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Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among
Men
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Historical/Biographical Background The Discourse on Inequality The Natural Condition of the Human Species
The Chain of Being Rousseau’s Natural Man
I. Historical/Biographical Background
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Born in Geneva Runs away at 16 and lives on his
own Hooked up with various women
for support Was a tutor, civil servant,
composer, music teacher, botanist, linguist, novelist, memoirist, and philosopher
I. Historical/Biographical Background
In 1762 publishes “On Social Contract” and “Emile”
Both are condemned, books burned, leaves Paris for Saint Pierre, then on to England with David Hume (1766)
Returns to France (1767) Publishes a series of
autobiographical works, including Confessions (1782)
II. The Discourse on Inequality
Written/Published in 1755 Prompted by an essay question:
“What is the origin of inequality among men; and is it authorized by natural law?”
Opens with a passage from Aristotle:“not in corrupt things, but in those which are well ordered in accordance with nature, should one consider that which is natural”
(Aristotle, Politics, I, v)
II. The Discourse on Inequality
Structure of the Work: Dedication to Geneva Preface Note on the Notes Title Page Exordium (Introduction) Part I Part II
II. The Discourse on Inequality
The conclusion he wants to reach is that inequality is not natural
That is, inequality is a product of human activity and as such can be changed by human actions
II. The Discourse on Inequality
“I conceive of two sorts of inequality in the human species: one, which I call natural or physical, because it is established by nature and consists in the difference of ages, health, bodily strengths, and qualities of mind or soul; the other, which may be called moral or political inequality, because it depends upon a sort of convention and is established, or at least authorized, by the consent of men…
II. The Discourse on Inequality
“One cannot ask what the source of natural inequality is, because the answer would be found enunciated in the simple definition of the word. Still less can one inquire if there would not be some essential link between the two inequalities; for that would be asking, in other terms, whether those who command are necessarily worth more than those who obey, and whether strength of body or mind, wisdom or virtue, are always found in the same individuals in proportion to power or wealth:”
II. The Discourse on Inequality
“a question perhaps good for slaves to discuss in the hearing of their masters, but not suitable for reasonable and free men who seek the truth.”
-- Exordium
II. The Discourse on Inequality
“The most useful and least advanced of all human knowledge seems to me to be that of man; and I dare say that the inscription of the temple of Delphi alone contained a precept more important and more difficult than all the thick volumes of the moralists.”
-- Preface (opening line)
II. The Discourse on Inequality
“The philosophers who have examined the foundations of society have all felt the necessity of going back to the state of nature, but none of them has reached it…All of them, finally, speaking continually of need, avarice, oppression, desires, and pride, have carried over to the state of nature ideas they had acquired in society: they spoke about savage man and they described civil man.”
-- Exordium
II. The Discourse on Inequality
Rousseau’s plan:“How will man manage to see himself as nature formed him, through all the changes that the sequence of time and things must have produced in his original constitution, and to separate what he gets from his own stock from what circumstances and his progress have added to or changed in his primitive state?”
-- Preface
II. The Discourse on Inequality
Rousseau needs to bring in natural history to refute Hobbes, Locke and others
But, there’s a catch…
III. 18th Century Natural History
God
Angels
Extraterrestials
Human Beings
Mammals
Reptiles
Fish
Plants
Pond Scum
THE
GREAT
CHAIN
OF
BEING
God
Angels
Extraterrestials
Human Beings
Mammals
Reptiles
Fish
Plants
Pond Scum
THE
GREAT
CHAIN
OF
BEING
Possible breaks in chain
Human Beings
Mammals
THE
GREAT
CHAIN
OF
BEING
Europeans
Asians
South Pacific
Americas
Africa
“Orangs outang”
Elephants
Beavers
Europeans
Asians
THE
GREAT
CHAIN
OF
BEING
Southern Europe
Western Europe
Northern Europe
Caucasus Region
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Bridge potential gap in chain by emphasizing physical/behavioral similarities between populations presumed to be closest to the break
Emphasize the human attributes of the newly discovered great apes and the simian attributes of the newly “discovered” peoples of Africa, Australia
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Physical similarities between orangs outang and human beings: 1699 Edward Tyson
(1651-1708) describes a primate called a “pygmie” that had a “human face” and ears which “differ nothing from the human form”
1744 William Smith (English explorer) described a primate called a “boggoe” or “mandrill” that bore “a near resemblance of a human creature, though nothing at all like an Ape.”
In the Second Discourse, Rousseau refers to a natural history text describing a “pongo” with “a human face” and which “resembles man exactly.”
Tyson’s “Pygmie” (1699)
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
On the other hand, human beings were sometimes described in terms of their animal similarities: 1708 François Leguat compared an ape to a
Hottentot and claimed that “its Face had no other Hair upon it than the Eyebrows, and in general it much resembled one of those Grotesque Faces which the Female Hottentots have at the Cape”
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
1718 Daniel Beeckman wrote that his orang was “handsomer I am sure than some Hottentots that I have seen.”
Beeckman’s orang
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Physical similarity included reports that orangs walked like human beings
Chimpaneze
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Behavioral similarities of apes and humans 1625 Samuel Purchas (1577-1626) reports that
pongos may have a kind of religious understanding
1774 Lord Monboddo reports that orangs outang have a sense of justice
Numerous reports that some primates could speak L’abbé Prévost wrote that “guinous” are suspected of
feigning muteness in order to escape being used as slaves
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Other behavioral similarities: Prévost and Tyson report on the elegant table
manners of primates introduced to European dining
Tyson said his pygmie naturally adopted a conservative view towards alcohol and nudity
Reports from 1641 through 1788 report that orangs have high degree of sexual modesty
Female Orang outang (1641 edition)
Female Orang outang (1744 edition)
Female Orangs
Gaze averted
Female Orangs
Gaze averted
Hands covering genitals
Female Orangs
Softer jaw line
Female Orangs
Softer jaw line
More “human” like mammaries
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Tyson reported that when given a choice of associating with either human beings or monkeys, his pygmie preferred human beings
II. Primates, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
1748 Benoît de Maillet writes:“If we could not say that these living creatures were men, at least they resembled them so much that it would have been unfair to consider them only as animals.”
Benoît de Maillet(1656-1738)
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Flip side of finding the missing link by raising animals was denigrating human populations, especially Africans and specifically Hottentots
Naturalists and explorers routinely drew parallels between these people and the newly discovered great apes
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Physical similarities 1696 Sir John Ovington describes Hottentots as
“the very reverse of Human kind, so that if there’s any medium between a Rational Animal and a Beast, the Hotantot lays the fairest claim to that Species.”
1718 Beeckman claimed that Hottentots “are not really unlike Monkeys or Baboons in their Gestures and Postures, especially when they sit Sunning themselves.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Beeckman goes on to add that Hottentot men have “broad flat noses, blubber lips, great heads, disagreeable features, short trifled Hair” and that “nothing can be more ugly.”
Hottentot women were “as ugly in their kind as the Men, having long flabby breasts odiously dangling down to the waist, which they can toss over their shoulders for the children to suck.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
This confirms an earlier report (1632) from English explorer Sir Thomas Herbert describing similar attributes in these women.
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
1774 Oliver Goldsmith would later extend this attribute to all African women, noting that once they being childbearing their breasts “hang down to the navel; and it is customary with them, to suckle the child at their backs, by throwing the breast over the shoulder.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Behavioral similarities“As their persons are thus naturally deformed, at least to our imaginations, their minds are equally incapable of strong exertions.” -- Oliver Goldsmith (1774)
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Behavioral Similarities 1753 Count Buffon writes that the Africans of
Guiney “appear to be perfectly stupid, not being able to count beyond the number three, that they never think spontaneously; that they have no memory, the past and the future being equally unknown to them.”
Beeckman writes that Hottentots are “filthy animals” who “hardly deserve the name of Rational Creatures.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
On speech: Beeckman compared Hottentot speech to the
cackle of hens or turkeys Herbert described it as “apishly sounded (with
whom ‘tis thought they mix unnaturally)” and “very hard to be counterfeited” since it was voiced “like the Irish.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
African sexual practices Contrast with orang descriptions Herbert claimed that Hottentot women expressed
gratitude by displaying their genitalia and noted that these people live communally “coupling without distinction, the name of wife or brother unknown among these incestuous Troglodites.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Prévost mentions that marriage was unknown among the Africans in Bomma
1745 John Green describes the Africans of Teneriffe as a “rude uncivilized people” living in a society where “everyone took as many women as he pleased.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Orangs might be offspring of human/simian copulation 1688 Olfert Dapper claimed that the orangs of the
Congo were so numerous and so nearly human in appearance that “it has entered the minds of some travelers that they may be the offspring of a woman and a monkey”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Leguat noted that “Nature who does not oppose the copulation of
horses with asses, may well admit that of an ape with a female animal that resembles him, especially where the latter is not restrained by any principle. An ape and a negro slave born and brought up out of the knowledge of God, have not less similitude between them than an Ass and a Mare.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Slavery and African/Primate relations Slavery is a uniquely human institution Africans subjugate inferior African tribes Orangs subjugate some Africans
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
Monboddo writes: “The great Orang Outang carries off boys and
girls to make slaves of them, which not only shows him, in my apprehension to be a man, but proves that he lives in society, and must have made some progress in the arts of civil life; for we hear of no nations altogether barbarous who use slaves.”
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
We should now be better able to appreciate the structure of the argument in Rousseau’s Second Discourse
Contemporary descriptions of both primates and so-called “primitive” human populations were meant to demonstrate continuity of the chain of being in God’s creation
II. Primitives, Missing Links, and the Chain of Being
In other words, inequality was both natural and just”
“ORDER is heav’ns first law; and this confessed
Some are and must be greater than the rest”
-- Alexander Pope“Essay on Man” (1732)
Rousseau needs natural history, but also needs to show that it doesn’t sanction inequality