JOURNAL OF PRECISION TEACHING

Volume VI

Editor Patrick McGreevy

Consulting Editors

Peggy Albrecht-Gayler Walter Berard Carl Binder John Cooper Susan Evans Sheila Fox Marilyn Hefferan Steven Krantz Kathleen Liberty Michael Maloney Malcolm Neely Caryn Robbins Clay Starlin Julie Vargas

Contents

Fall, 1985 Number 3

Beatrice Barrett Eugene "Skip" Berquam Bob Bower Marie Eaton William Evans Normand Giroux Kent Johnson Sarah Kyrklund Ogden Lindsley Tom McCrudden H. S. Pennypacker Susan Ryberg Gene Stromberg Owen White

Ray Beck Felix Billingsley Abigail Calkin John Eshleman Bruce Flanagan Stephen Graf Mary Kovaca Lynette Lacy Thomas Lovitt Charles Merbitz Jim Pollard Ann Starlin Susan Thomsen William Wolking

Technological advances in precision teaching: A comparison between computer-testing and SAFMEDS ................................................49

Claudia E. McDade Dorothy M. Austin Charles P. Olander

Improvement pictures with low celerations: An early foray into the use of SAFMEDS ...............................................................-54

John W. Eshleman

The effects of precision teaching on children with academic difficulties .....................................................................63 Celia P. Hendler

About PT ...............................................................................................68

EDITORIAL POLICY

The Journal of Precision Teaching is a multidisciplinary journal dedicated to a science of human behavior which includes direct, continuous and standard measurement. This measurement includes standard units of behavior, frequency, latency, and duration, a standard scale on which successive units are displayed, the Standard Celeration Chart, a standard measure of behavior change between two units, frequency multiplier, and a standard, straight-line measure of behavior change across seven or more units, celeration. Frequencies, latencies, durations, frequency multipliers, and celera- tions displayed on the Standard Celeration Chart form the basis for Chart-based decision-making and for evaluating the effects of independent variables.

The purpose of the Journal of Precision Teaching is to accelerate the sharing of scientific and practical information among its readers. To this end, both formal manuscripts and informal, Chart- sharing articles are considered for publication. Charts produced by behavers are exact reproductions.

Materials submitted for publication should meet the following criteria: (1)be written in plain English, (2) contain a narrative that is brief, to the point and easy to read, (3) use the Journal of Precision Teaching Standard Glossary and Charting Conventions, (4) contain data displayed on the Standard Celeration Chart that justify conclusions made, (5) be submitted in quadruplicate to the editor, and (6) include one set of original charts or hand-drawn copies. Each formal manuscript will be reviewed by one consulting editor and two reviewers, two of whom must approve it prior to publication.

The Journal of Precision Teaching is published quarterly in April, July, October and January by Plain English Publications, P. 0.Box 11335,Kansas City, Missouri 64112. Each volume begins with the April issue. Volume I began in April, 1980.The annual subscription rate is $20.00 to libraries, $16.00to individuals and agencies, and $12.00to full-time students, payable in U.S. funds. The single copy price is $5.00. Advertising rates are available upon request.

Subscriptions and submissions can be sent to the address above or to Patrick McGreevy, Editor, Journal of Precision Teaching, Louisiana State University, Special Education, 201 Peabody Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803.

Any article is the personal expression of the author. Likewise, any advertisement is the responsibility of the advertiser. Neither necessarily carries Journal endorsement.

This Journal is published with the assistance of the College of Education, Louisiana State University.

Library of Congress ISSN number: 0271-8200

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES I N PRECISION TEACHING: A COMPARISON BETWEEN

COMPUTER-TESTING AND SAFMEDS

C laud ia E. McDade Doro thy H. A u s t i n Char les P. Olander

Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n J a c k s o n v i l l e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

A l ook a t t h e programs f o r t h e annual meet ing o f t h e Assoc ia t i on f o r Behavior A n a l y s i s and t h e N a t i o n a l P r e c i s i o n Teaching Conference f o r t h e p a s t seve ra l y e a r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t p r e c i s i o n teachers a r e r e l y i n g more f r e q u e n t l y on computer -ass is ted i n s t r u c t i o n . The Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n a t J a c k s o n v i l l e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f f e r s a program o f " p r e c i s i o n courses", some o f which use a computer-generated, frequency-based t e s t i n g program (Merb i t z & Olander, 1980b; Olander, Yaracs, & M e r b i t z , 1980). M o d i f i -c a t i o n s t o t h e program have been e m p i r i c a l l y based s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1979 (Merb i t z & Olander, 1980a; McDade & Olander, 1984; Olander, McDade, Caine, & Merb i t z , 1981; Olander, McDade, Gr imsley, Yaracs, & M e r b i t z , 1981). One major q u e s t i o n which was addressed i n an e a r l i e r study (McDade, Olander, & Lea, 1983) b u t n o t f u l l y answered i s whether computer-based p r e c i s i o n teach ing i s p r e f e r a b l e over SAFMEDS.

SAFMEDS r e f e r s t o a f requency-or ien ted l e a r n i n g system where a deck o f cards i s made w i t h a ques t i on on one s i d e and t h e answer on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f each card. The s t u d e n t ' s t a s k i s t o proceed th rough t h e deck g i v i n g ve rba l responses t o t h e ques t i ons as r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e , w h i l e a t e s t e r checks answers and "keeps t r a c k o f t h e r e c o r d i n g i n t e r v a l " . L i n d s l e y (1984) co ined t h e t e r m SAFMEDS t o s tand f o r "Say A l l Fas t A M inu te Each Day Shu f f l ed . "

The Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n o f f e r e d two p r e c i s i o n undergraduate psychology courses d u r i n g t h e 1984-85 academic year . A s tudy was undertaken i n t hese courses t o compare two frequency-based t e s t fo rmats . The f i r s t was t h e p r e c i s i o n teach ing techn ique o f SAFMEDS, a ca rd deck o f a t l e a s t one hundred f r e e r e c a l l ques t i ons pe r u n i t . SAFMEDS were g i v e n t o t h e s tuden t w i t h u n l i m i t e d s o r t t i m e b e f o r e t h e s tuden t was r e q u i r e d t o answer t h e ques t i ons v e r b a l l y . The second t e s t i n g fo rmat was computer-generated i n a f requency based t e s t i n g program which s e l e c t s i tems and t h e i r a l t e r n a t i v e s a t random f rom a t e s t i t e m p o o l o f a t l e a s t one hundred i tems p e r u n i t . Ques t i ons were taken f rom i d e n t i c a l m a t e r i a l i n b o t h t e s t i n g formats. S tudents were g i ven

f r e e access t o b o t h t e s t i n g fo rmats whenever a microcomputer o r t h e i n s t r u c t o r l p s y c h o l o g y adv i so rs were a v a i l a b l e .

METHOD

F i f t e e n undergraduate s tuden ts s u c c e s s f u l l y comple t ing PSY 410: H i s t o r y and Theor ies i n Psychology i n f a l l semester-1984 and e igh teen undergraduate s tuden ts s u c c e s s f u l l y comple t ing PSY 335: Theor ies o f P e r s o n a l i t y i n s p r i n g semester-1985 served as sub jec t s . A l l vo lun tee red t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s study.

Course p o l i c i e s were e x a c t l y t h e same f o r b o t h c lasses. S tudents were assigned u n i t s o f m a t e r i a l ( i . e . , 15 u n i t s i n PSY 410; 14 i n PSY 335) t o master a t t h e i r own pace, w i t h t h e semester 's ending d a t e as t h e o n l y l i m i t on t h e i r p rogress . O p t i o n a l d i scuss ion groups l e d by t h e i n s t r u c t o r were h e l d t w i c e weekly w i t h no e x t e r n a l cont ingency on s tuden t at tendance. Course requ i rements were desc r i bed t o s tudents i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e s y l l a b u s :

U n i t qu izzes : Shor t answer i d e n t i -f i c a t i o n

A l l u n i t qu i zzes a r e mastery-based, a l l o w i n g t h e s tuden t t o r e t a k e any q u i z w i t h o u t p e n a l t y u n t i l mastery i s reached, o r u n t i l t h e s tuden t i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h h i s l h e r beyond mastery performance. Mastery i s d e f i n e d as a t l e a s t 15 c o r r e c t responses p e r minute. The s tuden t may t a k e a u n i t q u i z i n t h e Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t o r o r a psychology adv i so r .

Al though a l l ques t i ons a r e taken f rom a l a r g e t e s t i t e m poo l , they a r e presented i n two fo rmats- - concealed m u l t i p l e cho i ce fo rmat on a microcomputer o r r e c a l l fo rmat on f i l e cards. Using t h e F ind ley fo rced -cho i ce procedure (Lockhar t , Sexton, & Lea, l 975 ) , t e s t s w i l l be g i ven t o a l l s tuden ts i n bo th formats. The D a i l y Progress Char t i n d i c a t e s t o t h e s tuden t t h e t e s t i n g fo rmat f o r t h e f i r s t u n i t . The s tuden t i s then r e q u i r e d t o t e s t i n t h e o t h e r fo rmat on t h e second u n i t . The rea f te r , t h e s tuden t may choose t o t e s t i n e i t h e r fo rmat . I f , however, t h e s tuden t chooses t h e same fo rma t f o r t h r e e success ive u n i t s , s l h e must change t o t h e o t h e r fo rmat on t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i t . Whi le t h i s procedure a l l o w s t h e s tuden t t o m a i n t a i n some c o n t r o l over h i s l h e r performance c o n d i t i o n s , i t a l s o r e q u i r e s t h e s tuden t t o use bo th t e s t fo rmats t o

J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching, Vol . V I , No. 3, F a l l , 1985 49

determine i f one i s p r e f e r a b l e f o r t h e combined c lasses ( i .e., T[PSY 335]= 34 w i t h i n d i v i d u a l . n= 18 and T[PSY 410]= 9.5 w i t h n= 15, p<.01;

t= -4.88 w i t h 32 d f , p<.01). H igher b e s t U n i t qu izzes are t e n p o i n t s each. performances, eva lua ted by f requency o f Performance on each q u i z i s based on an c o r r e c t responses, tended t o occur on accuracy score which counts o n l y a f t e r SAFMEDS. t h e minimum o f 15 c o r r e c t responses pe r minute i s reached. For example, t h e The hypothes is t h a t t h e number o f t r i a l s on s tudent may choose a score o f 70% a t 15 t h e computer was no d i f f e r e n t f rom t h e number c o r r e c t p e r minute t o count toward o f t r i a l s on SAFMEDS was r e j e c t e d a t t h e .001 h i s / h e r grade o r t h e s tuden t may e l e c t l e v e l (i.e.,T[PSY 335]= 1 w i t h n= 18; T[PSY t o con t i nue work ing toward a h i g h e r 410]= 2.5 w i t h n= 15; t=9.48 w i t h 32 d f ) . grade, f o r i ns tance , 92% c o r r e c t a t 35 The mean t o t a l number o f t r i a l s was more than c o r r e c t p e r minute . I n t h e f i r s t case, t h r e e t imes g r e a t e r us ing computer-generated t h e s tuden t would r e c e i v e 7 o u t o f 10 t e s t s ( i .e. , Mean = 34.0) t han SAFMEDS ( i .e. , p o i n t s on t h e q u i z ; i n t h e second, 9.2 Mean = 10.1). o u t o f 10 p o i n t s .

The hypo thes i s t h a t t h e mean number o f Mid term and f i n a l exams: Essay a t tempts t o mastery was no d i f f e r e n t i n

e i t h e r t e s t i n g fo rmat was accepted ( i .e . , The s tuden t may t a k e t h e mid term exam T[PSY 335]= 40 w i t h n= 18; T[PSY 410]= 64 when s /he has mastered t h e f i r s t seven w i t h n= 15; t = 0.67 w i t h 32 d f ) . The u n i t s and t h e f i n a l exam when s /he has hypothes is t h a t t h e mean number o f a t tempts mastered t h e l a s t seven u n i t s . a f t e r mastery was no d i f f e r e n t i n e i t h e r

t e s t i n g fo rmat was r e j e c t e d a t t h e .02 l e v e l A l l computer-generated t e s t s were p rov ided on i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c lasses and a t t h e .001 Apple I 1 microcomputers u s i n g a one-minute l e v e l w i t h combined c lasses ( e . , T[PSY t e s t i n g program designed w i t h i n t h e Center 335]= 18.5 w i t h n= 18; T[PSY 410]= 0 w i t h n= f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n (McDade, 1985; 15; t= 6.52 w i t h 32 d f ) . S tudents tended t o Olander & Merb i t z , 1980). A l l ques t i ons were t e s t p a s t mastery more f r e q u e n t l y on t h e designed by t h e i n s t r u c t o r i n t h e concealed computer. m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e fo rmat (Bowles, 1978). SAFMEDS were designed by t h e i n s t r u c t o r w i t h Exper imenta l A n a l y s i s o f Resu l t s : Char ts 1 ques t i ons on one s i d e and answers on t h e and 2 d i s p l a y da ta f o r one s tuden t i n PSY o t h e r i n a f r e e r e c a l l fo rmat . S tudents were 410. I n PSY 335 f o u r t e e n o f e igh teen g i ven t e n cards drawn a t random f rom t h e card s tuden ts and i n PSY 410 t h i r t e e n o f f i f t e e n deck and t e s t e d v e r b a l l y f o r one minute, w i t h s tuden ts showed h i g h e r b e s t performances on t h e answers checked by t h e i n s t r u c t o r o r a SAFMEDS. psychology adv i so r . A s tuden t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e course, t h e IDEA System (1981) was used. Only one s tuden t i n each c l a s s used more A d d i t i o n a l i ns t ruc to r -made i tems were used t o t r i a l s on SAFMEDS than on computers. assess s p e c i f i c aspects o f t h e courses. Fourteen o f f i f t e e n s tuden ts i n PSY 410 used

t h e computer pas t mastery w h i l e o n l y t e n used SAFMEDS p a s t mastery. I n PSY 335 a l l e i gh teen s tudents used t h e computer pas t

The da ta were analyzed i n two ways. From t h e mastery, w h i l e o n l y e i g h t used SAFMEDS p a s t s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s pe rspec t i ve , each c l a s s mastery. was t r e a t e d as a separa te study us ing non-parametr ic comparisons f o r dependent DISCUSSION samples, s i n c e sample s i z e s were sma l l . Then t h e c lasses were combined i n t o one group, Both SAFNEDS and computer-generated t e s t s us ing pa ramet r i c comparisons f o r dependent r e s u l t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y h i g h f l u e n c i e s f o r samples. From t h e exper imenta l ( b e h a v i o r a l ) bo th c lasses. Best performances were a n a l y s i s pe rspec t i ve , separa te s tandard t y p i c a l l y double t h e minimum f l u e n c y c e l e r a t i o n c h a r t s f o r each t e s t i n g fo rmat c r i t e r i o n f o r mastery. S ince t h e number o f were p l o t t e d f o r each s tudent . a t tempts t o mastery does n o t vary i n e i t h e r

t e s t i n g fo rmat , teachers can expect h i g h S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s o f Resu l t s : The l e v e l s o f s tudent performance u s i n g e i t h e r hypothes is t h a t t h e h i g h e s t b e s t performances SAFMEDS o r computer-generated t e s t s . were no d i f f e r e n t i n e i t h e r t e s t i n g fo rmat was r e j e c t e d b o t h w i t h t h e Wilcoxon When h i g h e r f l u e n c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y ve rba l Matched-Pairs Test f o r i n d i v i d u a l c lasses and ones, a r e des i red , SAFMEDS shou ld be t h e t t e s t f o r dependent samples f o r t h e p r e f e r a b l e t o computer-generated t e s t s .

5 0 Jou rna l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching, Vol . V I , No. 3, F a l l , 1985

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (EM-SEN)

+ MIN HRS

Chart 1. U n i t quizzes f o r f i v e u n i t s f o r one student i n PSY 410 us ing SAFMEDS

see-say McDade Wigley - CALENDAR DAYS S.S. answers

SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER AGE LABEL COUNTED

Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n Jacksonv i l l e S ta te U n i v e r s i t y .- Jacksonv i l l e, AL AGENCY

CALENDAR WEEKS DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W K S ) B E H A V I O R RESEARCH CO BOX 3351 - K A N S A S CITY K A N S 6 6 1 0 3 / ' / / j / / '

0 pi obi op' op< OF' obi

M W F 1 Fa1 1 , 1984

I000 i. I 1 I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I 1 I

I Units

Chart 2.

500 - ,

loo-, 50 - ,

:; .5

. I-, .05 -

- 01-' ,005 -, Unit quizzes for 10 units for one student in PSY 410

using the concealed mu1 tiple-choice format and a microcomputer

10-18

1 S LL - P Q a W n 0 z I- - z 3 0 0 +

M I N HRS

- I

- 2

.- 5

- 10 -% - 20 -H

. - 5 0 - 1

-Io0 -2

McDade Wigley -

S U P E R V I S O R A D V I S E R M A N A G E R

CALENDAR DAYS S. S . see- type 1 etters

B E H A V E R AGE L A B E L C O U N T E D

Center for Individual ized Instruction Jacksonville State University Jacksonvil le, AL A G E N C Y

L i m i t s t o s tuden t performance on computer-generated t e s t s may e x i s t as an a r t i f a c t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r program used. F u r t h e r research w i t h t h e t e s t i n g program used i n t h e Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n w i l l a t t emp t t o determine whether such l i m i t s e x i s t .

The f i n d i n g s t h a t s tuden ts a r e more l i k e l y t o use t h e computer-generated t e s t s than SAFMEDS and a r e more l i k e l y t o t e s t p a s t mastery on t h e computer a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e feedback s tuden ts g i v e t o Center s t a f f about t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two t e s t i n g formats. Computers a r e a v a i l a b l e f rom 8 a.m. t o 7:30 p.m., w h i l e t h e i n s t r u c t o r l p s y c h o l o g y a d v i s o r s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r SAFMEDS t e s t i n g fewer hours d a i l y . Student e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e courses i n d i c a t e d t h a t t hey s t u d i e d more f o r SAFMEDS than f o r computer-generated t e s t s , because they viewed SAFMEDS as more "anx ie t y -p roduc ing " . S tudents r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e computer d i d n o t eva lua te them " p e r s o n a l l y " f o r poor performances, t h e computer was never moody, and t h e computer was more accu ra te t han a person. They s a i d t h a t t hey cou ld l e a r n more f rom t h e computer, t hey l i k e d t h e immediate feedback g i ven by t h e computer, and they found t h e computer t e s t s e q u i v a l e n t t o an en joyab le game. Teachers can encourage s tuden ts t o use t h e computer as a t each ing d e v i c e f o r j u s t these reasons.

The b e s t news i s t h a t e f f e c t i v e p r e c i s i o n t e a c h i n g does n o t r e q u i r e expensive equipment. These d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t computer-based p r e c i s i o n teach ing i s n o t p r e f e r a b l e over SAFMEDS. Student l e a r n i n g can be managed q u i t e w e l l w i t h SAFMEDS. However, p r e c i s i o n t e a c h i n g w i t h computers can a l s o be e f f e c t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r s tuden ts t o l e a r n , s tudy , and p r a c t i c e u n t i l k,igh p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s a r e reached.

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L i n d s l e y , 0. R. (1984, A p r i l ) . Antecedents and consequences o f precision teaching and standard celerat ion charting. Keynote address, N a t i o n a l P r e c i s i o n Teaching Conference, Park C i t y , UT.

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McDade, C . E. (1985). Computer-assisted i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h i n t h e Center f o r I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n . I n Issues i n College Learning Centers. Brook lyn : Long I s l a n d U n i v e r s i t y .

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Me rb i t z , C. T., & Olander, C . P. (1980). P r e c i s i o n teach ing i n a u n i v e r s i t y center . Journal o f Precision Teaching, 1 ( 1 ) , 18-25.

M e r b i t z , C . T., & Olander, C . P. (1980). P r e c i s i o n management o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l techno logy: A model. Technological Horizons i n Education Journal, 7(4 ) , 32-35.

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Olander, C . P., & M e r b i t z , C . T. (1980). Using techno log ies t o teach: A CAI, AIV, PSI course. Educational Technology, lO (5 ) , 50-52.

Olander, C. P., Yaracs, R. K., & M e r b i t z , C . T. (1980). An app le f o r t h e teacher . The Apple Peel, 2 ( 1 ) , 3-4.

C laud ia McDade, Char les Olander, and Dorothy A u s t i n a r e on t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e Center f o r

Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. V I , No. 3, F a l l , 1985 5 3

I n d i v i d u a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n , J a c k s o n v i l l e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , J a c k s o n v i l l e , AL 36265.

IMPROVEMENT PICTURES WITH LOW CELERATIONS: AN EARLY FORAY

INTO THE USE OF SAFMEDS

John W. Eshleman West V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y

Ogden L i n d s l e y c o i n e d t h e n e o l o g i s m "SAFMEDS" t o s t a n d f o r "Say A l l F a s t a M i n u t e Each Day S h u f f l e d " (e.g. L i n d s l e y , 1983) . SAFMEDS i s a f u n c t i o n a l s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e word " f l a s h c a r d s " , f o r SAFMEDS s p e c i f i e s a p r o c e d u r e . Above and beyond t h i s s p e c i f i - c a t i o n , SAFMEDS imp1 i e s a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u c t i o n a l system. T h i s sys tem i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e . F i r s t , one c r e a t e s a s e t o f SAFMED c a r d s . These a r e u s u a l l y 3 x 5 i n c h cards , w i t h a p rob lem, q u e s t i o n , o r p r e m i s e w r i t t e n on t h e f r o n t and an answer w r i t t e n on t h e back o f each c a r d . Next , one "does" d a i l y t i m i n g s w i t h t h e c a r d s e v e r y day f o r s e v e r a l weeks. P r i o r t o t h e t i m i n g s , t h e c a r d s a r e s h u f f l e d , so t h a t one d o e s n ' t l e a r n responses by t h e o r d e r o f o c c u r r e n c e . D u r i n g t h e s e t i m i n g s , w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y one m i n u t e i n d u r a t i o n , one goes t h r o u g h as much o f t h e deck as p o s s i b l e , l o o k i n g a t t h e f r o n t o f a ca rd , and a t t e m p t i n g t o say a l o u d w h a t ' s on t h e back. A f t e r an answer i s a t t e m p t e d , t h e c a r d may b e t u r n e d o v e r , t h e answer checked, and t h e c a r d p u t i n t o e i t h e r a " c o r r e c t s " o r "m isses" p i l e . P r o v i d e d a countdown t i m e r i s a v a i l a b l e , a t i m i n g can b e done a l o n e o r w i t h a f r i e n d . A f t e r t h e t i m i n g t h e number o f c a r d s i n each p i l e i s coun ted and t h e r e s p e c t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s a r e p l o t t e d on s t a n d a r d c e l e r a t i o n c h a r t s .

One o f t h e d i s t i n c t advan tages o f a SAFMEDS i n s t r u c t i o n a l system i s t h a t c o s t s r e m a i n v e r y low; a pack o f 3 x 5 c a r d s c o s t s much l e s s t h a n a m ic rocompute r . A t t h e sane t i m e t h e sys tem o f SAFMEDS p a c k s an e d u c a t i o n a l " w a l l o p " . Moreover , i t s e r v e s as a c o n v e n i e n t way t o s t u d y human o p e r a n t b e h a v i o r , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t c a t e g o r y o f v e r b a l b e h a v i o r t h a t S k i n n e r (1957) i d e n t i f i e d as " i n t r a v e r b a l " . I n a d d i t i o n , SAFMEDS can b e used w i t h any s u b j e c t and e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l .

C o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a r e p e r h a p s t h e most d i f f i c u l t g r o u p t o have as s u b j e c t s i n a SAFMEDS s t u d y . They a l r e a d y have an e d u c a t i o n h i s t o r y o f a t l e a s t 15 y e a r s . They may b e q u i t e " s e t i n t h e i r ways", i n s o f a r as t h e i r l e a r n i n g and s t u d y i n g r e p e r t o i r e s . A f t e r a l l , i n 15 y e a r s , one i s g o i n g t o f i n d

t h e " r i g h t " way t o succeed i n s c h o o l , and t h e " b e s t " way t o s t u d y . So, i n s t e a d o f g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e deck a t once, one m i g h t d e c i d e t o p e e l o f f t h e t o p 10 and l e a r n them w e l l , and t h e n t h e n e x t 10 and s o on ( L i n d s l e y , 1980, 1983) . Some m i g h t d e c i d e t o s t u d y t h e c a r d s f o r a h a l f - h o u r once a week, g o i n g t h r o u g h them s l o w l y , w h i l e " f l a s h i n g " back and f o r t h between f r o n t and back ( L i n d s l e y , 1980, 1983) . P l u s , g i v e n a c h o i c e , c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s w i l l p r o b a b l y c r e a t e SAFMEDS on a t o p i c t h a t t h e y a l r e a d y know s o m e t h i n g abou t , r a t h e r t h a n on an a l i e n s u b j e c t . These a r e o n l y some o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e y seem t o b e t h e most d i f f i c u l t s u b j e c t s .

Procedure

Keep ing t h e p r e c e d i n g p r e c a u t i o n s i n mind, I conduc ted a SAFMEDS s t u d y where seven u n d e r g r a d u a t e e d u c a t i o n m a j o r s s e r v e d as s u b j e c t s . A l l were e n r o l l e d i n one s e c t i o n o f a l a r g e i n t r o d u c t o r y b e h a v i o r a n a l y s i s course . S t u d e n t s had a c h o i c e o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s e v e r a l p r o j e c t s f o r c r e d i t , and t h e s e seven chose t h e " P r e c i s i o n T ~ a c h i n g P r o j e c t " . They r e c e i v e d c o u r s e c r e d i t f o r b o t h p a r t i c i p a t i n g and f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e .

Imet week ly w i t h them. We d i d an i n - c l a s s t i m i n g a t each meet ing , s t u d e n t s p a i r i n g up w i t h each o t h e r , w i t h one t h e b e h a v e r and t h e o t h e r t h e r e c o r d e r , and t h e n s w i t c h i n g r o l e s . F r e q u e n c i e s were c h a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e t i m i n g s . D u r i n g t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e m e e t i n g we c o v e r e d some a s p e c t o f c h a r t i n g , d e c i d e d upon i n t e r v e n t i o n s , and s e t a ims. F o r t h e i n t e r v e n i n g days t h e y were i n s t r u c t e d t o do t h e t i m i n g s i n t h e SAFMEDS s t y l e and c h a r t t h e i r responses . To encourage h o n e s t y , t h e y were a l l o w e d t o choose t h e t o p i c o r s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f t h e i r SAFMEDS. No t t o o s u r p r i s i n g l y , a l l chose t o p i c s r e l e v a n t t o c o u r s e s t h e y were t a k i n g . A l s o , t h e y were i n s t r u c t e d n o t t o p u t a d a t a p o i n t on t h e i r c h a r t on days t h e y m i s s e d - - t h e same c o n v e n t i o n as "no-chance days." (q.v. , Pennypacker, Koenig, & L i n d s l e y , 1972) . The week ly m e e t i n g s and p e r i o d i c t i m i n g s w i t h me as r e c o r d e r c a l i b r a t e d h o n e s t c h a r t i n g , a t l e a s t t o t h e p o i n t where " f a k i n g i t " w o u l d make l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e .

The r a n g e o f t o p i c s f o r t h e SAFMEDS i n c l u d e d : (1) a t o m i c e lement symbols , ( 2 ) F r e n c h v o c a b u l a r y , ( 3 ) p h y s i c s f o r m u l a e , ( 4 ) p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n t r a i n i n g te rms, ( 5 ) v o i c e concep ts , ( 6 ) a g r i c u l t u r a l mechanics t e r m s , and ( 7 ) h e r b i c i d e names. The l a t t e r t w o t o p i c s were s e l e c t e d by t w o f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s f r o m c e n t r a l A f r i c a who p l a n n e d t o go back t o

54 Journal o f Precision Teaching, Vol . V I , No. 3, F a l l , 1985

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s and teach a g r i c u l t u r e . beg inn ing t o a t t e n d t o one o r two key words

on t h e f r o n t o f t h e cards, o r j u s t t h e " fo rm" Results o r p a t t e r n o f t h e words on t h e f r o n t .

Most o f t h e s tudents reached t h e i r aims. Discussion Cor rec t f r equenc ies reached a h i g h o f 70 lm inu te (see Char t 3 ) , though most ended i n The da ta i n Char ts 1 th rough 7 i l l u s t r a t e a t h e 40-60lminute range. E r r o r s g e n e r a l l y successfu l a p p l i c a t i o n o f SAFMEDS techno logy. reached "below f l o o r " ( l e s s than onelrr i inute The f i g u r e s h e l p h i g h l i g h t seve ra l f u r t h e r f o r t h e one m i n u t e ) . O v e r a l l c e l e r a t i o n s cons ide ra t i ons as w e l l . F i r s t , ease o f were low f o r bo th c o r r e c t s and e r r o r s , w i t h l e a r n i n g i s co lo red by e x i s t i n g f a m i l i a r i t y X 1 . l o r X1.3 common f o r t h e former, and 11.3 w i t h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r : a l l s tuden ts and 11.0 common f o r e r r o r s . I n a couple o f s e l e c t e d t o p i c s w i t h which they were a l ready cases t h e r e were e x c e p t i o n a l i n i t i a l f a m i l i a r . T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n t h e c e l e r a t i o n s : Texan (see Char t 1) produced a case o f Jack ie (see F i g u r e 3) who s t a r t e d ou t X3 f o r c o r r e c t s over t h e f i r s t 9 days; Lee a t 35 lm inu te c o r r e c t , and who never made more (see Char t 6) had XI0 f o r e r r o r s over t h e than two e r r o r s . Second, changing c e r t a i n f i r s t 5 t i m i n g s . The da ta a re d i s p l a y e d i n v a r i a b l e s d u r i n g t h e course--mid-course Char ts 1 t h rough 7. " c o r r e c t i o n s " , as i t were--had l i t t l e , i f

any, apparent e f f e c t . S tudy ing t h e cards E v e n t - f o l l o w i n g c e l e r a t i o n s a re n o t drawn on b e f o r e do ing t h e t i m i n g , s e t t i n g aims, o r t h e c h a r t s , even though events were changed drawing p r e d i c t i o n l i n e s on s tandard behav io r d u r i n g t h e course. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r t s f a i l e d t o r e s u l t i n e i t h e r c e l e r a t i o n e f f e c t f r om drawing p r e d i c t i o n l i n e s o r t u rn -ups ( m u l t i p l i e r s ) o r f requency jump-ups s t u d y i n g t h e cards b e f o r e t h e t i m i n g s . ( m u l t i p l i e r s ) . Furthermore, w i t h t h e excep t i on o f Lee (see Char t 6 ) , t h e r e a r e no major t r e n d - f o l l o w i n g Perhaps t h e main b e n e f i t o f t h i s t y p e o f c e l e r a t i o n s worthy o f d i s p l a y . Bounce i s study a r e t h e ques t i ons i t ra i ses - -ques t i ons very low i n a l l cases as w e l l . Notab ly , f o r Iwould n o t have e n t e r t a i n e d p r e v i o u s l y . For most s tudents , bounce i s g r e a t e r f o r e r r o r example, a r e bounce and c e l e r a t i o n low f o r respond ing than f o r c o r r e c t responding. The p a r t i c u l a r c lasses o f behav ior , f o r example r e s u l t a n t l e a r n i n g p i c t u r e s a r e those o f see--says w i t h SAFMEDS as opposed t o o t h e r improvement, however: jaws, t a k e o f f , and c lasses o f ve rba l behav io r? Are low bounce c l imb. and c e l e r a t i o n t y p i c a l o f c o l l e g e s tuden ts

do ing SAFMEDS? I n what ways does p r i o r Follow-up f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h a s u b j e c t m a t t e r a f f e c t

l e a r n i n g ; t h a t i s , i f p r i o r f a m i l i a r i t y does Iwas a b l e t o do a two-week f o l l o w - u p w i t h r e s u l t i n t a k e o f f , c l imb, and jaws l e a r n i n g one o f t h e s tudents , Musa, a f t e r t h e semester p i c t u r e s , then how much p r i o r f a m i l i a r i t y i s had ended. We used a s e t o f cards about necessary t o do so? T h i s i s s u e concerns t h e behav ior a n a l y s i s , d i d two m inu te t i m i n g s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o l e a r n i n g p layed by one 's every day, and I served as t i m e r . The second b e h a v i o r a l h i s t o r y , something o f t e n quoted as phase o f Chart 7 shows h i s l e a r n i n g p i c t u r e a "cause" o f behav ior , b u t r a r e l y c l a r i f i e d d u r i n g t h e fo l l ow-up . He managed t o achieve and q u a n t i f i e d . How does respond ing come an o v e r a l l c rossover jaws, though h i s under t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e " fo rm" o r t h e f requenc ies would be c l a s s i f i e d as low--no p a t t e r n o f t h e words on t h e f r o n t o f a card, more than 13 c o r r e c t p e r minute. A and what would happen i f e f f o r t s were made t o most - recent c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t e s h i s e r r o r s , c i rcumvent such c o n t r o l ? These a r e o n l y some which never d i d reach t h e r e c o r d f l o o r , were of t h e ques t i ons suggested by t h e use o f i n c r e a s i n g over t h e l a s t f o u r days. SAFMEDS.

These one-on-one d a i l y t i m i n g s (we even met References on weekends) p rov ided me a c l o s e r p i c t u r e o f some o f t h e s u b t l e events t h a t must be L i n d s l e y , 0. R. (1980, May). Charted d a i l y cons idered p a r t o f t h e m i l i e u o f do ing l e a r n i n g o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t g raduate SAFMEDS. For example, i f Musa came t o a ca rd courses. I n S. Hayes ( C h a i r ) , Data-Based f o r which he c o u l d n ' t say an answer, o r g o t Decisions. Symposium presented a t t h e i t wrong, he tended t o v e r b a l l y pun i sh s i x t h annual meet ing o f t h e Assoc ia t i on f o r h i m s e l f , o r say "I d o n ' t know t h i s one." Behavior Ana l ys i s , Dearborn, M I . These s e l f put-downs v i s i b l y slowed t h e f requency o f responding. I n another example, L inds ley , 0. R. (1983, March). What we know a t a l a t e r t ime , he revea led t h a t he was about learning. Keynote address presented

Journal o f Precision Teaching, Vol. V I , No. 3, F a l l , 1985

Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI,

No. 3,

Fall, 1985

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W K S )

CALENDAR WEEKS B E H A V I O R RESEARCH CO

*" op'

4 I2 I 6 1 1 I 1 1 I I 1 I 1 1 I I

500 Draw/ Study

Pred ic t Be fo re

50 - xl.1 -4 P'

" J A ~ ~ S "

Chart 2 . SAFMEDS f o r a tomic element symbols

- z 3 0 0 +

MIN HRS

-I

- 2

- 5

-10 -% - 20 -%

.-50 - 1

- 100 -2

. - 200

-5 . -500 -8

J . Eshleman - SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS Odi 0. see-say a tomic element symbol

SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER COUNTED

- DEPOSITOR AGENCY TIMER COUNTER C H A R T E R

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 CYCLE-140 D A Y S (20 W K S BEHAVIOR RESEARCH CO BOX 3351 -KANSAS CITY KANS 66103

,

1000~""" ' I I I I I 1 1 I2 I 1 I I I 20 500 - *

Drawlpredict

1

100- -50 - C3. -* * f ie - xl. 1

-",a?

M I N HRS

- I

- 2

. - 5

-10

- 20 -%

--'A

I' cCIM8 '' .- 50 - I

-Io0 -2

, - 200

Chart 3. SAFMEDS for French words - 5 -500 -8

SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS jackie S . see-say French words -- -J. Eshleman

SUPERVISOR ADVISER M A N A G E R BEHAVER COUNTED

.-

D E P O S I T O R AGENCY T I M E R C O U N T E R C H A R T E R

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (EM-SEN)

CALENDAR WEEKS 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W K S ) B E H A V I O R RESEARCH CO BOX 3 3 5 1 - K A N S A S C I T Y . K A N S 6 6 1 0 3

Draw/ Study Predict Before

MIN HRS

VAWSor TAKEOFF"

Chart 4. SAFMEDS f o r physics formulae

J. Eshleman - SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS DO, W. see-say physics formulae. . -

SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER COUNTED

DEPOSITOR AGENCY TIMER COUNTER CHARTER

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 CYCLE-140 D A Y S (20 W K S ) BEHAVIOR RESEARCH CO BOX 3351 -KANSAS CITY K A N S 66103

I-: -

5 -

. I- .05 -

-01-* 005 -,

Chart 5. SAFMEDS f o r a t h l e t i c t r a i n i n g terms

MIN HRS

J. Eshleman SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS ~~i~ M. - see-say a t h l e t i c t r a i n i n g terms SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER COUNTED

- DEPOSITOR AGENCY TIMER COUNTER CHARTER

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W K S ) B E H A V I O R RESEARCH CO

X % x x x x M I N HRS I I , / 1 * 3

X- - - #r- xwx X- - I

, - 2

- 5

-10 -% - 20 -W

, -50 - 1

Chart 6 . SAFMEDS f o r voice concepts -Io0 -2

- 200 -5

,-500 -8

SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS Lee ,-, see-say voice concepts- -J . Eshleman SUPERVISOR ADVISER M A N A G E R BEHAVER C O U N T E D

D E P O S I T O R AGENCY T I M E R C O U N T E R C H A R T E R

-Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI,

No. 3, Fall,

1985

at the third annual Precision Teaching Winter Conference, Orlando, FL.

Pennypacker, H. S., Koenig, C. H., & Lindsley, 0. R. (1972). Handbook of the Standard Behavior Chart. Kansas City, KS: Precision Media.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

John Eshlernan is a doctoral student at West Virginia University and is employed by Products Research Company, Pittsburgh, PA. He resides at 7000 Helen Street, Apt. B-6, Library, PA 15129.

Chart -sharing

THE EFFECTS OF PRECISION TEACHING ON CHILDREN WITH ACADEMIC DIFFICULTIES

Celia P. Hendler Nova University

Precision Teaching, developed by Ogden Lindsley in 1967, has become widely known as an effective mode of remediation for underachieving students (Diviaio & Hefferan, 1983; Lovitt & Fantasia, 1983; McGreevy, 1982; Brandstetter & Merz, 1978). Precision Teaching may be described as a system which utilizes direct and continuous measurement in order to improve a student's performance in certain academic and social skills.

The primary aim of the present study was to increase performance in specific academic skills of 4 underachieving students. These students had previously received numerous forms of academic intervention, all of which had proved to be ineffective.

A precision teaching program was devised in which semi-logarithmic charts were utilized to record the daily one minute timings for each pinpointed skill. Each skill was recorded on a different chart by this author. The charts were shared and discussed with the students so that they would see a daily picture of their progress. The correct responses were marked with dots and connected daily. The incorrect responses were marked with x's and were also connected daily.

Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI, No. 3, Fall,

The modes of assessment used to measure each skill were probes on which the student's daily performance was measured and timed for one minute, and subsequently recorded on the semi-logarithmic chart. These probes were administered after the students had received direct instruction in the particular skill to be tested.

Charts 1-4 indicate that the implementation of this program proved beneficial to all of the students. Although few students achieved mastery of all the pinpointed skills, their learning pictures indicate considerable improvement during the eight week period.

Some conclusions which may be extracted from the results of this study, are as follows: (1) precision teaching was effective for improving performance in the pinpointed academic skills of the 4 students; (2) the student's learning pictures indicated that performance in the pinpointed academic skills will probably continue to increase, providing a similar type of program continues to be implemented in the student's educational setting; (3) improvement in the students' self concepts, "on task", and appropriate behavior, were also noted (though not charted), and believed to be due to the implementation of the program.

The results of this study provide numerous implications for educators involved in the teaching of underachieving students. First, in order for effective learning to take place, it is essential that each child be taught as an individual. Precision teaching offers educators a way of systematically monitoring each child's progress, so that when instruction is not effective, this will be illustrated on the student's chart immediately. Hence, rather than discovering (after a number of months) that the student is behind in a certain skill, the educator will see this instantly, and will hopefully be able to remedy the situation by providing a different type of instruction.

Second, it is important to note that the students in this study enjoyed observing their daily progress (as seen on the charts), and were constantly attempting to improve their performance from the previous day. Consequently, precision teaching may be viewed as a possible motivator for underachieving students, which can in turn lead to increased academic achievement. It is especially important for underachieving students to be able to actually see their academic progress, as they often tend to become discouraged due to frequent failure in the educational system. If they have the

1985 63

Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI,

No. 3, Fall,

1985

-- -

DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN)

CALENDAR WEEKS 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 O A Y S ( 2 0 W K S ) B E H A V I O R R E S E A R C H CO BOX 3 3 5 1 - K A N S A S C I T Y K A N S 6 6 1 0 3

H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n P P '

M I N HRS

- I ? ? ?

, - 2

- 5

-10 -% - 20 -H

.- 50 Char t 2 . Jason 's s i g h t words c h a r t - I -100

-2 , - 200

-5 ,500 -8

SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS Jason 6 see-say s i g h t words S U P E R V I S O R A D V I S E R M A N A G E R B E H A V E R AGE C O U N T E D

.-

D E P O S I T O R A G E N C Y T I M E R C O U N T E R C H A R T E R

Journal of Precision Teaching,

Vol. VI,

No. 3, Fall,

1985

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opportunity to observe the ascent of their academic performance, maybe their degree of discouragement would be lessened, which in turn might encourage them to try harder to improve their performance.

Finally, an important point to consider is that the underachieving students in this study had previously received a multitude of interventions in an attempt to increase their academic performance, all of which proved to be ineffective. Educators are constantly searching for a mode of teaching that "works" with this type of student. The fact that precision teaching proved effective in increasing academic performance when nothing else "worked", is of considerable importance in and of itself. Educators should keep this in mind when they are devising programs of instruction for underachieving students.

References

Brandstetter, G., & Merz, C. (1978). Charting scores in precision teaching for skills acquisition. Exceptional Children, 45, 42-48.

Diviaio, L. G., & Hefferan, M. P. (1983). A resource manual for the development and evaluation of special programs for exceptional students-- Techniques of precision teaching, V -- D. Tallahassee: State of Florida, Department of Education.

Lovitt,T. C.,& Fantasia,K. (1983). A precision teaching project with learning disabled children. Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, 85-90.

McGreevy, P. (1982). About P.T. Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, 28-33.

-1y acknowledges the assistance of Melinda Ossorio and Shelley Obrand with data collection and earlier drafts. At the time this article was written, Celia Hendler was affiliated with the Center for the Advancement of Education at Nova University. She is presently affi 1 iated with the Department of Psychology at the same university. She resides at 3369 College Avenue, Building C, Apt. 306, Davie, FL 33314, 305-474-5477.

About PT NOTES FROM THE EDITOR

Patrick McGreevy

Some of you may have thought that your last two issues of Volume V I were "consumed" by the U.S. Postal Service sorting machines, or that, perhaps, the Journal had decided to fold its tent and fade into the sunset. Neither is the case. A number of problems contributed to the delay. One of them was the lack of good manuscripts and chart-shares. WE NEED BOTH! I decided that a delay was better than issues of lesser quality. This issue, Volume VI, Number 3, was mailed at about the same time as Volume VI, Number 4, which you should receive in a few days (if you haven't already).

Volume VII, Number 1, the first issue of the next volume, will be ready for mailing shortly. To renew your subscription, simply return the pink subscription form attached to Volume VI, Number 4. I would appreciate it if you would encourage a friend or colleague to subscribe. If you return a new subscription with your renewal before 1 June 86, you can deduct $2.00 from each subscription. If your university library or school media center subscribes, you can deduct $4.00 from your subscription.

SOCIAL SKILLS

Christine Y. Mason

With this issue of the Journal of Precision Teaching a new Social Skills column is introduced. The introduction of this column represents an opportunity to encourage data- sharing regarding overt and covert behaviors, verbal and motoric responses, and social skills curricula and change in social behaviors.

The high incidence of sexual, emotional, and physical child abuse and its correlations with handicapping conditions provides even further rationale for focusing some attention on social skills development. Reports suggesting a high relationship between levels of social skills and job performance of mentally retarded persons and other reports of correlations- between social skills and

Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI, No. 3, Fall, 1985

s u r v i v a l i n ma ins t reamed c l a s s r o o m s f o r m i l d l y hand icapped s t u d e n t s p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l impe tus f o r such a focus.

You a r e i n v i t e d t o send c h a r t s and b r i e f n a r r a t i v e s , o r s h o r t summary r e p o r t s o f changes i n b e h a v i o r s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e s . The f i r s t column w i l l b e d e v o t e d t o p r o v i d i n g a common framework f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e on s o c i a l s k i l l s , and p o s s i b l e a r e a s f o r P r e c i s i o n Teach ing e x p l o r a t i o n .

P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g and S o c i a l S k i l l s T r a i n i n g : Some P o s s i b l e D i r e c t i o n s

C h r i s t i n e Y. Mason E a s t e r n Montana C o l l e g e

F o s t e r and R i t c h e y (1979) have d e f i n e d s o c i a l competence as " t h e a b i l i t y t o max im ize t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f p r o d u c i n g , m a i n t a i n i n g , o r enhanc ing p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s f o r t h e i n t e r a c t o r " (p. 6 3 2 ) . Van Houten (1979) , A r k o w i t z (1981) and o t h e r s have deve loped s i m i l a r d e f i n i t i o n s f o r s o c i a l s k i l l s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s , an i n d i v i d u a l who i s s o c i a l l y s k i l l e d has a r e p e r t o i r e o f b e h a v i o r s w h i c h i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g p o s i t i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d f o r h i s l h e r b e h a v i o r s and decrease t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g p u n i s h e d f o r s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . I m p l i c i t i n such d e f i n i t i o n s i s t h e need t o examine t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o r on t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c c o r d i n g t o some measure o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e a c t i o n .

When measur ing s o c i a l s k i l l s , t h e n , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r can d e c i d e t o measure s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r s o r t o measure i n t e r a c t i o n s . I n t h e p a s t , many s t u d i e s have measured i s o l a t e d s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s p e c i f i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s on i s o l a t e d s k i l l s . These s t u d i e s have measured t h e e f f e c t s o f s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e s on eye c o n t a c t , t a l k i n g o u t , v e r b a l i m i t a t i o n and o t h e r b e h a v i o r s . These s t u d i e s have added t o t h e g e n e r a l body o f knowledge c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r s . However, as B a r r e t t (1980) has sugges ted , a danger o f such an approach i s t h a t we t e a c h s p l i n t e r s k i l l s and do n o t u l t i m a t e l y n o t a s s i s t o u r s t u d e n t s , b u t r a t h e r s p e n d i n g p r e c i o u s h o u r s t o o b t a i n m e d i o c r e and perhaps even n o n f u n c t i o n a l r e s u l t s .

The i s s u e w h i c h i s o f f o r e m o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h a t o f s o c i a l v a l i d i t y . F o s t e r and R i t c h e y (1979) d i s c u s s e d s o c i a l v a l i d i t y i n t e r m s o f whe ther o r n o t a b e h a v i o r i s c r i t i c a l t o a d a p t i v e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n g .

J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching, Vo l . V I , No. 3, F a l l ,

W o l f (1978) i s o f t e n q u o t e d f o r h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c i a l v a l i d i t y , w h i c h r e f e r s t o t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i q u e s and t h e magn i tude o f t r e a t m e n t e f f e c t s , o f t e n measured t h r o u g h consumer s a t i s f a c t i o n . Van Houten (1979) d e s c r i b e d two p r o c e d u r e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s o c i a l v a l i d i t y o f t h e change i n b e h a v i o r s : ( 1 ) compar ing t h e b e h a v i o r t o p e e r s who d i d n o t r e c e i v e t r e a t m e n t o r need t r e a t m e n t o r ( 2 ) compar ing t h e t r e a t m e n t b e h a v i o r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o an o p t i m a l l e v e l o f pe r fo rmance . Van Houten advoca ted t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e t a r g e t b e h a v i o r s a l o n g w i t h competency aims expressed i n t e r m s o f o p t i m a l f r e q u e n c y , d u r a t i o n , and l a t e n c y o f response .

I f P r e c i s i o n Teach ing i s t o be u t i l i z e d w i t h a renewed e f f o r t t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d how t o d e f i n e and measure s o c i a l s k i l l s , t h e n i t appears t h a t t h e s o c i a l v a l i d i t y of o u r measurement s h o u l d b e a m a j o r concern . Whereas a monadic approach ( S t r a i n & Shores, 1977) can l e a d t o s u p p o s i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f i c a c y o f a s p e c i f i c i n t e r v e n t i o n , as i n t h e case o f a d e c r e a s e i n d r o o l i n g , measurement o f o t h e r e v e n t s o r s u r r o u n d i n g v a r i a b l e s i s needed b e f o r e d e f i n i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f e c t s of t h e decrease i n d r o o l i n g can be made. Measurement o f t h e approach o f o t h e r s , d u r a t i o n o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s u b j e c t , o r i n c l u s i o n i n s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s may b e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s , i f , i n f a c t , t h e i n t e n t o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n was t o i n c r e a s e s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y . Such measurement o f c o n c o m i t a n t v a r i a b l e s may b e one approach t o i n s u r e t h e s o c i a l v a l i d i t y o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o r even s e l e c t i o n o f a t a r g e t e d b e h a v i o r . S t r a i n , Shores and K e r r (1976) sugges ted t h a t one i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f such measurement may b e t h e r e c i p r o c i t y o f b e h a v i o r s , whereby n e g a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y p a i r e d w i t h n e g a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s and p o s i t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e f o l l o w e d by p o s i t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s .

A more t r a d i t i o n a l approach t o t h e assessment o f s o c i a l l b e h a v i o r a l s k i l l s has i n c l u d e d t h e use o f b e h a v i o r a l c h e c k l i s t s such as t h e Walker B e h a v i o r Prob lem c h e c k l i s t , t h e B e h a v i o r Prob lem c h e c k l i s t , and t h e A.A.M.D. A d a p t i v e B e h a v i o r S c a l e . S e l f - c o n c e p t i n v e n t o r i e s such as t h e V a l e t t e S e l f Concept I n v e n t o r y a l s o c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c a t e g o r y o f approaches t o assessment. Problems w i t h t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e c h e c k l i s t s ( I r v i n , Cromwel l , and Be l lamy, 1970) i n c l u d e t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e i tems, l e n i e n c y o f r a t i n g s and e r r o r s o f c e n t r a l tendency mak ing i t more l i k e l y t o r a t e c l o s e t o t h e mean. D e s p i t e t h e s e p rob lems, t h e s e c h e c k l i s t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y

1985

used to determine special education placement and IEP goals. Measurement of social skills deficits, strengths, gains, and regressions could likely be enhanced through application of precision teaching techniques and frequency recording of targeted behaviors from the checklists, with measurement of surrounding environmental events as appropriate.

Thus far three possible ways of usingpresision teaching have been described: (1) the traditional measurement of isolated behaviors, (2) measurement which included some focus on the outcomes of the behavior for the individual, and (3) use of frequency measures with traditional testing. In regard to the efficacy of measurement, social validity of both the selection of the targeted behavior and treatment effects, was also discussed. In consideration of the applicability of precision teaching to the measurement of social skills and directions for future exploration, three other issues are central: (1) the measurement unit selected, (2) curriculum development and effects, and (3) counting and recording procedures.

Measurement Unit

Frequency, for many valid reasons, has been the primary measurement unit used with precision teaching. However, as Arkowitz (1981) has identified, a serious problem in using frequency to evaluate social skills is that "implicit in such an approach is that it is better to have more of a 'good behavior' (e.g., eye contact) and less of a 'bad behavior' (e.g., speech disruptions). Perhaps there can be too much of a good thing and too little of a bad one" (p. 303). A logical way of handling this dilemma is to obtain ecological baselines through measuring behaviors of skill proficient peers and establishing desired rates with upper and lower boundaries.

Much of the psychological literature is based upon reports of percentages of intervals during which behaviors were displayed. A major difficulty with the interval approach is that behavior is defined according to artificial units of behavior which in and of themselves are meaningless. For example, stating that Susie cried during 30% of the 5 minute intervals provides some general information on the level of the behavior. Measure- ment of the frequency, durat'on, or latency of crying provide additional details which are lost in interval measurement. An advantage of using interval measures is that it is easier to obtain high rates of

interobserver reliability, particularly when counting multiple classes of behavior such as positive interactions, negative interactions, and neutral interactions. However, much data are lost in such a process and of interpretation of the behavior can change with changes in the artificial units.

When measuring such behaviors as interactions with others or interaction with objects in the environment, duration as well as frequency may be needed. Generally it is preferable to use both of these units rather than interval measure- ment. Some of my preliminary work with the analysis of videotapes using frequency counts, no measurement, and interval systems (Mason, 1984), suggests that it may be useful to begin a social analysis using an interval recording system and switch to frequency as a second level of analysis in order to obtain more detailed information on targeted behaviors identified through interval measurement.

Curriculum

Precision teaching can easily be used to measure the effects of social skills curriculum, either the published curriculum such as the Walker Accepts Curriculum or Goldstein's Skillstreaming the Adolescent or Skillstreaming the Elementary Child or teacher developed curriculum. Using a precision teaching approach, counting an "inner" could be developed into a sequence of "inners" that may lead to social competence. Similarly, using task analysis, students could verbalize the association of emotions with events (I feel happy when ...) as well as problem solving statements (When ... wants to fight, I will ...). Correlations-between saying or writing these statements and overt behaviors or reactions from others in the environment could also be measured.

Counting and Recording

Of course many of the traditional precision teaching procedures such as self-monitoring, peer monitoring (especially of curriculum activities), and teacher monitoring are applicable. Additionally, new technology adds additional options such as videotaping or computer coding. The Epson computer with a program designed by Repp, Harman, and Felce (undated) is particularly useful in that real life event recording of up to 43 variables is possible with computerized tallies of both the frequency and duration of events.

With such a program, it is possible to code about twenty variables simultaneously- with

70 Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI, No. 3, Fall, 1985

high reliability. The addition of an expansion unit allows for a time lag series analysis as well. Interobserver reliability of 90%+ has been obtained with this unit, and the program is ideal for measuring teacher-pupil or staff-client interactions.

With current emphasis on social skills development, and the current need for preparing children to function in socially acceptable ways in an every changing world, now is the time for precision teaching practitioners to focus energy on better understanding how social competence can be facilitated. Issues such as which measurement units to use, how to best measure interactive effects, the effectiveness of different curricula, and the advantages of technology can and need to be addressed. Just as reading and math have been taught through the systematic application of precision teaching, sets of social skills may be able to be taught. By sharing information, data, and resources we may be able to accelerate this process.

References

Arkowitz, H. (1981). Assessment of social skills. In M. Hersen & A. Bellack (Eds.), Behavioral assessment. New York: Pergamon Press.

Barrett, B. (1978). Comrnunitization and the measured message of normal behavior. In R . York E E. Edgar (Eds.), Teaching the severely handicapped, 6 (p. 301-318). Seattle: American Association for the Education of the Severely and Profoundly Handicapped.

Foster, S. S., & Ritchey, W. L. (1978). Issues in the assessment of social competence in children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 625-638.

Irvin, L. K., Cromwell, F. A., & Bellamy, G. F. (1979). Multiple assessment evaluation program for severely retarded adults. Mental Retardation, 17, 123-128.

Mason, C. (1984, Apri 1). Measurement of social skills: Frequency and other measures, which are more appropriate? A presentation to the Annual Precision Teaching Conference, Park City, UT.

Strain, P. S., & Shores, R. E. (1977). Social reciprocity: A review of research and educational imp1 ications. Exceptional Children, 43, 536-581.

Strain, P. S., Shores, R. E., & Kerr, N. M. (1976). An experimental analysis of spillover effects on the social interaction of behaviorally handicapped preschool children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 31-40.

Repp, A., Harman, M., & Felce, D. (undated). A real-time, parallel entry, portable computer system for observational research. Unpublished manuscript, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, IL.

Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. VI, No. 3, Fall, 1985

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