HUM102CulturalEncountersII

Jean-JacquesRousseauDiscourseontheOriginand

Founda2onsofInequalityamongMen

Dr.SandrineBertauxAssistantProfessorofHumani2esBoğaziçiUniversity11March2020

Jean-JacquesRousseau1712-1778

Ø  A“Ci<zenofGeneva”;

Ø  AmajorandcontroversialphilosopheroftheEnlightenment;

OutlineoftheLecture

§  Rousseau:anenlightenedaLackontheEnlightenment

§  TheSecondDiscourse:Aphilosophicalinquiry:Whatisman?ThethreestagesofthestateofnaturePropertyandthebirthofcivilsocietyThesocialcontracttheoryrevisited

TheEnlightenment

•  TheEnlightenment,inFrenchLesLumières,the“centuryofphilosophes”(freethinkersvs.dogma),the“AgeofReason”(Rousseau,Kant,Smithinoursyllabus)

•  Europeanintellectualmovement:Enlighteneduseofreasontouncovertheprinciplesofagoodgovernment,morality,andsocialorder;Ø Perfec<bilityofman;Aculturalproject:concertedefforttowriteforabroadaudience;RoleofAcademies:prizeessaycontestsRoleofSalonsØ Birthofa“publicsphere”

TheEncyclopédie1752-1771DenisDiderotTosummarizeandbringtoalargepublicphilosophical,scien<ficandtechnologicalknowledge

Aprolificwriter:onmusic,children’seduca<on,onpoli<cs,anovelist,amoralandpoli<cal

philosopher,apedagogue.Manyentriesonmusicandtheoneon“Poli<calEconomy”intheEncyclopédie1750DiscourseontheArtsandSciences1755DiscourseontheOriginandFounda2onsofInequality1761JulieortheNewHeloise1762OntheSocialContract;Emile1776Rousseau:JudgeofJean-JacquesReveriesoftheSolitaryWalkerConfessions

TheFirstDiscourse:DiscourseontheSciencesandtheArts

Ques<onbytheAcademyofDijon“HastheRestora<onoftheSciencesandtheArtsContributedtothePurifica<onsofMorals?”1750Rousseauwinneroftheprize

Theseconddiscourse:DiscourseontheOriginandFounda>onsofInequalityAmongMenQues<onbytheAcademyofDijon“WhatistheOriginofInequalityAmongMen,andIsItauthorizedbytheNaturalLaw?”

AmajorandcontroversialfigureoftheEnlightenment

•  I.KantonRousseau“thenewtonofthemoralworld”

•  VoltaireontheSecondDiscourse“Noonehaseveremployedsomuchintellecttopersuadementobebeasts.Inreadingyourworkoneisseizedwithadesiretowalkonfourpaws.However,asitismorethansixtyyearssinceIlostthathabit,Ifeel,unfortunately,thatitisimpossibleformetoresumeit.”

Rousseau’sradicalphilosophyintheSecondDiscourse

•  Aninves<ga<onthroughreasonofhumanitypriortoreason(thestateofnatureinitspurity)

•  AnaLackoncivilizedsociety;•  AnaLackonreason:anenlightenedaLackonEnlightenment(“thefatalenlightenmentofcivilman”)

•  Anepicureanaccountoftheinterac<onofhumansandnature(nodivineinterven<on)

“Knowyourself”TempleofApollo,Delphi,Greece

“Howcanthesourceofinequalityamongmenbeknownunlessonebeginsbyknowingmenthemselves?”(forewordtotheSecondDiscourse)

Whatisman?

“LikethestatueofGlaucus,which<me,seaandstormshaddisfiguredtosuchanextentthatitlookedlesslikeagodthanawildbeast,thehumansoul,alteredinthemidstofsocietybyathousandconstantlyrecurringcauses,bytheacquisi<onofamul<tudeofbitsofknowledgeandoferrors,bychangesthattookplaceintheconsPtuPonofbodies,bytheconstantimpactofthepassions,has,asitwere,changeditsappearancetothepointofbeingnearlyunrecognizable.”(foreword)

Stateofnature

“Thephilosopherswhohaveexaminedthefounda<onsofsocietyhaveallfeltthenecessityofreturningtothestateofnature,butnoneofthemhasreachedit.”They“havetransferredtothestateofnaturetheideasacquiredinsociety.Theyspokeofthesavageman,anditwasthecivilmantheydepicted.”(38)

Rousseau’sreformula<onoftheques<on:Whatisman?Aregressiveanalysis:

•  “Origin”(inthestateofnature):empiricalstudyofmanvs.ahistoricaland<melessnatureoressenceofman

•  “FoundaPons”(incivilsociety):causeofinequalityvs.norma<veapproachof“naturallaw”.

Philosophicalanthropology

vs.historyofman“Theinves<ga<onsthatmaybeundertaken

concerningthissubjectshouldnotbetakenforhistoricaltruths,butonlyforhypothe<calandcondi<onalreasonings,beLersuitedtosheddinglightonthenatureofthingsthanonpoin<ngouttheirtrueorigin,likethoseourphysicistsmakeeverydaywithregardtotheforma<onoftheworld”.(38-39)Ø Useofreasontoshowthattheprogressofreasonledtotheprogressofinequality(81)

WhythenistheneedtoinvesPgatethestateofnature?

Rousseau’sphilosophicalanthropology:•  Todenaturalize/de-essen<alizeman;

•  Todemonstratetheradicaldisjunc<onbetweenthe“naturalman”andthe“civilman”;

•  Reasonandsociabilityarenotnatural,nottobefoundinanearlystageofthestateofnature.

“ForitisnolightunderstandingtoseparatewhatisoriginalfromwhatisarPficialinthepresentnatureofman,andtohaveaproperunderstandingofastatewhichnolongerexists,whichperhapsneverexisted,whichprobablyneverwillexist,andyetaboutwhichisnecessarytohaveaccurateno<onsinordertojudgeproperlyourownpresentstate.”(foreword)

TwokindsofInequalityinmankind(37-38)

•  NaturalorPhysicalInequality

Ø establishedbynatureØ age,health,bodily

strength,andquali<esofmindorsoul”

•  MoralorPoliPcalInequality

Ø  ins<tutedby“conven<on”and“authorizedbytheconsentofmen”

Ø Privileges(richer,morehonored,morepowerful)

Ø Servitudeofthepoorerandweaker

No“essen<alconnec<on”betweenthetwokindsofinequality

Whatisthesourceofnaturalinequality:tautologicalques<onfortheanswerisintheques<on“Thereisnopointinaskingwhatthesourceofnaturalinequalityis,becausetheanswerwouldbefoundenunciatedinthesimpledefini<onoftheword.”(38)Connec<onbetweenthetwokindsofinequality?No“essen<alconnec<on”“Aques<ongoodtodiscussamongslavewithinearshotoftheirmasters”(38)

•  Naturalinequalityisnottheonefoundinthestateofnaturebuttheoneobservedindependentlyofconven<onsandins<tu<ons;

•  ConvenPonalinequality:theoneestablishedbycustomsandlawsthatis,ar<ficiallycreatedbymen.

WhatisthesubjectoftheSecondDiscourse?

“Tomark,intheprogressofthings,themomentwhen,righttakingplaceofviolence,naturewassubjectedtothelaw.Toexplainthesequenceofwondersbywhichthestrongcouldresolvetoservetheweak,andthepeopletobuyimaginaryreposeatthepriceoffelicity”.Ø Thelegi<macyofmoralandpoli<calinequality.

Threestagesinthedevelopmentofmankind

•  -primi<ve,isolatedcondi<onofnature:nolanguage,nofamily,noreason,nolove.

•  -slowdevelopmentoffamilies,na<onsandquasi-property.Thebestperiod

•  -developmentofagricultureandmetallurgy,divisionoflaborandinven<onofproperty

Stateofnature:earlystage

•  Earlystateofnature:self-preserva<on,fulfillingbasicneeds

•  “Suchwasthecondi<onofmaninhisnascentstage;suchwasthelifeofananimallimitedatfirsttopuresensa<ons”(60).

•  Noreason,nofamily,nolove:•  “thetwosexesnolongertookcognizanceofoneanother,andeventhechildnolongermeantanythingtothemotheronceitcoulddowithouther.”(60)

Firstrevolu<on:thesocializa<onofman

•  Emergenceoffamilies“commonhabita<ons”(huts);“firstdifferenceinthelifestyleofthetwosexes”,loveandjealousy.

•  Developmentofna<ons;•  developmentoflanguage;quasi-property.•  Songsanddances:“firststeptowardinequality”(64)

Thebeststage

•  «Manyhavehastenedtoconcludethatmanisnaturallycruel,andthatheneedsciviliza<oninordertosomenhim.Onthecontrary,nothingissogentleasmaninhisprimi<vestate,when,placedbynatureatanequaldistancefromthestupidityofbrutesandthefatalenlightenmentofcivilman..»

Secondrevolu<on:Agricultureandmetallurgy

•  Divisionoflands,•  newrightofproperty,•  divisionoflabour.

Property:Latestageofthestateofnatureandbirthofcivilsociety

•  “thefirstpersonwho,havingenclosedaplotofland,tookitintohisheadtosaythisismineandfoundpeoplesimpleenoughtobelievehim,wasthetruefounderofcivilsociety.”(60)

•  “Fruitsoftheearthbelongtoall”•  Propertyasusurpa<on(vsJohnLocke)•  “Emergingsocietygavewaytothemosthorriblestateofwar”(68)(vs.Hobbesabsolutesovereign)

NaturalManvs.CivilMan

NaturalMan•  Amourdesoi(selflove)•  Pity•  Independence•  Noorquasi-property•  equality

CivilMan•  Amourpropre(loveof

oneself)•  Dependency•  Comparisonanddis<nc<on•  Property(asusurpa<on):

legi<mizedbylaw•  Notstrongandweakbut

poorandrich•  Sociallyins<tutedinequality

Whichpoli<calins<tu<onsforthecivilman?

•  OntheSocialContract(1762)“Manisbornfreebuteverywhereisinchains”•  Socialcontracttoreconcilefreedom(vsdomina<on)andequality(vs.conven<onalinequality).

•  Popularsovereigntyvs.theenlighteneddespotofKant

Ques<ons

•  Isthestateofnatureoccupyingthesamefunc<oninMontaigneandRousseau’stexts?

•  WhatkindofinequalityistolerableinasocietyaccordingtoRousseau,andtoyou?

•  Howcanpoli<calins<tu<onsensureequality?