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JOURNALOF PRECISION TEACHING
VOLUME V FALL 1984 NUMBER 3
Editor
Patrick McGreevy
Contributing Editors Consulting Editors
Peggy Albrecht Beatrice Barrett Sarah Kyrklund Eugene "Skip" Berquam Ray Beck Lynette Lacy Carl Binder Walter Berard Thomas Lovitt Abigail Calkin Marie Blackburn Michael Maloney Marie Eaton Bob Bower Dagmar Neal John Eshleman Susan Evans Charles Olander Stephen Graf William Evans Jim Pollard Eric Haughton Sheila Fox Susan Reiter Ogden Lindsley Edward Framer Caryn Robbins Charles Merbitz Henri Goettel Jim Rudsit H. S. Pennypacker Marilyn Hefferan Susan Ryberg Ann Starlin Jim Johnson Gene Stromberg William Wolking Nancy Johnson Julie Vargas
Carl Koenig Owen White Steven ~ r a n t t Deborah Wood
Contents
Doubles, neighbors and two houses away: a quick trip to aim on addition facts.. .........................................................................................- 49
Marie Eaton, Claudia Partlow, \ Kay Hermann and Anne Lankenau
The pre-purchase assessment: guarding against those nasty dust collectors.. ...........................................................................................-53
Clifford Bourie
Aim*star wars: episode I.. .......................................................................................................55
Owen R. White
Monitoring color naming .......................................................................................................-64
Susan Thomsen
Study methods in graduate school .............................................................................................-64
Lori Korinek and Bill Wolking
About PT.. .......................................................................................................................-66
EDITORIAL POLICY
The Journal of Precision Teaching is a multidisciplinary journal dedicated to a science of human behavior which includes direct, continuous and standard measurement. This measurement includes a standard unit of behavior, frequency, a standard scale on which successive frequencies are displayed, the Standard Celeration Chart, a standard measure of behavior change between two frequencies, frequency multiplier, and a standard, straight-line measure of behavior change across seven or more frequencies, celeration. Frequencies, frequency multipliers, and celerations displayed on the Standard Celeration Chart form the basis for Chart-based decision-making and for evaluating the effects of independent variables.
The purpose of the Journal of Precision Teaching is to accelerate the sharing of scientific and practical information among its readers. To this end, both formal manuscripts and informal, Chart-sharing articles are considered for publication.
Materials submitted for publication should meet the following criteria: (1) be written in plain English, (2) contain a narrative that is brief, to the point and easy to read, (3) use the Journal of Precision Teaching Standard Glossary and Charting Conventions, (4) contain data displayed on the Standard Celeration Chart that justify conclusions made, (5) be submitted in quadruplicate to the editor, and (6) include one set of original charts or hand-drawn copies. Each formal manuscript will be reviewed by one consulting editor and two reviewers, two of whom must approve it prior to publication.
The Journal of Precision Teaching is published quarterly in April, July, October and January by Plain English Publications, P.O. Box 11335, Kansas City, Missouri 64112. Each volume begins with the April issue. Volume I began in April, 1980. The annual subscription rate is $20.00 to libraries, $16.00 to individuals and agencies, and $12.00 to full-time students, payable in U.S. funds. The single copy price is $5.00. Advertising rates are available upon request.
Subscriptions and submissions can be sent to the address above or to Patrick McGreevy, Editor, Journal of Precision Teaching, Louisiana State University, Special Education, 201 Peabody Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803.
Any article is the personal expression of the author. Likewise, any advertisement is the responsibility of the advertiser. Neither necessarily carries Journal endorsement.
This Journal is published with the assistance of the College of Education, Louisiana State University.
Library of Congress ISSN number: 0271-8200
DOUBLES, NEIGHBORS AND IWO HOUSES AWAY:
A QUICK TRIP M A I M ON ADDITION FACTS
Marie Eaton Claudia Partlow
Kay Hemam Anne Lankenau
Western Washington U n i v e r s i t y and
Bell ingham P u b l i c Schools
Teache r s i n r e s o u r c e rooms o f t e n f i n d c h i l d r e n who a r e q u i t e a c c u r a t e i n t h e i r a d d i t i o n f a c t s , b u t seem t o "p la teau" f a r below t h e aim s e t f o r them. They l e a r n t h e s m a l l e r sums ( l t l , 2 t 3 ) w i t h f a c i l i t y , bu t t h e l a r g e r sums ( 9 t 7 , 7 t 8 ) b r i n g o u t t h e f i n g e r s . Mot iva t ion and e x t r a d r i l l do n o t seem t o i n c r e a s e t h e f r e q u e n c i e s s i g n i f i -c a n t l y and bo th t h e t e a c h e r and t h e s t u d e n t become f r u s t r a t e d and d iscouraged.
L a s t y e a r , wh i l e obse rv ing a s t u d e n t t e a c h e r i n a r e s o u r c e room, Anne Lankenau, I n o t i c e d s h e was u s i n g a procedure w i th g r e a t s u c c e s s t o g e t beyond t h a t p l a t e a u t o f l uency . It was a method of cu r r i cu lum s l i c i n g which s h e and h e r coope ra t ing t e a c h e r s c a l l e d "doubles, ne ighbor s , and two houses away ." P r e c i s i o n t e a c h e r s a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h cu r r i cu lum s l i c i n g . Hansen and Lov i t t (1973) d e s c r i b e d program s l i c i n g a s a procedure t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e i n s t r u c t i o n . Teachers , f a c e d wi th poor performance on mixed a d d i t i o n f a c t s o r f a c t s w i th sums 11 t o 18, have f r e q u e n t l y s l i c e d back t o t h e t 6 s o r t h e t 7 s and asked t h e s t u d e n t t o r e a c h aim f r e q u e n c i e s on each sma l l s l i c e b e f o r e moving on. C o l l e c t i o n s o f p r a c t i c e s h e e t s , such a s t h o s e from t h e Grea t F a l l s P r e c i s i o n Teaching P r o j e c t , o f t e n have many d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s of f i n e l y s l i c e d cu r r i cu lum i n math, a s w e l l a s r e a d i n g , s p e l l i n g , and w r i t i n g .
C laud ia Pa r t l ow and Kay Hermann , Anne 's coope ra t ing t e a c h e r s , dec ided t o s l i c e t h e i r cu r r i cu lum a l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y . They n o t i c e d t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n seemed t o have a n e a s i e r t i m e remembering t h e doubles ( 6 t 6 , 8t8, 5+5 e t c . ) t h a n t h e random combinat ions . They borrowed a n i d e a from a f e l l o w s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r , P a t Richardson-Bieber, and dev i sed a p r a c t i c e s h e e t which con ta ined on ly t h e d o u b l e s ( s e e F igu re 1 ) . They prepared two o t h e r p r a c t i c e s h e e t s which c a p i t a l i z e d on t h e s t u d e n t s ' f a c i l i t y w i t h t h e doubles . The f i r s t , c a l l e d "doubles and ne ighbors" , con ta ined t h e double problems mixed wi th o t h e r s i n which t h e two numbers on ly d i f f e r by o n e ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ) . The f i n a l s h e e t ,
c a l l e d "doubles, ne ighbor s and two houses away", i n c l u d e d t h e doubles and ne ighbor s mixed wi th problems i n which t h e d i g i t s d i f f e r e d by two ( i . e . two numbers away from t h e doub le s ) . Samples of t h e s e problems would i n c l u d e 7 t 7 (doub le ) , 7 t 6 (ne ighbor) and 5 t 7 (two houses away). When a l l t h e s e p r a c t i c e s h e e t s a r e l e a r n e d t o aim, t h e r e a r e on ly 8 fac t s ( "excep t ions" ) and t h e i r r e c i p r o c a l s which t h e c h i l d still needs t o l e a r n i n o r d e r t o perform t h e a d d i t i o n sums 11 t o 18 s h e e t ( s e e F igu re 1 ) .
The f i r s t s t e p i n u s i n g t h e "doubles, ne ighbor s , and two houses away" procedure was t o t e a c h t h e c h i l d r e n a l l t h e double combinations. S tandard d r i l l and p r a c t i c e i n s t r u c t i o n procedures were used i n c l u d i n g one minute timed d r i l l s and/or peer a s s i s t e d SAF'MEDS. A f t e r r each ing aim on t h e "doubles" s h e e t , t h e c h i l d r e n were t a u g h t u s i n g t h e fo l lowing "neighbors" l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y :
1. Look a t each problem; 2. Are t h e numbers "neighbors"?
( t h a t is, c o n s e c u t i v e numbers such a s 4 t 5 , 3 t 2 ) ;
3. Find t h e s m a l l e r of t h e ne ighbor s ;
4. Double it; 5. Add 1 t o your answer; 6. Write your new answer below
t h e problem.
T h i s procedure s h o r t c u t s t e a c h i n g r e c i p r o c a l problems ( i . e . 5 t 6 , o r 6 t 5 ) because t h e c h i l d r e n l e a r n t o i g n o r e t h e o r d e r of p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e numbers. I n "two houses away" t h e c h i l d r e n fo l lowed a s i m i l a r method. They f i r s t i d e n t i f i e d t h e problem a s a "two houses away" problem, t h e n found t h e s m a l l e r number, doubled i t and added two. Although t h i s procedure seems l e n g t h y , t h e d a t a t h e s e t e a c h e r s c o l l e c t e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t helped t h e i r s t u d e n t s move from low f r e q u e n c i e s t o aim and f l u e n c y . C h a r t s 1 and 2 show t h e d a t a from two t y p i c a l c h i l d r e n i n t h i s r e s o u r c e room. Both a r e primary aged s t u d e n t s r e f e r r e d f o r l e a r n i n g problems and bo th had d i f f i c u l t y r each ing f l u e n c y i n t h e i r a d d i t i o n f a c t s w i th sums 11 t o 18. Lee was a n ESL ( E n g l i s h a s Second Language) s t u d e n t and a l s o had some mild l e a r n i n g problems. He showed d rama t i c improvement a s soon a s t h e doub le s s h e e t was i n t r o d u c e d ( s e e Cha r t 1 ) . H i s c o r r e c t f requency jumped from a median of 1 3 d i g i t s pe r minute t o a median of 32 d i g i t s per minute. He went on t o e a s i l y r each h i s aim of 40 d i g i t s pe r minute on t h e "doubles and
Journal of Precision Teaching, V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. V,
No. 3
, Fall,
19
84
DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN)
CALENDAR WEEKS 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W K S ) B E H A V I O R RESEARCH CO BOX 3 3 5 1 - K A N S A S CITY K A N S 6 6 1 0 3
I I 4
I I I I I I I2 I I I I 6 I I 20 I
Phase 1: Sums 11-18
Phase 2: +8s
Phase 3: Doubles
Phase 4: Doubles and Neighbors
III
Phase 5: Doubles, Neighbors and Two Houses Away
Phase 6: Sums 11-18 M I N HRS
- I
- 2
.-5
- 1 0 -%
- 20 -H
.- 50 -I
-100 -2
Chart 1. Lee Learns Addition Facts Using "Doubles, Neighbors and Two Houses Away"
see/writeSUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS LeeEaton Partlow Lankenau 9 - digits---
SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER AGE L A B E L C O U N T E D
Bellinqham public Schools Bellin- -addition facts ,
AGENCY C O U N T E R CHARTER
DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN)
CALENDAR WEEKS 6 CYCLE-140 DAYS ( 2 0 WKS ) BEHAVIOR RESEARCH CO
I Chart 2.
Phase 1: Sums 1-18
Phase 2: +9s
Phase 3: Give timing to group
Phase 4: Sums 11-18
Phase 5: Doubles
Phase 6: Doubles and Neighbors
Phase 7: Doubles, Neighbors and Two Houses Away
Charles Learns Addition Facts Using "Doubles, Neighbors and Two Houses Away"
MIN HRS
- I
- 2
-5
-10 -% - 20 -H
.-50 - 1
-Io0 -2
see/write Eaton Partlow Aankenau 10 digits-- SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS -
SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER AGE LABEL COUNTED
Bellingham - Public Schools Bellingham, WA .- addition facts AGENCY COUNTER CHARTER
n e i g h b o r s " and " d o u b l e s , n e i g h b o r s and two h o u s e s away" s h e e t s . When h e f i n a l l y went back t o t h e o r i g i n a l sums t o 18 s h e e t , h i s f r e q u e n c i e s were much more f l u e n t t h a n p r e v i o u s l y and h e r e a c h e d h i s a im i n f i v e d a y s ( s e e C h a r t 1 ) .
C h a r l e s was q u i t e s e v e r e l y l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . He t y p i c a l l y had a d i f f i c u l t t i m e r e a c h i n g aim on e v e n s i m p l e s k i l l s , y e t h i s d a t a were s i m i l a r t o L e e ' s . He showed some improvement i n a d d i t i o n w i t h sums t o 18, b u t h e had r e a c h e d a " p l a t e a u " . When "doubles" , "doubles and ne ighbors" , and " d o u b l e s , n e i g h b o r s and two h o u s e s away" were i n t r o d u c e d , h e q u i c k l y r e a c h e d h i s aim on a l l t h e p r a c t i c e s h e e t s ( s e e C h a r t 2 ) .
C l a u d i a , Kay, and Anne r e p o r t e d t h a t o t h e r c h i l d r e n i n t h e c l a s s a l s o b e n e f i t e d from t h i s p r o c e d u r e and s h a r e d t h e i r d a t a and p r a c t i c e s h e e t s a t o u r monthly P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g g a t h e r i n g . O t h e r t e a c h e r s i n t h e a r e a began t o u s e t h e same p r o c e d u r e w i t h s i m i l a r r e s u l t s .
Sometimes i t i s n o t I F you s l i c e c u r r i c u l u m , b u t HOW you s l i c e i t t h a t makes t h e d i f f e r e n c e f o r a c h i l d ' s l e a r n i n g . The a r e a o f c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n and development is one t h a t c a n b e e a s i l y and e f f e c t i v e l y s t u d i e d u s i n g P r e c i s i o n Teaching . T e a c h e r s c a n l e a r n from t h e per formance and l e a r n i n g of t h e i r c h i l d r e n t h e most e f f e c t i v e ways t o s e q u e n c e c u r r i c u l u m and t o a p p l y l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o h e l p them m a s t e r b a s i c s k i l l s .
REFERENCE
Hansen, C. & L o v i t t , T. (1973) Program S l i c i n g : A t o o l f o r i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . E d u c a t i o n and T r a i n i n g o f t h e M e n t a l l y R e t a r d e d , 8, 153-158.
Mar ie E a t o n i s a f a c u l t y member and Anne Lankenau i s a s t u d e n t t e a c h e r i n t h e Department o f E d u c a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m and I n s t r u c t i o n a t Wes te rn Washington U n i v e r s i t y , Be l l ingham, WA 98225. C l a u d i a P a r t l o w and Kay Hermann a r e t e a c h e r s i n t h e Be l l ingham P u b l i c School System.
The Pre-purchase Assessment: Guard ing A g a i n s t Those
Nas ty D u s t C o l l e c t o r s *
C l i f f o r d B o u r i e Merrimack S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n C o l l a b o r a t i v e
Among t h e complex n e e d s o f mul t i -handicapped p e o p l e , d e f i c i t s i n e x p r e s s i v e communicat ion a r e o f t e n t h e most p rofound . Wi thout a
f l u e n t o u t p u t c h a n n e l , e f f e c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e i r env i ronment i s minimized.
A l t e r n a t i v e communicat ion s y s t e m s have e x i s t e d f o r y e a r s . S i g n l a n g u a g e , p i c t u r e a n d / o r symbol s y s t e m s h a v e , i n many c a s e s , g r e a t l y enhanced t h e communicat ive a b i l i t y o f non-verba l p e o p l e . I n g e n i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t e c h n o l o g y have e n a b l e d a n y r e l i a b l e , v o l u n t a r y movement t o i n d i c a t e a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The o v e r t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c a n be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a u n i t o f i n f o r m a t i o n o r communicat ion.
The c o m p l e x i t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e communicat ion s y s t e m s r a n g e s from d i r e c t s e l e c t i o n o f a n o b j e c t o r i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on a p i c t u r e board v i a a n e y e g a z e o r t o u c h (Shane , 1979) t o e n c o d i n g t e c h n i q u e s on a p e r s o n a l computer w i t h a v o i c e s y n t h e s i z e r . The e x p e n s e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s y s t e m s h a s a n e q u a l l y b road range . When p r e s e n t e d w i t h s u c h a myr iad o f p o s s i b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , p a r e n t s o f mul t i -handicapped , non-verba l p e o p l e sometimes become o v e r l y o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t t h e impac t o f t e c h n o l o g y . A complex e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m c a n b e s e e n a s t h e magic key t h a t w i l l f i n a l l y u n l o c k t h e a b i l i t y t o communicate f o r t h e i r c h i l d .
T e a c h e r s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g what a l t e r n a t i v e communicat ion s y s t e m , i f a n y , is most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a p e r s o n . F r e q u e n t l y , d e t e r m i n i n g what i s a p p r o p r i a t e is a g u e s s i n g game, w i t h t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r a communicat ion b o a r d b a s e d on a b s e n c e / p r e s e n c e q u e s t i o n s . Can h e r e c o g n i z e o b j e c t s ? Can h e i d e n t i f y p h o t o g r a p h s ? What a b o u t l i n e d rawings? Wi thout o b j e c t i v e r u l e s a t t h e s t a r t , t h e g u e s s i n g game u s u a l l y e n d s w i t h t h e "p ieces" , t h e communicat ion s y s t e m , i n a c l o s e t g a t h e r i n g d u s t . A f requency-based a s s e s s m e n t b e f o r e t h e p u r c h a s e may more p r e c i s e l y p r e s c r i b e a s y s t e m f o r m a t t o p r e v e n t a c l o s e t f u l l o f d u s t y magic k e y s .
Abdul i s a 1 6 y e a r o l d s t u d e n t i n t h e Merrimack S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n C o l l a b o r a t i v e ' s B a s i c S k i l l s c l a s s r o o m . H i s m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s i n c l u d e s c e r e b r a l p a l s y and s e v e r e m e n t a l r e t a r d a t i o n . S p a s t i c i t y i n h i s e x t r e m i t i e s l i m i t s A b d u l ' s m o b i l i t y and f i n e motor per formances . He communicates v i a a c o m b i n a t i o n o f g e s t u r e s , approximated manual s i g n s , and a few words. He i d e n t i f i e s o b j e c t s ( h e a r , s e e / p o i n t ) , and c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r u s e . He c a n i d e n t i f y Rebus p i c t u r e s o f f a m i l i a r o b j e c t s ( h e a r , s e e / t o u c h ) , w i t h v a r y i n g a c c u r a c y (Rebus p i c t u r e s c a n b e o b t a i n e d from American Guidance S e r v i c e ,
* A s p e c i a l n o t e o f t h a n k s t o Jim P o l l a r d f o r h i s f l u e n t h e l p i n p r e p a r i n g t h i s p a p e r .
J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V, No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
Cedar P i n e s , MN 5 5 1 0 4 ) ) . A b d u l ' s p a r e n t s hope t h a t a n e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m w i l l a l l o w him t o communicate more f r e e l y .
A m e d i c a l s u p p l i e r l o a n e d u s a Zygo-16C communicat ion board (Zygo-16C e l e c t r o n i c communicat ion s y s t e m s c a n b e o b t a i n e d from Zygo I n d u s t r i e s , P o r t l a n d , OR 97207). The b o a r d is a m a t r i x o f 4 rows and 4 columns o f 4x3" message a r e a s . Each message a r e a c o n t a i n s a s i n g l e i n d i c a t o r l i g h t . The l i g h t s c a n b e i l l u m i n a t e d i n s u c c e s s i o n by o p e r a t i n g a s w i t c h i n t h e Manual Scan Mode. I n t h e Auto Scan Mode, t h e l i g h t a d v a n c e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y on a 3-second d e l a y , o r r e m a i n s i l l u m i n a t e d i f t h e s w i t c h is d e p r e s s e d . Leaving t h e l i g h t i l l u m i n a t e d c a n i n d i c a t e a d e s i r e d c h o i c e from among t h e d i s p l a y e d p i c t u r e s o r symbols . The a u t o m a t i c s c a n resumes when t h e s w i t c h is d e p r e s s e d a g a i n .
A s e r i e s o f 7 p i n p o i n t s based on f a c e v a l i d i t y compr i sed t h e pre -purchase a s s e s s m e n t . Per formance d a t a were r e c o r d e d f o r 6-8 d a y s on e a c h p i n p o i n t . Per formance s t a n d a r d s , o r p r o f i c i e n c y aims (Haughton, 1972 , 1980) were d e t e r m i n e d v i a c o l d s n a p s h o t s o f 3 c l a s s r o o m s t a f f ( p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s i n d i c a t e p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s and p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r compar i son among s k i l l s ) .
The p i n p o i n t s were:
Hear, See/Touch Pictures. T h i s p i n p o i n t a l l o w e d Abdul t o t e l l u s how w e l l h e c o u l d i d e n t i f y Rebus p i c t u r e s o f f a m i l i a r o b j e c t s . The p i c t u r e s were: bus , c h a i r , c o o k i e , c r a c k e r , c u p , m i l k , p a p e r , t o o t h b r u s h , and w a t e r . The p i c t u r e s were c h o s e n b e c a u s e t h e o b j e c t s were common t o A b d u l ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y had been u s e d p r e v i o u s l y d u r i n g i n f o r m a l t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s . We p r e s e n t e d t h e p i c t u r e s i n g r o u p s o f t h r e e . Abdul was a s k e d t o " P o i n t t o t h e
I' C o r r e c t s and e r r o r s were c o u n t e d d u r i n g 2-minute t i m i n g s .
Touch/Press Paddle Switch. T h i s p i n p o i n t a l l o w e d Abdul t o t e l l u s how w e l l h e c o u l d m a n i p u l a t e t h e c o n t r o l mechanism. The s w i t c h was n o t c o n n e c t e d t o t h e Zygo-16C u n i t t o min imize p o s s i b l e v i s u a l d i s t r a c t i o n s . The number o f a u d i b l e s w i t c h c l o s u r e s was c o u n t e d d u r i n g 15-second t i m i n g s .
See/~ress Switch (Advance Light). The s w i t c h was c o n n e c t e d t o t h e u n i t . The u n i t was i n t h e Manual Scan Mode. A s i n g l e p r e s s o f t h e s w i t c h advanced t h e i n d i c a t o r l i g h t t o t h e n e x t d i s p l a y a r e a . T h i s p i n p o i n t a l l o w e d Abdul t o
t e l l u s i f t h e moving l i g h t e f f e c t e d h i s m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s w i t c h . The number o f message a r e a s i l l u m i n a t e d w a s c o u n t e d d u r i n g 15-second t i m i n g s .
See Target/Stop Light. T h i s p i n p o i n t a l l o w e d Abdul t o t e l l u s how w e l l h e c o u l d o p e r a t e t h e u n i t i n t h e Auto Scan Mode. The l i g h t advanced a u t o m a t i c a l l y e v e r y 3 s e c o n d s . The l i g h t s t o p p e d when t h e s w i t c h w a s d e p r e s s e d . Only t h e t o p row o f message a r e a s was u s e d . A s i n g l e message a r e a was d e s i g n a t e d as t h e t a r g e t by a l a r g e s t a r . The o t h e r 3 message a r e a s were b l a n k . A c o r r e c t movement s t o p p e d t h e l i g h t when it was i n t h e t a r g e t a r e a . E r r o r s were c o u n t e d a s a n y t o u c h t o t h e s w i t c h when t h e t a r g e t a r e a was n o t i l l u m i n a t e d . The Auto Scan Mode imposed a c e i l i n g o f a b o u t 20 c o r r e c t s / m i n u t e . C o r r e c t s a n d e r r o r s were c o u n t e d d u r i n g 1-minute t i m i n g s .
See/Touch Light. T h i s p i n p o i n t a l l o w e d Abdul t o t e l l u s how w e l l h e c o u l d f o l l o w t h e l i g h t . We randomly advanced t h e l i g h t o v e r a l l 1 6 d i s p l a y a r e a s , a n d a s k e d , "Where's t h e l i g h t ? " C o r r e c t s were c o u n t e d a s t o u c h e s t o t h e i l l u m i n a t e d l i g h t . E r r o r s were a n y t o u c h e s t o l i g h t s t h a t were n o t i l l u m i n a t e d . T imings were 1-minute i n d u r a t i o n . T h e r e was a t eacher - imposed c e i l i n g t o t h e per formance ( B i n d e r , 1 9 8 3 ) .
See Picture/Touch Light. T h i s p i n p o i n t a l l o w e d Abdul t o t e l l u s i f h e c o u l d match t h e l i g h t and t h e p i c t u r e . A p i c t u r e was randomly p l a c e d i n o n e o f t h e 1 6 message a r e a s . We a s k e d Abdul , "Where's t h e l i g h t n e x t t o t h e p i c t u r e ? " The l i g h t s were n o t i l l u m i n a t e d . Touches t o t h e c o r r e c t l i g h t , and t o t h e i n a p p r o p r i a t e l i g h t ( e r r o r s ) were c o u n t e d d u r i n g 1-minute t i m i n g s .
See Picture/Stop Light. T h i s a l l o w e d Abdul t o t e l l u s how w e l l h e c o u l d o p e r a t e t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m i n compos i te . A s i n g l e p i c t u r e was p l a c e d i n d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n t h e t o p row o f t h e d i s p l a y m a t r i x . Abdul was a s k e d t o move t h e l i g h t t o t h e p i c t u r e , and t h e n p l a c e h i s hands i n h i s l a p t o i n d i c a t e t h a t h e was f i n i s h e d . C o r r e c t s were c o u n t e d i f Abdul p u t h i s h a n d s down when t h e l i g h t n e x t t o t h e p i c t u r e was i l l u m i n a t e d . E r r o r s were c o u n t e d i f Abdul advanced t h e l i g h t beyond t h e message a r e a w i t h t h e p i c t u r e . The l o c a t i o n o f t h e p i c t u r e and l i g h t were changed a f t e r
Journal of Precision Teaching, V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
each e r r o r , and Abdul was asked t o " S t a r t aga in ." C o r r e c t s and e r r o r s were counted d u r i n g 1-minute t imings .
Abdul t o l d u s t h e fo l lowing ( s e e C h a r t s 1 and 2 ) :
1. I c a n ' t i d e n t i f y p i c t u r e s f l u e n t l y o r a c c u r a t e l y . Performance s t a n d a r d s a r e 25-31 co r r ec t s /minu te . My pace was 5-9 c o r r e c t s / m i n u t e and 1-5 e r r o r s / minute. My e r r o r s were a c c e l e r a t i n g more t h a n my c o r r e c t s .
2. I can adequa te ly manipula te a paddle swi t ch . My pace (48-142/minute) is we l l below performance s t a n d a r d s ( abou t 220- 400/minute) , b u t i t ' s improving (x1 .4 ) , and i t ' s more f l u e n t t h a n performance s t a n d a r d s on o t h e r composi te s k i l l s .
3. I p r e f e r t h e Manual Scan Mode (72-120/minute) t o t h e Auto Scan Mode (2-6 c o r r e c t s / m i n u t e , 9-52 e r r o r s / minute , and e r r o r s a c c e l e r a t i n g a t x2 .3) .
4. I can v i s u a l l y t r a c k t h e i n d i c a t o r l i g h t (7-18/minute) , a l t hough w e l l below performance s t a n d a r d s (38-42/minute).
5. I qu ick ly l e a r n t h a t a p i c t u r e and t h e i n d i c a t o r l i g h t go t o g e t h e r . MY pace i s 2-14 c o r r e c t s / m i n u t e and -1 1 e r r o r s / m i n u t e , but c o r r e c t s a r e a c c e l e r a t i n g a t x5.3 and e r r o r s a r e d e c e l e r a t i n g a t /7.3.
6 . I d o n ' t s t o p p r e s s i n g t h e s w it c h when t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n d i c a t o r l i g h t i s i l l u m i n a t e d . I d o n ' t unders tand t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e swi t ch , l i g h t , and t h e p i c t u r e . Although I can o p e r a t e i s o l a t e d p o r t i o n s of t h e communication system, I have d i f f i c u l t y p u t t i n g a l l t h e p a r t s t o g e t h e r .
When p re sen ted wi th t h e i n fo rma t ion from t h e assessment i n a p l a i n e n g l i s h , s t r a i g h t -forward manner, Abdul ' s p a r e n t s ag reed wi th us t h a t purchase of t h e e l e c t r o n i c communi- c a t i o n system a t t h i s t ime would be, a t b e s t , premature. Abdul 's e d u c a t i o n a l p l an was des igned t o i n c r e a s e h i s pace on a c c u r a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Rebus p i c t u r e s and i n t h e component s k i l l s of u s i n g t h e Zygo sys tem, such a s s ee / touch l i g h t and s e e p i c t u r e / t o u c h l i g h t . However, g iven Abdul 's performance and c e l e r a t i o n s on t h i s a s se s smen t , t h e p r i o r i t y f o r a system a t t h i s t ime would be a d i r e c t s e l e c t i o n p i c t u r e board.
The assessment was a n e f f e c t i v e t o o l i n s e v e r a l ways. I t a l lowed Abdul t o t e l l u s h i s a b i l i t y on r e l a t e d component s k i l l s r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e a communicative system. It c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d d e f i c i t s and t h e i r magnitude, and sugges ted g o a l s t o be add res sed i n h i s e d u c a t i o n a l p lan . It f a c i l i t a t e d d i s c u s s i o n of a n a p p r o p r i a t e communication sys tem f o r Abdul between h i s p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r . I t saved a l a r g e sum of money. It prevented a s o p h i s t i c a t e d "magic key" t h a t d i d n ' t q u i t e " f i t " from being d i sca rded i n t o a d u s t y c l o s e t .
Binder , C. (1983) Teacher-imposed c e i l i n g ? Data S h a r i n g News le t t e r , 2 (3 ) .
Haughton, E. C. (1972) A i m s , Growing, and Sha r ing . I n J. Jo rdan and L. Robbins (Eds . ) , L e t ' s t r y do ing something else k ind of t h ing (pp . 20-39). Res ton , VA: Counci l of Excep t iona l Ch i ld ren .
Haughton, E. C. (1980) P r a c t i c i n g p r a c t i c e s : l e a r n i n g by a c t i v i t y . J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n Teaching, 1( 3) .
Shane, H . C. (1979) Approaches t o communication t r a i n i n g wi th t h e s e v e r e l y handicapped. I n R . L . York and E. Edgar (Eds . ) , Teaching t h e S e v e r e l y Handicapped: Volume IV(pp. 155-179). S e a t t l e : American Assoc i a t i on f o r t h e Educat ion of t h e Seve re ly and Profoundly Handicapped.
C l i f f Bour ie is a t e a c h e r a t t h e Merrimack S p e c i a l Educat ion C o l l a b o r a t i v e , 101 M i l l Road, Chelmsford, MA 01824.
[The fo l lowing is P a r t I of a n a r t i c l e w r i t t e n by Owen R. White, i n which he u s e s a s p e c i a l , a n a l o g i z i n g format . The remaining p a r t s o f t h i s a r t i c l e w i l l appea r i n subse- quent i s s u e s . ]
AWSTAR WARS
[ S e t t i n g A I M S t h a t COMPETE]
Owen R. White U n i v e r s i t y of Washington
Episode I: The Dea ths t a r
Once, a l o n g , long t i m e ago , on a c h a r t e d performance r e c o r d f a r , f a r from aim, t h e Learner Rebels were s t r u g g l i n g t o over throw t h e bonds of
J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
Behavia Research Co. Box 3351 Kanra~City, Kansas 66 103
Hear, See/ Touch/Press See/Press See Target/ See/Touch Touch Pictures Switch Switch Stop Light Light-I (advance light) (Auto Scan .I
(Manual Scan Mode ) Mode)
Chart 1. Abdul's Performance and Learning on the First Five Tasks of a Zygo-16C Assessment
performs tasks 2-4
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t h e e v i l Normie Empire. Meanwhile, on t h e d e s e r t p l a n e t of Kanada, f a r below t h e c o n f l i c t which raged above him among t h e Uni-versa-tay b a t t l e c r u i s e r s , young E r i c dreamed of l e a v i n g Uncle Owen's o r g a n i c behav-i o r fa rm and becoming a s t a r - f i g h t e r f o r t h e Learner Rebels.* "Perfor -mance S t anda rds ! Who needs them?", he shouted (Haughton, 1982).
I t w i l l t a k e Uncle Owen a long t i m e t o unde r s t and . Perhaps , though, t h e r e is still time b e f o r e t h e s to rm t r o o p e r s overrun h i s s m a l l , i s o l a t e d , n o t very s p e c i a l homogenized behavior d a i r y . J u s t perhaps . T h i s is t h e s t o r y o f Uncle Owen's s t r u g g l e .
Two y e a r s b e f o r e young E r i c h u r l e d h i s angry c h a l l e n g e a t t h e s t a r s he was c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r i n g what he had l e a r n e d about performance a ims (Haughton, 1980). He wrote of t h e b a s i c r e a s o n s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a ims, reviewed more t h a n a l i t t l e of t h e h i s t o r y behind a t t e m p t s t o f i n d meaningful performance a ims, and c h a r t e d a pa th f o r f u t u r e growth. B a s i c a l l y , he i d e n t i f i e d f o u r p o s s i b l e advan tages f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g h igh s t a n d a r d s : ( 1 ) improved s k i l l r e t e n t i o n ove r p e r i o d s o f d i s u s e , ( 2 ) g r e a t e r endurance ove r p e r i o d s o f i n t e n s e s k i l l u s e , ( 3 ) improved r a t e s of l e a r n i n g w i t h r e l a t e d bu t more complex t a s k s , and ( 4 ) improved performance q u a l i t y . With t h e p o s s i b l e excep t ion of performance q u a l i t y , E r i c contended t h a t a s k i l l would g e n e r a l l y prove more u s e f u l a s h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s were achieved. He be l i eved t h a t q u a l i t y was a l s o l i k e l y t o'
improve (e .g . , handwri t ing becomes more l e g i b l e ) a s f r e q u e n c i e s a c c e l e r a t e d , b u t on ly up t o a c e r t a i n f r equency . Above t h a t p o i n t , q u a l i t y might s u f f e r . Even when seek ing g r e a t e r q u a l i t y , however, supe r f luency might still be b e n e f i c i a l . A f t e r a l l , s lowing down is a lways e a s i e r t h a n speeding up t o meet s i t u a t i o n a l demands.
Fundamental t o E r i c ' s arguments, and t h e arguments o f o t h e r s , is t h e b a s i c premise t h a t a s k i l l shou ld be u s e f u l ! It should
* For t h o s e who might be mi s l ead , "Uncle Owen" was no t E r i c ' s u n c l e . Indeed, E r i c was Owen's c h a r t f a t h e r . Owen owes much t o E r i c , and might n o t e v e r have known of t h e Learner- Fo rce had i t n o t been f o r him. I f E r i c f e l t a r e l u c t a n c e t o abandon Owen t o h i s own f a t e , it was n o t o u t of f a m i l i a l l o y a l t y , b u t r a t h e r t h e concern and p a t i e n c e which on ly t h e s u p e r f l u e n t can have f o r t h e somewhat slow.
n o t be l o s t once i n s t r u c t i o n is t e r m i n a t e d , nor shou ld i t be s o e f f o r t f u l t h a t i t cannot be used over any r ea sonab le pe r iod . Simi-l a r l y , i f t h e s k i l l i n q u e s t i o n is one s t e p i n a sequence of i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e n t h e s k i l l shou ld be s u f f i c i e n t l y mastered t o a l l o w r a p i d l e a r n i n g i n subsequent c u r r i c u l a r s t e p s . That makes s ense . I f i n d no f a u l t i n t h e l o g i c . Whether improved f r e q u e n c i e s a c t u a l l y l e a d t o t h o s e ends is a n e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n , b u t one f o r which a g r e a t d e a l of suppor t h a s been ga rne red (L inds l ey , 1977; Binder , 1981; Haughton, 1972; Berquam, 1981, 1981; Haughton, 1980).
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , knowledge of g e n e r a l r e l a -t i o n s h i p s (improved f requency g e n e r a l l y e q u a l s improved s k i l l u s e f u l n e s s ) does no t a lways t r a n s f e r e a s i l y i n t o s p e c i f i c f r e -quency a ims. S e v e r a l s t u d i e s w i th "mixed r e s u l t s " have been r e p o r t e d i n which h i g h e r f requency a ims d i d n o t a lways t r a n s l a t e i n t o improved subsequent performance. For ex-ample, Haughton (1980) r e p o r t s a c a s e i n which h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s d i d n o t l e a d t o s u p e r i o r r e t e n t i o n of math s k i l l s , a f i n d i n g l a t e r r e p l i c a t e d i n t h e Grea t F a l l s School D i s t r i c t P r e c i s i o n Teaching P r o j e c t (Clement, 1978). I n both of t h o s e s t u d i e s , t h e a u t h o r s conclude t h a t r e l a t i v e l y low f r e q u e n c i e s i n math were s u f f i c i e n t t o ma in t a in t h e same low f r e q u e n c i e s ove r t ime. P o s s i b l y t h o s e low f r e q u e n c i e s w i l l p rove t o be nonfunc t iona l when l e a r n e r s a t t e m p t t o app ly t h e i r s k i l l s i n d a i l y l i f e . However, t h a t t a k e s more t i m e t o s t u d y .
It is r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o s tudy t h e n o t i o n t h a t f l u e n c y a t one s t e p i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m w i l l f a c i l i t a t e p r o g r e s s a t subsequent s t e p s . A l l one need do is compare t h e c e l e r a t i o n s ach ieved i n s u c c e s s i v e c u r r i c u l a r s t e p s . I f t h e c e l e r a t i o n s remain h igh from one s t e p t o t h e n e x t , t h e p u p i l must have been r ea sonab ly w e l l p repared t o move on. I f t h e c e l e r a t i o n s begin t o f a l l o f f , t h e n perhaps t h e a ims were n o t h i g h enough t o p repa re t h e p u p i l f o r advancement. Evans, Mercer and Evans (1983) employed j u s t such a s t r a t e g y and found t h a t , ".. .a r e l a t i o n s h i p between f requency of s ay ing le t ter sounds and growth d u r i n g t h e subsequent t a s k of s a y i n g CVC t r i g r a m s was n o t c l e a r l y demonstrated." They concluded t h a t t h e y had n o t found t h e "optimum o r c r i t i c a l f requency f o r t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e s k i l l . " I n o t h e r words, f a s t e r is still b e t t e r , we j u s t h a v e n ' t found t h e " r i g h t f requency ..." Maybe, b u t t h e whole i s s u e of " p r e r e q u i s i t e s k i l l s " and t h e need t o develop f luency a t each l e v e l i n a c u r r i c u l a r sequence is now be ing s e r i o u s l y cha l l enged . It would appear t h a t " s t e p ups" and " l eap aheads" t o h igh l e v e l s i n t h e cu r r i cu lum
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- - -
1 w i l l o f t e n r e s u l t i n improved l e a r n i n g and , ( e v e n t u a l l y ) improved l e v e l s o f per formance , D i f f i c u l t y c a n a r i s e e v e n when we h a v e
e v e n i f t h e p u p i l is advanced t o t h o s e h i g h e r c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s o f o u r "aim-l l e v e l s i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m b e f o r e e a r l i e r , e s t a b l i s h i n g a s s e s s m e n t s " a r e i n d e e d " p r e r e q u i s i t e " s k i l l s h a v e been m a s t e r e d o r competen t p e r f o r m e r s . A s Haughton (1980)l d e m o n s t r a b l y a c q u i r e d ( L i n d s l e y , 1981; Ea ton p o i n t e d o u t , i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n and u s e a & Wittman, 1982; Bower & O r g e l , 1981; s k i l l a t o n e f r e q u e n c y , i t i s o f t e n n e c e s s a r y l
t o l e a r n a n d p r a c t i c e t h e s k i l l a t a muchlMcGreevy, 1980; Johnson & J a c k s o n , 1980; H a r i n g , L i b e r t y & W h i t e , 1980) . h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y . C o n v e r s e l y , n o t e s
Haughton, o u r a i m s may o n l y have t o b r i n g a1 l e a r n e r up t o a l e v e l where h e o r s h e is a b l e1 So , where a r e we? What aims d o w e e s t a b l i s h ?
I How d o we f i n d t h a t " o p t i m a l f r e q u e n c y ? " t o p r a c t i c e and c o n t i n u e l e a r n i n g w i t h o u t our1 h e l p . Haughton e s t i m a t e s t h a t a n "inde-I
The i s s u e o f a f u n c t i o n a l f r e q u e n c y aim f o r a pendent p r a c t i c e " l e v e l may b e a s low as p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l and a p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e r i s divide-by-two ( 1 2 .O) o f t h e e v e n t u a l f l u e n c y 1 still e m p i r i c a l -- we w i l l n e v e r know how d e s i r e d f o r t h e s k i l l . When w e assess normal w e l l a per formance a im p r e p a r e d t h e l e a r n e r p e e r s a n d a d u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , we may o n l y be1 f o r m e a n i n g f u l s k i l l u s a g e u n t i l we t r y i t measur ing what s u c c e s s f u l p e r f o r m e r s do,^ a n d s e e . Did t h e l e a r n e r r e t a i n t h e s k i l l ? r a t h e r t h a n what s u c c e s s f u l l e a r n e r s mus t d o Did t h e l e a r n e r a c t u a l l y u s e t h e s k i l l i n i n o r d e r t o become s u c c e s s f u l . 1 e x t r a i n s t r u c t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ? If s o , t h e n o u r per formance aim was a t least a d e q u a t e ( i f Where t h e n do we go? A t l e a s t th ree l n o t more t h a n a d e q u a t e ) . If n o t , w e l l t r y ; a l t e r n a t e a p p r o a c h e s f o r s e t t i n g a i m s have 1 t r y , t r y a g a i n (Whi te & H a r i n g , 1980) . been s u g g e s t e d . F i r s t , o n e c a n s i m p l y s h o o t
f o r " s u p e r f l u e n c y " i n a l l b a s i c s k i l l s . 1 1 The e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h t o v a l i d a t i n g a n Haughton (1977 ,1980) h a s s u g g e s t e d 200 t o 400 i n d i v i d u a l ' s per formance a im is c e r t a i n l y p e r m i n u t e f o r a l l b a s i c w r i t i n g and1
I d e s i r a b l e and o f t e n n o t d i f f i c u l t . A t times, c o m p u t a t i o n s k i l l s , 20000 p e r m i n u t e f o r 1 h o w e v e r , i t is n o t p o s s i b l e f o r u s t o f o l l o w " s c a n n i n g s k i l l s , " 600 t o 1200 p e r m i n u t e f o r o u r l e a r n e r s a n d d e t e r m i n e how w e l l we pre- "s tudy r e a d i n g s k i l l s , " and 2000 t o 30001
1 p a r e d them t o s u c c e e d . Moreover , we have t o n o t e s p e r m i n u t e f o r competen t b a n j o p l a y i n g h a v e a p l a c e t o s ta r t -- a star by which t o s k i l l s -- j u s t t o name a few o f t h e p i n p o i n t s l
g u i d e o u r s h i p -- we have t o h a v e a t l e a s t a n which i n t e r e s t him. Are t h e s e i n i t i a l a im o r , a s one o f E r i c ' s second r e a s o n a b l e ? They a r e c e r t a i n l y attainat::: 1 g r a d e r s p o i n t e d o u t , we'd be "a imless . " I n a t l e a s t some c a s e s , however , o n e m i g h t
h e r e w i l l we f i n d t h o s e " r i s i n g stars" t o wonder whether much lower " independent 1 g u i d e u s i n o u r i n i t i a l a t t e m p t ? p r a c t i c e t ' o r "ready t o move on" a i m s m i g h t b e l
more e f f i c i e n t f o r r a p i d movement t h r o u g h t h e T h e most common a p p r o a c h would a p p e a r t o l i e c u r r i c u l u m (Evans , Mercer & Evans , 1 9 8 3 ) . 1 i n t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f "normal" o r "competent"
1 p e r f o r m e r s . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f p u b l i s h e d A second common s t r a t e g y f o r e s t i m a t i n g 1 aims i n t h e J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g and r e a s o n a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e a i m s i n v o l v e s t h e l
e l s e w h e r e a r e d e r i v e d by a s s e s s i n g a p u p i l ' s a s s e s s m e n t o f " t o o l s k i l l s t ' ( e . g . , f r e e / p e e r s , a d u l t s , o r t o r e l y o n o n e o r more o f w r i t e d i g i t s a s a t o o l f o r s e e / w r i t e d i g i t s 1 t h e " l a r g e p r o j e c t ' s t ' d a t a sets (Mercer , t o answer c o m p u t a t i o n prob lems; f r e e / s a y
~ e r c e r& Evans , 1 9 8 2 ) . Why? W e l l , iEmost a l p h a b e t a s a t o o l f o r - s e e / s a y wordg iii 1-
k i d s are a b l e t o make it w i t h a c e r t a i n c o n t e x t ) . Whi te & H a r i n g (1980) s u g g e s t t h a t f r e q u e n c y , t h e n i t ought t o b e good enough t o o l s k i l l f r e q u e n c i e s s h o u l d be a t l e a s t ' f o r o u r k i d s . T h a t may n o t a l w a y s be t r u e . x 1 . 5 t o x2 .0 h i g h e r t h a n " c o n t e x t u a l use" 1
f r e q u e n c i e s . I f one w i s h e s a c h i l d t o w r i t e l ~ o r m a l p e e r s are o f t e n f a r f rom competen t . d i g i t s t o form math f a c t a n s w e r s a t a f r e - 1 Even t h e t y p i c a l a d u l t f a i l s t o m a i n t a i n many quency o f 80 d i g i t s p e r m i n u t e , t h e c h i l d 1 s k i l l s a t t h e u s e f u l l e v e l . F o r example , i n s h o u l d b e a b l e t o £ r e e l w r i t e d i g i t s a t a a r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , Hor ton ( i n f r e q u e n c y o f a t l e a s t (80x1.5=) 1 2 0 t o 1 p r o g r e s s ) n o t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 98%o f a l l (80x2=) 160 p e r m i n u t e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h a t a d u l t s "do n o t compute." They are s o dys- s t r a t e g y r e q u i r e s t h a t one h a s a l r e a d y e s t a b - 1 f l u e n t i n b a s i c math s k i l l s t h a t t h e y l e t t h e l i s h e d t h e a i m f o r t h e "use s k i l l . " To a v o i d 1 b a n k o r t h e s t o r e c l e r k d o a n y . n e c e s s a r y t h a t t r a p , o n e might u s e t h e same b a s i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . When t h e y a r e f o r c e d t o work r a t i o s between t o o l - and u s e - s k i l l f r e q u e n - ( w i t h numbers , t h e y t u r n t o a c a l c u l a t o r f o r c i e s , b u t r e v e r s e t h e d i r e c t i o n of compu-e v e n t h e s i m p l e s t o f p rob lems . ( I , m y s e l f , t a t i o n . T h a t is, a s s e s s t h e c h i l d ' s c u r r e n t 1 Was o n e o f t h e f i r s t t o own a w r i s t b a s i c t o o l s k i l l , d i v i d e by a f a c t o r o f 1 . 5 , l c a l c u l a t o r .) and u s e t h e r e s u l t a n t f i g u r e a s t h e p e r f o r -
mance a i m f o r h i g h e r l e v e l s k i l l s which u s e 1
1 J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
t h a t t o o l . I f t h e p u p i l c a n f r e e l w r i t e d i g i t s a t a f r e q u e n c y o f 1 0 0 p e r m i n u t e , t h e n t h e aim f o r b a s i c math f a c t s might b e (1001 1.5=) 67 d i g i t s p e r minute .
The a d v a n t a g e i n t h e "work down f rom t o o l s k i l l s " a p p r o a c h i s t h a t i t is a l w a y s c o m p l e t e l y d e f i n e d by t h e p u p i l ' s own per formance -- i t is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h o n e aim ( t h e u s e - s k i l l a i m ) i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e a n o t h e r a im ( t h e t o o l movement a i m ) . However, i f t h e c h i l d is n o t a l r e a d y competen t i n t h e t o o l s k i l l , p e r f o r m a n c e aims f o r t h e h i g h e r l e v e l s k i l l w i l l j u s t r e f l e c t t h a t incompetence .
O t h e r v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e theme o f t o o l - s k i l l / u s e - s k i l l f r e q u e n c y r a t i o s have been s u g g e s t e d ( E a t o n a n d Hansen, 1 9 7 8 ) , b u t u t i l i z i n g t o o l - s k i l l f r e q u e n c i e s a s a method o f e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n t e x t u a l u s e - s k i l l f r e -quency a i m s a l w a y s a p p e a r s t o r e q u i r e some l e a p o f f a i t h -- t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t one knows what t h e u s e aim s h o u l d b e ( s o o n e c a n e s t a b l i s h t o o l movement a i m s ) , o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e l e a r n e r ' s t o o l movement f r e q u e n c i e s are f u n c t i o n a l ( s o o n e c a n u s e them t o e s t a b l i s h h i g h e r - l e v e l s k i l l a i m s ) .
The l a s t s t r a t e g y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g aims which I h a v e s e e n i n p r a c t i c e is r e a l l y a method f o r a v o i d i n g e x a c t f r e q u e n c y aims a l t o g e t h e r . I n Shawnee M i s s i o n , Kansas , H e n r i Sokolove e n c o u r a g e d a p r a c t i c e s u g g e s t e d t o h e r by Ogi-Wan S i x c y c l e , t h e o r i g i n a l L e a r n e r -K n i g h t . Each p u p i l s i m p l y works on o n e s t e p i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m f o r as l o n g as h e o r s h e c o n t i n u e s t o g e t b e t t e r . When t h e p u p i l "goes f l a t , " t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m is i n t r o d u c e d . No r e m e d i a t i o n ; n o added c u e s ; n o a r t i f i c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s -- j u s t "move on." Such a n a p p r o a c h c e r t a i n l y embraces two c o n c e p t s d e a r t o t h e h e a r t s o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h e r s -- " l i s t e n t o t h e c h i l d r e n " (when I s t o p l e a r n i n g it means t h a t I want someth ing d i f f e r e n t ) and "emphasize l e a r n i n g " ( i t m a t t e r s n o t where I am, j u s t how f a s t I ' m g e t t i n g somewhere e l s e ) . To b e s u r e , upon i n s p e c t i n g some o f H e n r i ' s c h a r t s I was s u r p r i s e d a t j u s t how low some o f t h e f r e q u e n c i e s were ( g r a d e l e v e l o r a l r e a d i n g a t 20-50 words /minute ) . However, t h e p u p i l s were u n d e n i a b l y p r o g r e s s i n g n i c e l y t h r o u g h t h e c u r r i c u l u m a n d , more i m p o r t a n t l y , were a p p a r e n t l y w e l l i n t o t h e " independent p r a c t i c e " r a n g e ment ioned by Haughton (1980) . F r e q u e n c i e s o n l e v e l s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m n o l o n g e r d i r e c t l y t a u g h t c o n t i n u e d t o improve.
D e s p i t e S o k o l o v e 1 s ( 1 9 7 8 ) v e r y c o n v i n c i n g and v e r y e x t e n s i v e d a t a , I must a d m i t t h a t t h e "as l o n g as you p r o g r e s s " s t r a t e g y was t h e most d i f f i c u l t f o r m e t o c o n s i d e r . Is t h e
l e a r n e r a l w a y s r i g h t ? P e r h a p s n o t , a t least when i t comes t o s i g n a l i n g t h e end o f t h e need t o l e a r n by c e a s i n g t o l e a r n . S t i l l , I h a v e become more c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e i d e a o f moving a h e a d i n a c u r r i c u l u m a t t h e earliest p o s s i b l e o p p o r t u n i t y . S t e p a h e a d s and l e a p a h e a d s are u n d e n i a b l y e f f e c t i v e ways o f a c c e l e r a t i n g l e a r n i n g i n s e q u e n t i a l m a t e r i a l w i t h many l e a r n e r s . I am more r e l u c t a n t , however, t o " l e t t h e l e a r n e r d e c i d e " when i t comes t o e s t a b l i s h i n g f r e q u e n c y aims f o r t e r m i n a l s k i l l s -- s k i l l s which s h o u l d become i m m e d i a t e l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e l e a r n e r ' s d a i l y b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e and which must b e m a i n t a i n e d and u s e d w i t h o u t c o n t i n u e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u p p o r t -- t h e end o f t h e l i n e , as it were , i n a c u r r i c u l a r sequence .
I am s i m p l y u n w i l l i n g , a s a t e a c h e r , t o a b d i c a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e n s u r i n g t h a t a t l e a s t min imal c o m p e t e n c i e s a r e a c h i e v e d i n a t least some i m p o r t a n t s k i l l s . I am u n w i l l i n g t o s t o p t h e program i n d r e s s i n g j u s t b e c a u s e t h e l e a r n e r g o e s f l a t a t a f r e q u e n c y o f .02 d r e s s i n g s e q u e n c e s p e r m i n u t e , f o r I know t h a t s u c h a f r e q u e n c y w i l l n o t be t o l e r a t e d i n t h e g r o u p home. I am u n w i l l i n g t o s t o p i n s t r u c t i o n ( o r a t least c o n t i n u e d p r a c t i c e ) i n b a s i c math s k i l l s j u s t b e c a u s e t h e p u p i l b e g i n s t o d e c e l e r a t e a f t e r r e a c h i n g 16 d i g i t s p e r m i n u t e . I know t h a t s u c h a f r e q u e n c y w i l l n o t b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e p u p i l t o k e e p up i n s c i e n c e c l a s s . . . a n d I s u s p e c t t h a t t h e l e a r n e r would n o t m a i n t a i n o r u s e t h e s k i l l as a n a d u l t .
I f e e l more c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h a "compromise" s t r a t e g y s u g g e s t e d by Haughton (1977) . E s s e n t i a l l y , o n e e s t a b l i s h e s a %inimum f r e q u e n c y aim" and a "maximum f r e q u e n c y aim." The minimum f r e q u e n c y aim d e f i n e s t h e l o w e s t per formance you b e l i e v e w i l l a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e t h e p u p i l f o r advancement i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m o r i n d e p e n d e n t u s e o f t h e s k i l l . I f t h e l e a r n e r f a l t e r s b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e minimum f r e q u e n c y a im, t h e program is m o d i f i e d i n some way t o f a c i l i t a t e c o n t i n u e d l e a r n i n g . Once t h e minimum per formance aim is r e a c h e d , t h e l e a r n e r d e c i d e s what w i l l happen. A s l o n g a s t h e l e a r n e r c o n t i n u e s t o p r o g r e s s , t h e program i s c o n t i n u e d ; o n c e t h e l e a r n e r "goes f l a t ," t h e program is ended . A maximum per formance a i m is s e t a t t h e l e v e l beyond which t h e t e a c h e r / m a n a g e r is n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n c o n t i n u i n g t o work w i t h t h e s k i l l . I f t h e l e a r n e r w i s h e s t o c o n t i n u e t o d e v e l o p t h e s k i l l a l o n e , f i n e , b u t t h e manager d i s c o n t i n u e s f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h a t s k i l l and i n t r o d u c e s a program t o d e v e l o p some new s k i l l .
Where am I now?
J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
I ' m back a t s q u a r e one , t r y i n g t o d e c i d e what t h o s e minimal performance aims shou ld be. Am I l e f t w i th norms, fancy r a t i o s and s imp le quesswork? Is t h e r e n o . b e t t e r way t o esti-mate what might be f u n c t i o n a l ? Must we s imply "try i t and see," f o l l o w up, and a d j u s t a s neces sa ry? Perhaps no t .
A f t e r c a r e f u l l y reviewing what young E r i c , Ogi-Wan, and o t h e r s ( i n c l u d i n g , of cou r se , t h e Learner-Rebels themselves) have been t r y i n g t o t e l l m e ove r t h e y e a r s , I would l i k e t o s u g g e s t s e v e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which one might make when e s t a b l i s h i n g a p re l imi -na ry f requency aim. For t h e moment, I w i l l l i m i t my concern t o " t e rmina l p ro f i c i ency" , t h a t is , t h e l e v e l of performance which w i l l make a s k i l l immediately u s e f u l t o a l e a r n e r , no t j u s t a s one s t e p i n a sequence , b u t a s a n independent s k i l l i n i t ' s own r i g h t . I n s h o r t , t h e a ims d i s c u s s e d below a r e des igned t o a l l o w t h e l e a r n e r t o :
[Aldvance t o a l e v e l of [ I lndependence , [ M l a i n t a i n t h e s k i l l ove r t i m e , and perform some [ S l e r v i c e o f impor tance t o t h e l e a r n e r .
Each o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which I would l i k e t o propose is based on t h e n o t i o n of "compe-t i t i o n . "
Peer Compet i t ion
The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f performance a ims a r e e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s of some form of "peer compet i t ion ." One a s s e s s e s what most k i d s d o , and t h e n assumes t h a t i f a new l e a r n e r can a c h i e v e t h o s e l e v e l s of pe r fo r - mance, t h e l e a r n e r w i l l a t l e a s t b e a b l e t o "compete." I n some c a s e s t h a t may be q u i t e t r u e (e .g . , a t h l e t i c o r academic games; competing f o r a p o s i t i o n a s a t y p i s t ) . At tempt ing t o p r o v i d e a l e a r n e r w i th "normal f requency" might a l s o be impor t an t s o c i a l l y . "Slow k i d s " s t a n d o u t , and "d i f f e r ences" can l e a d t o i s o l a t i o n (White, 1980). P rov id ing t h e l e a r n e r w i th t h e a b i l i t y t o compete w i th p e e r s c a n l e a d t o much e a s i e r accep tance by peer groups . T h a t ' s n i c e . But "normal" is no t always n i c e .
P a t s y , a mi ld ly handicapped e lementary s choo l s t u d e n t , had a moderate speech problem ( d i f f i c u l t y i n c o r r e c t l y pronouncing s h o r t vowels) t h a t showed up i n o r a l r e a d i n g and c o n v e r s a t i o n . Ruth Mundt, P a t s y ' s t e a c h e r , dec ided t o h e l p P a t s y develop more f l u e n c y i n s ay ing t h e "hard sounds'' by s imply having h e r r ead from a list of C-(short vowel)-C words each day . To e s t a b l i s h P a t s y ' s f requency aim, Ruth l o g i c a l l y reasoned t h a t i f P a t s y
cou ld s a y t h e sounds a s f l u e n t l y a s h e r nonhandicapped p e e r s , a l l would be w e l l . A qu i ck assessment o f t h o s e p e e r s r e v e a l e d t h a t an aim o f 40 sounds minute shou ld do n i c e l y f o r p u t t i n g Pats:e'in t h e middle."
A s shown i n Char t 1, P a t s y had no r e a l d i f f i c u l t y i n ach iev ing t h e aim of 40 sounds pe r minute. A s h e r f l u e n c y approached t h a t of h e r nonhandicapped p e e r s , h e r e r r o r s j u s t seemed t o d i s a p p e a r -- u s u a l l y a good s i g n . A f t e r d i s c o n t i n u i n g t h e program, however, Ruth n o t i c e d t h a t P a t s y began t o s l i p back i n t o h e r o l d h a b i t s . When a formal a s s e s s - ment was conducted a month l a t e r , P a t s y had dropped t o h a l f h e r former f l u e n c y and t h e e r r o r s had come back. The program was r e i n s t a t e d , t h e "normal aim" reached once a g a i n , and a f t e r c r o s s i n g h e r f i n g e r s , Ruth t e rmina t ed t h e program once more. Three weeks l a t e r P a t s y was up (down?) t o h e r o l d t r i c k s , s o i t was back t o t h e program.
A t t h i s p o i n t , many f i n e behav io r a n a l y s t s would p o i n t o u t t h a t P a t s y was having d i f f i c u l t y i n " g e n e r a l i z i n g , " and t h a t c o n t i n g e n c i e s shou ld be e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e " r e a l world" t o encourage and deve lop t h e s k i l l where i t w i l l a c t u a l l y be used . I n o t h e r words, Ruth shou ld s t a r t prompting P a t s y and p rov id ing c o r r e c t i v e feedback ( p l u s a n M&M o r two?) throughout t h e day. For tu-n a t e l y , Ruth was r e l u c t a n t t o engage i n a c t i v i t i e s which might prove very embar-r a s s i n g t o P a t s y (when was t h e l a s t t i m e someone c o r r e c t e d you i n f r o n t of your f r i e n d s ? ) , s o s h e op ted t o t r y f o r super-f luency . Ruth doubled P a t s y ' s f requency aim ("...now P a t s y , you have a problem, s o you must be t w i c e a s good a s t h o s e who do n o t have a problem..."). It took on ly a n e x t r a 9 days (beyond t h e o l d aim o f 40 pe r minute) t o r e a c h t h e new aim. The program was termi-n a t e d . A month l a t e r P a t s y was still super-f l u e n t . Ruth never n o t i c e d a problem a f t e r t h a t d u r i n g r ead ing o r c o n v e r s a t i o n . Undoubtedly, P a t s y is now a speech t h e r a p i s t o r a l i n g u i s t i c s p e c i a l i s t i n t h e U.G. (Uni ted G a l a x i e s ) .
Obvious ly , "compet i t ion wi th pee r s " was no t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e method f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g P a t s y ' s aim. Ruth was d i l i g e n t i n f o l l o w i n g P a t s y a f t e r t h e program t o see i f t h e new behavior was f u n c t i o n a l , however, and when he r f a i t h i n t h e Normies f a i l e d , s h e s t u d i e d c a r e f u l l y t h e p l a n s of t h e Dea ths t a r t h a t young E r i c had r e t r i e v e d wh i l e r e s c u i n g P r i n c e s s Learna. She was f i n a l l y a b l e t o l o c a t e t h e weakspot i n t h e monstrous Normie machine. She p u t h e r f a i t h i n t h e Learner-Force, and found a n aim t h a t worked.
Journal o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W KS )
CALENDAR WEEKS B E H A V I O R RESEARCH C O BOX 3351 - K A N S A S C I T Y K A N S 6 6 1 0 3
Chart 1. Patsy Reaches Superfluency
1 1 M I N HRS
, -. I A The celeration lines on this chart are r~roiectedl minimum celeration lines I .-
see/say C-(short vowel) -C White - Mundt SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS Pats words in isolation
- - - -
SUPERVISOR ADVISER M A N A G E R BEHAVER C O U N T E D
.-
D E P O S I T O R AGENCY T I M E R C O U N T E R C H A R T E R
Amid thunderous MUSIC**, t h e Normie Death-s t a r was des t royed .
How might we have guessed b e f o r e t h e program s t a r t e d t h a t P a t s y needed supe r f luency? The c l u e might l i e i n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a n o t h e r t y p e of compe t i t i on , which w i l l be examined i n t h e n e x t ep i sode , "The Return of t h e Learner . "
REFERWCES
Berquam, E.M. (1981) STRAT a n a l y s i s : u s i n g s t r a t i f i e d c e l e r a t i o n s t a c k s t o summarize c h a r t e d d a t a . J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , Z ( l ) , 13-17.
Berquam, E.M. (1981) The r e l a t i o n s h i p between f requency of r e sponse and r e t e n -t i o n on a p a i r e d a s s o c i a t e t a s k . Unpublished d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a , G a i n e s v i l l e .
B inde r , C. (1981) Treatment e f f e c t s of t im ings : f requency and endurance. I n K . R . Johnson ( C h a i r ) , P r o g r e s s i n P r e c i s i o n Teaching. Symposium p re sen ted a t t h e s even th annua l meeting of t h e Assoc i a t i on f o r Behavior Ana lys i s , Milwaukee.
Bower, B. & Orge l , R. (1981) To err is d i v i n e . J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n Teaching , 2 ( 1 ) , 3-12.
Clement, R. (1978) Spr ing-Fal l r e t e n t i o n s c o r e s on p r e c i s e monthly assessments . Unpublished manuscr ip t , Grea t F a l l s P u b l i c Schools , Grea t F a l l s , MT.
Eaton , M.D. & Hansen, C.L. (1978) Classroom o r g a n i z a t i o n and management. I n N.G. Har ing , T.C. L o v i t t , M.D. Ea ton , & C.L. Hansen, The f o u r t h R: r e s e a r c h i n t h e c lassroom. Columbus, OH: Cha r l e s E. M e r r i l l .
** MUSIC, acco rd ing t o Ogi-Wan (L inds l ey , p e r s o n a l communication, e x a c t d a t e unknown) r e p r e s e n t s t h e t h i n g s we must remember abou t l e a r n i n g : l e a r n i n g is by ( M ) u l t i p l e s , n o t add and s u b t r a c t ; l e a r n e r s a r e (U)nique, what works w i th one l e a r n e r may no t work w i t h a n o t h e r ; l e a r n i n g is ( S ) p e c i f i c i n t h a t something may be "hard t o do" but "easy t o l e a r n " ; "easy t o g e t r i g h t , " b u t "hard t o l e a r n , " e t c . ; l e a r n i n g is (1)ndependent i n t h a t c o r r e c t s can go up wh i l e e r r o r s go anywhere, succes s i n one c u r r i c u l a r a r e a t e l l s u s no th ing abou t o t h e r c u r r i c u l a r a r e a s , e t c . ; and l e a r n i n g is a f u n c t i o n of (C)onsequences -- you c a n ' t t e l l why something happened u n t i l you s e e what comes a f t e r it.
Eaton , M. & Wittman, V. (1983) Leap ups: a c c e l e r a t i o n of l e a r n i n g through i n c r e a s i n g m a t e r i a l d i f f i c u l t y . J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching, 3 , 29-33.
Evans, S.S., Mercer, C.D. & Evans, W.H. (1983) The r e l a t i o n s h i p of f requency t o subsequent s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n . J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n Teaching, 4, 28-34.
Haughton, E.C. (1977, J u l y ) Tool s k i l l s and s t a n d a r d performance aims. Paper p re sen ted a t t h e Big Sky P r e c i s i o n Teaching Conference, K a l i s p e l l , MT.
Haughton, E.C. (1980) P r a c t i c i n g p r a c t i c e s : l e a r n i n g by a c t i v i t y . J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching, l ( 3 ) , 3-20.
Haughton, E.C. (1982) Cons ide r ing S t anda rds ( a column). J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n Teaching , 3, 75-77.
Haughton, E.C. (1972) A i m s , growing and s h a r i n g . I n J. Jo rdan and L. Robbins (Eds . ) , L e t ' s t r y do ing something else k ind o f t h i n g . Res ton , VA: Counci l of Excep t iona l Ch i ld ren .
Hor ton , S. The use of c a l c u l a t o r s a s a p r o s t h e t i c d e v i c e w i th educab le men ta l ly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . Unpublished d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ( i n p r o g r e s s ) , U n i v e r s i t y of Washington, S e a t t l e .
Johnson, J. & Jackson, J. (1980) S t epp ing ahead r e s u l t s i n improved l e a r n i n g . J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching , 1 ( 1 ) , 29-30.
L i b e r t y , K . , Har ing , N. & White, 0. (1980) Rules f o r data-based s t r a t e g y d e c i s i o n s i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l programs: c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h and i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . I n W. S a i l o r , B. Wilcox, & L. Brown (Eds . ) , Methods of i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h s e v e r e l y handicapped s t u d e n t s . Ba l t imore , MD: Pau l H. Brookes.
L i n d s l e y , O.R. (1977) Speed, accu racy , endurance. I n S . Graf ( C h a i r ) , Chart releases from t r a d i t i o n a l measurement t r a p s . Symposium p re sen ted a t t h e t h i r d annua l meeting of t h e Midwestern Associ-a t i o n of Behavior Ana lys i s , Chicago.
L i n d s l e y , O.R. (1981, February) C u r r e n t i s s u e s f a c i n g s t a n d a r d c e l e r a t i o n c h a r t i n g . I n v i t e d Address p re sen ted a t t h e P r e c i s i o n Teaching Winter Conference, Orlando, FL.
McGreevy, P. (1980) Hard t o do becomes easy t o l e a r n . J o u r n a l of P r e c i s i o n Teaching , 1 ( 1 ) , 27-29.
J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4 63
Mercer, C.D., Mercer, A . R . , & Evans, S. (1982) The u s e o f f requency i n e s t a b l i s h i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l aims. J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching, 3, 57-59.
Sokolove, H . (1978) Three y e a r s of P r o j e c t PROWCX. Unpublished manusc r ip t , Shawnee Miss ion P u b l i c Schools , . Shawnee Miss ion , KS .
White, 0. & H a r i n g , N . (1982) Data based program change d e c i s i o n s . I n M. S tevens-Domingues & K . Stremel-Campbell(Eds.), Ongoing d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r measuring c h i l d p rog res s . Western S t a t e s Techn ica l A s s i s t a n c e Resource (WESTAR).
Owen R. White is a f a c u l t y member a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington, EEU, CDMRC, WJ-10, S e a t t l e , WA 98195.
Chart -sharing
MONITORING COLOR NAMING
Susan Thomsen M i s s i s s i p p i Bend Area Educat ion Agency
Kris was r e f e r r e d t o m e by h i s c lassroom t e a c h e r 2 days a f t e r beginning k i n d e r g a r t e n . Kris q u a l i f i e d f o r t he rapy wi th numerous a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s and language d e f i c i t s . One o f Kris' f i r s t o b j e c t i v e s was t o l e a r n c o l o r names. S i n c e knowing c o l o r names is a n impor t an t k i n d e r g a r t e n s k i l l , I d i d n ' t want t o spend a l l year t e a c h i n g one c o l o r name a t a t i m e .
We s t a r t e d wi th a s ee / say probe wi th 35 c i r c l e s and I randomly co lo red t h e c i r c l e s t h e 8 b a s i c c o l o r s . Kris was i n s t r u c t e d t o name t h e c o l o r s f o r 1 minute and t o s k i p t h e ones h e d i d n ' t know. Our d a t a was f l a t , no l e a r n i n g was t a k i n g p l a c e and we were bo th con fused ( see Char t 1 ) . I decided t h a t t h e c i r c l e s were t o o a b s t r a c t , t h a t Kris r e a l l y d i d n ' t unders tand t h e concept o f c o l o r , and t h a t h e wasn ' t going t o l e a r n t h e c o l o r names u n l e s s we made some changes.
We c o n s t r u c t e d a new probe wi th 8 p i c t u r e s s e l e c t e d by Kris and c o l o r e d each p i c t u r e a b a s i c c o l o r . Kris was i n s t r u c t e d t o s ay a
J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n
c o l o r s e n t e n c e a b o u t each p i c t u r e ( i . e . , The a p p l e is r e d . The pumpkin is o range . ) . Therapy was d i r e c t e d toward i d e n t i f y i n g t h e b a s i c c o l o r of t h e meaningful o b j e c t s and p i c t u r e s , and p r a c t i c i n g through i m i t a t i o n of t h e probe c o l o r s en t ences . Kris l e a r n e d t h e c o l o r s e n t e n c e s , and t h e concept of c o l o r was f i n a l l y making s e n s e t o Kris and me. I could s e e it on h i s c h a r t and h i s f a c e .
Next w e s t epped up t o t h e o r i g i n a l s e e / s a y c o l o r names probe. Within 7 c h a r t e d days Kris was naming c o l o r s p r o f i c i e n t l y .
Our f i n a l phase was t o step-up t o a 5 minute g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ( c a r r y o v e r ) a c t i v i t y . Kris was asked t o t e l l me t h e name and c o l o r of o b j e c t s p icked from a box randomly. A f t e r 4 days , Kris cou ld perform t h i s t a s k a t a smooth pace wi th no h e s i t a t i o n .
We bo th l e a r n e d from Kris' c h a r t . Kris l e a r n e d h i s c o l o r s and I l e a r n e d t h e v a l u e of u s ing meaningful m a t e r i a l when t e a c h i n g and con t inu ing t o l e t my s t u d e n t s t a l k t o me through t h e i r c h a r t s .
Susan Thomsen is a speech/ language s p e c i a l i s t w i th t h e M i s s i s s i p p i Bend Area Educat ion Agency, 209 F i f t h Ave., Camanche, I A 52730.
STUDY METHODS I N GRADUATE SCHOOL
L o r i Korinek and B i l l Wolking U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a
The purpose of t h i s a r t i c l e is t o s h a r e d a t a from one s t u d e n t who used t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s tudy methods t o p r e p a r e f o r a f i n a l compre- h e n s i v e w r i t t e n examinat ion i n a g r a d u a t e l e v e l s p e c i a l educat ion(menta1 r e t a r d a t i o n ) seminar. Each s tudy method was used t o p repa re f o r a s p e c i f i c t o p i c covered i n t h e seminar. The s t u d y methods and t o p i c s were: ( 1 ) r e r e a d i n g 1-2 page a b s t r a c t s d e a l i n g wi th v a r i o u s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of menta l r e t a r -d a t i o n ; ( 2 ) w r i t i n g and r e r e a d i n g a n e s s a y comparing and c o n t r a s t i n g t e n a u t h o r s ' p e r s p e c t i v e s on mainstreaming; and ( 3 ) rev iewing and t a k i n g a d a i l y t iming on f l a s h - c a r d s , w i th a u t h o r names and p u b l i c a t i o n d a t e s on t h e f r o n t and wi th 2-3 r e l e v a n t f a c t s o r i d e a s a b o u t o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g from t h e r e s p e c t i v e a u t h o r s on t h e back of t h e c a r d s .
Many P r e c i s i o n Teache r s endor se t h e u se of f l a s h c a r d s and timings(SAFMEDS) a s a h igh ly e f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g t o o l . Bower and Orgel (1980) documented t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of SAFMEDS wi th c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s .
T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
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A mul t i -e lement d e s i g n was used t o compare t h e t h r e e s t u d y methods and c o r r e s p o n d i n g About PT t o p i c s . The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was t h i n k - s a y i d e a s o r f a c t s a b o u t t h e t o p i c d u r i n g a o n e m i n u t e t i m i n g . Two t i m i n g s were c o n d u c t e d d a i l y on e a c h t o p i c . The t i m i n g s were f o l l o w e d by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 m i n u t e s s p e n t s t u d y i n g t h e t o p i c . The s t u d y t i m e was e q u a l i z e d a t t h e end o f e a c h week.
Each d a t a p o i n t on C h a r t 1 r e p r e s e n t s a n a v e r a g e o f two d a i l y t i m i n g s on t h i n k - s a y i d e a s a b o u t t h e t o p i c . N o t i c e t h a t t h e d a t a f o r e a c h s t u d y method and t o p i c are con-c u r r e n t . A s e v i d e n c e d by t h e i n i t i a l d a t a p o i n t s , t h e s t u d e n t p o s s e s s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l e n t r y - l e v e l knowledge a b o u t e a c h t o p i c .
C h a r t 1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s t u d e n t ' s l e a r n i n g w i t h t h e f l a s h c a r d method o f s t u d y and t h e t o p i c o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g was s u p e r i o r i n terms o f t h e c e l e r a t i o n f o r b o t h c o r r e c t s (x2 .5) and i n c o r r e c t s ( / 2 . 7 ) . The s t u d e n t ' s f i n a l per formance under t h i s same c o n d i t i o n was a g a i n s u p e r i o r i n terms o f b o t h a c c u r a c y ( x 1 7 ) a n d f l u e n c y ( l 7 c o r r e c t s / min.) . It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , however , t h a t t h e s t u -d e n t ' s l e a r n i n g and f i n a l per formance were o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s w i t h t h e e s s a y method of s t u d y and t h e t o p i c o f m a i n s t r e a m i n g . On t h e o t h e r hand , t h e s t u d e n t ' s l e a r n i n g u s i n g t h e f l a s h c a r d method o f s t u d y and t h e t o p i c o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e d u s i n g t h e a b s t r a c t s method o f s t u d y a n d t h e t o p i c o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f m e n t a l r e t a r d a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e c e l e r a t i o n f o r b o t h c o r r e c t s a n d i n c o r r e c t s by a f a c t o r of x1.7 and x l . 8 ( c e l e r a t i o n m u l t i p l i e r s ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s same s u p e r i o r i t y was o b s e r v e d i n f i n a l per formance , i n t e r m s o f b o t h a c c u r a c y ( x 2 ) and f l u e n c y ( x 2 ) [ f r e q u e n c y m u l t i p l i e r s ] .
These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t , f o r t h i s s t u d e n t , s i m p l y r e r e a d i n g a b s t r a c t s , a t r a d i t i o n a l method o f s t u d y , was n o t as e f f e c t i v e as s a y i n g a u t h o r - f a c t f l a s h c a r d s o r w r i t i n g a n d r e r e a d i n g a n o r g a n i z e d e s s a y . R e p l i c a t i o n s w i t h a d d i t i o n a l s t u d e n t s and t o p i c s w i l l d e t e r m i n e i f t h e o b s e r v e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s m a i n t a i n a c r o s s s u b j e c t s and c o n t e n t .
R e f e r e n c e
B o w e r , B . & O r g e 1 , R . (1980) T o e r r is d i v i n e . J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , 2, 3-9.
B i l l Wolking i s a f a c u l t y member and L o r i Kor inek is a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t i n t h e Department o f S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a , G a i n e s v i l l e , FL 32603.
NOTES FROM THE EDITOR
P a t r i c k McGreevy
I would l i k e t o e n c o u r a g e a l l o f you t o s u b m i t C h a r t - s h a r i n g a r t i c l e s and m a n u s c r i p t s t o JPT. C o n s i d e r t h e p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s f o r c h i l d r e n o f your s h a r i n g a s u c c e s s f u l i n t e r v e n t i o n w i t h o u r r e a d e r s . The c o s t is s e v e r a l h o u r s o f your t i m e . I f it t a k e s you f o u r h o u r s t o p r e p a r e t h e a r t i c l e and f o u r c h i l d r e n are h e l p e d , t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t r a t i o is one s t u d e n t h e l p e d l o n e hour s p e n t . would l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s i s a n e f f e c t i v e , e f f i c i e n t , and l o v i n g way t o spend t i m e .
A l s o , h e l p your t e a c h e r s , and ( y e s ) e v e n t h e c h i l d r e n , p r e p a r e a r t i c l e s . Remember, most of t h e d i s c o v e r i e s o f P r e c i s i o n Teaching h a v e o r i g i n a t e d w i t h a s u g g e s t i o n f rom a c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r and w i t h a c h i l d ' s c h a r t . An a r t i c l e p r e p a r e d and s u b m i t t e d by a c h i l d would r e c e i v e t h e immedia te a t t e n t i o n o f t h e e d i t o r i a l b o a r d .
I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e F i f t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l P r e c i s i o n L e a r n i n g / P r e c i s i o n Teaching C o n f e r e n c e i s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s i s s u e . s t r o n g l y e n c o u r a g e you t o c o n s i d e r a t t e n d i n g t h i s c o n f e r e n c e . K a t h l e e n L i b e r t y , Owen White a n d many o t h e r s a r e working h a r d t o make t h i s a n i n f o r m a t i v e and e n j o y a b l e c o n f e r e n c e .
TEACAW TO TEACHER
Caryn Robbins
I had a c h a n c e t o d o a l i t t l e summer a n d p i c k e d up W i l l i a m Moon' s B l u e Highways. p h i l o s o p h i c a l j o u r n e y , Moon o b s e r v a t i o n which sums up a p h i l o s o p h y a s P r e c i s i o n T e a c h e r s s a y s "man", r e a d ' 'person") :
The a n n a l s o f s c i e n t i f i c
r e a d i n g t h i s L e a s t Hea t
Along h i s makes a n
p a r t o f o u r (where Moon
d i s c o v e r y f u l l o f e r r o r s t h a t opened new w o r l d s : B e l l was working on a n a p p a r a t u s t o a i d t h e d e a f when h e d i s c o v e r e d t h e t e l e p h o n e ; E d i s o n was t i n k e r i n g w i t h t h e t e l e p h o n e when h e i n v e n t e d t h e phonograph. I f a man c a n k e e p a l e r t a n d imagin- a t i v e , a n e r r o r is a p o s s i b i l i t y , a c h a n c e a t someth ing new t o him, wander ing and wondering a r e p a r t o f t h e same p r o c e s s , h e is most i n e r r o r , whenever h e q u i t s e x p l o r i n g .
J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No . 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
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P r e c i s i o n Teachers view e r r o r s a s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . They change them from f a i l u r e s i n t o l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Few o t h e r t each ing s t r a t e g i e s have h e l d t h i s phi losophy. Open l e a r n i n g c lassrooms have a l lowed c h i l d r e n t o l e a r n through a t r i a l and e r r o r p roces s when engaging i n expe r imen ta l and enr ichment a c t i v i t i e s . The more s t r u c t u r e d s t r a t e g i e s have moved toward e r r o r l e s s l e a r n i n g . I t 's a s i f you can make e r r o r s when you ' re having f u n wi th l e a r n i n g , bu t when you a r e s e r i o u s l y l e a r n i n g , you should n o t make a mi s t ake .
It is much e a s i e r t o b e l i e v e t h a t e r r o r s a r e l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a n it is t o l i v e a s i f t h e y a r e . A f t e r a l l , when you make a mi s t ake i n ba l anc ing your checkbook, t h e bank s e n d s you a n o v e r d r a f t n o t i c e , n o t c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s f o r a new l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t y . I t would be n i c e t o change t h i s world view f o r o u r s t u d e n t s . We'd l i k e them NOT t o f e e l t h e upset-stomach-red-faced-crawl -in-a-hole-and-die r e sponse t o e r r o r s . We would l i k e them t o l e a r n t o f e e l what w e b e l i e v e .
I have been amazed when two and one-half yea r o l d c h i l d r e n e n t e r my c lassroom and have a l r e a d y l e a r n e d n o t t o make mis t akes , by n o t doing any th ing . S i n c e i t ' s much e a s i e r t o change a behav io r , t h a n t o c r e a t e one , my f i r s t g o a l f o r many c h i l d r e n is t o l e a r n t o make a n e r r o r and n o t s e e i t a s a f a i l u r e . I t 's a ve ry impor t an t s k i l l t o have when a c h i l d is handicapped and w i l l spend h i s / h e r l i f e making e r r o r s i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s eyes . I have n o t found a magica l way t o t e a c h t h i s s k i l l . My primary s t r a t e g y h a s been t o t a l k t o t h e c h i l d r e n abou t my own e r r o r s , and t e l l them what I have l e a r n e d . Many c h i l d r e n look somewhat shocked t o h e a r a n a d u l t admi t a mi s t ake , though t h e y a r e used t o s e e i n g u s make them.
Moon, W.L.H. (1984) Blue Highways. New York: B a l l a n t i n e Books, pp.223-224.
AROUND TIE STANDARD CELERATION CHART
P a t r i c k McGreevy
I n t h e l a s t i s s u e , I sugges ted t r u n c a t i n g ( c u t t i n g ) p r o p o r t i o n a l l y t h e Standard C e l e r a t i o n C h a r t , when s u b m i t t i n g manusc r ip t s t o j o u r n a l s w i th a format s m a l l e r t h a n 8 112 x 11 i n c h e s . I f u r t h e r sugges t ed r e q u e s t i n g
t h a t t h e j o u r n a l p r i n t t h e c h a r t s w i thou t r e d u c t i o n o r enlargement.
I n o r d e r t o encourage t h i s p r o c e s s and the reby encourage t h e submiss ion of Chart-based manusc r ip t s t o o t h e r j o u r n a l s , I am p repa r ing b l a c k , camera-ready c o p i e s of t h e f o u r d a i l y c h a r t s sugges t ed i n Tab le 1 of my l a s t column ( l a s t i s s u e , page 44) . J u s t l i k e t h e c h a r t s p r i n t e d i n JPT, t h e s e c h a r t s do n o t c o n t a i n a g r i d .
These c h a r t s w i l l be a v a i l a b l e a t a nominal c o s t . J u s t send me a n o t e d e s c r i b i n g which of t h e f o u r c h a r t s and how many of each c h a r t you need. I w i l l send them t o you, a long wi th a n o t e s p e c i f y i n g t h e cha rges f o r t h e c h a r t s and pos tage . I would s u g g e s t t h a t you s p e c i f y a t l e a s t t h e number o f c h a r t s you a c t u a l l y p l a n t o u s e , s i n c e most copy machines, even expens ive models, produce a copy t h a t is n o t t h e same s i z e a s t h e o r i g i n a l .
68 J o u r n a l o f P r e c i s i o n T e a c h i n g , V o l . V , No. 3 , F a l l , 1 9 8 4
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