17

SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL

ITEMSVOLUME 19 " NUMBER 2 " JUNE 1965230 PARK AVENUE " NEW YORK, N. Y. 10017

SOCIALIZATION FOR COMPETENCE

What do we know, and what do we need to know, aboutthe conditions under which persons come to function as

competent members of society? The question arises withnew urgency as crash programs and longer-term plansburgeon in every quarter in belated but unfortunatelyhasty attempts to instill competence in the poor and cul-turally deprived. It was in this context of contemporarysocial action that the Committee on Socialization andSocial Structure 1 in the spring of 1964 considered thetopic of socialization for competence. It seemed to thecommittee that examination of the assumptions under-lying some of these programs of intervention andplannedsocial change might help to clarify conceptual issues andidentify research needs concerning socialization proc-esses as they bear upon the positive outcomes of sociali-zation. Preliminary discussions, in which Leonard S.Cottrell, Jr. and Isidor Chein participated, suggestedthata number of active lines of investigation andconceptuali-zation do indeed seem to be converging on a potentially

* The author is Professor of Psychology and, beginning in July, Di-rector of the Institute of Human Development at the University ofCalifornia, Berkeley. During 1964-65 he has been on leave as Fellow ofthe Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences and SpecialResearch Fellow of the National Institute of Mental Health. He is a

member of the Council's Committee on Socialization and Social Struc-ture and was the chairman of the conference that he reports on here.

1 The committee has been concerned since its appointment in 1960with the interrelationship of social structure, socialization processes,and personality. It has sought to advance research in this area throughthe support of locally based work groups developing the conceptualiza-tion of selected problems, through commissioned surveys of researchresources and of selected foreign

literatures,

and through research con-ferences. The committee consists of John A. Clausen (chairman),Orville G. Brim, Jr., Alex Inkeles, Ronald Lippitt, Eleanor E. Maccoby,and M. Brewster Smith; staff, Ben Willerman. The work of the com-mittee is supported by a grant to the Council from the National Insti-tute of Mental Health.

by M. Brewster Smith *

congruent formulation. The strands of current interestthat thecommittee brought into view turned out to arisefrom a much wider array of research contexts than it hadinitially been concerned with—ranging from the effectsof early experience on the neonate to the evocation ofcompetence in newly independent developing countries.Bringing these strands together for examination andcritical discussion ataconference based on carefully pre-pared workingpapers seemed to the committee intellec-tually exciting and likely tobe valuable toall concerned.The conference,2 held in San Juan, Puerto Rico on April29 - May 2, 1965, could only begin to approach the syn-thesis toward which the committee was aspiring, but itamply confirmed the committee's expectations that thediverse lines of interest represented would be mutuallyrelevant and that a clearer formulation of issues wouldemerge from the confrontation.

CONTRASTING APPROACFIES

Two workingpapers considered at theoutset served to

establish a common framework: "Competence as a BasicConcept in the Growth of Personality," by Robert W.White, and "A Note on Social Structure and the Sociali-zation of Competence," by Alex Inkeles. The polarity

2ln addition to the members of the committee, participants in theconference were: Joseph M. Bobbin, National Institute of Child Healthand Human Development; Nathan S. Caplan, University of Michigan;Elizabeth Colson, University of California, Berkeley; Elizabeth B. Davis,Department of Psychiatry, Harlem Hospital; Edward

Devcreux,

andWilliam F. Whyte, Cornell University; J. McV. Hunt, University ofIllinois; Patricia Minuchin, Bank Street College of Education; Bernard

C.

Rosen,

University of Nebraska; Juan A. Rossello, University of

Puerto Rico; Richard Snyder, Northwestern University; Burton L.White, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Robert W. White, Har-vard University; and R. S. Ezekiel, University of Michigan (recorder).

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which these papers presented—between the develop- a concept, which includes the individual's capacity to

mental vicissitudes of individual motivation (White) andthe requirements for manning a given social system(Inkeles)—as starting points for analysis confronted theconference again and again in subsequent discussion.Talk of beginning the analysis of any particular problemin socialization for competence "from the right end"became one of the jokes of the conference, as there wasclearly no agreeing about which end this might be.

According to White, the child from infancy experi-ences a biologically givenandpleasurable sense ofefficacythat accompanies his maturing engagementswith his en-vironment and becomes the basis for intrinsic motivationtoward competence.8 Such motivation, as White sees it,is independent of extrinsic social rewards and punish-ments though not uninfluenced by them. Offered inopposition to what was formerly orthodox motivationaldoctrine—according to which the child's behavior is"shaped" by external forces, first by thereward ofphysio-logical drives, then through reinforcement via "sec-ondary" motives of social origin—White's provisionalreappraisal of the basis of motivation puts more emphasison the child's spontaneous activity, on his own role asagent in the socialization process. Without denying therole ofsocial approval and disapproval in channeling thedirections and setting the standards according to whichthe child may experience a sense of competence, Whiteemphasizes that the child will experience efficacy most

clearly when the achievement is his own, perhaps evenattained against the pressures of socializing agents.

The strategy of desirable socialization practice thatseems to follow is one that encourages and supports thechild in solving his problems for himself rather thanproviding him with solutions. Such a strategy counts ontheemergence and deepeningof the intrinsic motivationthat comes from the gratifications of effective action. Ifthe socializing agents rely heavily on the extrinsic re-

wards of approval or disapproval, the child's potentialintrinsic motivation may be stultified; he may continuetobe governedby external incentives like grades, money,or prestige rather than by the intrinsic satisfactions thathe gets from dealing effectively with his world.

For Inkeles, socialization research that starts with theearly development of the organism, rather than with theconcerns of the socializers, begins "at the wrong end."His definition of competence incorporates a societalreferent: "the ability to attain andperform in three sets

of statuses: those which one's society will normally as-sign one, those in the repertoire of one's social systemthat one may reasonably aspire to, and those which onemight reasonably invent or elaborate for oneself." Such

s See Robert W. White, "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept o£Competence," Psychological Review, 66 (1959), 297-333.

move to new statuses and to elaborate new roles, isbroader than the outcome of successful socialization asusually conceived. A major intent of Inkeles' paper wasto draw attention to "some of the qualities of individu-als which are of most interest to society [but] whichseem largely or wholly to escape systematic study by stu-dents of socialization."

In modern industrial society as it is emerging theworld over, competence in the spheres of family, occupa-tion, andcommunity would seem to require a commonset of qualities that are presumably developed in thecourse of socialization: among them, minimal levels ofskill in the symbol systems of language, arithmetic, andtime; information as to where to go for what, and when;interpersonal skills that insure the protection of one'sinterests and the maintenance of stable and satisfyingrelations with intimates, peers, and authorities; and cer-tain specifiable kinds of psychological defenses and ofcognitive, affective, and conative styles.

Such qualities are not evenly distributed among in-dividuals or among social strata and ethnic groups. ForInkeles, research on socialization might strategicallystart with an attempt to account for these observed andimportant differences in the outcomes of socialization.His paper contained examples of how the place of a par-ticular family in the gross social structure may result indifferential influences on the child's attainment of thecomponents of competence.

The disparity or gap between the papers by Whiteand Inkeles posed an underlying and fruitful problemto which conference discussion repeatedly returned.White regards competence, at least in its origins, asgeneric and transculturally relevant; Inkeles, startingwith outcomes, stresses its cultural and situational speci-ficity. White emphasizes continuities with the explora-tory and activity drives of animals; Inkeles, articulationwith therequirements of the functioning social system.The conception of competence with which each worksis hewnto fit his own divergent theoretical purposes. Yetdiscussion showed that there is no essential clash be-tween the two points of view. The problem, rather, ishow to make them meet: how to formulate and under-stand the interplay between processes of the kind de-scribed by White in the social contexts and with thesocially relevant results with which Inkeles is concerned.There would seem to be no "right end" from which to

attack this problem.

EFFECTS OF EARLY EXPERIENCE

The lacunae in ourknowledge that must be filled be-fore the conceptual gap can be bridged were brought out

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WW

dramatically in discussion of theworkingpaper on "Com-petence and Sensorimotor Development," byRichard M.Held andBurton L. White (introduced to theconferenceby the latter). The paper described the results of on-going studies at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,particularly, of how enriching the stimulus propertiesof the environment affects the development of visualattention and grasping among institutionalized normalinfants. The careful and detailed observations in thesestudies illustrated the kind of systematic work that isneeded on many aspects of early psychological develop-ment before our account can be more than conjectural.Burton White saw the trendof thefindings as congruentwith Robert White's ideas: the infant develops compe-tences through self-initiated activity, and his gains fromsensory enrichment in the sensorimotor sphere seem to

be associated with gains in babbling and the precursorsof speech.

Data are not yet at hand, however, to permit otherthan speculative extrapolation from thesestudies of earlysensorimotor development to the emergence of moregeneral competences with the attainment of languageand reflective selfhood. The conference was remindedby John Clausen of the lack of correlation between in-fant mental tests(primarily sensorimotor) and latermeas-ures of intelligence in which language and conceptualabilities play a principal role. Is there continuity or dis-continuity between competence at the sensorimotor andlinguistic-conceptual levels? For an answer longitudinalresearch is required, to follow up the later results ofinterventions that accelerate sensorimotor developmentin infants. It was noted that observed discontinuitiesmay have their sources in the social environment: asinfants, Negro children in slums may experience a rich-ness of sensory stimulation as well as of maternal warmthand support, only to encounter severe deprivation at thestage when meaningful and linguistically organized ex-perience becomes relevant.

According to the sociological tradition of G. H. Mead,as Orville Brim pointed out, the infant can only knowthat he is "effective" after he has attained the symboliccapacities that go with speech and emerging selfhood.This view assumes an inherent discontinuity. Smith, inhis discussion of the paperby Held andWhite, suggestedrather that our formulations concerning the origins anddevelopment of the self need review and revision to

integrate what we are beginning to know about theintrinsic effects of the child's self-initiated activities withtheresults of reflected appraisals of his qualities and per-formances by others (as emphasized by Mead and thesymbolic interactionist tradition). If we are to under-stand the continuity or discontinuity between infancyand childhood, we must gain a better grasp of the inter-

play between intrinsic factors (as emphasized by RobertWhite) and reflected social appraisal (as emphasized byMead and Sullivan4) in the emergence of the self. Weneed a theory of the self that is less programmatic anddoctrinaire, more closely based on empirical observationof the sort exemplified by Held and White for sensori-motor development. $<?Z/-concept, ,seZ/-esteem, self-con-fidence would seem to be intimately linked with theconcept of competence in Robert White's usage.

J. McV. Hunt suggested a general 'schema to embraceearly cognitive development. At first the infant is re-active, a captive of his field of stimulation. Change inthis field evokes from him the "orienting response,"which is followed by reduction of tension and arousal.In a second phase the infant's repeated perceptual en-counters give rise to recognition. Here we find the begin-nings of intention, when the child seeks repeatedly tomatch perceptual input to the images or inner standardsthat he has attained through previous experience. Whenthe match is regained, he smiles. In the third phase hedevelops an interest in novelty on the basis of his nowfirm expectation that things should be recognizable.With the attention and arousal value of the familiar nowat a reduced level, the child begins to seek the new. As-piration, frustration, and joy come into play. Hunt seesthe phenomena of competence motivation, described byRobert White, becoming relevant in this phase. ElizabethDavis found this schema challenging in regard to thedeprivations of slum children: after rich early sensorystimulation, they suffer from both a poverty of objectsand a lack of consistency in perceptual experiences.

Interest in the work on early experience, expressed inthe conferencediscussion, clearly reflected hopes that re-search can establish the relevance of this experience tofunctioning in later childhood and maturity.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

The paper by Bernard C. Rosen, "Some StructuralSources of Achievement Motivation and Values: Familyand Society," introduced anotherconceptual issue whichwas clarified in discussion. Rosen's paper reviewed thebody of research on familial and other social structuraldeterminants of achievement motivation and values, in-itiated by David McClelland,andhis own research on thetopic, particularly in Brazil where the traditional father-dominated family seems especially ill-designed to fosterachievement motivation in sons. The need for achieve-ment in this sense involves striving to attain standards ofexcellence, and has been found to be associated with

* G. H. Mead, Mind,

Self,

and Society, Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1934; Harry Stack Sullivan, Conceptions of Modem Psychiatry,2nd cd., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1953.

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achievement training by both parents and independence Devereuxand written in collaboration with Uric Bron-training especially by the father. Warm but dominatingmothers who are much concerned with their sons' per-formance contribute to high need for achievement insons; dominating fathers, to low achievement motiva-tion. A central influence in the learning of achievementmotivation is the parents' conditional approval.

Discussion initiated by Eleanor Maccoby questionedthe superficial similarity between achievement motiva-tion thus conceived and competence motivation as de-scribed by Robert White. Achievement motivation, shenoted, involves performance for the sake of social ap-proval; competence motivation involves being able to

risk disapproval in order to do what one wants. Nodoubt, effective performance is often for the sake of ap-proval, but is this at a cost? She cited Martin Hoffman'sstudies of how children acquire values. Hoffman foundthat when parents use the threat of conditional with-drawal of love as a preferred technique of socialization,children tend to internalize values according to what hetermed the "conventional" pattern, involving rigid,black and white values and a tendency toward repres-sion. The contrasting "humanistic" pattern leaves thechildren more in touch with their own feelings; theirparents use induction techniques that amount to an ap-peal to competence. In the present context we wouldprobably regard these children as more competent. Mrs.Maccoby saw theneed for more data on the costs of with-drawal of love as a technique of socialization.

Robert White regarded competence as a much moregeneral term than need for achievement. Strivings forcompetence appear long before social evaluation is set onthem. Need for achievement is a late, highly socialized,narrowly channeled form of competence motivation.White questioned the concept of independence tram-

mo- as used in Rosen's discussion of the sources ofthe achievement motive. Actual independence on thepart of the child may not be correlated with independ-ence training. True independence may emerge moreoften than not in opposition to parental pressure. Par-ents who try to inculcate independence deliberately mayproduce a docile child rather than a truly independentone. It is not enough to characterize the training interms of the parent's aims. A parent can try to fosterindependence and achievement in a child, and get in-stead a docile, guilt-ridden, intimidated individual. Thequestion is what happens to the child's sense of efficacy.

SCHOOL AND PEER GROUP

Two working papers dealt with socialization contexts

outside the family that bear on how competence de-velops. One, presented to the conference by Edward

fenbrenner, George Suci, andR. R. Rodgers("Adults andPeers as Sources of Conformity and Autonomy") was aprogress report on current cross-national research atCornell University that promises to throw light on thedifferential impact of adults and peers on the develop-ment of conformity and autonomy in children. Theissues raised in discussion of this paper do not lend them-selves to ready summary here. The other, introduced byPatricia Minuchin and written in collaboration withBarbara Biber, "The Role of the School in the Socializa-tion of Competence," presented an intensive study offourth-grade children in two "traditional" and two"modern" or "changing" schools—all goodschools draw-ing from a middle-class clientele.

The contrasting educational orientations of the two

types of schools were developed in some detail in thepaper. According to Biber and Minuchin, the "tradi-tional" orientation emphasizes factual information andspecific skills in a context that depends saliently on thecomparative appraisal of achievement. No particulareffort is made to encourage the child to incorporate whathe learns in his developing self-system. The "modern"orientation, on the other hand, tries to build on thechild's native and intrinsic curiosity, on his active initi-ativein the learningprocess. Intellectual mastery in termsof the child's own organization of knowledge is valuedrather than the level of factual attainment. The child ishelped to discover the self-relevance of what he learns;interplay between the subjective and objective is en-couraged. In the conference discussion, striking corre-spondences were apparent on the one hand between the"modern" orientation and Robert White's views aboutthe conditions under which intrinsic competence motiva-tion develops; on the other, between the "traditional"orientation and the conception of achievement motiva-tion elaborated in Rosen's paper. Mrs. Minuchin's exam-ples of good "modern" classroom practice illustratedstrategies that seemed to follow from White's views.

Details of research method and findings discussed inthe paper brought before the conference the difficultproblems of measurement involved in appraising theconsequences of the alternative educational strategies.The not entirely consistent results of the Bank Streetstudy also suggested the possibility that the advantagesof the "modern" approach for the development of greaterself-differentiation, intrinsic motivation, and autonomyare perhaps to be had only at the cost of some handicapin academic attainment as appraised by standardachieve-ment tests. To clarify the issue of value priorities thatseems to be implicit here, one would need longitudinaldata on the performance of the same children at laterstages in their educational careers. Again, as in connec-

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tion with the paper by Held and White, the question ofcontinuity or discontinuity between different segmentsof the sequence of development arises as crucial, and thenecessary evidence is still tobe gathered.

That issues touching on deep commitments to alterna-tive values are indeed involved seemed clear from thespirited discussion, aspects of which echoed themes thathave become familiar in arguments about "progressiveeducation" in parent groups, or about graduate educa-tion in university departments. Brim gave the sharpestformulation to the underlying issue: Is the developmentof strong need for achievement an asset or a liability?American society has thrived when it was manned by amiddle class that was highly oriented toward achieve-ment—perhaps at a toll for the individual. What posi-tion should the school take on the development ofachievement motivation? If the school trains childrenso as to maximize their sense of competence and au-tonomy, they may choose not to do things that societyneeds to have done, and that later on they may them-selves wish they had chosen to do. Brim also askedhow to movefrom the paper's concern with good middle-class schools to the problems of teaching working-classchildren. Can the "modern" approach be adapted forworking-class settings? The question is important, sincethe school provides the major social opportunity forbreaking into the parent-child situation to redirect self-sustaining processes—in the nature of vicious circles—that are inimical to the development of competence.

REPAIR OF COMPETENCEIN THE SOCIALLY DEPRIVED

Such circular processes, as they develop in social set-tings that provide minimal opportunities and scant re-wards, little respect and less power, seem to lie at theheart of the problems ofdeprived youth in urban slums,currently the focus of so much attention. The deficientcompetence bred in these settings would seem to involvepassivity and fatalism, or escape into the search for"kicks," or diversion of competence strivings in anti-social directions, with all these reactions feeding backto make the attainment of needed skills, the seizing ofsuch opportunities as may be had, even less likely. Prob-lems arising in programs of social intervention that at-tempt to convert these vicious relationships into benignones were placed before the conference in a workingpaper by Nathan S. Caplan, "Action Research withYouth in Slum Settings." Caplan wrote in the context ofevaluation research on a major job-retraining programthat had not been notably successful in placing its prod-ucts in jobswhere they stayed. According to his paper,this outcome is characteristic of current experience that

has been critically evaluated. He addressed himself towhysuch programs fail.

Caplan gavefocal attention to the prevalence of "near-misses" in the outcomes of the training programs: youthswho seem to have made substantial gains in the courseof intensive training and counseling, but who manage inone way or another to avoid successful placement in thejobs found for them. His most dramatic examples in-volved what he called the "blot-out" phenomenon, inwhich the trainee, at the brink of success, commits someirrationally outrageous and disastrous act that destroysthe possibility of his rehabilitation. In Caplan's viewsuch "near-misses" and "blot-outs" do not reflect a fail-ure to accept achievement values: at the verbal levelslum youth differ little from their counterparts in themiddle class in their admiration of success, but the for-mer seem to be saying by their behavior, "These objec-tives and the values that they represent are great—butnot for me."

Caplan's paper introduced a further concept—that of"floating"—that provoked discussion. Observations inconnection with street club work identified two distinctrecurrent patterns of daily activity. On the one handwere boys, who did not get into trouble, whose sequenceof activities seemed highly organized along culturallyapproved lines. Interviews suggested that for many ofthese boys achievement was primarily a matter of cul-tural conformity. The "floaters," on the other hand,spent much of their time trying to find something to doby exploring their environment. They spoke of "hang-ing around," "messing around," or "roaming." Whenasked for a more definite description of their behavior,theywere at a loss to give a more precise account exceptin terms of looking or waiting for something to do orhappen. In RobertWhite's conceptions, "floating" wouldseem to be a diffuse residue of competence motivationunder circumstances that severely limit the experienceof effectiveness.

Both these themes were picked up in a profitableinterchange. In regard to "floating" Clausen pointed outthat in a Lebanese village theadolescent boys "float" fora long time, whereas the girls are caught up in a struc-ture of activities. In spite of the cultural devaluation ofwomen, they tend to be and to feel highly competent;the men, less so. Perhaps the need for a stable structureis thecritical ingredient.

For Clausen, the "blot-outs" suggested the need fordistinguishing kinds of competence and directions ofcommitment. Some of the youth in slums have foundtheir sense of competence in channels that have com-mitted them in deviant or antisocial directions. A "blot-out" may be the only available escape from a situationin which to go all the way with "rehabilitation" would

)!l

j

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be to lose the hard-won investment one has built up in on of achievement affected primarily those who alreadyforms of competence that are disvalued by the "squares."

Elizabeth Davis wondered if the "floaters,"being moreautonomous than the "conformers," may not thereinhave more of a sense of competence, which they do not

readily relinquish. She saw indications, in the programdescribed by Caplan, of bias toward valuing the socialworker's achievement, rather than achievement by theclient himself. Success was to be measured on whoseterms—the social worker's or the client's? All that theclient wanted was a job, well-paying and not too de-manding. The long training program was the agency'sidea, not the client's. As in the film, "The Loneliness ofthe Long Distance Runner," the protagonist who "blotsout" may be preserving his autonomyand sense of com-petence by refusal to achieve his mentor's "success."

The relevance of Robert White's emphasis on the im-portance of leaving the initiative to the person whosecompetence is to be developed became clear in this dis-cussion. Juan Rossello provided a concrete illustrationof the effective application of this principle in his de-scription of a Puerto Rican program in community psy-chiatry for drug addicts, in which the initiative andtiming with respect to movement through the programwas left to the patient himself, with appropriate socialsupports and opportunities for committing action.

COMPETENCE, POWER, AND THESOCIAL STRUCTURE

The anthropological perspective from whichElizabethColson prepared her working paper, "Competence andIncompetence in the Context of Independence," intro-duced some novel and important considerations to theconference. The "independence" in her title is not thatof Rosen's "independence training," but the politicalindependence suddenly attained by the new nation ofZambia, where she had studied the Tonga tribe over aperiod ofyears spanning this political change. Her papershowed how the drastic shift in the power structure withthe end of European domination radically realigned thecompetences that mattered in Tonga society. Before in-dependence, connections with Europeans and skills intheir subservient manipulation paid; this kind of com-petence lost its value after independence. As politicalpower passed from European to African leaders, villagepeople felt a lifting of the barriers that had restrictedtheir access to the leaders and experienced a euphoriaof expanding hopes and plans for the future, a majorupward revision of their self-image in the direction ofself-confidence in a world that began to appear to someas one of unlimited possibilities: "Technical compe-tence, however, was of minor importance in their viewof present and future. Technical competence as a criteri-

had it, the few who were educated to a level equal tothat of the European. Most people were content withpolitical competence and hoped that it would bring thedesired reward in material advancement. For the mo-ment this was enough." But, as Miss Colson remarked,"It is easy to make a revolution; it is hard to build asociety."

Discussion of her paper followed a variety of themes,including contributions by William F. Whyte concern-ing different types and meanings of competence he hadencounteredin Peru, andby Richard Snyder concerningthe emerging focus in-political science on political sociali-zation. Most closely related to the framework of con-ceptualization toward which theconference wasreaching,however, was the attempt to link Miss Colson's paper to

the themes that arose in the discussion of Caplan's.Miss Colson herself stressed the differences. The Af-

ricans that she had studied were not "culturally de-prived." They play artfully with language. Children arealways present in the behavior settings of the society,not excluded from them, and have full opportunity to

become alert to the social nuances that the society offers.But her elaboration on the processes by which politicalindependence was attained carried suggestive implica-tions for thinking about strategies of social interventionand urbanreconstruction in thecontext of Negro revolt.

On the one hand was the point, made explicit byRosen, that one reason for failure in the interventionprograms may be their tacit but firm commitment tore-train the clients to fit the social structure—rather thanto revise the social structure to facilitate the emergenceof the clients' competence. The Tonga case showeddramatically how a shift in the power structure can re-lease hidden potentials of competence motivation.

A parallel was seen in the Africans' insistent demandfor "freedom now" on their own terms, not on those ofthe paternalistic colonial power which would have pre-ferred to give its proteges more extended "independencetraining." Independence had to be achieved, to be takenat the Africans' initiative against the resistance of thepaternalistic power. As Miss Colson noted, the majorAfrican exception in which independence was bestowedrather than taken is that of the Congo. "Freedom now,"bringing with it the feeling of competence, confidence,and hope, had to be taken before the desirable technicalcompetences for using the freedom had been acquired.Her implication was, however, that for all the ineffi-ciency and social breakage that is involved, this sequenceis the only workable one. The conferees saw linkageshere, both to Robert White's emphasis on the child'sown initiative and sense of efficacy, and to the strategiesof change advocated by Saul Alinsky and Charles Silber-

23

m

man,5 which rest on inducing real initiative and nakedpower-claims on the part of the socially deprived. Thelikely incompatibility of paternalism and the emergenceof competence in White's sense was a recurrent theme.

Miss Colson's accountof the emergence of the Africanleaders who grasped independence was also suggestive.Whatever their initial potential for competence, thewayin which they had been singled out foradvantages inmis-sion schools and in training overseas stamped them withtherecognition that they were "special," that they wereintelligent and able people. They felt competent to walkthrough the door of independence when it was open.Their contacts with the international communitythrough the United Nations, and with white liberals inBritain, moreover, gave them the basis for experiencinga sense of incipient power when they still had nonewithin the power structure of colonial Northern Rho-desia. Perhaps this "halfway" step toward a sense of po-tential power was essential if they were to developenough confidence to make the outrageousdemands thatwererequired if independence was to be won. As charis-matic leaders, they were then in a position to communi-cate a sense of competence-—perhaps unrealistic, but incrucial ways effective—to their countrymen.

CONCLUDING COMMENTSThe foregoing selective account of what the Puerto

Rico conference read and talked about, as filtered5 Charles Silberman, Crisis in Black and White, New York: Random

House,

1964.

through the perspective of one participant with the in-evitable distortions thus entailed, may suggest some ofthe intellectual excitement and opening perspectivesthat resulted from juxtaposing such a seemingly dispar-ate set of topics, all bearing in one way or another on thecultivation of effectiveness.

From the standpoint of the committee's special inter-ests, the conference did not attend as closely or explicitlyto the impact of social structural variables as it mighthave. Yet in a variety of contexts, direct and indirectways in which social structure impinges on socializationfor competence were noted. To a psychologist previouslyattentive to child-rearing practices, among the most

noteworthy were the implications of power, as these havejustbeen encountered, and the ways noted by Inkeles inwhich a family's social position and its implications areindirectly but effectively communicated to the child ashe sees how his parents are treated by others and howthey react to the treatment.

The conference did not attempt to reach consensus ona conception of competence, nor were the issues concern-ing its types, its generality or specificity, resolved. Partici-pants surely left, however, with an impression of theissues that was more differentiated and articulated thanthat with which they came. My own minimum residuefrom the conference is a list of words that now revolvearound one another, identifying the problem area: com-petence, confidence, hope, respect, power, commitment,and perhaps realism. Happily, these are good Englishwords.

COMMITTEE BRIEFSAFRICAN STUDIES(Joint with American Council of Learned Societies)

Alan P. Merriam (chairman), L. Gray Cowan, Philip D.Curtin, William O. Jones, Horace Miner, Roy Sieber, Ben-jamin E. Thomas; staff, Rowland L. Mitchell, Jr.

A conference on Methods and Objectives of Urban Re-search in Africa was held by the committee on April 1-3 atAirlie House, Warrenton, Virginia. The purpose of the con-ference was to stimulate multidisciplinary research on Af-rican urban phenomena by scholars in this country. Incontrast to the considerable amount of work done in tribaland rural settings and on nations, there has been littleresearch on African cities, despite the importance of under-standing them as centers of the new national develop-ment. Also, Africa presents unusual opportunities for thecomparative study of urbanization. As a step toward pursu-ing these possibilities, the committee brought together 14scholars who had either done urban research in Africa orworked elsewhere onproblems of development that impingeparticularly on cities. Since concern with such research has

varied greatly among the social sciences, a special effort wasmade to include representation from many disciplines. Notthe least significantresult of the conference sessions was thedevelopment of acquaintance among scholars with mutualinterests.

The sessions were devoted to discussion of papers, cir-culated in advance, dealing with relevant research of theparticipants. Through the discussions, areas of concurrenceof disciplinary interests were highlighted, experience withvarious methodologies was shared, and research horizonsbroadened. Papers prepared for the sessions were: "Com-parative Analysis of Processes of Modernization," by DanielLerner, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; "Motivesand Methods: Reflections on a Study in Lagos," by PeterMarris, Institute of Community Studies, Bethnal

Green,

England; "Urban Father-Child Relationships: An Explora-tion of Yoruba Culture Change," by RobertA. LeVine, Uni-versity of Chicago (co-authors, Nancy H. McGowen andConstance Rae Fries); "Urbanization, Type of Descent andChild-Rearing Practices," by Remi Clignet, NorthwesternUniversity; "Optimum-Size City Theory and Africa," by

24

Joseph J. Spengler, DukeUniversity; "Urbanization and Eco-nomic Growth: The Case of Two Settler Communities inAfrica," by William Barber, Wesleyan University; "Migra-tion Status in Accra,

Ghana,"

by Dennis McElrath, North-western University; "Bureaucracy and Urban Symbol Sys-tems," by Lionel Tiger, University of British Columbia;"Groups in Ibadan," by George Jenkins, University of Wis-consin -Milwaukee; "The Political Structure of Urban Cen-teredAfrican Communities," by William Hanna, MichiganState University (co-author, Judith Hanna); "Kampala-Mengo," by Aidan Southall, Syracuse University; "Migrancyand Urbanization in a Central African Town," by WilliamSchwab, Temple University; "Structural Discontinuities inAfrican Towns: Some Aspects of Racial Pluralism," by LeoKuper, University of California,Los Angeles.

In addition to the authors of the papers, conference par-ticipants included members and staff of the committee andNortonGinsburg of the University of Chicago, a member ofthe Council's former Committee on Urbanization. The con-ference was organized by Horace Miner, who is preparingthe papers and results of the sessions for publication.

AREAS FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATISTICSKarl A. Fox (chairman), Brian J. L. Berry, Lester R. Fran-

kel, John Friedmann, W. L.

Garrison,

Britton Harris, Don-nell M. Pappenfort, Conrad Taeuber.

The committee at its first meeting on March 19-20 formu-lated plans for a two-yearresearch project, to be conductedat the University of Chicago under Mr. Berry's direction, tore-examine the basis of definition of the present StandardMetropolitan Statistical Areas used by the Bureau of theCensus and other agencies, and to consider possible alterna-tive ways of defining geographic areas for the compila-tion of official statistics. The project, for which financialsupport will be provided initially by the Bureau of the

Census,

will be undertaken with the aid of an advisory sub-committee,consisting of Messrs. Taeuber (chairman), Berry,Fox, Frankel,

Garrison,

Pappenfort, John R. Borchert of theUniversity of Minnesota,and Walter Ryan of the Bureau ofthe Budget. Two other subcommittees were designated toexplore other research areas with which the committee isconcerned. One is to consider possibilities for planning re-search on spatial aspects of human behavior, and consists ofMessrs. Friedmann (chairman), Berry,

Garrison,

Harris, andRobert W. Kates of Clark University. The other subcom-mittee is to investigate the prospects for improvement ofurban data systems. Its members are Messrs. Garrison (chair-man), Harris, Pappenfort, Edgar S. Dunn, Jr. of Resourcesfor the Future, Morris Hansen of the Bureau of the

Census,

and Edward F. R. Hearle of the Rand Corporation.

CONTEMPORARY CHINA(Joint with American Council of Learned Societies)

John M. H. Lindbeck (chairman), Alexander Eckstein,John K. Fairbank, Walter Galenson, Robert A. Scalapino,G. William Skinner, George E. Taylor, Mary C. Wright;staff, Bryce Wood.

Arrangements for the publication of ContemporaryChina: A Research Guide, prepared for the joint committeeby Peter A. Berton, University of Southern California, andEugene Wu, Harvard University, have been completed. Itwill be published by the Hoover Institution, probably earlyin 1966. Mary C. Wright's Foreword to the volume wasprinted in Items, December 1963.

EXCHANGES WITH ASIAN INSTITUTIONS

John K. Fairbank (chairman), George E. Taylor, EdwardW. Wagner, C. Martin Wilbur, Mary C. Wright; staff, BryceWood.

The committee has made one new appointment under itsprogram to facilitate collaboration by American social sci-entists in the advancement of research at selected institu-tions in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan: Richard L. Walker,Director, Institute of International Studies, University ofSouth Carolina, will undertake research at the Institute ofModern History, Academia

Sinica,

Taipei, on the processof adjustment of Chinese officials to concepts and proceduresin international relations among Western states.

LEARNING AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSLee J. Cronbach (chairman), Richard C. Atkinson,

Eleanor J. Gibson, Evan R. Keislar, George A. Miller, LloydN. Morrisett; staff, Ben Willerman.

Participants in the second summer research training con-ference on learning and the educational process, to be heldby Stanford University with the assistance of the committeefrom June 21 through July 30, have been selected by thedirectors, Messrs. Cronbach and Atkinson, and the staff oftheconference. Each of the 36 participants has been assignedan instructor as an adviser, andeach instructor will conducta seminar for discussion of his advisees' research problemsand plans; transfers from group to group will be possibleduring the conference period. Series of seminars on suchtopics as the learning of language, student motivation, simu-lation of thought processes, and analysis of educational taskswill also be arranged. The assignments to advisers are asfollows:

Seminar led by Mr. Cronbach:Alan R. Bass, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Wayne State

UniversityPeter P.

Grande,

Ph.D. candidate in education, University ofNotre Dame

Marcia Guttentag, Assistant Professor of Psychology, State Uni-versity of New York at Stony Brook

Heinz Heckhausen, Professor of Psychology, Ruhr-University,Bochum

Bernard C. Hennessy, Director, National Center for Educationin Politics, New York University

Arthur H. Hill, Assistant Professor of Psychology, University ofTexas

GeorgeF. Madaus, Assistant Professor of Education, Massachu-setts State College at Worcester

Harry L. Munsinger, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Univer-sity of Illinois

Daniel C. Neale, Associate Professor of Educational Psychology,Universityof Minnesota

Patricia Ann Wright, Ph.D. candidate in psychology, UniversityCollege London

25

Seminar led by Robert Glaser:Burton G. Andreas, Associate Professor of Psychology, Univer-

sity of RochesterWalter Dick, Ph.D. candidate in educational psychology, Penn-

sylvania State UniversityBarbara

Gans,

Ph.D. candidate in psychology, University ofMichigan

Ted Husek, Assistant Professor of Education, University of

California,

Los AngelesPhilip J. Lawrence, Reader in Education, University of Can-

terbury, New ZealandRobert L. R. Overing, Ph.D. candidate in educational psychol-

ogy, University of Utah (Assistant Professor of Education onleave from McGill University)

John G. Wallace, Research Fellow in Psychology, Institute ofEducation, University of Bristol

Kenneth H. Wodtke, Assistant Professor of Psychology andEducation, Pennsylvania State University

Seminar led by Wallace E. Lambert:Reuben M. Baron, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Wayne

State UniversityHarvey B. Black, Assistant Professor of Education, IndianaUni-

versityCourtney B.

Cazden,

Ed.D. candidate in elementary education,Harvard University

E. C. Dalrymple-Alford, Assistant Professor of Psychology,American University of Beirut

Gabriel M. Della-Piana, Associate Professor of EducationalPsychology, University of Utah

Joshua A. Fishman, Professor of Psychology and Sociology,Graduate School of Education, Yeshiva University

Jun Haga, Lecturer in Educational Psychology, Kobe Uni-versity

Isaac Lewin, Teaching Associate in Psychology, Wayne StateUniversity (on leave from Bar-Ilan University, Israel)

John Macnamara, Senior Lecturer in Educational Psychology,St. Patrick's Training College, Dublin

Seminar led by Walter R. Reitman:James J. Asher, Associate Professor of Psychology, San Jose State

CollegeHiroshi Azuma, Associate Professor of Education, University of

Tokyo

Peter M. Bender, National Institute of Mental Health post-doctoral

fellow,

Educational Testing ServiceJohn R. Bormuth, Assistant Professor of Education, University

of

California,

Los AngelesDavid Klahr, Ph.D. candidate in industrial administration,

Carnegie Instituteof TechnologyRichard E.

Snow,

Assistant

Professor,

Audio Visual

Center,

Purdue UniversityJane W. Torrey, Associate Professor of Psychology, Connecticut

CollegeE. Belvin Williams, Assistant Professor of Psychology and Edu-

cation, Teachers College, Columbia UniversityJames W. Wilson, Ph.D. candidate in education, Stanford

University

SIMULATION OF PSYCHOLOGICALAND SOCIAL PROCESSES

Bert F. Green, Jr. (chairman), Robert P. Abelson, James S.Coleman, Robert K. Lindsay, Philip J. Stone; staff, BenWillerman.

The committee has made two additional grants for inten-sive study of computer simulation programs: to David P.Flathman, Ph.D. candidate in educational jDsychology, Uni-versity of Alberta, whose research is in the area of computersimulation of developmental aspects of concept formationin children and adults, for study at Carnegie Institute ofTechnology with Allen Newell, Institute

Professor,

Systemsand Communication Sciences, and Herbert A. Simon, Pro-fessor of Administration and Psychology, of their GeneralProblem Solver; to Sister Frances Jerome Woods, Professorof Sociology, Our Lady of the Lake College, whose researchis concerned with processes of persistence and change in amarginal social group descended from common ancestors,for study of biological relationships with social

factors,

withJ. N. Spuhler, Professor of Anthropology and of HumanGenetics at the University of Michigan.

Applications for grants under this program, which pro-vide for spending up to 15 days at a computer installationfor intensive training arranged with a particular investi-gator, will be accerjted through October 1, 1965.

PERSONNELRESEARCH TRAINING FELLOWSHIPS

The Committee on Social Science Personnel—George H.Hildebrand (chairman), Charles E.

Gilbert,

Richard Hart-shorne, Samuel P. Flays, Dell Hymes, Gerhard Lenski, andRobert B. MacLeod—at its meeting on March 5-6 voted 33awards, 8 postdoctoral and 25 predoctoral, as follows:

James Axtell, Ph.D. candidate in history, University ofCambridge, postdoctoral fellowship for research onLocke, Newton, and "the two cultures" in the seven-teenth and eighteenth centuries.

Rainer C. Baum, Ph.D. candidate in sociology, FlarvardUniversity, for research in Europe on the process ofregional integration: a case study of interorganizationalrelations in the EuropeanEconomic Community.

Samuel J. Berner, Ph.D. candidate in history, University

of

California,

Berkeley, for research in Italy on theurban patriciate in sixteenth-century Florence.

Leonard Billet, Ph.D. candidate in political science, Uni-versity of

California,

Los Angeles, for research on thepolitical prerequisites of economic development.

Gaylor M. Bonham, Ph.D. candidate in political science,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for research onaspects of the validity of two simulations of phenomenain internationalrelations.

John P. Demos, Ph.D. candidate in history, Harvard Uni-versity, for cross-disciplinary training in the Depart-ment of Social Relations.

Robert E. Drass, Jr., Ph.D. candidate in sociology, North-western University, for research in Puerto Rico onchanges in social stratification in a society undergoingrapid industrialization and urbanization.

26

Paul R. Duggan, Ph.D. candidate in history, Harvard Uni-versity, for research in Germany on the political soci-ology of the Prussian and Imperial German govern-ments, 1890-1914.

Charles S. Fisher, Ph.D. in mathematics, University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, for training and research atPrinceton University in the sociology of science.

Allan N. Galpern, Ph.D. candidate in history, Universityof California, Berkeley, for research in France on popu-lar religion in Champagne, 1550-1600 (renewal).

Thomas F. Glick, Ph.D. candidate in history, HarvardUniversity, for research in Spain on irrigation andsocial organization in medieval Levantine Spain.

Richard A. Gould, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, Uni-versity of California, Berkeley, postdoctoral fellowshipfor field study in Australia of the subsistence behaviorof the aborigines of the Western Australian Desert.

Darrell P. Hammer, Assistant Professor of Government,Indiana University, postdoctoral fellowship for researchon the political process in the Soviet Union: an applica-tion of the theory of games.

Elvin J. Hatch, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, Uni-versity of California,Los Angeles, for research on mech-anisms of social control in a rural Anglo-Americancommunity.

Berton H. Kaplan, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Uni-versity of North Carolina, postdoctoral fellowship fortraining at Cornell University in the research strategiesof its Social Psychiatry Program and development of aparallel program of field studies.

John G. Kennedy, Assistant Professor of Anthropology,American University in

Cairo,

postdoctoral fellowshipfor training at the State University of New York atBuffalo in theory and methods of research in socialpsychiatry.

Paul J. Kleppner, Ph.D. candidate in history, Universityof Pittsburgh, for research on changes in patterns ofvoting behavior in five states, 1892-96.

Martin A. Levin, Ph.D. candidate in government,HarvardUniversity, for research on the role of judges in theadministration of criminal justice in two cities.

Howard A. Nenner, Ph.D. candidate in history, Univer-sity of

California,

Berkeley (LL.B. Columbia Univer-sity), for research in England on the influence of privatelaw on constitutional development, 1660-89.

David M. Nicholas, Jr., Ph.D. candidate in history, Uni-versity of California, Berkeley, for research in Belgiumand France on urban social and economic revolts in theLow Countries in the later thirteenth century.

Joel T. Rosenthal, Assistant Professor of History, StateUniversity of New York at Stony Brook, postdoctoralfellowship for training at the University of London insocial anthropology and sociology and research on theirapplications in medieval history.

Enid Schildkrout, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, Uni-versity of Cambridge, for research in Ghana on im-migrant communities.

Bob Scholte, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, Universityof California, Berkeley, for research on the structuralanthropology of Claude Levi-Strauss.

Samuel F. Scott, Ph.D. candidate in history, University ofWisconsin, for research in France on the composition ofthe French Army, 1789-99.

Martin Gary Silverman, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology,University of Chicago, for research in the Fiji Islandson the development of local organization in the re-settled Banaban-Gilbertese community (renewal offellowship awarded in 1962-63).

Philip Silverman, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, Cor-nell University, for research in Zambia on politicalchange in Barotseland.

Tony E. Smith, Ph.D. candidate in regional science, Uni-versity of Pennsylvania, for research on general equi-librium models for comprehensive public planning.

Reuben J. Snow, Ph.D. candidate in political science,Northwestern University, for research on the influenceof city managers and school superintendents on munici-pal governmentand educational policy.

John C. Stalnaker, Ph.D. candidate in history, Universityof California, Berkeley, for research in Germany on theemergence of the Protestant clergy in Hesse, 1520-55.

Richard Tyler, Ph.D. candidate in history, University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, for research in England on Em-manuel College, Cambridge, 1595-1645, and its influ-ence on New England.

Anita Volland, Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, Univer-sity of Pennsylvania, for research in Spain on the rela-tions of Flamenco to other aspects of culture.

Judith P. Ward, Ph.D. candidate in economic history,University of Wisconsin, for research in France on thefinancial relations between France and the UnitedStates during World War I (renewal).

D. Lawrence Wieder, Ph.D. candidate in sociology, Uni-versity of California, Los Angeles, postdoctoral fellow-ship for training at the University of Pennsylvania inlinguistics, ethnolinguistics, and sociolinguistics.

FACULTY RESEARCH GRANTSThe Committee on Faculty Research Grants—Guy E.

Swanson (chairman), Bernard Bailyn, Victor Jones, IrvingB. Kravis, Arno J. Mayer, Melford E. Spiro, and JohnThibaut—held the second of its two meetings scheduled for1964-65 on March 11-12. It voted to award 15 grants:

Paul J. Bohannan, Professor of Anthropology, Northwest-ern University, for research on the ethnography ofdivorce among middle-class Americans.

Jeremy Boissevain, Assistant Professor of Anthropology,University of Montreal, for research in Italy on the 1964Sicilian municipal elections.

Samuel Dußois Cook, Professor of Political Science,Atlanta University, for research on Southern Repub-licanism, 1952-64.

Norman Dam, Associate Professor of History, Rutgers-The State University, Newark, for research on conceptsof mental disorder in the United

States,

1865-1945(supplementary to Grant-in-Aid awarded in 1963-64).

Peter A. Diamond, Assistant Professor of Economics, Uni-versity of California, Berkeley, for research on micro-economic models of business cycles.

A. Richard Diebold, Jr., Assistant Professor of SocialAnthropology and Linguistics, Harvard University, forresearch on psycholinguistics.

C(ssar Grana, Associate Professor of Sociology, Universityof California, Davis, for research in West Europe onthe museum as a social institution.

27

Franklyn A. Johnson, President, and Professor of Govern-ment, California State College at Los Angeles, for re-search in the United States and England on political-military relations (supplementary to Grantfor Researchon National Security Policy awarded in 1960-61).

Peter d'A. Jones, Assistant Professor of History, SmithCollege, for research on the economics of conscience:Christian Socialism in Great Britain, 1880-1914.

David S. Landes, Professor of History, Harvard Univer-sity, for research on the history of the Bleichroder bank(supplementary to Faculty Research Fellowshipawarded in 1959-60).

Gavin I. Langmuir, Associate Professor of History, Stan-ford University, for research in France on the develop-ment of anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages.

Lewis Lipsitz, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Uni-versity of North Carolina, for research on the politicalorientations of the poor.

Thomas F. Pettigrew, Associate Professor of Social Psy-chology, Harvard University, for research toward asocial psychological model of the racial desegregationprocess in the South.

David C. Rapoport, Assistant Professor of Political Sci-ence, University of California, Los Angeles, for researchin England on selectedhistorical cases of praetorianism:governments that achieved and lost power through mili-tary coups d'e'tat.

Marcel K. Richter, Assistant Professor of Economics, Uni-versity of Minnesota,for research on foundations of theeconomic theory of choice.

GRANTS FOR ASIAN STUDIES

The Joint Committee on Asian

Studies,

sponsored withthe American Council of Learned Societies—John A. Pope(chairman), Robert I.

Crane,

H. G.

Creel,

Paul S. Dull, L. A.Peter Gosling, and John L. Landgraf—at its meeting onFebruary 13-14 awarded 21 grants for research:

Douglas M. Burns, M.D., Psychiatric Resident, Presby-terian Medical Center, San Francisco, for research inThailand on psychological analysis of Theravada Bud-dhist meditation.

Leonard R. Casper, Professor of English, Boston College,for research in the United States toward an Americanedition of The Wounded Diamond: Studies in ModernPhilippine Literature (1964).

Pramod Chandra, Associate Professor of Art, Universityof Chicago, for research in India, Nepal, Teheran,Istanbul, and London on the origins of Mughal andRajasthani painting.

Chun-shu Chang, Assistant Professor of History, Wiscon-sin State University -River Falls, for completion of re-search in the United States on the frontier system of theformer Han Dynasty.

Mark J. Dresden, Professor of Iranian Studies, Universityof Pennsylvania, for research in England on lexicog-raphy of the Khotanese language.

John D. Eyre, Professor of Geography, University ofNorthCarolina, for research in Japan on urban growth pat-terns in the Hanshin (Osaka-Kobe) metropolitan area.

Wen Fong, Associate Professor of Art and Archaeology,Princeton University, for research in the United States,Japan, and Taiwan on Chinese painting.

Stephen N. Hay, Research Associate in East Asian Studies,Harvard University, for research in the United Statesand London on Gandhi and Hindu-Muslim unity,1924-29.

Eugene F. Irschick, Acting Assistant Professor of History,University of

California,

Berkeley, for research inLondon on the development of political consciousnessin the Telugu and Tamil areas of South India, 1895—1915.

Robert R. Jay, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Uni-versity of Hawaii, for research in London on the devel-opment of local governmentin Perak, Malaya.

Robert N. Kearney, Assistant Professor of Political Sci-ence, Duke University, for research in Ceylon on com-munalism and the language problem in Ceylon.

Harry J.Lamley, Assistant Professor of History, San DiegoState College, for research in the United States on ahistory of Taiwan, 1624-1945.

Carl H. Lande, Visiting Professor of Political Science,Ateneo de Manila, for research in the Philippines onPhilippine politics.

John Meskill, Assistant Professor of East Asian Historyand Literature, Barnard College, for research in Japan,Taiwan, and the United States on Ming Dynastyacademies.

Morris D. Morris, Professor of Economics, University ofWashington, for research in London and India onsome aspects of the economic history of South Asia,1800-1947.

Rulan Chao Pian, Lecturer on

Chinese,

Harvard Univer-sity, for research in the United States and Europe onthe use of percussion instruments as a dramatic devicein the Peking opera.

Chung-wen Shih, Fellow, American Association of Uni-versity women, for research in Japan and Taiwan onthe structure of the Yuan Tsa-chii (thirteenth-centuryChinese drama).

Bernard Silberman, Associate Professor of OrientalStudies, University of Arizona, for research in Japanon the criteria for recruitment and advancement inJapanese bureaucratic development: the prefecturalgovernor, 1868-1940.

Roy E. Teele, Professor of English, Southwestern Univer-sity, for research in Japan on the Japanese noh play.

Y. C. Wang, Assistant Professor of History, University ofNorth Carolina, for research in the United States onChinese intellectuals from Yen Fu to Hu Shih.

Ann Ruth Willner, Research Associate, Center of Inter-national Studies, Princeton University, for research inIndonesia on the role of women in public life.

GRANTS FOR SLAVIC ANDEAST EUROPEAN STUDIES

The Subcommittee on Grants for Slavic and East Euro-pean Studies (of the Joint Committee on Slavic Studiessponsored with the American Council of Learned Societies)—Henry L. Roberts (chairman), David T. Cattell, GeorgeGibian, and John M. Montias—met on February 13. It hasmade the following 21 grants for research:

Vartan Gregorian, Assistant Professor of Flistory, SanFrancisco State College, for research on Soviet Armenia:its culture, institutions, and ideology, 1920-60.

[

28

Alexander J. Groth, Assistant Professor of Political Sci-ence, University of California, Davis, for research onparty politics in Poland, 1918-39.

Keith Flitchins, Assistant Professor of History, WakeForest College, for research on the Rumanian NationalMovement in Transylvania, 1867-1900.

Grey Hodnett, Instructor in Government, Columbia Uni-versity, for research on the November 1962 reorganiza-tion of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Franklyn D. Holzman,Professor of Economics, Tufts Uni-versity, for research on Soviet foreign trade (renewal).

W. A. Douglas Jackson, Professor of Geography, Univer-sity of Washington, for a study of the geographic pat-terns of Soviet economic development.

Naum Jasny, Washington, D.C., for research on Russiannonconformists in the 19205.

Ivo J. Lederer, Associate Professor of History, Yale Uni-versity, for research on sources of unity and disunity inthe Slavic world: Russia and the Balkan Slavs.

David MacKenzie, Assistant Professor of Flistory and Gov-ernment, Wells College, for research on the Lion ofTashkent: a political biography of General M. G.Cherniaev.

Thomas F. Magner, Professor of Slavic Languages, Penn-sylvania State University, for research on city dialectsin the Kajkavian dialect area of Yugoslavia.

Thomas A. Marschak, Associate Professor of Business Ad-ministration, University of California, Berkeley, for astudy of economic decentralization in Yugoslavia.

Raymond T. McNally, Associate Professor of History,

Boston College, for research on the evolution of theideas of Peter Chaadaev.

Walter M. Pintner, Assistant Professor of History, CornellUniversity, for research on the development of the Rus-sian Civil Service in the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies.

Richard E. Pipes, Professor of History, Harvard Univer-sity, for research on the lifeand thought of Peter Struve.

Zora P. Pryor,

Consultant,

Research Analysis Corpora-tion, McLean, Virginia, for research on the economicdevelopment of Czechoslovakia, 1919-39.

Richard C. Raack, Assistant Professor of History, Califor-nia State College at Hayward, for research on Poznan,Prussia, and the Polish-German problem, 1846-50.

Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Associate Professor of History, LaSalle College, for a history of the Carpatho-Ukraine.

Robert M. Slusser, Associate Professor of Flistory, JohnsHopkins University, for research on the Moscow Sovietof Workers' Deputies and the armed uprising of Decem-ber 1905.

George J. Staller, Assistant Professor of Economics, Cor-nellUniversity, for research on stability patterns in for-eign trade, Council of Mutual Economic Assistance andthe Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel-opment, 1953-63.

Andre yon Gronicka, Professor of German Literature,University of Pennsylvania, for research on the Russianview of Goethe.

Joseph F. Zacek, Assistant Professor of History, OccidentalCollege, for a study of Frantisek Palacky.

NEW PUBLICATIONSThe Conference on Mathematical Learning,edited by Lloyd

N. Morrisett and John Vinsonhaler. Monographs of theSociety for Research in Child Development, Vol. 30, No.1 (Serial No. 99), May 1965. Sponsored by the formerCommittee on Intellective Processes Research. Chicago:Child Development Publications, University of ChicagoPress. 150 pages. $3.00.

Economic Growth and Structure: Selected Essays, by SimonKuznets. Based in part on work initiated under the aus-pices of the Committee on Economic Growth. New York:W. W. Norton & Company, April 1965. 386 pages. $7.50.

Education and Economic Development, edited by C. ArnoldAnderson and Mary Jean Bowman. Outgrowth of a con-

ference,

April 4-6, 1963, jointly sponsored by the Com-mittee on Economic Growth and the University of ChicagoComparative Education Center. Chicago: Aldine Publish-ing Company, June 1965. c. 425 pages, f 10.75.

Education and Political Development, edited by James S.Coleman. Studies in Political Development 4, sponsoredby the Committee on Comparative Politics. Princeton:Princeton University Press, June 1965. 632 pages. $10.00.

Quantitative Planning of Economic Policy: A Conferenceof the Social Science Research Council Committee onEconomic Stability, edited by Bert G. Hickman. Wash-ington, D.C.: Brookings Institution,April 1965. 292 pages.$7.95.

SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL

230 PARK AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10017

Incorporated in the State of Illinois, December 27, 1924, for the purpose of advancing research in the social sciences

Directors, 1965: William O. Aydelotte, Bernard Bailyn, Abram Bergson, John R. Borchert, Dorwin Cartwright, Josetii B. Casagrande,Harold C Conklin, Lee J. Cronbach, Karl A. Fox, William J. Goode, Jr., Morris H. Hansen, Chauncy D. Harris, Pendleton Herring, George

H. Hildebrand, Dell Hymes, Thomas S. Kuhn, Stanley Lebergott, Gardner Lindzey, Quinn McNemar, Franco Modigliani, Louis Morton,Frederick Mosteller, J. Roland Pennock, Don K. Price, Leo F. Schnore, Herbert A. Simon, David B.

Truman,

Ralph H. Turner, JohnUseem, Robert E. Ward

Officers and Staff: Pendleton Herring, President; Paul Webbink, Vice-President; Elbridge Sibley, Bryce

Wood,

Executive Associates; EleanorC Isbell, Rowland L. Mitchell, Jr., Ben Willerman, Staff Associates; Catherine V. Ronnan, Financial Secretary