ITWS Manual Final Copy

8/2/2019 ITWS Manual Final Copy

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Information Technology Workshop Manual [email protected]

Content prepared by Mr. Suresh YadavAsst. Prof. , Dept. of CSE,Sri Indu College of Engineering and Technology, page-1- of -35-IBP, RR Dist., A.P.-501510

Index

Chapter Title Page

1 Introduction to Computers

Understanding the ComputersHistory of Computers

Generations of Computers

Classification of Computers

2 Computer Hardware

3 Assembling a Computer

4 Computer Software

5 Installation of Windows XP

6 Installation of Linux

7 MS Word

8 MS PowerPoint

9 MS Excel

10 Internet

11 Troubleshooting

12 Further References


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Chapter 1

Introduction to Computers

1. Understanding the Computer

What is Computer?Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processesthese data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and

saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and

logical) calculations.

A computer has four functions:

a. accepts data Input

b. processes data Processingc. produces output Output

d. stores results Storage

Input (Data):

Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection of

letters, numbers, images etc.

Process:

Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the computer

system.

Output:

Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as Result.We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.

Computer SystemAll of the components of a computer system can be summarized with the simple equations.

COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER

Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices

All physical parts of the computer (or everything that we can touch) are known as Hardware.

Software = Programs

Software gives "intelligence" to the computer. The parts of a computer which we cannottouch and feel.

USER = Person, who operates computer.

Bit and BytesByte is the unit of measure of computer memory.

1 Byte = 8 bits

1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte1024 Kilo Byte = 1 Mega Byte

1024 Mega Bytes= 1 Giga Byte

1024 Giga Bytes = 1 Tera Byte.


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2. Brief History of Computers.

As early as the seventeenth century, mathematicians were trying to create a machine that couldperform basic mathematical functions such as, addition, subtraction, division and multiplication, and

around 1640, Blaise Pascal, a leading French mathematician, constructed the first mechanical adding

device. The programming language, Pascal, which is widely used today, was named after Blaise Pascal

to honor his contribution to the development of the modern computer.

1804 saw the introduction of an automated punched card machine, which was used to operate

weaving looms. This was the first known use of programmed instructions, which led the way to the

concepts behind today's computers. Around this time, British inventor, Charles Babbage, designed anall-purpose problem-solving machine, the difference engine, which had a mechanical memory to

store the results of calculations.

Babbage's partner, Augusta Ada, suggested using a binary system rather than decimal for datastorage; she also refined the design of the analytical engine to include the automatic repetition of a

series of calculations - the loop, a procedure used routinely in modern computer programmes.

In the 1850's, British mathematician, George Boole, realised that complex mathematical problems

could be solved by reducing them to a series of questions, which could be answered either positively

or negatively represented by either a 1 or a 0; thus the binary numbering system and Boolean logicwas founded. This theory of Boolean logic became fundamental to the design of computer circuitry.

The early twentieth century saw the next stage in computer history, the first electronic machine,capable of solving simple differential equations. In 1937, George Stibitz constructed his complex

number calculator from batteries, flashlight bulbs, wire and strips of metal from a tobacco can! This

was the first binary adding machine, and paved the way for all digital computers.

In 1939, John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built the Atanasoff-Berry computer, known simply as ABC,

which is now acknowledged as the world's first general-purpose electronic digital computer. At the

time, it raised little interest among the scientific community, and when Dr Atanasoff contacted IBM

about his machine, the company said that it would never be interested in an electronic computingmachine!!!

In 1941, at the height of the Second World War, the first operational general purpose computer wasbuilt for Germany by Konrad Zuse. This machine used binary logic and employed vacuum tubes,which increased its speed by a factor of 1,000. However, when Zuse applied for funding to use his

machine to break war-time codes, an estimated 2 year project, Hitler refused, insisting that the war

would be over before the project was finished!

Alan Turing, an eccentric English genius, pursued Zuse's work and capitalised on his vacuum-tube

technology. Turing constructed the Automatic Computer Engine (ACE), which could process 25,000

characters per second and which has also been described as the first programmable digital computer,a point still argued by many historians. In 1944, Howard Atkin, a US Harvard mathematician,

completed the first automatic sequence-controlled calculator, the Mark 1. This monster was 51 feet

long and 8 feet high and it contained over 750,000 parts strung together with 500 miles of wire.

In 1942, in the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Engineering, John Mauchly and J Presper

Eckert built a machine to compute artillery firing tables for the American government; this deviceweighing 30 tons and containing 100,000 electronic components, including 17,000 vacuum tubes,

was called the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). This machine was 80 feet longand 18 feet high and utilised the decimal numbering system. Mauchly and Eckert also claimed that

ENIAC was the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, but in 1973 this matter was settled

by a US court, which declared that the Atanasoff-Berry computer was entitled to that honour.

Improvements continued until 1959, when both Jack Kilby, at Texas Instruments, and Robert Noyce,

at Fairchild Semiconductor, discovered that resistors, capacitors and transistors could be made from

a semiconductor material and that vast numbers of transistors could be etched onto a single silicon

chip. Thus, the age of integrated circuits had arrived, and from this point forward, computers

continuously decreased in size and increased in power and performance.

The IBM System/360 series of mainframe computers, designed by Gene Amdahl, were introduced in

the mid 1960's. The System/360 was a family of machines, with upward compatibility throughout the


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range providing a relatively cheap upgrade path. This was the era of miniaturisation, and in 1963 the

Digital Equipment Corporation produced the first minicomputer, the PDP-1.

By 1970, Intel had produced a memory chip that could store one Kilobyte of information and in the

early 1970s the same company managed to intergrate the arithmetic and logic functions of several

chips onto a single chip, the world's first microprocessor which enabled the development of the firstmicrocomputers. The earlist microcomputer, the Altair 8800, was developed in 1975 by Ed Roberts;

this machine used the Intel microprocessor and had less than 1 kilobyte of memory. This was quickly

followed by Tandy's TRS-80, Commodore Business Machine's Personal Electronic Transactor ( the

commodore PET ), and the Apple 11, developed by Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak.

The market for microcomputer software was also developing at this time, and in 1974 Bill Gates and

Paul Allen developed Microsoft BASIC which was used by all of the early microcomputers. In 1981, a

momentous year for Microsoft and its founders, IBM adopted Microsoft BASIC and Microsoft's newmicrocomputer operating system, MS-DOS, for its own microcomputer, the IBM Personal Computer.

By 1984, the IBM PC and the MS-DOS operating system had become the de facto standard adopted by

all microcomputer suppliers. Microprocessordevelopment, led by Intel and Motorola, was

rapid; Intel chips set the PC standards and

Motorola chips were adopted by Apple for its

Macintosh range. Intel's early 8086 wassuperseded by the 80286, quickly followed by

the 80386, 80486 and Pentium range.

3. The Computer Generations

The history of computer development is often

referred to in reference to the different

generations of computing devices. Each

generation of computer is characterized by amajor technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers

operate, resulting in increasingly smaller,cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient

and reliable devices

First Generation

(1940-1956) - Vacuum

TubesThe first computers used vacuumtubes for circuitry and magnetic

drums for memory, and were

often enormous, taking up entirerooms. They were very expensive

to operate and in addition tousing a great deal of electricity,

generated a lot of heat, which

was often the cause of

malfunctions.

First generation computersrelied on machine language, the

lowest-level programming

language understood by

computers, to perform

operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and

paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVACwas the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.


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Features of First Generation Computers

1. Use of vacuum tubes2. Big & Clumsy

3. High Electricity Consumption

4. Programming in Mechanical Language5. Larger AC were needed

6. Lot of electricity failure occured

Second Generation

(1956-1963) - TransistorsTransistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The

transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.

The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though

the transistor still generated a great

deal of heat that subjected thecomputer to damage, it was a vast

improvement over the vacuum tube.Second-generation computers still

relied on punched cards for input and

printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved

from cryptic binary machine languageto symbolic, or assembly, languages,

which allowed programmers to specify

instructions in words. High-level

programming languages were also

being developed at this time, such as

early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

These were also the first computers

that stored their instructions in theirmemory, which moved from a magnetic

drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation

were developed for the atomic energy

industry.

Features of Second Generation Computers

1. Transistors were used

2. Core Memory was developed

3. Faster than First Generation computers

4. First Operating System was developed

5. Programming was in Machine Language & Assembly Language6. Magnetic tapes & discs were used

7. Computers became smaller in size than the First Generation computers

8. Computers consumed less heat &

consumed less electricity

Third Generation

(1964-1971) - Integrated CircuitsThe development of the integrated circuit

was the hallmark of the third generation of

computers. Transistors were miniaturizedand placed on silicon chips, called

semiconductors, which drastically increased

the speed and efficiency of computers.Instead of punched cards and printouts,


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users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced

with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one timewith a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible

to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Features of Third Generation Computers

1. Integrated circuits developed2. Power consumption was low

3. SSI & MSI Technology was used4. High level languages were used

Fourth Generation

(1971-Present) - MicroprocessorsThe microprocessor brought the fourthgeneration of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single

silicon chip. What in the first generation filledan entire room could now fit in the palm of

the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in1971, located all the components of the

computerfrom the central processing unit

and memory to input/output controlson a

single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer forthe home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced

the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved

out of the realm of desktop computers and

into many areas of life as more and more

everyday products began to use

microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,

which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw thedevelopment of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Features of Fourth Generation Computers

1. LSI & VLSI Technology used

2. Development of Portable Computers3. RAID Technology of data storage

4. Used in virtual reality, multimedia, simulation

5. Computers started in use for Data Communication

6. Different types of memories with very high

accessing speed & storage capacity

Fifth Generation(Present and Beyond) - Artificial

IntelligenceFifth generation computing devices, based on artificial

intelligence, are still in development, though there aresome applications, such as voice recognition, that are

being used today. The use of parallel processing and

superconductors is helping to make artificialintelligence a reality. Quantum computation and

molecular and nanotechnology will radically change

the face of computers in years to come. The goal offifth-generation computing is to develop devices that

respond to natural language input and are capable oflearning and self-organization.


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Features of Fifth Generation Computers

1. Used in parallel processing2. Used superconductors

3. Used in speech recognition

4. Used in intelligent robots5. Used in artificial intelligence

4. Classification of ComputersComputers can be classified into several categories based on different parameters

Based on Technology - Analog, Digital, Hybrid

Based on Size - Super, Mainframe, Mini, Micro,Based on mode of use - Palms, Laptop PCs, Desktop PCs and Workstations, Servers

Classification based on Technology1. Analog Computers

Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent variables byphysical quantities. Thus any computer which solve problem by translating physical conditions such

as flow, temperature, pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or electrical

related circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general it is acomputer which uses an analog quantity and produces analog values as output. Thus an analog

computer measures continuously. Analog computers are very much speedy. They produce their

results very fast. But their results are approximately correct. All the analog computers are specialpurpose computers.

2. Digital Computers

Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These numbers

are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision to reach a conclusion,

depending on, the data they receive from the user.

3. Hybrid Computers

Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics combining

the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system. Hybrid computers are

being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a close representation

with the physical world.

The hybrid system provides the good precision that can be attained with analog computers and the

greater control that is possible with digital computers, plus the ability to accept the input data ineither form.

Classification based on Size1. Super Computers

Large scientific and research laboratories as well as the government organizations have extraordinary demand for processing data which required tremendous processing speed, memory and

other services which may not be provided with any other category to meet their needs. Therefore

very large computers used are called Super Computers. These computers are extremely expensiveand the speed is measured in billions of instructions per seconds.

2. Main Frame Computers

The most expensive, largest and the most quickest or speedy computer are called mainframe

computers. These computers are used in large companies, factories, organizations etc. the mainframe

computers are the most expensive computers, they cost more than 20 million rupees. In this

computers 150 users are able to work on one C.P.U. The mainframes are able to process 1 to 8 bits ata time. They have several hundreds of megabytes of primary storage and operate at a speed

measured in nano second.

3. Mini Computers

Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities such as speed, storage

capacity and other services. They are versatile that they can be fitted where ever they are needed.Their speeds are rated between one and fifty million instructions per second (MIPS). They have


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primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct access storage device.

4. Micro Computers

These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early 70s having less storing

space and processing speed. Micro computers of today are equivalent to the mini computers ofyesterday in terms of performing and processing. They are also called computer of a chip because

its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip. The micro computers have a wide range ofapplications including uses as portable computer that can be plugged into any wall.

Classification based on mode of usePalm PCs or Simputer

With miniaturization and high-density packing of transistor on a chip, computers with capabilities

nearly that of PCs which can be held in a palm have emerged. Palm accept handwritten inputs using

an electronic pen which can be used to write on a Palms screen (besides a tiny keyboard), have smalldisk storage and can be connected to a wireless network. One has to train the system on the users

handwriting before it can be used as a mobile phone, Fax, and e-mail machine. A version of Microsoft

operating system called Windows-CE is available for Palm. An Indian initiative to meet the needs ofrural population of developing countries is called Simputer. Simputer is a mobile handheld computer

with input through icons on a touch sensitive overly on the LCD display panel. A unique feature of

Simputer is the use of free open source OS called GNU/Linux. The cost of ownership is thus low asthere is no software cost for OS. Another unique feature of Simputer not found in Palm, is a smart

card reader/writer, which increases the functionality of the Simputer including possibility of

personalization of a single Simputer for several users.

Laptop PCs:

Laptop PCs (also known as notebook computers) are portable computers weighing around 2 kgs.

They have a keyboard, flat screen liquid crystal display, and a Pentium or Power PC processor. Colourdisplays are available. They normally run using WINDOWS OS. Laptops come with hard disk (around

40 GB), CDROM and floppy disk. They should run with batteries and are thus designed to conserve

energy by using power efficient chips. Many Laptops can be connected to a network. There is a trend

towards providing wireless connectivity to Laptops so that they can read files from large stationary

computers. The most common use of Laptop computers is used for word processing, and spreadsheetcomputing. As Laptops use miniature components which have to consume low power and have to be

packaged in small volumes.

Personal Computers (PCs)

The most popular PCs are desktop machines. Early PCs had Intel 8088 microprocessors as their CPU.

Currently (2004), Intel Dual Core is the most popular processor. The machines made by IBM are

called IBM PCs. Other manufacturers use IBMs specifications and design their own PCs. They are

known as IBM compatible PCs. IBM PCs mostly use MS-Windows, WINDOWS XP or GNU/Linux asOperating System. IBM PCs, nowadays (2004) have 64 to 256 MB main memory, 40 to 80 GB of Hard

Disk and a floppy disk or flash ROM. Besides these a 650 MB CDROM is also provided in PCs intended

for multimedia use. Another company called Apple also makes PCs. Apple PCs are known as Apple

Macintosh. They use Apples proprietary OS, which is designed for simplicity of use. Apple Macintosh

machines used Motorola 68030 microprocessors but now use Power PC 603 processor. IBM PCs aretoday the most popular computers with millions of them in use throughout the world.

Workstations:

Workstations are also desktop machines. They are, however, more powerful providing processor

speeds about 10 times that of PCs. Most workstations have a large color video display unit (19 inch

monitors). Normally they have main memory of around 256 MB to 4 GB and Hard Disk of 80 to 320

GB. Workstations normally use RISC processors such as MIPS (SIG), RIOS (IBM), SPARC (SUN), or PA-

RISC (HP). Some manufacturers of Workstations are Silicon Graphics (SIG), IBM, SUN Microsystemsand Hewlett Packard (HP). The standard Operating System of Workstations is UNIX and its

derivatives such as AIX (IBM), Solaris (SUN), and HP-UX (HP). Very good graphics facilities and large

video screens are provided by most Workstations. A system called X WINDOWS is provided by

Workstations to display the status of multiple processes during their execution. Most Workstationshave built-in hardware to connect to a Local Area Network (LAN). Workstations are used for


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executing numeric and graphic intensive applications such as those, which arise in Computer Aided

Design, simulation of complex systems and visualizing the results of simulation.

Servers

While manufacturers such as IBM, SUN and Silicon Graphics have been manufacturing highperformance workstations the speed of Intel Pentium Processors has been going up. In 2004,

Pentium with clock speed 3 GHz are available. They can support several GB main memories. Thus thedifference between high end PCs and Workstations is vanishing. Today companies such as SUN make

Intel based workstations. While Workstations are characterized by high performance processors withlarge screens for interactive programming, servers are used for specific purpose such as high

performance numerical computing (called compute server), web page hosting, database store,

printing etc. interactive large screens are not necessary. Computer servers have performanceprocessors with large main memory, database servers have big on-line disk storage (100s of GB) and

print servers support several high speed printers.


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Chapter 2

Computer Hardware

1. Block Diagram of Computer

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated

problems quickly and accurately.

Input Unit:Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore we need to

input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more inputdevices. Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input device. Other commonly used inputdevices are the mouse, floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc. All the input devices perform the

following functions.

Accept the data and instructions from the outside world. Convert it to a form that the computer can understand. Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

Storage Unit:The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input unit,

before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the

output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a computer

system are divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold theprogram being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the

intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature. The data

is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the data has to be

transferred to the secondary memory. E.g. of primary memory is RAM.

The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore most

computers have limited primary storage capacity.

2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,

documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the

primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in the

secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Someof the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,


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Memory Size:

All digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0s and 1s. Each character or a number is representedby an 8 bit code.

The set of 8 bits is called a byte.

A character occupies 1 byte space.A numeric occupies 2 byte space.

Byte is the space occupied in the memory.The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabyte). One KB is equal to

1024 bytes and one MB is equal to 1024KB. The size of the primary storage in a typical PC usuallystarts at 16MB. PCs having 32 MB, 48MB, 128 MB, 256MB memory are quite common.

Output Unit:The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to outside

world. Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices. Other commonlyused output devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.

Central Processing Unit:The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU).

The CPU is like brain performs the following functions: It performs all calculations.

It takes all decisions.

It controls all units of the computer.A PC may have CPU-IC such as Intel 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Celeron, Pentium, Pentium Pro,

Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, and AMD etc.

Arithmetic Logical Unit:

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does

comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations viz, >,


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2. MouseThe Mouse is a pointing device. The mouse is used to open and close files, navigate web sites, and

click on a lot of commands (to tell the computer what to do) when using different applications.

3. ScannerA scanner is used to copy pictures or other things and save them as files on the computer.

4. Digital CameraA digital camera can be used to take pictures. It can be hooked up to a computer to transfer the

pictures from the camera to the computer. Some digital cameras hold a floppy disk, and the floppydisk can be taken out of the camera and put directly into the computer.


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5. Web CameraCameras like this are used during live conversations. The camera transmits a picture from one

computer to another, or can be used to record a short video.

6. JoysticksA joystick is used to move the cursor from place to place, and to click on various items in programs. A

joystick is used mostly for computer games

7. Track ballA trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to detect a

rotation of the ball about two axeslike an upside-down.

To move the pointer, you rotate the ball with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of your hand.There are usually one to three buttons next to the ball, which you use just like mouse buttons.

8. Touch pad screensA touch screen is a computer screen or other screen that you can touch with your finger to enter

information. Examples of touch screens include a smart board, a microwave, a dishwasher, or anATM at a bank.


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9. Light penA small, photosensitive device connected to a computer and moved by hand over an output display in

order to manipulate information in the computer. It is the size of a regular writing pen and is used as

a pointing device on your screen.

10. Bar code readerA bar code scanner scans a little label that has a bar code on it. The information is then saved on thecomputer. Bar code scanners are used in libraries a lot.


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11. MicrophoneA microphone is used to record sound. The sound is then saved as a sound file on the computer.

12. Graphics TabletA drawing tablet is similar to a white board, except you use a special pen to write on it and it's

connected to the computer. Then the word or image you draw can be saved on the computer.

13. Magnetic ink Character ReaderMICR (magnetic ink character recognition) is a technology used to verify the legitimacy or originality

of paper documents, especially checks. Special ink, which is sensitive to magnetic fields, is used in the

printing of certain characters on the original documents. Information can be encoded in the magneticcharacters.


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14. Optical Mark ReaderA special scanning device that can read carefully placed pencil marks on specially designed

documents. OMR is frequently used in forms, questionnaires, and answer-sheets.


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15. Magnetic Card ReaderThese units are designed to write and verify magnetic strip data.

16. Biometric DevicesBiometrics allow people to be identified based on unique characteristics. Examples include

fingerprint scans, iris scans, and voice recognition. Biometric devices utilize technology to capture

and process this type of information. Such devices may be found at airports, government buildings,and law enforcement agencies.

17. BluetoothBluetooth is a technology that makes short-range wireless

connections between devices (such as your Mac and your

mouse or keyboard) at distances up to 10 meters (33 feet).


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3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside

the computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs arithmetic and logic operations.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the device that interprets and executes instructions.

ProcessorA processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive acomputer.

The term processor has generally replaced the term central processing unit (CPU). The processor in a

personal computer or embedded in small devices is often called a microprocessor.


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4. Output Devices

1. MonitorA monitor is the screen on which words, numbers, and graphics can be seem. The monitor is the

most common output device.

2. ProjectorA computer projector is a device that integrates a light source, optics system, electronics anddisplay(s) for the purpose of projecting an image from a computer or video device onto a wall or

screen for large image viewing. These devices attached to a computer or video device as you would

connect a monitor.


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3. PlotterA plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on paper with

one or more automated pens. Unlike a regular printer , the plotter can draw continuous point-to-

point lines directly from vector graphics files or commands.

4. SpeakerA speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built into the computerand some are separate.


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5. HolographsHolography is the process or technique of making holograms, which are three-dimensional images. A

hologram is produced by the interaction of two beams of laser light (light composed all of the same

color, or wavelength), which have been split from a single beam by a mirror.A new 3D Visualisation technology.

6. PrintersA printer prints whatever is on the monitor onto paper. Printers can print words, numbers, or

pictures.


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7. HeadphonesHeadphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers, except they areworn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time.


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5. Storage Devices

1. Primary memory (main memory)

A. RAM (Random Access Memory/Read-Write

Memory)Simply stated, Random Access Memory is a name applied tomicrochips designed to store and address information while a

computer is actually using it. This is in contrast with the hard

drive, which stores and accesses information semi-permanently(that is, until it is deleted). Choosing the right amount of the

right kind of RAM is crucial to the success of your homebuilt

computer project.Professionals refer to individual RAM modules as "sticks." So

should you, if you want to be taken seriously at your local computer store or geek hangout.

RAM is volatile, which means that it needs a constant current in order for it to retain information.Once the current is removed, the information disappears. This is why you have to save a document

that you're working on before you shut off your computer. When you hit "save," the document is

transferred from the RAM (temporary storage), to permanent storage (hard drive, floppy disk, CD-RW, etc.).This is also one reason why it's important to save long documents periodically while you're working

on them. If your computer experiences even a brief power interruption, all of the information stored

in RAM will be lost.

SIMM (Single-Inline Memory Module).

Used mainly in older computers; nowconsidered obsolete. Its contacts were

along only one face of the edge, hence the

word "single."

DIMM (Dual-Inline Memory Module). The most common RAM form factor in use today.SDRAM and DDR-SDRAM are examples of two types of RAM using the DIMM form factor.

SO-DIMM (Small-Outline Dual-Inline Memory Module). Used

primarily in laptop computers and other compact computing

devices.

RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module). Rambus is high-end RAM for motherboards using Intel's

i820/i840 chipsets.

RDRAM is very fast -- and very expensive.


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Types of RAM

RAM comes in different types and flavors to suit different needs and budgets. There are manyspecialized types of RAM, but some of the more common types are:

SRAM. Static Random Access Memory is very fast and very expensive. It is primarily used formemory caching (such as on processor chips). Architecturally, it has multiple transistors for

each memory cell. It does not need to be refreshed. It is rarely encountered except as a

component of other devices. DRAM. Dynamic Random Access Memory is slower than SRAM and needs to be refreshed

many times every second. Each memory cell consists of a capacitor and a transistor. DRAM ismuch less expensive than SRAM.

SDRAM. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory is a special type of DRAM that issynchronized to the system clock. Each chip contains internal registers that accept requests

from the CPU, thus freeing the cpu to do other things while the data is assembled. Since

SDRAM is synchronized to the CPU, it "knows" when the next cycle is coming, and has the

data ready when the CPU requests it. This increases efficiency by reducing CPU wait states.

SDRAM is available at speeds as high as 133 MHz.

DDR-SDRAM. Double-Data Rate SDRAM works the same way as does ordinary SDRAM,except it works twice as quickly by synchronizing to both the rising and falling of the clock

pulse (which makes it twice as fast as ordinary SDRAM). DDR-SDRAM can also be installed indual-channels if the motherboard supports this arrangement. There is no difference in theactual RAM modules used for dual-channel DDR, but the two sticks of RAM in each channel

must be a matched pair (same size and speed). DDR3 is the latest evolution in DDR RAM.

RDRAM. RAMBUS Dynamic Random Access Memory is a very fast type of RAM in which thechips work in parallel to produce very fast speeds. However, because it is proprietary and

very expensive, RDRAM has been slow in catching on.

RD RAM

SD RAM

DDR RAM


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DDR 2 and DDR 3 RAM

B. ROM (Read-only-memory)ROM stands for the Read Only Memory. It is type of the memory on the computer that is fixed and thecontent of it cannot be changed. It contains the hardwired instructions that are being used by the

computer when it boots up. ROM is used start up the computer and loads the operating system. It

contains the predefined set of instructions. It has been designed to perform the specific functions

based on the predefined instructions.

There is a small program inside the ROM that is known as BIOS. It contains the instructions. ROM is

nonvolatile as opposed to the RAM, which is volatile. Besides the computers, the ROMs are used in

the calculators and the peripheral devices such as laser printer, where the fixed sets of instructionsare required.

The contents of the read only memory can be read but cannot be changed, written or edited. Its a

dedicated chip on the motherboard that permanently stores the information in it.The modern types of the ROM are the EPROM and the EEPROM that can be erased and re-

programmed many times. The other types of it are PROM, EAROM and flash ROM. Today every

computer has a built-in ROM chip.


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2. Secondary memory (storage devices)

Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive (HDD; also hard drive, hard disk, or disk drive) isa device for storing and retrieving digital information, primarily

computer data. It consists of one or more rigid (hence "hard")

rapidly rotating discs (often referred to as platters), coated withmagnetic material and with magnetic heads arranged to write data

to the surfaces and read it from them.

Auxiliary Storage Devices

In addition to your hard drive(s), you will undoubtedly want to

install other drives on your homebuilt computer. We're calling

these "auxiliary drives" to distinguish them from the hard drive. Auxiliary drives include:

Optical Drives

Optical drives include CD-ROM drives, CD-RWdrives ("burners"), DVD-ROM drives, and DVD+/-

RW drives. They use lasers to read and/or write

data. Some optical drives combine variousfeatures; for example, there are drives that will

read DVD's as well as write CD-R's or CD-RW's.

Floppy Drives

The venerable floppy drive has seen better days. Most new

computers don't even come with floppy drives any more. But I

still like installing them because they are useful for runningbootable diagnostic programs. They're also important in dual

boot Windows / Linux machines because sometimes a

Windows upgrade will wipe out the Linux bootloader, which

can be backed up in advance to a floppy in case that happens.

ZIP Drives

ZIP drives are high-capacity magnetic drives that can hold100MB, 250MB, or 750MB of data, depending on the model.

When CD-writers first came out, many predicted the eventual

demise of ZIP drives. But the ZIP format has defied the odds

and remains a fairly popular removable storage medium.

Card Readers

Card readers are not really "drives,"per se, but they are treated as

such by the operating system. Although commonly called

"readers," all card readers can both read and write.

If you do digital photography or have any other reason to move

data between your computer and a card storage device, then abuilt-in card reader / writer will make a very nice addition to your

new PC. Some card readers also read floppy disks or SIM cards,and some also have USB and/or FireWire ports.

Tape Drives

Once the industry mainstay for data backup, tape drives are

gradually fading into history as newer, faster, and often less-

expensive backup solutions like network backup take their place.Some tape drives can read and write DV tapes from digital

camcorders.


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Chapter 3

Assembling a computer

Process of Assembling a computer.1. Various Components2. Opening the empty case3. Fitting the motherboard4. Installing the CPU and cooler5. Fan power connection6. Installing the ram7. Graphics, sound and network8. Installing the hard disk and floppy9. Installing the CD-ROM drive10. Connecting the ribbon cables11. Drive power connectors12. Front panel connections13. Final check

1. Various ComponentsFig: Overview of all

components (from left to

right and top to

bottom): network

adapter card; floppy

disk drive; CD-ROM

drive; sound card; hard

disk; ribbon cable;

graphics card; RAM;

CPU cooler; and,

motherboard.


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2. Opening The Empty Case

Fig:Empty case with motherboard tray

withdrawn.

The tower case is built to ATX

specification and includes a 230-wattpower supply. Two side panels can be

individually removed after undoing the

screws. Some other cases have a one-piece outer cover in the shape of an

upside down 'U.' No matter how the case

is constructed, you can normally gainaccess to the interior of the PC-to-be from

both sides.

3. Fitting The MotherboardFig:Empty tray with six motherboardspacers.

The case has a slide-out tray, which

provides a very elegant way to install the

motherboard and all of its components.

Next, screw in the spacer mounts for fixingthe motherboard. The photo shows six

spacers already fitted to the mounting plate.

There are usually more holes drilled in themounting plate than you actually need.

Fig: Spaced well away from the metal - the motherboard on the mounting plate.


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4. Installing the CPU and cooler

Lift the lever on the CPU socket. When the processor is in its socket, push the lever back down.

First, insert the CPU in its socket. To do this, raise the small lever at the side of the socket. If you

examine the CPU from underneath, you will notice that there is a pin missing at one corner. Match

this corner with the corner on the socket wherethere is a hole missing. The processor is keyed inthis way to make sure it is inserted correctly. Please

bear in mind that you should not force the CPU

when inserting it! All pins should slide smoothlyinto the socket. Once you have installed the

processor, lock the lever back down.

Fig: Applying thermal paste to the processor.


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Mounting The Cooler

Fig 1 Fig 2

Fig1: Make sure that the cooler is in the correct position. Here is the cooler about to be connected with

the socket.

Fig 2: Clips fix the cooler to the socket. This applies to Socket A/462 (AMD) and Socket 370 (Pentium III

and C3).

Fig 3 Fig 4

Fig 3: Pentium 4 motherboards have a socket with 478 pins and a guide for the CPU cooler.

Fig 4: Attaching a Pentium 4 cooler


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5. Fan Power Connection

Fig: power connection for the cooler's fan.

The connector lead for the fan has three

wires. Two of these carry the power; the third

is used for monitoring the speed of the fan.Therefore, the BIOS is always aware of the

speed at which the fan is running.

6. Installing The RAM

Installing RAM. A notch at the bottom of the memory module ensures that the RAM is fitted correctly.

The notch is located in different places on SDRAM, DDR SDRAM and RDRAM.

7. Graphics, Sound And Network

In place - sound card (left) and graphics card (center) in white PCI slots. There is room for a network

card, if required.


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8. Installing The Hard Disk And Floppy

Fig: At the moment, we still have good access to

the hard disk (bottom) and the floppy drive (top).

You can see the screws for the drive on the side.

Use two screws per side on each drive. Leave

some space above the hard disk to prevent heatbuildup. The power supply fan is normally

powerful enough to provide adequate air

circulation inside the case.

9. Installing The CD-ROM

DriveInstalling a CD-ROM drive is

similar to installing a hard disk.

First, check that the jumperconfiguration is correct.

Fig: CD Drive In Drive Cage.

10. Connecting The Ribbon CablesYour PC should now look similar to the one in ourphotograph. All key components, such as the

motherboard, processor, RAM, graphics card, sound card,

hard disk, CD-ROM and floppy, have been installed. Now

it is time to connect the cables.

PC still without the cables

There are two main cable types: the 34-pin cable for thefloppy drive and the 40-pin IDE cable (with 80 wires) for

the hard disk and CD-ROM. Cables are always color-

coded to show pin 1. Most drives also provide some kindof identification for pin 1. If you find that this is not the

case, just remember that pin 1 is the one next to the

power plug.


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Ribbon cable. The markings show the direction

in which the power flows. Bottom: 80-pin forhard disk. Top: 34-pin for floppy.

11. Drive Power Connectors

Fig: Four-pole for 5 and 12 volts. Disk drive power connector on the right next to the ribbon cable.


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12. Front Panel Connections

Fig: Front panel connections: HDD LED (hard disk light), power (on/ off) switch and RESET switch in the

top row. Below: mini speaker.

All motherboards group the pins that provide front panel functions at the bottom right of the board.You should find these described in the handbook that came with your motherboard. The

abbreviations printed on the board itself are not particularly helpful for beginners, who may find the

following short explanation of the abbreviations useful.

SP, SPK, or SPEAK: the loudspeaker output. It has four pins. RS, RE, RST or RESET: connect the two-pin Reset cable here. PWR, PW, PW SW, PS or Power SW: power switch, the PC's on/ off switch. The plug is two-

pin.

PW LED, PWR LED or Power LED: the light-emitting diode on the front panel of the caseilluminates when the computer is switched on. It is a two-pin cable.

HD, HDD LED: these two pins connect to the cable for the hard disk activity LED.13. Final CheckCongratulations - you've done it! You have fitted and connected all components. Before you boot your

new computer for the first time, recheck everything. It is very easy to overlook something obvious.

Consider the following:

Motherboard jumper configuration: are the settings for the processor correct? Drive jumper settings: master/ slave correct? Are the processor, RAM modules and plug-in cards firmly seated in their sockets? Did you plug all the cables in? Do they all fit snugly? Have you tightened all the screws on the plug-in cards or fitted the clips? Are the drives secure? Have you connected the power cables to all drives?

Once you have checked all of the above, you can start your PC and install your operating system.

Documents

ITWS Manual Final Copy