John W. Santrock Chapter 1: Introduction A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development

John W. SantrockJohn W. Santrock

Chapter 1: IntroductionChapter 1: Introduction

A Topical Approach to A Topical Approach to Lifespan Lifespan

DevelopmentDevelopment

What is Human Development?What is Human Development?

It is a pattern of movement and It is a pattern of movement and changechange Some things changeSome things change Some things stay the sameSome things stay the same

Movement & change include growth, Movement & change include growth, transition, and decline.transition, and decline.

The Lifespan PerspectiveThe Lifespan Perspective

HistoryHistory Studied child development since about Studied child development since about

1900.1900.

Studied adult development since about Studied adult development since about 1960.1960.

The reason for the difference is cultural The reason for the difference is cultural change & increased longevity (life change & increased longevity (life expectancy).expectancy).

Life Expectancy ChangesLife Expectancy Changes Lifespan, the maximum number of Lifespan, the maximum number of

years a human being could live (about years a human being could live (about 120 years) remains relatively constant.120 years) remains relatively constant.

Life expectancy, the number of years a Life expectancy, the number of years a person can expect to live when born in person can expect to live when born in a certain place in a certain year, a certain place in a certain year, changes.changes. U.S., 1900 47 yearsU.S., 1900 47 years U.S., 2005, 77 years (30 year increase)U.S., 2005, 77 years (30 year increase)

What are the characteristics of the What are the characteristics of the lifespan perspective?lifespan perspective?

MultidimensionalMultidimensional BiologicalBiological CognitiveCognitive SocioemotionalSocioemotional

MultidirectionalMultidirectional Growth and declineGrowth and decline

PlasticPlastic Potential for changePotential for change

Lifespan Research is MultidisciplinaryLifespan Research is Multidisciplinary

Where did this information come Where did this information come from?from?

Research and study in many fields of Research and study in many fields of endeavor including psychology, endeavor including psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, sociology, anthropology, education, and medicine.and medicine.

What types of influences form the What types of influences form the context of development?context of development?

Normative age-graded (cultural)Normative age-graded (cultural) e.g., puberty, graduation, retiremente.g., puberty, graduation, retirement

Normative history-graded (historical)Normative history-graded (historical) e.g., war, famine, earthquakes, terrorisme.g., war, famine, earthquakes, terrorism

Non-normative life events & Non-normative life events & conditions (personal)conditions (personal) Individual experiences, biology, Individual experiences, biology,

personalitypersonality

What types of influences form What types of influences form the context of development?the context of development?

Worldview – View of Human NatureWorldview – View of Human Nature

Historical Views of Human NatureHistorical Views of Human Nature

Prevailing views of children (human Prevailing views of children (human nature) throughout history?nature) throughout history? PreformationismPreformationism Original SinOriginal Sin Tabula RasaTabula Rasa Innate GoodnessInnate Goodness

How does each view affect child-rearing How does each view affect child-rearing practices?practices?

Historical View: PreformationismHistorical View: Preformationism

Time: 6Time: 6thth 15 15thth Centuries Centuries

View: Children are basically small View: Children are basically small adults without unique needs and adults without unique needs and characteristics.characteristics.

Effect: Little or no need for special Effect: Little or no need for special treatmenttreatment

Historical View - Original SinHistorical View - Original Sin

Time: 16Time: 16thth Century (Puritan) Century (Puritan)

View: Children are born sinful and more View: Children are born sinful and more apt to grow up to do evil than good.apt to grow up to do evil than good.

Effect: Parents must discipline children Effect: Parents must discipline children to ensure morality and ultimate to ensure morality and ultimate salvation.salvation.

Historical View - Tabula RasaHistorical View - Tabula Rasa

Time: 17Time: 17thth Century, philosopher John Century, philosopher John Locke (behaviorist)Locke (behaviorist)

View: Children are born “blank slates” View: Children are born “blank slates” and parents can train them in any and parents can train them in any direction they wish (with little direction they wish (with little resistance).resistance).

Effect: Shaping children’s behavior by Effect: Shaping children’s behavior by reward and punishment.reward and punishment.

Historical View – Innate GoodnessHistorical View – Innate Goodness

Time: 18Time: 18thth Century, philosopher Jean Century, philosopher Jean Jacque Rousseau (humanist)Jacque Rousseau (humanist)

View: Children are “noble savages” View: Children are “noble savages” who are born with an innate sense of who are born with an innate sense of morality.morality.

Effect: Parents should not try to mold Effect: Parents should not try to mold them at all.them at all.

What are the issues of What are the issues of developmental psychology?developmental psychology?

Nature vs. nurtureNature vs. nurture

Stability vs. changeStability vs. change

Continuity vs. discontinuityContinuity vs. discontinuity

Issue 1: Nature/nurtureIssue 1: Nature/nurture

Nature = biological inheritance Nature = biological inheritance (genetics)(genetics) Rousseau (humanists)Rousseau (humanists)

Nurture = all experienceNurture = all experience Locke (tabula rasa)Locke (tabula rasa)

Is that all there is? (Is it neither?)Is that all there is? (Is it neither?) Are they separable? Is it both?Are they separable? Is it both? What is epigenetic theory?What is epigenetic theory?

Interaction of nature and nurtureInteraction of nature and nurture

Issue 2: Stability/changeIssue 2: Stability/change

When characteristics are biologically When characteristics are biologically inherited or the result of early inherited or the result of early experiences, can they be changed?experiences, can they be changed?

(This is the issue of plasticity again.)(This is the issue of plasticity again.)

Are the effects of early and late Are the effects of early and late experiences equal, or are early ones experiences equal, or are early ones more important (or later ones)?more important (or later ones)?

Issue 3: Continuity/discontinuityIssue 3: Continuity/discontinuity

Did the change happen suddenly or Did the change happen suddenly or gradually (first step; first word)?gradually (first step; first word)?

Is there a marker event?Is there a marker event?

Does the old resemble the new Does the old resemble the new (butterfly)?(butterfly)?

What does age have to do with it?What does age have to do with it? How many ways can we conceptualize How many ways can we conceptualize

(think about) age? (think about) age?

Chronological age: years since birthChronological age: years since birth

Biological age: health; vital organ Biological age: health; vital organ capacitycapacity

Psychological age: adaptable; learning; Psychological age: adaptable; learning; flexible; good judgmentflexible; good judgment

Social age: roles, expectationsSocial age: roles, expectations

What are the periods (age groups) of What are the periods (age groups) of development?development?

These are not standard across textbooks. These are not standard across textbooks. However, they roughly agree.However, they roughly agree.

Prenatal - conception to birthPrenatal - conception to birth Infancy – birth to about 2 yearsInfancy – birth to about 2 years Early childhood – about ages 2-6 (preschool)Early childhood – about ages 2-6 (preschool) Middle & late childhood – about ages 6-11Middle & late childhood – about ages 6-11 Adolescence – ages 10-12 or puberty until Adolescence – ages 10-12 or puberty until

about ages 18-22 or independenceabout ages 18-22 or independence

What are the periods (age groups) of What are the periods (age groups) of development?development?

Early adulthood – ages 20/25 – 40/45Early adulthood – ages 20/25 – 40/45

Middle adulthood – ages 40/45 – 60/65Middle adulthood – ages 40/45 – 60/65

Late adulthood – ages 60/65 onLate adulthood – ages 60/65 on Young old: 65-84Young old: 65-84 Oldest old: 85+Oldest old: 85+

To what extent are we becoming an To what extent are we becoming an age-irrelevant society?age-irrelevant society?

People‘s lives are more varied.People‘s lives are more varied.

We have a loose “social clock.”We have a loose “social clock.”

The frequency of reported happiness The frequency of reported happiness is about the same for all ages. (78%)is about the same for all ages. (78%)

Five Theories (Perspectives) of Five Theories (Perspectives) of DevelopmentDevelopment

PsychologicalPsychological Psychoanalytic (Freud)Psychoanalytic (Freud) CognitiveCognitive Behavioral and Social CognitiveBehavioral and Social Cognitive

OtherOther EthologicalEthological EcologicalEcological

Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic Theory: Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Eight psychosocial stages in the Eight psychosocial stages in the lifespanlifespan Trust v. mistrustTrust v. mistrust Autonomy v. shame/doubtAutonomy v. shame/doubt Initiative v. guiltInitiative v. guilt Industry v. inferiorityIndustry v. inferiority Identity v. confusionIdentity v. confusion Intimacy v. isolationIntimacy v. isolation Generativity v. stagnationGenerativity v. stagnation Integrity v. despairIntegrity v. despair

Cognitive Theories (1960s)Cognitive Theories (1960s)

Emphasize thinking, reasoning, languageEmphasize thinking, reasoning, language Jean Piaget: Swiss (1896-1980)Jean Piaget: Swiss (1896-1980)

Children actively construct understandingChildren actively construct understanding Four stagesFour stages

Lev Vygotsky: RussianLev Vygotsky: Russian Knowledge is constructed through Knowledge is constructed through

interaction with other peopleinteraction with other people Information ProcessingInformation Processing

Analogy between human brain & computerAnalogy between human brain & computer

Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories

Ivan Pavlov: Classical ConditioningIvan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning Pair a neutral stimulus (CS)with a Pair a neutral stimulus (CS)with a

stimulus (UCS) that automatically stimulus (UCS) that automatically produces a response (UCR).produces a response (UCR).

John B. Watson: Emotional responses John B. Watson: Emotional responses can be classically conditioned (Little can be classically conditioned (Little Albert).Albert).

B. F. Skinner: Operant ConditioningB. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning Behavior followed by a reward is more Behavior followed by a reward is more

likely to occur again; punished likely to occur again; punished behavior is less likely to occur again.behavior is less likely to occur again.

Social-cognitive TheoriesSocial-cognitive Theories

Albert Bandura: Most social behaviors Albert Bandura: Most social behaviors are learned by observing others, are learned by observing others, including anger, cruelty, and kindness.including anger, cruelty, and kindness.

Reciprocal determinism: behavior, the Reciprocal determinism: behavior, the environment, and the person (and environment, and the person (and their cognitions) mutually influence their cognitions) mutually influence each other.each other.

Ethological TheoryEthological Theory

Based on study of animal behaviorBased on study of animal behavior Considers the influence of Considers the influence of

biology/evolutionbiology/evolution Considers critical or sensitive periodsConsiders critical or sensitive periods Konrad Lorenz: imprinting-rapid, Konrad Lorenz: imprinting-rapid,

innate learninginnate learning John Bowlby: attachment John Bowlby: attachment

Ecological TheoryEcological Theory

Urie BronfenbrennerUrie Bronfenbrenner Emphasizes environmental conceptsEmphasizes environmental concepts

Microsystem: daily lifeMicrosystem: daily life Mesosystem: relates microsystemsMesosystem: relates microsystems Exosystem: influences from other social Exosystem: influences from other social

systemssystems Macrosystem: cultureMacrosystem: culture Chronosystem: (time) personal/social Chronosystem: (time) personal/social

historyhistory

Review of TheoriesReview of TheoriesRecommendations:Recommendations:

We will not be studying these theories directly in this We will not be studying these theories directly in this course. However, their general principles may be course. However, their general principles may be referred to in explaining developmental events or referred to in explaining developmental events or processes. If you feel that you need to review them, I processes. If you feel that you need to review them, I would recommend:would recommend:

1. your textbook1. your textbook

2. any 2. any Introduction to Psychology Introduction to Psychology textbook textbook

3. www. allpsych.com3. www. allpsych.com

4. 4. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/perscontents.html

5. Google the word in question, e.g., psychoanalysis, 5. Google the word in question, e.g., psychoanalysis, ethology, B. F. Skinner, etc. ethology, B. F. Skinner, etc.

Why would Why would youyou want to know about want to know about development?development?

Life planning and coping.Life planning and coping.

To anticipate events and changesTo anticipate events and changes To avoid known pitfallsTo avoid known pitfalls To understand what is happening to youTo understand what is happening to you To help others in the same waysTo help others in the same ways

Why would we collectively want to know Why would we collectively want to know about human development?about human development?

How do we apply the results of research on How do we apply the results of research on lifespan development?lifespan development?

Parenting advice, self-help, public information.Parenting advice, self-help, public information.

Designing educational programs.Designing educational programs.

Business & economic planning (e.g., insurance sales, Business & economic planning (e.g., insurance sales, marketing,) .marketing,) .

Social policy decisions (e.g., laws on marriage, city Social policy decisions (e.g., laws on marriage, city planning, social programs such as welfare, social security, planning, social programs such as welfare, social security, Medicare).Medicare).

Social Policy ExampleSocial Policy Example: Does the government : Does the government have/spend adequate social welfare have/spend adequate social welfare resources on children?resources on children?

Statistical FactsStatistical Facts 15% of US children (almost 50% of ethnic minority 15% of US children (almost 50% of ethnic minority

children) will be raised in poverty including increased children) will be raised in poverty including increased risk for stress from violence, crowding, poor housing, risk for stress from violence, crowding, poor housing, family turmoil, etc.family turmoil, etc.

Social values, beliefs, and priorities.Social values, beliefs, and priorities. Parenting and nurturing the next generation of Parenting and nurturing the next generation of

children is our society‘s most important function and children is our society‘s most important function and we need to take it more seriously than we have in the we need to take it more seriously than we have in the past.past.

Marian Edelman (Children‘s Defense Fund, Marian Edelman (Children‘s Defense Fund, 2004)2004)

Social Policy ExampleSocial Policy Exampless

Competing needs and priorities lead to Competing needs and priorities lead to research questions?research questions?

40-50% of US children can expect to spend 40-50% of US children can expect to spend at least 4-5 years in a single-parent home.at least 4-5 years in a single-parent home.

Drug-use and AIDS are still problemsDrug-use and AIDS are still problems Older adults need more medical careOlder adults need more medical care Generational inequityGenerational inequity

DataData

Where do we get our data?Where do we get our data?

What information are we going to What information are we going to believe?believe?

What are the techniques of What are the techniques of collecting data?collecting data?

ObservationObservation Survey/interview: asking questionsSurvey/interview: asking questions Standardized TestsStandardized Tests Physiological MeasuresPhysiological Measures Case StudyCase Study Life-history recordsLife-history records


ObservationObservation LaboratoryLaboratory NaturalisticNaturalistic People act/react differently when they People act/react differently when they

know they are being watched.know they are being watched.


Survey/interview: asking questionsSurvey/interview: asking questions Unstructured/open-endedUnstructured/open-ended Structured, quantitativeStructured, quantitative Ask the right questions of the right Ask the right questions of the right

people.people.


Standardized tests: comparison of Standardized tests: comparison of performance with othersperformance with others Remember tests are cultural and they Remember tests are cultural and they

do not predict behavior in non-test do not predict behavior in non-test situations.situations.

You may also have difficulty finding a You may also have difficulty finding a test that measures your variable of test that measures your variable of interest.interest.


Physiological measures: hormones in Physiological measures: hormones in blood; neurological measures (PET; blood; neurological measures (PET; fMRI)fMRI) Remember there is never a one-to-one Remember there is never a one-to-one

relationship between a physiological relationship between a physiological measure and a psychological state.measure and a psychological state.


Case study: intensive, in-depth study Case study: intensive, in-depth study of a single case as with a physician-of a single case as with a physician-patient or therapist-patient patient or therapist-patient relationship. Good for gaining insight.relationship. Good for gaining insight.

Life-history records: education, work, Life-history records: education, work, medical, familymedical, family

Research DesignsResearch Designs

Descriptive – includes more detailDescriptive – includes more detail

Correlational – numbers show Correlational – numbers show strength & direction of relationshipstrength & direction of relationship Used for predictionUsed for prediction Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 (+ is direct; Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 (+ is direct;

- is inverse)- is inverse)

Remember: correlation does not Remember: correlation does not equal causationequal causation

ExperimentsExperiments

Manipulation in experiments means there Manipulation in experiments means there is different treatment in different groups.is different treatment in different groups. The experimental group experiences the The experimental group experiences the

“real” treatment or manipulation.“real” treatment or manipulation. Control groups do not; they are for Control groups do not; they are for

comparison. (“Placebo” controls get a fake comparison. (“Placebo” controls get a fake treatment.)treatment.)

Random assignment of participants to groups Random assignment of participants to groups ensures that groups start out the same.ensures that groups start out the same.

Experiments Provide Evidence of Cause-Effect Experiments Provide Evidence of Cause-Effect RelationshipsRelationships

This is because of control and manipulation.This is because of control and manipulation. One situational factor (Independent Variable) One situational factor (Independent Variable)

is manipulated.is manipulated. A behavior (Dependent Variable) is measured.A behavior (Dependent Variable) is measured. All other factors are “held constant” or the All other factors are “held constant” or the

same in all groups. (This is control.)same in all groups. (This is control.) A change in the dependent variable (behavior) A change in the dependent variable (behavior)

could only be caused by manipulation of the could only be caused by manipulation of the independent variable because all else was independent variable because all else was controlled.controlled.

Research on How People Change Research on How People Change across the Lifespanacross the Lifespan

Cross-sectional research: PCross-sectional research: People of eople of different ages are measured in the same different ages are measured in the same year.year. Cohort effects may occur. These are Cohort effects may occur. These are

differences due not to common age, but differences due not to common age, but common experiencecommon experience

Longitudinal research: TLongitudinal research: The same he same people are repeatedly measured across people are repeatedly measured across different years.different years. Expensive, time-consuming, dropoutsExpensive, time-consuming, dropouts

Research on How People Change Research on How People Change across the Lifespanacross the Lifespan

Sequential or cross-sequential Sequential or cross-sequential research: a combination of cross-research: a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinalsectional and longitudinal

People of different ages are measure the People of different ages are measure the first year. Then at intervals (e.g., 1, 5, first year. Then at intervals (e.g., 1, 5, 10 years), the same people are 10 years), the same people are measured again and new groups are measured again and new groups are added.added.

How Do We Know? Or Do We How Do We Know? Or Do We Just Believe?Just Believe?

We are information dependentWe are information dependent Bandura – learn from observing othersBandura – learn from observing others Vygotsky – learn through Vygotsky – learn through

conversation/communication with othersconversation/communication with others

What is the world’s tallest mountain?What is the world’s tallest mountain? Why do you believe that it is Everest?Why do you believe that it is Everest?


Robyn DawesRobyn Dawes Why believe that for which there is no Why believe that for which there is no

good evidence? good evidence? http://www.fmsonline.org/dawes.htmlhttp://www.fmsonline.org/dawes.html

(Or possibly evidence to the contrary?)(Or possibly evidence to the contrary?)

Most of what we know, we actually Most of what we know, we actually believe that we know from authority and believe that we know from authority and consensus.consensus.


Authority implies that the knowledge is Authority implies that the knowledge is reliablereliable Source is trustworthySource is trustworthy No ulterior motivesNo ulterior motives Possibly a good reputationPossibly a good reputation In position to have this type of knowledgeIn position to have this type of knowledge

However, we often attribute this to However, we often attribute this to consistency of report/public exposure consistency of report/public exposure (media).(media).


Consensus leads to lack of doubt.Consensus leads to lack of doubt. (Surely somebody would know if this is (Surely somebody would know if this is

false.)false.)

The fallacy in consensus is that if the The fallacy in consensus is that if the same misinformation (lie) is told often same misinformation (lie) is told often enough, everyone believes it for the enough, everyone believes it for the truth.truth. Becomes “common sense” (common Becomes “common sense” (common

nonsense)nonsense)


Ways to Know IncludeWays to Know Include Authoritative sourcesAuthoritative sources Opinions of others (consistent or not)Opinions of others (consistent or not) Personal experiencePersonal experience Intuition (with or without confirmation)Intuition (with or without confirmation) Reason (I figured it out.)Reason (I figured it out.) Common senseCommon sense DataData

Consider the Limitations of DataConsider the Limitations of Data

Some things cannot be measured, or Some things cannot be measured, or detected by the five sensesdetected by the five senses

Some variables cannot be ethically or Some variables cannot be ethically or possibly submitted to experimentation, possibly submitted to experimentation, only correlationonly correlation

This will not show causality.This will not show causality. Correlations may be spurious.Correlations may be spurious.

There may have been bias in data There may have been bias in data collection.collection.

The interpretation may be incorrect.The interpretation may be incorrect. Information for public consumption may be Information for public consumption may be

less accurate.less accurate.


In our culture data trumps other In our culture data trumps other sourcessources Recorded evidence, we can all agreeRecorded evidence, we can all agree May not agree in InterpretationMay not agree in Interpretation

Tend to discount “pre-scientific” Tend to discount “pre-scientific” claims to knowledge/understandingclaims to knowledge/understanding We even discount “old” data.We even discount “old” data.


This tends to lead to bias against This tends to lead to bias against non-data sources, earlier historical non-data sources, earlier historical times, and less industrialized times, and less industrialized civilizations.civilizations.

““So easy a cave man could do it.”So easy a cave man could do it.” Don’t bother to study history.Don’t bother to study history.


Led to the postmodern mindsetLed to the postmodern mindset Truth is relative to the situation and Truth is relative to the situation and

changes across time.changes across time. There is no ultimate truth that is There is no ultimate truth that is

unchanging.unchanging. No reliable causes and effects.No reliable causes and effects. Reality is socially constructed.Reality is socially constructed.

Idea that we create knowledge and Idea that we create knowledge and reality, and it is what we say it is.reality, and it is what we say it is.

Hence, we can change it.Hence, we can change it.

How Do We Know? Or Do We Just How Do We Know? Or Do We Just Believe?Believe?

Contrast the Contrast the prisca sapientia prisca sapientia view.view. Was there a pristine and superior ancient Was there a pristine and superior ancient

knowledge?knowledge? How else do you explain the writings of the How else do you explain the writings of the

ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Hebrews?ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Hebrews? How to you explain the Mayan calendar and How to you explain the Mayan calendar and

the construction of the Egyptian pyramids?the construction of the Egyptian pyramids? How was it lost?How was it lost? Did the search for it lead to modern science?Did the search for it lead to modern science?


Contrast the Contrast the prisca sapientia prisca sapientia view.view.

The existence of this knowledge would The existence of this knowledge would imply a fixed and unchanging set of imply a fixed and unchanging set of principles for operation of the universe principles for operation of the universe and the natural world, including the and the natural world, including the biological world, and possibly for human biological world, and possibly for human nature and the social world.nature and the social world.

Practical Critical ThinkingPractical Critical Thinking

1. Stop to think.1. Stop to think. 2. Theories are not proven facts.2. Theories are not proven facts. 3. Findings of research can be misinterpreted.3. Findings of research can be misinterpreted. 4. Correlations are not evidence of causation.4. Correlations are not evidence of causation. 5. Be very suspicious of politicized research.5. Be very suspicious of politicized research. 6. Beware journalistic media as a source of 6. Beware journalistic media as a source of

presentation of scientific findings.presentation of scientific findings. 7. Always ask whether the topic is more likely a 7. Always ask whether the topic is more likely a

law or principle rather than a social convention.law or principle rather than a social convention.

Documents

John W. Santrock Chapter 1: Introduction A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development