47(2), 155-165.

Gays Gender and Sex on
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kathleen_Beullens&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Keith_Roe&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JanVan_den_Bulck&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JanVan_den_Bulck&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Keith_Roe&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kathleen_Beullens&action=edit&redlink=1

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Gays, Gender, and Sex onTelevision

Sara Baker Netzley conducted research in asimilar fashion to Gerbner in the way thathomosexuals were depicted on television.

This study found that there was an extremely

high level of sexual activity in comparison to theamount of gays that appeared on television. This has led those who are heavy television

consumers to believe that the gay community isextremely sexual.

Much like the idea of a mean and scary world itgives people a parallel idea of an extremelysexual gay community.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sara_Baker_Netzley&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sara_Baker_Netzley&action=edit&redlink=1

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Criticisms of Cultivation Theory

Scholars think that cultivation research focuses more on the effects ratherthan who or what is being influenced. Jennings Bryant agrees and says thatthe research to date has more to do with the whys and hows of a theoryas opposed to gathering normative data as to the whats, whos, andwheres

Critics have faulted the logical consistency of Cultivation Analysis, notingthat the methods employed by Cultivation Analysis researchers do not

match the conceptual reach of the theory. The research supporting thistheory uses social scientific methods that are typically used with limitedeffects findings.

Another possibility is that the relationship between TV viewing and fear ofcrime is like the relationship between a runny nose and a sore throat.

Neither one causes the otherthey are both caused by something else. "[3]Many also question the breadth of Gerbners research.

When using the Cultural Indicators strategy, Gerbner separated hisresearch into three parts. The second part focused on the effects of mediawhen looking at gender, race/ethnicity, and occupation. Michael Hugheswrites about this process that it does not seem reasonable that these threevariables exhaust the possibilities of variables availablewhich may beresponsible for spurious relationships between television watching and thedependent variables in the Gerbner at al. analysis

The agenda-setting function has multiple
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jennings_Bryant&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_(role)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Hugheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Hugheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_(role)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jennings_Bryant&action=edit&redlink=1

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e age da sett g u ct o as u t p ecomponents:

Media agenda are issues discussed in themedia, such as newspapers, television,and radio.

Public agenda are issues discussedamong members of the public.

Policy agenda are issues that policymakers consider important, such aslegislators.

Corporate agenda are issues that bigcorporations consider important.

Marxist Media Theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_media

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In Britain and Europe, neo-Marxist approacheswere common amongst media theorists from thelate '60s until around the early '80s, and Marxistinfluences, though less dominant, remain

widespread. So it is important to be aware of key Marxistconcepts in analysing the mass media.

However, there is no single Marxist school ofthought, and the jargon often seemsimpenetrable to the uninitiated.

These notes are intended to provide a guide tosome key concepts.


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Marxist theorists tend to emphasize the role of themass media in the reproduction of the status quo, incontrast to liberal pluralists who emphasize the roleof the media in promoting freedom of speech.

The rise of neo-Marxism in social science represented in

part a reaction against 'functionalist' models ofsociety. Functionalists seek to explain social institutions in terms

of their cohesive functions within an inter-connected,socio-cultural system.

Functionalism did not account for social conflict,whereas Marxism offered useful insights into classconflict.

As the time of the European ascendancy of neo-Marxism in media theory(primarily in the 1970s and early 1980s) the main non Marxist tradition was

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(primarily in the 1970s and early 1980s), the main non-Marxisttradition wasthat of liberal pluralism(which had been the dominant perspective in the

United States since the 1940s) (see Hall 1982: 56-5). As Gurevitch et al. put it:

Pluralists see society as a complex of competing groups andinterests, none of them predominant all of the time.

Media organizations are seen as bounded organizationalsystems, enjoying an important degree of autonomy from thestate, political parties and institutionalized pressure groups.

Control of the media is said to be in the hands of an autonomousmanagerial elite who allow a considerable degree of flexibility tomedia professionals.

A basic symmetry is seen to exist between media institutionsand their audiences, since in McQuail's words the 'relationship isgenerally entered into voluntarily and on apparently equal terms'...and audiences are seen as capable of manipulating the media in aninfinite variety of ways according to their prior needs anddispositions, and as having access to what Halloran calls 'the pluralvalues of society' enabling them to 'conform, accommodate,challenge or reject'. (Gurevitch et al. 1982: 1)

I t t th ti

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In contrast, they continue: Marxists view capitalist society as being one of class

domination;

the media are seen as part of an ideological arena inwhich various class views are fought out, althoughwithin the context of the dominance of certainclasses; ultimate control is increasingly concentrated inmonopoly capital; media professionals, while enjoyingthe illusion of autonomy, are socialized into andinternalize the norms of the dominant culture;

the media taken as a whole, relay interpretiveframeworks consonant with the interests of the dominantclasses, and media audiences, while sometimesnegotiating and contesting these frameworks, lack

ready access to alternative meaning systems thatwould enable them to reject the definitions offeredby the media in favour of consistently oppositionaldefinitions. (ibid.)

Media as means of production

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The mass media are, in classical Marxist terms,a 'means of production' which in capitalistsociety are in the ownership of the ruling class.

According to the classical Marxist position, themass media simply disseminate the ideasand world views of the ruling class, and denyor defuse alternative ideas.

This is very much in accord with Marx'sargument that:


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The class which has the means of materialproduction at its disposal has control at thesame time over the means of mental

production, so that thereby, generallyspeaking, the ideas of those who lack themeans of mental production are subject to

it. (Marx & Engels: The German Ideology,cited in Curran et al. 1982: 22).


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According to this stance, the mass mediafunctioned to produce 'false consciousness' inthe working-classes.

This leads to an extreme stance whereby mediaproducts are seen as monolithic expressionsof ruling class values, which ignores anydiversity of values within the ruling class and

within the media, and the possibility ofoppositional readings by media audiences.

Limitations of Marxist analysis

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Critics argue that Marxism is just another ideology(despite claims by some that historical materialismis anobjective science).

Some Marxists are accused of being 'too doctrinaire'(see Berger 1982).

Fundamentalist Marxism is crudely deterministic, andalso reductionist in its 'materialism', allowing little scopefor human agency and subjectivity.

Marxism is often seen as 'grand theory', eschewingempirical research.

However, research in the Marxist 'political economy'tradition in particular does employ empirical methods.

And the analysis of media representations does includeclose studies of particular texts.


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The orthodox Marxist notion of 'false consciousness'misleadingly suggests the existence of a reality'undistorted' by mediation.

The associated notion that such consciousness isirresistibly induced in mass audiences does not allow for

oppositional readings. Marxist perpectives should not lead us to ignore the

various ways in which audiences use the mass media. Neo-Marxist stances have in fact sought to avoid these

pitfalls.

The primary Marxist emphasis on class needs to be (andhad increasingly been) related to other divisions, such asgender and ethnicity.

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K l H i i h M

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Karl Heinrich Marx born on May 5, 1818 Jewish Philosopher,

Political Economist,Historian,Sociologist,

converted as a Christian founder of communism

died on March 14, 1883

Communist Manifesto

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Communist Manifesto

published by Marx and Engels on behalf ofa group idealistic workers

originally drafted as a program for an

international communist league become one of the most important political

documents of all time

left an incredible mark on human progress

Key Demands

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Key Demands

Abolition of property in land andapplication of all rents on land to publicpurposes.

A heavy progressive or graduated incometax.

Abolition of all right of inheritance.

Confiscation of the property of allemigrants and rebels.

Key Demands

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Key Demands

Centralization of credit in the hands of thestate, by means of a national bank withstate capital and an exclusive monopoly.

Centralization of communication andtransport in the hands of the state.

Equal liability of all to labor.Establishment of industrial armies,especially for agriculture.

Key Demands

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Key Demands

Extension of factories and instruments ofproduction owned by the state, thebringing in cultivation of waste lands, and

the improvement of the soil generally inaccordance with a common plan.

Key Demands

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Key Demands

Combination of agriculture withmanufacturing industries; gradualabolition of the distinction between town

and country, by a more equabledistribution of population over thecountry.

Free education for all children in publicschools. Abolition of children's factorylabor in its resent form.

Three Parts of Marxism

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Three Parts of Marxism

Philosophical basis Derives much from Hegel

Neatly inverts the key central idea of

Hegelian perspective Theories of political economy

Follow from the philosophical position

Theory of Surplus Value

Labor theory of Value

Theory of revolution

A Materialist World

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A Materialist World

our ideas do not make the world, theworld makes are ideas

the dialect made Marx and Engels theories

scientific free of mysticism and metaphysics but

describing something like a scientific

law (inevitably)

Modernist Optimism

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Modernist Optimism

a view that underneath the haphazard andcontingent ordinariness of everyday lifewere certain dynamic power that while

remaining hidden, controlled the waythings changed and determine the future

materialistic and positivistic

believing in progress through anaccumulated of knowledge

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Class Struggle

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Class Struggle

active expression of class conflict looked atfrom any kind of socialist perspective

Main class struggle

Bourgeoisie

Proletariat

Class

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Class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between

individuals or groups in societies or cultures

social classes in capitalist societies

Bourgeoisie

Petite Bourgeoisie Proletariat

lumpenproletariat

landlords

peasantry and farmers

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Bourgeoisie

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Bourgeoisie

those who own means of production

control the process of production

buy labor power from proletariat

Their wealth depend on the work of theproletariat

exploit proletariat

Proletariat

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Proletariat

individuals who sell their labor power

add value to the products

do not own means of production

labor power generates surplus valuegreater than the worker's wages

POSTMODERNISM

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POSTMODERNISM

Since 'modern' comes from the latin modomeaning 'justnow', 'postmodern obviously means 'after' just now - orsometimes beyond, contra, above, ultra, meta, outside-of-the-present.

Post-modern movements vary in each cultural form -economics, politics, dance, psychology, education, etc -and in some areas it has not been defined or perhapsdoes not exist.

In architecture, art, literature and philosophy, different

attitudes have developed at different rates, so onceagain it is the pluralism which should be stressed(incommensurable difference).

Most people understand post-modernism to mean a typef l ti i t th i l ti t h h

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of relativism - truth is relative to each person or eachdifferent cultural group. In postmodernism my truth doesnot have to agree with your truth - but both are valid.

Einstein's theory of relativity never proposed thateverything is relative - but actually states that somethings are relative when measured against some thingsthat are constant and absolute.

The theory of relativity hinges on the constancy of thespeed of light. Recently gravity was shown to contain aconstant too.

My point is that if we look for a universal principle ofrelativism, as post-moderns do, there isn't one to be

found. Relativism only works when there is a constant which

can be used as a yardstick.

Modernism versus postmodernism

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Possibly the main defining difference betweenmodernism and postmodernism is

postmodernisms rejection of the modernist ideathat human social experience has fundamentalreal bases.

To the contrary, postmodernism posits that

social experience is an interplay of myths thatproduce regimes of truth.

According to postmodernism, many of thefundamental modernist idea(l)s regarding the

individual, self, freedom, agency, and structureare arbitrary and ephemeral rather thanessential and fixed.

The political position of postmodernism is

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The political position of postmodernism isthat different myths ought to be allowed

since they are products of the differentrealities of communities, and that each

myth system ought to show respect andtolerance to the presence of others.

Postmodernism posits that the culminationof modernity renders this multi-mythicposition both advisable and inevitable.

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