Introduction to Wetland Management - Department of Natural ... · or "hydrophytic" vegetation, grows ... of the nation's rare wildlife species are located inwetlands or are INTRODUCTION

Glaciers, melting nearly12,000 years ago, leftbehind raw materials--water,

lowlands, and poorly-drained soils--to form up to 11 million acres ofwetlands in Michigan. This totalwas nearly one-third of the state'sland mass. In the fewer than 200years since European settlers firstarrived, between 35 to 50 percentof Michigan's wetland acres havebeen drained, filled, or otherwisealtered. Much of the loss occurredthrough efforts to increase agricul-tural production on these rich soils,but other wetlands were filled tomake room for development. Thegreatest amount of loss hasoccurred in southern Michiganwhere some counties have experi-enced a loss of more than 75 per-cent. This loss is not limited toMichigan. It is estimated that in1780 there were 221 million acresof wetlands in the continental

United States. Today, only about47 percent remain. During the1980s, wetland loss through drain-ing or filling continued at an annu-al estimated rate of 290,000 acres.While the rate of loss hasdecreased in recent years, the goalof "no net loss" is not yet a reality.

People often think of a wetlandas an area that floods, or at leasthas soggy soils, throughout thegrowing season. They often pic-ture a specific, isolated area suchas a cattail marsh or a woodedswamp. However, there is muchmore to consider and there aremany different types of wetlands.Wetlands are often transitionalzones between dry upland sitessuch as old fields and forests andopen-water areas such as lakes andrivers. Most wetlands have threethings in common: (1) water at ornear the surface some time of theyear (2) hydric soils, and (3) wet-land vegetation.

The distribution, movement,amount, and seasonal availability ofwater influences wetland systems.Wetlands have enough water on ornear the ground surface to affectthe soils and the type of plants thatcan grow there. Sites with soggy,saturated soils but no standingwater can also be wetlands. A wet-land does not have to be "wet" allof the time--only during part of theyear. The presence of water resultsin a lack of oxygen in spacesbetween soil particles. Wetland or"hydric" soils develop under such

saturated conditions, and wetlandor "hydrophytic" vegetation, growsin the moist soil.

Wetland ValuesSome people view wetlands as

wastelands, but this belief is farfrom true. All Michigan citizens,whether they own land or not, ben-efit from wetlands, which are someof our most valuable naturalresources. Wetlands provide recre-ational opportunities for birdwatch-ers, hunters, hikers, photogra-phers, canoeists, anglers, andother outdoor enthusiasts.Wetlands are among the most bio-logically diverse and productivelandscape cover types. Acre foracre, the biomass or living materialproduced on marshlands is fourtimes that of grasslands and threetimes that of cropland. Productionin marshlands can equal or evenexceed that in tropical forests.

Wetlands provide habitat forthousands of species of fish,insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds,and mammals. Nearly 35 percentof the nation's rare wildlife speciesare located in wet lands or are

INTRODUCTION TO WETLAND

MANAGEMENT

PART IV: Wetland Management

sandhill crane

hooded merganser

dependent on them. The Mitchell'ssatyr butterfly, for example, is arare Michigan butterfly typicallyonly found in prairie fens.Mammals (muskrats, mink, andbeavers), waterfowl (ducks andgeese), shorebirds (plovers andsandpipers) wading birds (heronsand rails), amphibians (salaman-ders, frogs, and toads), and insects(dragonflies and mayflies) areexamples of the host of wild crea-tures raised in and around wet-lands. In addition, muskellungeand northern pike spawn in wet-lands. Many species of wildlife usewetlands along with other habitats.

Wetland plants are importantas they stabilize soils and reduceerosion. Wetlands act as hugesponges to store water, which helpsto reduce flood damage. Thewater then percolates back into theearth where it helps to rechargethe ground water supply and/ormaintain water levels in streamsand rivers. A one-acre wetlandholding water to a depth of onefoot, will store 330,000 gallons ofwater.

Wetlands function as nature'skidneys to filter pollutants and sed-iments from surface water. Theycapture and slow runoff water intheir thick tangle of plants. When

water is slowed, pollutants andsediments drop out of suspension.Wetland organisms intercept nutri-ents and pollutants, trapping themin wetland plants or substrates.Although too many pollutants candamage them, wetland plants alsohelp to circulate and reuse nitro-gen, phosphorus, and other essen-tial nutrients. Many local govern-ments have used this phenomenonto their advantage, constructingwetlands to filter treated waste-water and reducing the overall costof treatment operations.

Marsh hay, wild rice, blueber-ries, cranberries, timber, furbear-ers, and fish are examples of prod-ucts with economic value that wet-lands provide. For this reason,farmers, trappers, fishermen, andothers that rely on wetlands forincome must exercise care to avoiddegrading them while harvestingtheir products.

Types of WetlandsWetlands vary greatly depend-

ing on how much water is present,how long water is present, how thewater got there, the type of soil,and the kinds of vegetation pre-sent. All wetlands, regardless ofsize and water depth, provideimportant wildlife habitat.Additional chapters in this sectionexplain the types of wetlands inmore detail and provide sugges-tions for protecting and managingthem.

Swamps have saturated soils,may have standing water duringpart of the year, and are dominatedby water-tolerant trees such as sil-ver maple, cottonwood, black ash,or tamarack. Buttonbush, alder,willow, and red-osier dogwood areshrub species that often grow inswamps. Types of swamps include

bottomland forests on floodplains,conifer swamps, and dense shrubswamps.

Marsh is another type of wet-land covered periodically by stand-ing or slow-moving water. Soft-stemmed plants such as cattails,sedges, and rushes dominate amarsh's nutrient-rich soils.

Wet meadows, sedgemeadows, and wet prairies aresimilar to marshes in that they alsocontain grasslike vegetation.However, these wetlands typicallyhave only seasonally saturated soilsand little or no standing water.

Seasonal wetlands are shal-low, temporary wetlands that canhave standing water from late win-ter through early spring. Examplesare seeps, which usually provide ayear-round source of water, andvernal pools, which vary in sizefrom a few square feet to over anacre. These wetlands can be impor-tant for breeding and migrantwaterfowl, amphibians, and otherwildlife.

Mitchell’s satyr

tamarack

Bogs and fens are wetlandswith a thick accumulation of organ-ic matter called peat. The acidicwater of a bog is nutrient-poorbecause the bog is fed by rainwater. Acid-loving plants includesphagnum moss, blueberries, andtamarack. “Insect-eating” plantssuch as pitcher plant and sundeware also found only in bogs andfens. Fens are somewhat rare inMichigan. Unlike bogs, they are fedby groundwater that has passedthrough calcium and manganeserich mineral soils. Fens are typical-ly more nutrient-rich than bogs,they support sedges, rushes, andsome shrubs.

Wetland IndicatorsSome wetlands, such as

swamps and marshes, are obviousto most people. Others, like sea-sonal wetlands or bogs, are not aseasily recognized because theymay dry out during part of the yearor simply do not look very wet.Remember that all wetlands havethree things in common and thepresence of these may indicate thatyou have a wetland on your prop-erty:

Evidence of Hydrology:• Standing or flowing water for

seven or more consecutive daysduring the growing season.

•Waterlogged soil: Determinedby digging a 12-inch-deep hole andthen checking for water in the hole;or by looking for soil that glistenswith water; or squeezing waterfrom a handful of soil.

• Water marks on trees or smallpiles of debris lodged in trees orpiled against other objects in thedirection of water movement nearriver systems.

Wetland Soils:• Check with your County

Conservation District (CD) for a soilsurvey and a list of soil types thatoccur in wetlands.

• Check for a blue or gray colorabout a foot below the surface.Your local CD office may describeother color characteristics to lookfor.

• Look for organic matter suchas peat or muck.

• Smell the soil for an odor likerotten eggs.

Wetland Vegetation:More than 5,000 different

plants grow in wetlands. Somecommon wetland plants to look forinclude:

• Water lilies, cattails, arrow-head, smartweed, pondweedand other plants in standingwater. • Grasses such as reed canarygrass, barnyard grass, andprairie cordgrass, or rushes andsedges. • Trees such as willow, whitecedar, cottonwood, silver andred maple, green ash, tama-rack, pin oak, and elm. • Shrubs such as buttonbush,Michigan holly, and red-osierdogwood.

Are There Former Wetlandson my Property?

If you can answer "yes" to thefollowing questions, it is quite pos-sible that you may have a drainedwetland that can be restored:

• Are there depressions or lowareas (potholes) on your prop-erty that are drained with tileor ditches?

• Are vegetation changes read-ily visible in the field? Forexample, do you have patchesof stressed or drowned crops orother vegetation?

• Do patches of wetland plantssuch as cattails, sedges,smartweeds, or red-osier dog-wood occur in your fields?

Should I Protect,Enhance, or Createa Wetland?

Wetlands should be preservedwhenever possible. Natural wet-lands, which developed over thou-sands of years, are hard to dupli-cate because of their complexity.Preserving those that are not cur-rently being drained or altered byhumans is often the best way tomaintain existing wetland func-tions, including wildlife habitat.Recognize, however, that wetlandsare a dynamic system that willchange with time. Change may bepositive or negative.

INTRODUCTION

Water marked trees may indicatethe presence of a wetland.

water lily

Those wetlands that have beendredged, drained, filled, or other-wise altered offer an opportunityfor restoration. Often, blocking aditch or removing a portion of afield tile line may be all that isneeded to restore water, which willhelp to germinate aquatic plantseeds lying dormant in the soil.Remember, a restored wetlandneed not hold water all year long;in fact, many do not. Temporarywetlands are usually less than twofeet deep and often retain water foronly a few weeks each spring.

“Enhancement” of an existingwetland can be done to improvewetland functions. However, thiscan be difficult, and improving sur-rounding uplands may be moreeffective. Enhancement effortsmay include varying water depths;mowing, burning, or planting;removing nuisance plants; addingnest structures and other habitatimprovements.

Creating wetlands can also helpwildlife, but this process may beboth difficult and expensivedepending on site characteristics.Often created wetlands do notfunction correctly and result withfailed projects due to incorrectsoils, vegetation, etc. It is hard toduplicate the complexity of wetlandsystems. Remember that wetlandscan influence, and are influencedby, what goes on around them.The type and amount of vegetationaround a wetland can greatly affectits value for wildlife, and how thewetland performs other functions.Having clear goals along with a

site-specific plan are the keys tosuccessful habitat management.

What Regulations Apply?

Because of their importance,wetland manipulations are regulat-ed by local, state, or federal laws.Check with your township or otherlocal government office to see ifthere is a wetland protection ordi-nance that applies to your property.State and some federal regulationscan be addressed by contacting theMichigan Department of Environ-mental Quality (MDEQ), Land andWater Management Division. Thisagency coordinates the review ofproject proposals with various divi-sions within MDEQ, the MichiganDepartment of Natural Resources(MDNR), and federal agencies suchas the U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers, if required. Further, theNatural Resource ConservationService also administers federal

wetland regulations for landownerswho participate in U.S. Departmentof Agriculture programs. Allowenough time for permit applicationand approval so as not to upset thetime frame for your project.

In summary, wetlands are verycomplex systems that offer a vari-ety of benefits to both people andwildlife. There are many types ofwetlands that are each dependenton local hydrology, hydric soils, andwetland vegetation. Wetlandsshould be protected or restoredwhenever possible. As with anyother management activity, priorplanning helps to ensure that yourgoals are reached.

Private Land Partnerships: This partnership was formed between both privateand public organizations in order to address private lands wildlife issues. Individuals shareresources, information, and expertise. This landowner’s guide has been a combined effortbetween these groups working towards one goal: Natural Resources Education. We hope thismanual provides you with the knowledge and the motivation to make positive changes for ourenvironment.

FOR ADDITIONALCHAPTERS CONTACT:Michigan UnitedConservation ClubsPO Box 30235Lansing, MI 48909517/371-1041

INTRODUCTION

FOR ADDITIONAL ASSISTANCE: CONTACT YOUR LOCAL CONSERVATION DISTRICT

heron

Bogs and their close cousins--fens--are biologically fascinat-ing wetlands. Their deep

peat layers offer a glimpse into thegeologic past--seeds, plant parts,and even animals may remainintact in the acidic peat for thou-sands of years. If a bog or fenexists on your property, consideryourself lucky as they are very rare.

In Michigan, bogs and fensoccurred historically as a result ofglaciation, dating from about 8,000to 12,000 years ago when the lastice sheets retreated north,although some bogs and fens areonly 3,000 to 5,000 years old. Theretreat of these glaciers createdtundra climates, and over time,forests of spruce and fir, which stilldominate in the north. However,bogs and fens began to form inareas that were too wet for mosttrees to grow, and that had poorlydrained dark soils and cold water.Although both bogs and fens aresimilar types of wetlands as they

are both considered peatlands,what sets them apart from eachother is the source of their watersupply. Fens typically are fed by asteady source of ground waterwhereas bogs are usually encloseddepressions filled by rain water.

These unusual wetlands arehome to a variety of plants and ani-mals including unique bog lem-mings, pitcher plants, and sun-dews. The familiar song sparrowand red-winged blackbird live therealong with yellow-bellied flycatch-ers, and Nashville warblers, whichnest only in northern Michigan.American goldfinch, Americanwoodcock, alder and willow fly-catchers, and golden-winged andchestnut-sided warblers are otherbirds that use them. Ruffed grouseeat the catkins of bog birches,which often grow around the edgesof bogs and fens, and migratingducks use their open pools.Because bogs attract insects,shrews, mice, frogs, and toads,they also attract mink, raccoons,herons, and other predators.Moose also use these areas in theUpper Peninsula. In winter, thewhite cedar forests that often sur-round many bogs yield importantbrowse and cover for deer.

BogsBogs are unique wetlands

because their nutrient-poor sys-tems support a specific group ofplant species. Such plants includecarnivorous species such as pitcherplants, sundews, and bladderworts,which eat insects and are able to

retain water from precipitation, andsphagnum moss, which growsabundantly over the layers of peatfound here. Common shrubsinclude leatherleaf, bog laurel, bogrosemary and Labrador tea.Blueberries and cranberries arealso common.

Although they occur through-out Michigan, bogs are morenumerous in the Upper Peninsulawhere they are found along themargins of lakes and ponds and indepressions created by glacialactivity. Many southern Michiganbogs, however, were converted tomuck farms, and in many othercases landowners felled the trees,drained the bogs, and plowed thesoil for agriculture.

Bogs often lie in frost hollowsor other cold, wet environmentswhere cold air and water aretrapped. On clear nights, heavier

BOGS AND FENS


pitcher plant

cold air settles to the ground andflows down slopes and valleysoften ending in bog lakes or ponds.Although daytime surface tempera-tures may reach 90 to 100 degreesFarenheit, the root level of plantsgrowing within a bog are typically45 to 55 degrees Farenheit.Because of the great insulatingquality of sphagnum moss, theseareas rarely exceed 60 degreesFarenheit.

As bogs age, they tend tobecome more acidic. As peat accu-mulates in bogs, it becomes tightlycompressed by the weight of mate-rial lying over it, and the oldest partturns into fine-textured black muck.This compressed peat becomesimpermeable, cutting off the bogfrom the water table making itacidic, or mineral poor. Over time,the older peat is colonized byshrubs and then trees such aswhite pine, tamarack, and blackspruce.

There are two ways that bogsare formed in Michigan: kettle-lakebogs, and paludification bogs.These processes may take thou-sands of years. In the Great Lakesregion various estimates for form-ing a single foot of peat range from100 to 800 years.

Kettle-lake bogs begin asreeds, sedges, and mosses aroundthe edges of lakes formed byglaciation. This vegetation slowlyexpands across the entire lake sur-face, forming a floating mat ofpeat. This mat slowly consolidatesand is then dominated by sphag-num moss and other bog plants.Over time, the peat forms animpermeable layer and isolates thebog from the water table. Shrubsand trees then begin to move in.Thus, this process of natural suc-cession turns an open-water lakeinto a forested wetland. Thisprocess may also reverse itself dur-ing cooler and wetter periods andbecome more open.

Paludification bogs areformed by the blanketing of previ-ously dry land by overgrowth ofbog vegetation as it exceeds itsbasin boundaries. These bogs canbe brought about by climaticchange, hydrological changecaused by beaver dams or logging,or the natural advancement of apeatland. Once this blanketadvances and begins to accumu-late, the formerly mineral-rich soilis cut off from the water table cre-ating acidic conditions. This killsmany existing trees and allows bogvegetation to dominate.

FensFens are somewhat rare in

Michigan. They are peat-coveredgrassy wetlands that are springywhen walked upon. Fens are fedby mineral-rich artesian groundwa-ter in the form of springs, rivulets,marl flats, or saturated peat. Theconstant supply of groundwaterbeing forced up through accumu-lating peat causes some fens toappear higher than the surroundingterrain. Because the groundwater isrich in calcium and magnesium car-

bonates, the water is usually neu-tral or alkaline. Fens are oftenfound on hillsides along lakes,streams, and rivers, which occur inglacial outwash on sandy glaciallakebeds. Others are located inbroad outwash channe l s .Researchers distinguish amongseveral different kinds of fens:prairie fens, northern fens, pat-terned fens, and poor fens.

Prairie fens are found in theformer oak-savanna prairie regionof southern Lower Michigan. Theyare very rich in calcium and mag-nesium. Typical plants found inprairie fens are switchgrass,Indiangrass, big bluestem, sedges,rushes, Indian plantain, and prairiedropseed. The wettest part of aprairie fen, which is usually foundnear the water source, is called a"sedge flat" because members ofthe sedge family dominate the veg-etation. The "fen meadow" is thelargest part and is more diversewith many lowland prairie grassesand wildflowers. Slightly elevatedareas, especially around the uplandedge, also support tamarack, dog-wood, bog birch, and poison sumac.

Northern fens are dominatedby sedges and rushes and arefound in areas of northern Michiganwhere limestone bedrock is cov-

bulrush

sundew

ered with a thin mantle of glacialdrift. Marl flats are very common inthese places. Orchids, gentians,and other plants may be present.Bulrush, spike rush, cinquefoil,sawgrass, and white cedar usuallysurround northern fens.

Patterned fens have a gentleslope of less than one percent permile, tend to have both acidic andalkaline areas, and feature strips ofsedge-peat ridges only a few inch-es high alternating with depres-sions. The depressions are wettestwith sedge and rush dominating.Besides sedges, the ridges maycontain sphagnum, bog rosemary,bog birch, shrubby cinquefoil,leatherleaf, and stunted whitespruce and larch. Patterned fenstend to occur on larger flat outwashor lake plain areas in the UpperPeninsula.

Poor fens are those peatlandswith reduced water flow and lowermineral content. Consequently, thesaturated peat is somewhat acidic.These fens occur throughout thenorthern Lower Peninsula andUpper Peninsula. Dominated bysedges and grasses, poor fens lackthe plant diversity of northern andpatterned fens.

ManagementConsiderations

Bogs and fens are extremelysensitive to disturbance. Land-own-ers cannot create bogs or fens ontheir property. Bog managementamounts to not disturbing the nat-ural succession process and hydrol-ogy. Modifying the bog to convertit to a cranberry marsh will destroythe original plant community.Harvesting the top layers of sphag-num for commercial market willdamage the fragile ecosystem.Researchers have little informationabout the recovery rate of harvest-ed bogs but assume recovery isprobably very slow or may neveroccur.

The following are options toconsider when managing bogs andfens:

•Protect the mineral-richgroundwater source of fensfrom pollution or drainage orother alterations in hydrology.

•Avoid diverting or dammingwater flowing out of fens.Mowing for hay and allowinglivestock to graze can alsodestroy these unique wetlands.

•Periodic burning in winter orearly spring may help to retardthe invasion of woody species,but because fire can be damagingas well as beneficial, be sure toconsult with local fire authoritiesand a resource professional.Historically, many fens burnedalong with the surroundingprairie and forest, which were setby Native Americans or lightning.Fire burned the mulch and topgrowth of the fen--the specialtyplants--with little danger to thepeat below because of the steadywater supply. •Cottontail rabbits and snow-

shoe hares may help decreasethe invasion of surroundingdogwood, willow, and otherwoody plants because these aretheir preferred food in winter.

•Avoid using fertilizers near any wet-land. However, be especially carefulnear fens as polluted runoff can alterfen vegetation, gradually increaseinvasive species over natives.Remove invasive species suchas garlic mustard, glossy buck-thorn, or purple loosestrife,whenever they appear in orderto avoid future problems.

•Do not alter water courses.Hydrology or water availabilityis a very important concept inmaintaining bogs and fens. Forexample, changing water cours-es typically causes the soil todry out, which can lead to theinvasion of lowland and uplandtree and shrub species. Also,additional water or droughtover several years can have amajor impact on the health andcondition of these wetlands.Draining adjacent uplandsmight lead to a higher watertable, which can also affect thesite. Also, do not dig a pondwithin the site. Because of theirimportance and uniqueness,bogs, fens, and their adjacentuplands should be left alone if

garlic mustard

BOGS AND FENS

you want to maintain the exist-ing bog and fen.

•Create a buffer strip of at least100 yards around the wetland.This can be done by plantingshrubs or grasses, or by not dis-turbing the area. Do not devel-op roads or trails in the bog,fen, or buffer strip.

•If livestock have access to thesite, be sure to fence around itbecause heavy use by cows,horses, or sheep can damagethe vegetation, disturb the soilsurface layer, and pollute thewater with manure.

In summary, bogs and fens arehighly unusual, important places.They are important to wildlife seek-ing secure cover where they canfeed, nest, rear their young, andescape predators. They also pro-vide areas for many types ofunique, threatened, and endan-gered plant and animal species. Ifyou have a bog or fen on yourproperty, enjoy its uniqueness anddiverse plant and animal life.

Private Land Partnerships: This partnership was formed between both privateand public organizations in order to address private lands wildlife issues. Individuals shareresources, information, and expertise. This landowner’s guide has been a combined effortbetween these groups working towards one goal: Natural Resources Education. We hope thisguide provides you with the knowledge and the motivation to make positive changes for ourenvironment.


BOGS AND FENS


Marshes are shallow-waterareas that sustain water-lov-ing plants such as cattail,

sedge, arrowhead, bulrush, waterlily, and pondweed. Marshes foundin Michigan include wet meadowswith grasses and sedges, potholeswith cattails, and shallow vegeta-tion zones along Great Lakes shore-lines. While marshes are generallycovered by standing or slow-movingwater, certain marshes dry out latein the growing season or during dryyears. This fluctuating water levelis part of the natural process, whichincreases plant and habitat diversi-ty, and productivity of the marsh.

Less than an acre or as large asseveral thousand acres, marsheshave appeared and disappearedsince the beginning of time. Whenthe glaciers slowly melted about12,000 years ago, they left behinddepressions that formed lakes andpotholes. As these bodies of waterbecame shallower and warmer, manyturned into marshes--an evolutionarystep in the long natural successionprocess from water to dry upland.Also, when rivers change course intheir serpentine march to the GreatLakes, they also leave old isolatedsections of a channel, calledoxbows, many of which becomemarshes over time. Marshes mayalso occupy slow-moving shallowzones of active rivers or developat river mouths along the GreatLakes as coastal marshes.Fluctuating water levels in theGreat Lakes create, maintain, andcontinually alter these marshes.

The Importance ofMarshes

Like most wetlands, marshesare dynamic systems that areimportant to wildlife and also pro-vide other valuable functions. Onaverage, marshes produce at leastthree times more biomass thanlakes, upland grasslands, and farm-land. Their high rate of productivi-ty allows marshes to support com-plex food chains and a broad diver-sity of wildlife. For example, about80 percent of Great Lakes fish usecoastal marshes during at least onestage of their life cycle. Marshesalso store and collect nutrients andsediments from surface water run-off, and they reduce flooding bytemporarily storing water.

All wetlands provide food,water, shelter, and living space tomany kinds of wildlife. Mammalssuch as muskrats, raccoons, mink,and deer feed, rest, and hide inmarshes. Herons, shorebirds,waterfowl, red-winged blackbirds,sedge wrens, common yel-lowthroats, and other songbirdsalso seek shelter, nesting habitats,

and food. Marshes with dense cat-tail stands provide choice winterhabitat to ring-necked pheasants.Further, they supply food and coverto leopard and chorus frogs, snap-ping turtles, and northern waterand ribbon snakes. Uncommonwildlife species that live in marshesinclude black terns, American andleast bitterns, king rails, and mas-sassauga rattlesnakes. Arrowheadand marsh mallow are examples ofunique plants that may grow there.

Many human activities canharm marshes. Construction pro-jects, some farming practices, andlogging methods may increase siltloads into marshes. Drainingmarshes to create farmland and fill-ing marshes to make building sitesare activities that most commonlyhave destroyed these wetlands.Streams that provide water tomarshes may also deliver pollutantsand fertilizer runoff, which eventual-ly alters marsh vegetation. Somemarshes are accidentally ruined bywell-intentioned landowners whodig ponds in the existing marsh andthen deposit the spoils in the sur-rounding marsh. Because marshes

are such a valuable naturalresource, they should be pre-served, restored, or enhancedwhenever possible.

Marsh ConservationThe general rule for wetland

management is to protect thosethat are healthy, restore thosethat have been damaged, andactively manipulate only those

MARSHES


that are too disturbed to functionnaturally. If a marsh on your prop-erty is not currently being affectedby human activities, the best way toprotect it for future generationsmay be to leave it alone, or conductsmall management activities. Inaddition to avoiding harmful prac-tices like draining or filling, considerthe following:

• Avoid forest cutting and othermechanical operations, i.e.,farming and logging, that mayincrease sediment within 100feet of the marsh or any of itsconnecting streams. Cuttingtrees near the marsh canchange water levels, accelerateerosion, and destroy travel cor-ridors for wildlife using themarsh.

• Create or maintain a bufferzone of grassy vegetation to actas a filter strip around themarsh. Old farm fields takenout of production will naturallyvegetate or can be planted tonative grasses or wildflowers.This buffer will help protect themarsh and will provide habitatfor insects, amphibians, rep-tiles, birds, and mammals. As ageneral guide, the buffershould be a minimum of 100feet wide. For seeding ratesand other information, refer tothe chapters in the Grass-landManagement section.

•Fence off the marsh andbuffer zone if livestock haveaccess to them. Heavy use bycows, horses and sheep candamage vegetation and pol-lute the water source withmanure. However, light graz-ing over a short time periodcan be beneficial.

•Do not use the marsh environ-ment as a dumping ground forrefuse and debris, including log-ging waste. Doing so can leadto contamination of the water,soil, plants, and wildlife.

• Remove invasive plant speciessuch as garlic mustard, glossybuckthorn, phragmites, andpurple loosestrife. Reed canarygrass is a problem plant that isbest removed and replaced bynative species such as cattail,bullrush, and cordgrass.

Marsh RestorationRestoring a marsh on your

property is one of the most satisfy-ing of all habitat management pro-jects because the results are usuallyimmediate and dramatic. Normallytoo shallow to support fish, therestored marsh will become anoasis for other wildlife, and theamount and diversity of animalsthat quickly move in may surpriseyou.

The most important considera-tion is restoring the wetland depres-sion or basin with a stable supply ofwater. Most likely the marsh hasbeen drained by a ditch or fieldtiles. If the marsh has been drainedby a ditch, plugging the ditch withsoil will restore the natural watersource. If drainage has occurred-from buried field tiles, removing at

least 50 feet of tile will also bringwater back to the marsh. Somelandowners also add water-controlstructures to allow periodic draw-downs and re-flooding. TheMichigan Department of NaturalResources, U.S. Fish & WildlifeService, and Natural ResourceConservation Service (NRCS), andCounty Conservation Districts areamong several organizations andagencies that offer assistance tolandowners interested in wetlandrestorations. For additional infor-mation, see the Wetland RestorationTechniques chapter.

Marsh CreationAlthough many landowners are

interested, creating a marsh can beexpensive and hard to do, especial-ly if the site is not on hydric soils.In addition, quality wet meadows,sedge marshes, wooded swamps,and uplands may be destroyed bylandowners trying to create deepwater marshes or ponds. Carefulplanning is required, along withsecuring government permits.Remember, most private and gov-ernment groups provide only tech-nical assistance to wetland creation,whereas financial assistance is pro-vided to projects that restore natur-al wetland systems.

The topography of your proper-ty and the surrounding land -- alongwith the soil type, watershed size,and drainage patterns--are impor-tant points to consider before actu-al construction begins. The U.S.Department of Agriculture main-tains a NRCS office in nearly everyMichigan County. Agency staff canhelp you evaluate the water-holdingcapability of the soil, the elevationof the present water table, andwhether or not there will be ade-quate runoff or spring flow to main-tain desired water levels in a con-

invasive species: reed canary grass,phragmites, and purple loosestrife

structed basin. Also, theycan help you design theproject.

In your design, thinksmall and shallow. Areas assmall as one-half acre orless will support a marsh.However, two to five acreswould be productive forwildlife, especially water-fowl. Various water depthsresult in a mosaic of vege-tation zones and increaseddiversity of both plant andanimal species. A general ruleworth noting is to provide waterdepths in the following proportions:50 percent at less than 1-1/2 feet,30 percent at 1-1/2 to 3 feet, and20 percent at 3 to 6 feet.

No simple guidelines exist thatcover all the construction methodspossible. Site characteristics, avail-able funding, water source, andtotal size of the marsh to be creat-ed all must be considered. Theproject design may include excava-tions below the water table and theuse of berms to catch surface water.

Great care should be taken inplanning any excavation projects--including soil probing--to ensurethat you can reach your goals with-out destroying desirable naturalconditions. Digging too deep, forexample, could cause many prob-lems. A thin layer of clay or otherimpermeable soil may be the onlyreason water exists above the sur-face at the project site. Breakingthis subsurface seal by digging toodeeply would remove existingwater, much like pulling a bathtubplug. Also, you need to be carefulthat you are not creating a pondthat is too deep for maximumwildlife benefit. Another considera-tion is the side-slope grade of theexcavation. This grade should range

from a 4:1 to 6:1 horizontal dis-tance:vertical drop to ensure that avariety of marsh-loving plants willgrow in various patterns.

When excavating, be sure toscrape and stockpile the topsoil,then replace the upper six to eightinches on the berm and excavatedbasin to take advantage of seedsources already in the soil. In gen-eral, planting aquatic plants is notnecessary because seeds are natu-rally transported in the environmentand are usually already in the soil.But if vegetation is slow to respondon a new site (after 2-3 years) oryou wish to add diversity to a pre-sent site, you might consider plant-ing duck potato, pickerelweed, bul-rush, and cattail—all of which areavailable from specialty growers.Water depths between one and twofeet are ideal for these species. Inaddition, sago pondweed, coontail,and wild celery are common sub-mergent plants able to grow at avariety of water depths.

OtherManagementConsiderationsThe following are generaloptions to consider whenmanaging a marsh:

•Building nesting struc-tures for wood ducks,mallards, and otherwaterfowl is not neces-sary, but can be helpfulin attracting them.Ducks, turtles, and otheranimals will use loafingplatforms. To learnmore, refer to the chap-ters on Wetland Birds,Waterfowl, and Frogs,Turtles, and Snakes inthe species section.

•You may want to adjust thevegetation:open water ratio ofyour marsh. Marshes with aratio of 40 percent vegetation to60 percent open water providehabitat for the greatest varietyof wildlife. Wetlands with high-er levels of vegetation willattract rails and red-wingedblackbirds. More open waterwetlands with a small percent-age of vegetation will attractspecies such as herons andCanada geese.

•If your marsh contains morethan 60 percent emergent vege-tation, you may want to createopenings approximmately 30feet by 30 feet, or strips 30 feetwide from shore to shore.Openings in cattail marshes canbe made in winter by cuttingplants at ice level with a back-blade pulled by a tractor. Thispractice works best after a dryfall because spring runoff will

MARSHES

Zone

Plants

Periodically

Flooded

Waterlogged or

Shallow Water

Emergent

Macrophytes

Floating-Leaved and

Submersed Aquatics

Lowland

grasses

Sedges and

arrowhead

Cattails and

bulrush

Water lilies, pond weeds,

and bladderwort

Cross-section through a fresh water marsh, showing the water depth, and the plants

found in each zone.

flood plant stubble with at leastsix inches of water during thenext growing season, andshould reduce regrowth for afew years. Herbicides that canbe used in wetlands, such asRodeo, can also be used to con-trol vegetation. Remember toalways follow label directions onall herbicides.

•Fire is another marsh manage-ment tool that can be used duringwinter or early spring. In additionto creating openings, the tech-nique helps to rejuvenate fertilityand to reduce the amount ofemergent plant debris. Be sure toobtain necessary permits and fol-low all safety precautions. Formore information, see the chapteron Prescribed Burning as amanagement tool.

•Constructing peninsulas andislands can enhance marsh useby waterfowl, shorebirds, andwading birds. However, if notdone properly, such land formscan have a negative impact onwildlife and be a costly additionto your project. Considerincreasing shoreline irregularitywith small peninsulas. In wet-lands larger than two to threeacres, you might construct anisland. Marshes from four to 25acres in size should feature amaximum density of one islandper four acres. Marshes largerthan 25 acres can support ahigher density. The islandsshould be at least 200 feet apartand 100 feet from the mainlandto protect nesting waterfowlfrom predators.

•Another method to control theamount of marsh vegetation isto control the number ofmuskrats, which eat cattails andother tall emergents and buildtheir homes from the plants.Regulating muskrat numbersthrough trapping will indirectlybalance the amount of vegeta-tion and open water in themarsh.

In summary, marshes are animportant part of Michigan's naturallandscape. Identifying any thatexist or historically existed on yourproperty is the first step towarddeveloping a management plan. Byprotecting, restoring, enhancing, orsuccessfully creating marshes usingthe above management practices,these dynamic wetlands will providecritically important wildlife habitat.



MARSHES

Exist ing features

Road

House

Stream

Permanent grass st rip

Marsh

Habitat projects

Grass Buffer

Vegetation Mgt.

Wet land Restorat ion

Fence for livestock

P

M

GB

WR

hayfield

forest with

t imber

harvest ing

forest

GB

GB

GB

crop field

pasture

P

P M

WR

M

M


This map is an example that demonstrates the many management options discussedthroughout this chapter. The option(s) you choose should depend not only on your goals,but the location, condition, and present use of your land.

40 Acres

Swamps include a broad rangeof wetlands that have stand-ing or slowly moving water

and are dominated by trees orshrubs. Swamps differ frommarshes in that swamps do notcontain large amounts of cattails,sedges, bulrushes, and other non-woody aquatic plants. However,these plants may appear aroundswamp edges or in openings.Michigan swamps include coniferswamps, hardwood swamps, mixedconifer-hardwood swamps, andshrub swamps. Swamps and low-land forests are very similar andare often one in the same.However, swamps are often wetterfor a longer period throughout theyear and have deeper standingwater than lowland forests. Theselowland forests may be seasonalwetlands.

Like most wetlands, swampsare ever changing systems.Depending on the surroundinglandscape, swamps are often atransitional step in the naturalprocess from water to dry upland.All swamps start out as a lake,pond, stream, or other body ofshallow slow moving water.Water-loving trees and shrubstake root in the warm, relative-ly stable wetland. As plantsdecay, their material accumu-lates and adds to the topsoil untilthe water depth decreases andsupports more dense vegetation.Continued succession will result invery little surface water, and abuildup of organic soils, which sup-

port more woody vegetation.Occasional flooding or severalyears of wet weather can slow thisprocess, and several dry years canspeed it up.

Swamps provide habitat formink, muskrats, beaver, otter, deer,black bear, squirrels, hares, barredowls, various species of woodpeck-ers, wood ducks, nuthatches, sev-eral kinds of warblers, black-capped chickadees, snakes, turtles,frogs, toads, butterflies, dragon-flies, and many other insects.Uncommon animals such as red-shouldered hawks, cerulean andprothonatory warblers, Indianabats, smallmouth salamanders, andBlanchard's cricket frog, all rely onswamps for survival.

About one-third to one-half ofMichigan's wetland acreage hasbeen lost since 1800. Swamps,conifer swamps in particular, com-

prise much of the overall loss--about two-thirds of the original 5.5million acres of conifer swampshave either been drained or con-verted by logging activity to low-land hardwood, farmland, marshesor shrub swamps.

Types of SwampsNorthern white cedar and black

spruce dominate most coniferswamps in northern Michigan,although balsam fir, eastern hem-lock, and white pine may also beimportant components. Foundmostly in northern Lower Michiganand the Upper Peninsula, coniferswamps are situated alongmoraines, lake beds, outwash

plains, and other glacialdrainage. Associated with

peatlands, conifer swamps maybe rich or poor in minerals.Sunlight penetration to theground is usually poor. Thisreduces the amount of

ground cover and givessome conifer swamps adark, mysterious appear-

ance. The soil of these swampsis typically acid, but it may also be

SWAMPS


mink

neutral or even alkaline if it is influ-enced by groundwater input.Alkaline sites tend to be cedar-dominated and offer greater plantdiversity. In slightly less water-sat-urated conditions in northernMichigan or along northern flood-plains, mixed conifer-hardwoodswamps are more common.

Hardwood swamps arethose dominated by ash, elm, andred maple but may also include sil-ver maple, cottonwood, and blackwillow. Pin oak and swamp whiteoak are included in southern LowerMichigan and quaking aspen, big-tooth aspen, and balsam poplarcan be found throughout northernMichigan swamps. In 1800, hard-wood swamps comprised about fivepercent (1.7 million acres) of thestate's land base, and most werefound in southern Lower Michigan.Today, many of the conifer swampshave been converted to hardwoodswamps. This is due to the exten-sive logging of conifer swamps andchanges in hydrology. Much of thishas occurred in the northern LowerPeninsula and the Upper Peninsula.Many southern Michigan countieshardwood swamp areas havedecreased by as much as 50 per-cent. Many hardwood swamps arelocated along lower river reachesthat flood in spring and fall.Southern Michigan lowlands tendto be very diverse and supportmany plants commonly found instates farther south.

Combinations of shrubs such astag alder, buttonbush, willow, anddogwood often dominate shrubswamps. Alder-willow swampsare most commonly found alongstreams and lake margins in north-ern Lower Michigan and the UpperPeninsula. Buttonbush-willowswamps appear mostly in thesouthern Lower Peninsula. In1800, about one percent, or some43,000 acres, of Michigan was cov-ered with some kind of shrubswamp, mostly in the UpperPeninsula. Today, about 730,000acres are thought to existstatewide. The increase is due toextensive logging of coniferswamps and to the network of roadconstruction.

ManagementConsiderations

Swamp management forwildlife can be as simple as doingnothing or it can be very complexand involve the manipulation ofwildlife habitat. Swamps that havea steady, stable supply of wateryear round function naturally.Usually they can best be managedby protecting the water source andenhancing the adjacent uplands.

Water is the key to swampmaintenance, even though waterlevels fluctuate throughout theyear. Additional water over severalyears or many years of drought canimpact the condition of the site.Draining adjacent uplands into theswamp, for example, can lead to ahigher water table, which mayprompt conversion of the swamp toa marsh of cattails. By alteringwatetables, soils could dry out,leading to succession and a conver-sion to upland vegetation.

One management option,therefore, may be to leave theswamp alone and allow it to maturenaturally, especially if the tract islarge (200 acres or more). Old-growth forest left intact, for exam-ple, will favor area-sensitive birdslike the red-shouldered hawk, thecerulean warbler, and the pro-thonotary warbler. Do not frag-ment the swamp by making roads,and trails. Create a buffer strip ofgrass, shrubs or trees at least 100feet wide around the swamp.Remove invasive species like garlicmustard, glossy buckthorn, andpurple loosestrife that may begrowing in the swamp or around it.

Swamps that have been frag-mented can be regenerated byplanting tree and shrub speciessuited to the sites, but the processtakes a long time and may not besuccessful. The slow growth ofmany swamp-loving trees and theexacting conditions required torestore them are good reasons formaintaining what already exists. Inmany cases, little or no timber har-vest is needed to increase the valueto wildlife.

If timber harvest is part of youroverall plan, however, take no morethan 25 percent of the trees at onetime and space harvests 10 to 20years apart. Removing one to fourtrees in a group is the best way to

buttonbush

swamp white oak

mimic natural disturbances such aslightning strikes and severe stormsthat topple trees. This method ofuneven-aged management (alsocalled selective cutting) promotes aswamp of mixed-aged, young andold trees and is the best timberharvesting strategy as it createsthe least amount of disturbance tothe swamp. Uuneven-aged man-agement can retain benefits to avariety of wildlife species thatrequire mix-aged forests. However,it is not the best harvesting methodfor many edge-loving wildlifespecies.

When conducting timber har-vesting, retain a good mix of treespecies, including swamp whiteoak, basswood, and hackberry,while managing for structural diver-sity--a mixture of ages, diameters,crown sizes, and shapes of trees.Leave old logs, large standingsnags, and den trees because theyprovide food and habitat for inver-tebrates, amphibians, woodpeck-ers, and other cavity-nesting birds.See the Timber Harvesting chap-ter in the Forest Management sec-tion for more harvest strategies.

Because swamps are oftendevoid of young trees and anunderstory of shrubs, they don'tprovide high quality habitat for

some wildlife species such as deer,rabbit, wild turkey, grouse, andwoodcock. Opening the canopy bycareful timber harvest to allow sun-light to reach the ground may stim-ulate the growth of vegetation thatthese species prefer. However,where stands exist on poorlydrained muck soils or on sites witha high water table, the results ofthe timber harvest are far less pre-dictable. The species compositionof the resulting stand may not be atall like the parent stand. Consider,for example, that full-crownedswamps release up to 1/4 inch ofsoil moisture into the air each daythrough the process of evaporationand transpiration. The higherwater table and seasonal flooding,which could result from extensivelogging, may completely changethe vegetation composition. Also,success in regenerating coniferswamps can be poor, especially ifwhite cedar is the target species.White cedar is often promoted ascritical to deer managementbecause it provides both qualityfood and cover. However, oncecedar is cut, white spruce and bal-sam fir usually regenerate the sitebecause deer browse the nourish-ing shoots of white cedar. Formore information see the chapteron Lowland Conifers.

Minimize harvest activities inspring when water levels are highand flood events are likely. Do anyselective cutting in late summer,and only when soils are dry andfirm. Some swamps freeze, allow-ing for a winter harvest. Be carefulnot to disturb the soil any morethan is necessary and avoid makingpermanent logging roads, whichwill alter the flow of water. Do notlog where deer browsing is severe.Locate skid trails and any roads onthe upland edge of the cut, andleave clumps of scattered trees as

seed sources for regeneration.

Shrub swamps with a ratio of40 to 60 percent open water canprovide habitat for a variety ofwildlife such as beaver, muskrat,waterfowl, and numerous reptilesand amphibians. If your shrubswamp contains more than 60 per-cent woody vegetation, considercreating openings 30 feet by 30feet or 30-foot-wide strips fromedge to edge. Make the openingsin winter by cutting willow, button-bush and other woody plants at icelevel with a chainsaw, loppers, orbackblade pulled by a tractor. Thispractice works best after a dry fallbecause spring flooding over thecut stems during the next growingseason will eliminate or reduceregrowth for several years.

Wildlife professionals do notusually recommend building water-control devices in swamps becauseof the difficulty in duplicating andenhancing the natural wetlandprocesses. However, if dikes orother means of water retensionalready exist, waterfowl and shore-birds may benefit by drawing downthe water level to only a few inchesin spring to allow preferred plantssuch as smartweed, wild millet,arrowhead, bulrushes, and sedgesto grow on exposed mud flats. Thespring draw-down also provideswaterbirds with improved access toinsects, crayfish, and other inver-tebrates. Once the plants haveproduced seed in late summer or

SWAMPS

white cedar

early fall, reflood the area with sixinches of water to attract herons,rails, red-winged blackbirds, andwaterfowl. Throughout the fall youcan increase the depth to 12 inch-es to enable migrants to reachacorns and other food. Because iceaction during the winter and earlyspring can cause significant dam-age to trees, it is important to drawdown the area in late fall to waterdepths less than twelve inches.This practice of flooding and draw-down is best conducted in dormantswamps that have a dependablewater supply and heavy soil to helpretain the water. They should be atleast one acre in size and contain a

large number of mast-producingtrees such as oak, red maple, wil-low, and ash.

Before creating dikes, earthendams, or other water-control struc-tures, consult with a professional tosee if the management goal isdesirable and realistic in terms ofthe site's potential. Water controlstructures are helpful in maintain-ing vegetation growth andregrowth. Unfortunately, they canbe costly to install and maintain,and may alter the natural process-es of the area. Remember thatwildlife-flooding practices used inthe southern United States are usu

ally inappropriate for the north.Furthermore, government permitswill be needed for most activities ina swamp.

Beaver dams often create com-bination marshes and swamps.Although many individuals aretempted to eliminate the beaverand its dam and replace it with anearthen dam, this is extremelycostly and difficult due to soil con-ditions. If you have a beaver damon your land, realize its importanceto the landscape and enjoy the nat-ural engineering abilities of thebeaver.

In summary, swamps occurthroughout Michigan and areimportant havens for many wildlifespecies. Determining the watersource and evaluating the conditionof the swamp and adjacent uplandswill help you decide on manage-ment options. Simply protectingthe swamp and its water source asit now exists will often be the mosteffective management decision.When considering harvest ofswamp timber, carefully considerthe various possible outcomes asthese are highly complex environ-ments.



SWAMPS

M

upland hardwoods

grassland

hardwoods

cropland

SS

coniferswamp

SS

HSaspen

&birch

uplandhardwoods

cropland

LB

Exist ing features

Road

House

Marsh & open water

Lowland brush

Shrub swamp

Hardwood swamp

Beaver dam

Habitat projectsTree and shrubplant ing

Small group timberharvest

M

LBSSHS


This map is an example that demonstrates the many management options discussedthroughout this chapter. The option(s) you choose should depend not only on yourgoals, but the location, condition, and present use of your land.

40 acres

Michigan wetlands are classi-fied according to where theyare found. Wetlands that

occur on the edges of lakes andreservoirs are called lacustrine.Wetlands that form on the edges ofshallow bodies of water such asmarshes or bogs are called palus-trine. Those that include rivers,streams, and surrounding areas arecalled riverine. Riverine wetlandsare often the least stable becauseperiodic flooding causes erosionand sedimentation.

Riverine wetlands are alsoamong the most important.Streams and rivers serve as travelcorridors for wildlife, both residentand migratory. Streams are identi-fied as flowing bodies of water witha defined bank and bottom. Thesewaterways, along with adjacentcommunities called riparianzones, provide a variety ofsubstrates and an abundanceof food--insects for birds andfish; and amphibians and rep-tiles for herons, raccoons, andother predators. Water, com-bined with trees, shrubs, andgrasses, furnishes a rich vari-ety of habitat for muskrats,mink, and beaver. Frogs andsalamanders live in the shal-low water of streams andalong their muddy banks.Wood ducks laze in quietbackwaters and nest in treecavities. Kingfishers fish fromtree limbs above the river.Vireos, thrushes, and warblersuse streamside cover as part

of their nesting habitat and as shel-ter during migration. Brown batsand swallows gorge themselves oninsects produced by these water-ways and their adjacent communi-ties. Shallow river expanses alsoprovide important spawning-nurs-ery habitat for fish, especiallynorthern pike.

Because waterways are dynam-ic pieces of the wildlife-habitat puz-zle, you are fortunate if a stream orriver crosses your property.Michigan has an abundance ofmoving water--more than 36,000running miles of navigable riversand streams--plus countless moremiles of brooks and other tiny trib-utaries. Some are so small theyare barely noticeable, and yet eachis vitally important.

Management OptionsThere are several things you

can do to improve wildlife habitat ina riverine wetland. Before consid-ering improvement projects, thewaterway and riparian zone mustbe assessed to determine its cur-rent condition. In general, if astream or river has little riparianvegetation, little in-stream cover(rocks, logs, vegetation), is rela-tively straight and shallow, or issubject to considerable amounts oferosion, it may be in need of someimprovements. As with any wet-land, it is important to seek assis-tance before making any manage-ment decisions. Contact theDepartment of EnvironmentalQ u a l i t y L a n d a n d W a t e rManagement Division, or your localConservation District office for

assistance with your manage-ment plan.

The following are options toconsider when managingstreams and rivers:

Keep Livestock OutAllowing cattle and other

livestock to access the streamcan create enormous prob-lems. The animals are capableof destroying wildlife habitat,polluting the water, and tram-pling streambanks causingerosion. If cattle must crossthe stream to reach pastureson the other side, install afence that will limit theiraccess to one site. Adding

STREAMS AND RIVERS


approaches of concrete, gravel orbroken rock will lessen the cattle'simpact. If livestock currently drinkfrom your stream, consider thevariety of low-cost watering sys-tems now available. At the veryleast, choose a small section of thewaterway that does not have asteep embankment, and weigh thecost and benefits of building afence.

Improve Riparian HabitatMaintaining a buffer strip from

100 to 200 feet wide or wider oneach side of the waterway will helpprovide homes for wildlife, preventerosion, and maintain water quali-ty. The buffer will slow siltation ofthe stream and absorb pesticideand fertilizer runoff. You canimprove the existing buffer or cre-ate a new one by planting trees,grasses, or shrubs. In southernMichigan, silver maple, red maple,cottonwood, and basswood can allbe grown from seedlings. In north-ern Lower Michigan and the UpperPeninsula aspen, black ash, alder,balsam fir, and white spruce aregood species to consider. In reallywet areas black spruce and tama-rack might be better choices. Ifbeaver are undesirable because ofpossible tree damage on your prop-erty, consider planting evergreensalthough beaver might even girdleand kill a few of them. Refer to the

chapters in the ForestManagement section for moreinformation on tree species andtheir requirements. Gray dog-wood, silky dogwood, red-osierdogwood, hawthorn, ninebark,serviceberry, elderberry, and high-bush cranberry are fruit-bearingshrubs that offer good sources ofstreamside food and cover forsongbirds, pheasants, and ruffedgrouse.

If you want to create a grass-land instead of forest or brush,wildflowers and certain grasses liketimothy, orchard grass, or switch-grass may be suitable choices.Depending on soil conditions, youcould also plant alfalfa, medium-red clover, and other legumes,which will attract birds as well asrabbits, woodchucks, mice, andother small mammals. Plantingwildflowers is also a good option.If you fertilize or mow streamsideareas, stay back from the water'sedge a distance of at least 100 feet.For more information, refer to theGrassland Management sectionor to the chapter on Wildflowersin the Backyards section.

Doing nothing, of course, isalso an option. If you choose notto mow, cultivate, or selectively logthe riparian corridor, naturalprocesses will eventually changethat area with no effort onyour part. The disadvantageto the natural process of suc-cession is that changes maynot be what the landownerwants. However, if the naturalchanges fit within thelandowner’s goal, then doingnothing is the right manage-ment option and will also ben-efit the riverine wetland.

Any harvest of streamside tim-ber must be done with great care.The trees and shrubs that growalong Michigan's waterways arecritical components of wildlife habi-tat. They attract insects that fishand wildlife feed upon, help coolwater temperatures, and provideshade. Fallen trees provide loafingareas for ducks, snakes, and turtlesand protective cover for fish. Theyalso provide important habitat forinsects and smaller forage fish andare a natural source of nutrients.Besides food in the form of nutsand berries, riparian cover offersdens, roosts, and nesting sites aswell as safe travel lanes. For thesereasons cutting timber in riparianzones can seriously damage thestream and its value to wildlife ifdone improperly.

However, if timber harvesting ispart of your overall plan, arrangelogging trails and roads as far awayfrom the waterway as possible toavoid erosion and any alteration tothe stream flow. Also, use extremecaution when cutting within 100feet of a stream, lake, pond, oropen water wetland. Logging canbe conducted in the suggested100-foot buffer area without harm-ing nearby waters if good manage-ment practices are employed. Keythings to keep in mind when log-ging within the buffer area are

keeping soil disturbance to a mini-mum and not operating wheeled ortracked logging equipment whensoils are wet. Further, use selectiveharvesting techniques as theyresult in the least amount of distur-bance. Try to spare most nut andfruit producing trees and leave atleast one to six snags or den treesper acre for those birds and mam-mals that rely upon them. Deadtrees about to fall into the streamshould be left alone. Remove in-stream logs and fallen trees only ifthey are causing problems.

Improve In-stream HabitatThe goal of most landowners

who improve habitat within astream is to improve fish popula-tions, but many of the improve-ments they make will also benefitwildlife. Stream management is anexacting science, the objectives ofwhich are often to create a diversi-ty of habitat with a variety of waterdepths, remove sediments by flush-ing action, add cover for fish, andincrease substrate and other food-producing habitats. Wildlife is asecondary beneficiary of theseimprovements. For example,increasing the amount of insectsfor fish means more food for tur-tles, frogs, and birds. Producingmore fish enhances the food supplyfor herons, mink, and otter.

Improving in-stream conditionscan be as simple as adding rocks,logs, and rootwads to create hidingcover, or as work-intensive asbuilding wing dams and banksidecribs. Costs can range from noexpense to very expensive, espe-cially if earth-moving equipmentmust be used. Remember, it isimportant to receive guidance froma professional before starting anyof the projects listed below so as tonot cause damage to the stream orriver. The Department of

Environmental Quality (DEQ) Landand Water Management Division isresponsible for administeringMichigan's Inland Lakes andStreams Protection Regulations. Apermit is required to do any in-stream work. This protectsstreams and inland lakes largerthan five acres from unauthorizeddredging, filling, or construction ofpermanent structures below theordinary high-water mark. The lawalso requires a permit for dredgingwithin 500 feet of a lake or stream.Alerting Michigan DEQ officials toillegal excavation activities is alsoan excellent means of stream andriver conservation.

The following are five basicproject suggestions to considerwhen improving in-stream habitat:

1. Boulder placement.Adding large boulders with irregu-lar surfaces creates overhead coverand resting pockets for fish to hide.It also increases water depth fromthe natural scouring that occursdownstream of the boulders. Thebest results occur when bouldersare placed in groupsanywhere in thestream where cur-rents exceed 2 feetper second.

2. Cover logs.These structures pro-vide overhead coverwhere water depth isadequate but cover islacking. Logs withdiameters larger than10 inches work bestin open pools, rapidcurrents, or flat waterwhere the water is atleast 8 inches deep.Crooked logs and

those with protruding limbs of sev-eral inches produce turbulence andspot scouring, both of which areadvantageous. Use logs already inthe stream or roll a few felled logsfrom the bank into the stream.Place them parallel to the flow or ata slight angle. Anchor with stakes(construction rebar works best) toprevent washing away during floodperiods.

3. Rootwads. When trees fallover from windstorms or erosion,their complex root systems, or

STREAMS AND RIVERS

stream boulder placement

str

eam

flo

w

Cover logsand root wadsCover logs and root wads

stream boulder placement

rootwads, usually become exposed.When submerged, these rootwadscan create ideal habitat for fish. Ifrootwads exist in your stream,leave them. If they lie along thebanks, consider pulling them intothe stream, especially in placeswhere the waterway meanders toprevent washing away during floodperiods.

4. Tree covers. Felled treesplaced in wide, shallow streamswith sand or gravel substrates pro-vide excellent overhead cover for

fish and good substrate for insects.They may also help to increasewater velocity by serving as deflec-tors to constrict wide, shallowchannels. The increased velocityhelps flush sediment out and cre-ates deeper scour pools that creategood fish habitat. Individual treescan be hinge-felled so they toppleinto the stream but remain con-nected to the stump. Adding acable from trunk to stump willensure stability. Choose trees thatcan be spared without creating anerosion problem. These trees

should always be placed nearly par-allel to water flow. Placing the treeperpendicular may cause erosionaround the ends.

5. Deflectors. Deflectors con-strict and divert water flow to cre-ate meanders in the stream. Inaddition, pools are formed in thestream bed by the scouring andrelocation of fine sediment andgravel. Deflectors work well inplaces where the banks are too lowor too wide for dams, and they aremuch more cost-effective thandams. Various designs abound--the simplest ones involve placingheavy boulders or anchored logsacross the stream to create a nar-row opening through which rushingwater creates the desired effect.Care must be taken not to directwater flow into the opposite bank,thus creating a new erosion prob-lem.

In summary, rivers and streamsand their adjacent riparian commu-nities are among the most impor-tant of all wildlife habitats.Managing these waterways as partof the overall plan for your proper-ty can produce relatively fast, long-lasting benefits that are cost-effec-tive and enjoyable.



STREAMS AND RIVERS

Key

3/4” rebar

River current

Cove

r Lo

g

Bank

Bank

Deflector and Cover Log

Rock Pile


Hinge-felled tree cover

Deflector andCover Log

Scattered throughout Michiganare thousands of small sea-sonally wet areas that may

only hold water from late fall to latespring or early summer.Seasonal wetlands result from win-ter snowmelt and spring rains, andtypically occur in low areas inwoods and open fields. Some ofthese seasonal wetlands may nothave visible standing water, butinstead they have waterloggedsoils. By mid-summer, most sea-sonal pools have dried out or arejust barely moist. Although manyof these seasonal wetlands may beless than a half-acre in size, theyprovide an important food sourcefor migratory songbirds, waterfowl,breeding and feeding areas foramphibians and reptiles, and criti-cal winter food supplies for wildturkeys, deer, and other birds and

mammals. There are many differ-ent types of seasonal wetlandsincluding seasonal pools, springsand seeps, coastal plain marshes,and lake plain prairies. If you arelucky enough to own any of theseseasonal wetlands, you will noticethey are used by a wide variety ofwildlife.

Seasonal PoolsSeasonal pools are most often

found in low, wooded areas thatcollect runoff water after springthaw and heavy storms. Althoughusually found in woodlands, sea-sonal pools also occur in grasslandsand active crop fields. These sitesare rich in plants and invertebratesbecause of their shallow depth andwarm temperatures, as well as thebuild up of decaying organic mate-rial. Such conditions lead to a largeoutput of algae, fungi, bacteria,invertebrates, and annual plants,

all of which form thebase of the food web.

Seasonal wetland foodwebs provide nourish-

ment for birds,m a m m a l s ,amphibians, rep-

tiles, andinvertebrates.

W o o d e ds e a s o n a l

pools in particu-lar are importantareas foramphibians that

prefer shallow water

because they are free of predatoryfish. Birds migrating through thearea often rely on the large amountof insects found in these sites tohelp them get to their summernesting area. Local birds also eatthe insects to build up energyreserves for nesting and broodrearing. Because these areas arewet for only a short period, thepools generate a large and diversearray of plants including jewel-weed, iris, marsh-marigold, skunkcabbage, and blue-joint grass.Plant species found in more openareas include smartweed, beg-garticks, nut-grasses, and wild mil-let. Many wildlife species dependupon seasonal pools for part oftheir life history. Examples arespotted salamanders, chorus frogs,spring peepers, leopard frogs,wood ducks, yellowthroats, swampsparrows, muskrats, raccoons,deer, and turkeys.

Springs and SeepsSprings and seeps occur in

rolling or hilly topography whereground water percolates through

SEASONALLYFLOODED WETLANDS


the soil and emerges from theground on lower slopes. Thisground water develops into eithersmall streams or small bodies ofpooled water. Springs are identi-fied by their faster discharge rateand their tendency to come from asingle, concentrated source form-ing a stream, while seeps are iden-tified by their slow discharge ratesusually forming pools. These areasare often surrounded by wet mead-ows, which may not be noticed inthe summer due to dryness.Because many springs and seepsdo not readily freeze during wintermonths, they offer a dependablesource of water year around.Wildlife depend on springs andseeps when rivers, creeks, ponds,and other water sources are dry orfrozen. The ground water that per

colates at lower elevations oftencreates a snow-free area in winterand provides wildlife with access togreen vegetation. As flocks ofturkeys and herds of deer dispersefrom winter haunts, they seekthese lush food areas. Becausethese small wetlands--some ofwhich are so tiny as to be hardlynoticeable--produce insects, theyare attractive to many kinds ofsongbirds. Further, the constant,always-moving shallow water isfavored by reptiles and amphibians,including several kinds of salaman-ders.

Coastal Plain MarshesCoastal plain marshes are an

unusual and unique kind of season-al wetland. Though called marshes,these wetlands are more like wetmeadows, which are very wet inthe spring, yet sometimes dry bylate summer. Dating to an earliergeologic time, coastal plain marsh-es occur primarily along the west-ern side of the Lower Peninsula andas far inland as the middle of thestate. Ranging in size from a half-acre to over 20 acres, they do notnecessarily exist along the GreatLakes shoreline. They are namedafter, and are unique because theyboast a large number of plantspecies found along the Atlanticcoastal plain. Coastal plain marsh-es are usually dominated by a richvariety of vegetation such as bushyaster, twigrush, and bulrush.These marshes are also home toover 45 rare plant species such asblack fruited spike rush, dwarf bul-rush, meadow beauty, and prairie

dropseed. Coastal plain marsh-es usually dry up by late sum-

mer to the point were standingwater only remains in the center

of the wetland. No one knows forsure why they exist in Michigan orhow their unusual plant species,

most of which are annuals,appeared. The natural periodicreduction of water levels favorsthese species and helps them topersist by exposing bare substratefor germination.

Lake Plain PrairiesLake plain prairies are coastal

wet meadows occurring in scat-tered fragments along LakesMichigan, Huron and Erie. Thesewetlands vary dramatically in theirlevel of wetness from season toseason, and even year to year.

Many of these shallow wetlandsfunction as a first step in the tran-sition zone from upland vegetationto deeper wetlands. They are thewet prairies leading to shallowmarshes, deep marshes, and shal-low open-water zones. Often usedas feeding, breeding, and brood-rearing areas for shorebirds, wad-ing birds, waterfowl, amphibians,and reptiles, lake plain prairies canalso serve as spawning grounds formuskellunge, smallmouth bass,yellow perch, northern pike, andother fish during years when highGreat Lakes water levels floodthese areas. Big bluestem, prairiecordgrass, bluejoint grass, and NewEngland aster are examples of wetprairie plants that can withstandoccasional, temporary flooding.This community is home to severalrare plant species including prairiefringed orchis, tall green milkweed,creamy wild indigo, dwarf bulrush,and globe-fruited seedbox. Inaddition, several rare wildlifespecies exist in these prairies suchas the fox snake, king rail, least bit-tern, and red-legged spittlebug.

However, as the shorelinedrops in elevation and the soilsbecome more saturated, the vege-tation composition changes andred-top grass, giant golden rod,

smartweed

canvasback

marsh aster, and otherwet meadow plantsbegin to domi-nate. Bottle-

brush sedge, lakesedge, and othersedges then takeover where the soils

are saturated most ofthe year. Dependingupon the slope of theshoreline and the

water table, thiszone betweenwet prairiesand sedgesmay be 30

feet wide or hundreds of feet wide.Human development of shorelineshave destroyed many of these lakeplain prairies that are valuable towildlife.

ManagementConsiderationsThe following are options to con-sider when managing seasonalwetlands:

•Protect wetland water sourcesand surrounding uplands toprovide critical habitats forwildlife. Draining or filling themfor agriculture, housing pro-jects, or other human use frag-ments wildlife habitat and alterswater courses. Logging activi-ties and livestock grazingaround seasonal pools can havea major negative impact onwater supply, temperature, andground cover. Altering watercourses to raise water levels orduration may reduce plantdiversity and insect productionand can turn seasonal wetlandsinto more permanent wetlandssuch as marshes and swamps.On the other hand, reducingwater levels or duration throughdraining or building roads canturn a temporary wetland, into

an upland. Although practicesthat destroy one cover typemay create another, the uniquecombination of ingredientsfound only in seasonal wetlandswill be gone.

•Protect seasonally floodedwetlands from off-road vehicle(ORV) use. Coastal plainmarshes and their associatedmud flats, in particular, areprime targets for ORV userswho like the "mud holes" butwho often damage the soil sur-face, destroy valuable plants,and alter the hydrology orwater resource.

•Restore degraded or drainedseasonal wetlands by providinga consistent source of waterduring the period of late winterthrough spring. Several organi-zations and agencies are inter-ested in helping landownersmanage seasonal wetlands. Foradditional information, see theWetlands RestorationTechniques chapter in thissection.

•Maintain or establish vegeta-tion in a strip at least 100 feetwide around the wetland tohelp protect them. Because oftheir low elevation on the land-scape, wetlands are sinks fornutrients, sediments, and pollu-tants. Manage surroundinguplands to trap erosion and pre-vent nutrient overloading.

•Never use any wetland as adumping ground for refuse anddebris, including logging waste,because these activities lead tocontamination of the water, soil,plants, and animals. Beforedraining or filling any wetland,contact the Land and WaterManagement Division of the

Michigan Department ofEnvironmental Quality, which isresponsible for regulating cer-tain activities in wetlands.

•Remove exotic nuisance plantssuch as purple loosestrife, reedcanary grass, and glossy buck-thorn. These aggressivespecies have little or no valuefor wildlife and can quickly out -compete native plants in smallseasonal wetlands.

•Build loafing platforms toattract turtles and certainspecies of waterfowl. Nestingstructures for ducks, geese, andsongbirds, in or near seasonalwetlands, is normally unneces-sary. However, nesting struc-tures may help these species touse some areas.

In summary, to the casualobserver seasonal wetlands maynot appear to be important. Dryduring much of the year, they nev-ertheless provide key food andcover for many kinds of animalsduring late winter through earlysummer when wildlife need highenergy foods for the start of thebreeding season. These wetlandsare unique, provide importantwildlife habitat, and are part of ourdiverse landscape. Because theyfigure importantly in the productionand welfare of Michigan wildlife,seasonal wetlands should be pro-tected at all times and restoredwhenever possible.

SEASONALLY FLOODED WETLANDS

prairie whitefringed orchis

bullfrog



SEASONALLY FLOODED WETLANDS


Wetlands come in a widevariety of types and sizes,and support a great diver-

sity of wildlife. We have come torealize that collectively wetlandsare of great benefit to society byproviding wildlife habitat, improv-ing water quality, reducing flooddamage, and offering recreationalopportunities and aesthetic value.In the past, we had less under-standing of the functions of wet-lands and often placed little valueon them. As a result, many weredrained, filled, or otherwisedegraded for other land uses.

Historically, Michigan had anestimated 11 million acres of wet-lands, or about one-third of thestate's land mass. Since Europeansettlement, over 35 percent ofthese wetlands have been lost. Insouthern Michigan the loss is evengreater -- more than 75 percent insome counties. In some cases, theloss is permanent. In others, weare able to reverse these impacts,such as drainage, and restore thewetland.

Wetland restoration techniquesprovide private landowners with anopportunity to benefit wildlife,themselves, and their community.If at one time a wetland existed onyour land, you might be able torestore it. This chapter explainshow.

Wetland IngredientsThere are three characteristics

that every wetland posesses.

1) Hydrology: A supply of waterthat is at or near the groundsurface at least a portion of thegrowing season.

2) Hydric soils: Soils that devel-op under saturated conditions.Hydric soils have the capacity tohold water on or near theground surface for at least aportion of the year.

3) Wetland vegetation: Plantsthat are adapted to grow inwet soils.

Wetland restoration involvesreturning one or more of thesethree characteristics to a site.Hydric soils form over a long periodof time and the soil characteristicsare very difficult to create. For thisreason, restorations take placewhere the hydric soils remain butthe hydrology or vegetation hasbeen altered.

Wetland Creation Versus Restoration

Wetland creation involvesimpounding water with berms anddikes or by excavating depressionsin areas that did not previouslycontain wetland soils or vegetation.Essentially, all three key character-istics are missing. Adding thesecharacteristics where they do notexist is difficult, costly, and oftenunsuccessful. Financial assistanceto land owners is not generallyavailable. For these reasons,landowners are often discouragedfrom undertaking creation projects.However, it is possible to create asmall shallow pond for wildlife onupland areas. Refer to the chapteron Building and ManagingPonds in this section for moreinformation.

Wetland restoration involvesreturning one of the wetland ingre-dients, generally water retension,to a degraded or drained wetlandsite. Sites that have been ditched,tiled or leveed, or degraded fromexcessive logging, uncontrolled cat-tle grazing, or unrestricted off-roadvehicle use are all candidates forrestoration. Projects can span thespectrum from curtailing these orother damaging practices to restor-ing the water source and/or otherwetland properties. Because thedegree of current damage will vary,the effort needed to restore siteswill also vary. For instance, a par-tially drained wetland may be fairlysimple to restore to its natural

WETLANDRESTORATIONTECHNIQUES


mallard

water level. The remainder of thischapter will focus on restoring wet-lands that have been fully or par-tially drained.

Locating RestorationSites

Identifying a drained wetland isthe first step in restoring it. Somedegraded or partially drained wet-lands are readily apparent, whileothers may be apparent onlythrough review of soil maps, pho-tographs, or other records.Drained wetland sites will havehydric soils. You can obtain a copyof the County Soil Survey from yourlocal Conservation District (CD)office and ask a staff person to helpindicate any hydric soils on yourproperty. You can also ask the CDstaff if aerial photographs are avail-able for review. On photos,degraded wetlands or wet spotsappear as dark areas and field tilesappear as dark, linear marks.Reviewing photos taken from sev-eral different years, and thosetaken 20 years ago or more mayhelp identify areas that were wet atone time. In addition, recordsfrom, or conversations with, previ-ous landowners or neighbors mayhelp to identify past drainage.

A field inspection can also helpto identify restorable wetlands.Hydric soils often display similarf i e ld charac te r i s t i c s ( seeIntroduction to WetlandManagement). Also, drainageditches or evidence of drain tilesmay be apparent. Spots in fieldsthat hold water briefly after aheavy rainfall may be tiled anddrained wetland basins. Also, lookfor clumps of wetland vegetation inexisting fields, low areas wherecrops are stressed or do not grow,or wet areas where farm machinery

has been stuck. On fields nolonger farmed, look for changes invegetation including the presenceof wetland vegetation, anddepressional areas that are wet orhold water at least a portion ofthe year.

Before BeginningWetland restoration is typical-

ly NOT a do-it-yourself project. Awildlife biologist or wetland spe-cialist can help assess the projectarea, look for potential impacts toothers, and determine if hydricsoils and a water source are pre-sent. Voluntary programs offeringtechnical and financial help maybe available to help restore yourwetland - check with your local CDstaff for initial assistance beforeproceeding any further. You canprobably save yourself time andmoney by working with the CDstaff.

Projects begin with planningto determine feasibility anddesign. Without proper plan-ning, projects may lead to prob-lems for you or your neighbors.Develop a reasonable manage-ment goal and stick to it. Safetyis a primary concern both duringand after construction. Also, thegood neighbor policy applies -youdon't want to flood a neighbor'scrop field or basement, or inter-rupt their drainage. By talkingwith your neighbors you canaddress their concerns, and mayfind they want to join in on theproject. In addition, watershedsize is important - too much wateror too little water may mean theproject is not workable. If a pro-ject looks like a "go," surveyequipment will be used to deter-mine water levels for the complet-ed project and to help designstructures, such as ditch plugs,

Wetland plants that occur in wet-lands 99 percent of the time.

Wetland plants that occur in wetlands67-99 percent of the time.

Wetland plants that occur in wetlands34-66 percent of the time

marsh-marigold

trout lily

common blue violet

red maple

northern whitecedar

balsam fir

royal fern

cardinal flower

showy lady’s slipper

dikes, or spillways. Finally, local,state, or federal permits may beneeded. In Michigan, permits arerequired from the MichiganDepartment of EnvironmentalQuality (DEQ) for any work in astream, flood plain, and most exist-ing wetland areas.

Restoration Techniques

Typical projects restore waterto a fully or partially drained wet-land basin by removing under-ground drain tiles, plugging openditches, or building small dikes.Projects are often one to threeacres in size, and have an averagewater depth of about 18 inches.Many small-basin wetlands of thistype that were drained for agricul-ture, provide opportunities forrestoration today. Generallymarshes or swamps, with seasonalor permanent water, are most oftenrestored.

The simplest restoration, a "tilebreak," involves removing a sectionof underground agricultural tile thatis draining a wetland basin. Draintile, or field tile as it is often called,is usually made of clay or perforat-ed plastic and buried at a depth oftwo to six feet. Generally, a con-tractor with a backhoe is used toremove or crush a 25 to 50 ft sec-tion of tile downstream of thebasin. The downstream end oroutlet pipe is then plugged with abag of redi-mix concrete or clean

clay fill, and the trench is filled.Sometimes, a portion of unperfo-rated tile, called a “riser”, is con-nected to the downstream end ofthe tile line and brought to the sur-face in order to control the waterlevel. Water will fill the wetlandbasin until it reaches the mouth ofthis riser where it will then flowback through the tile line into theditch. This may work well whenyou wish to maintain downstreamdrainage.

A “ditch plug” restoration buildsan earthen wall to impound water.This type of restoration uses equip-ment to fill a portion of a drainageditch to natural ground level.Again, a riser may be used to letwater flow through a tube once itreaches a certain level. A smalldike or berm may also be used,which will impound the water thatwill begin to collect once the drainhas been plugged. A dike preventsthe drainage of water downstreamand requires a spill way or otherwater-control structure to regulatethe water level and prevent thedike from being washed away dur-ing periods of heavy runoff.

Typically, a berm or dike is con-structed with a top width of eightto 10 feet and a maximum sideslope of 3:1 (three feet of horizon-tal width to each foot of rise). Athree foot high dike would have a

bottom width of 24 to 30 feet.When constructing a low-level dike,soil is often pushed up or excavat-ed from within the former wetlandsite. This helps to form a deeperpool within the basin. Sod and top-soil are stripped from the construc-tion site and stockpiled. The dikeor berm is then constructed withsubsoil, often with a good claycomponent. Topsoil from thebasin, which is a good seed sourcefor wetland plants, is then spreadback into the basin and on the dikeor berm. Disturbed upland areas,including areas of the ditch plug,dike, or berm, are seeded withgrasses to minimize erosion andprovide cover. Generally, nothing isplanted in the wetland basin aswetland vegetation usually re-establishes itself quickly from seedsthat have remained dormant in thesoil.

Managing water, especiallyexcess water, is important onrestoration projects. A water-con-trol structure can be used to man-age water levels within a project.Examples include plastic or metalrisers, and corrugated metal orplastic stop-log structures. Thesehelp to manage the normal flow ofwater. An emergency spillway,which is a wide trough-like openingin the side of the dike, should bedesigned into wetland restorationprojects if excess water is expected

WETLAND RESTORATION TECHNIQUES

Examples of restoring drained wetlands a) drainage ditch stopped with ditch plug, and spillway

b) tile drain field broken, and berm constructed to prevent flooding in areas that are to remain dry.

a)

drainage

ditch

b)

t ile breaks

drainage ditch

tile drain field

berm

ditch plug

spillway

install elbow

& riser

trash gaurd

remove t iles

cap

water level

Removing t iles from a drain field t o restore a wetland

during flood events. Emergencyspillways are sized according to thewatershed but typically are at leasteight feet wide and one to two feetbelow the top of the ditch plug,dike, or berm. These spillwaysallow water to pass through with-out damaging the retension struc-tures in high-water events. Sincewater management is critical, con-sult a professional for design spec-ifications suitable for your wetland.

Most restoration projectsinvolve open-area wetlands, butforest and shrub wetlands are alsoimportant and can be restored too.Restoration of wooded sites shouldbe done cautiously, however, toavoid killing the trees and shrubsthat normally grow in wetlands.Woody wetland plants can oftenwithstand brief flooding during thegrowing season, but be aware thatprolonged inundation may stresstrees and kill them.

Maintenance of theRestored Site

Simple basin restorationsshould be relatively maintenance-free. However, some restored wet-lands, particularly those withwater-control or earthen struc-tures, require some maintenance.Water-control structures should bechecked periodically. Fallen leaves,twigs, or other debris may build uparound the mouth of the structure.An accumulation of debris may par-tially obstruct the flow causing thewater level to rise. Inspection ofthe site, particularly during andafter a big storm, will allow you to

remove materials before problemsdevelop.

Ditch plugs, dikes, and bermsalso require some care.Established seedings of grassesshould be periodically mowed orburned to prevent woody vegeta-tion from invading. Root growthfrom woody vegetation will allowwater to penetrate the earthenstructure, which will cause it to leakand may contribute to a futurewashout. Annual maintenance alsomeans keeping muskrats, beaver,and woodchucks in check by fillingtheir excavations, and removingsome through trapping if neces-sary.

As you enjoy your restoredwetland, you can also keep an eyeopen for potential problems andaddress them quickly. It is mucheasier to solve a problem while it issmall than to wait until it is out ofhand. Also, remember that arestored wetland is most often onlyfour feet deep at its deepest spotand averages only two feet deepthroughout the basin. This is not afish pond. If you want to create afish pond, see the chapter onBuilding and Managing Pondsin this section.

State and federal agencies andconservation groups often haveprograms that may be able to assistyou in identifying potential restora-tion sites and in wetland restora-tions. These programs may pro-vide technical assistance and cost-share expenses. Start with yourlocal CD office staff as they will be

able to direct you to available assis-tance programs.

In summary, restoring wetlandsmay require more time, effort, andmoney to complete than manyother wildlife projects. Fortunately,technical and financial help is avail-able, and the rewards are wellworth the effort. Most landownersare quite pleased to see how quick-ly the wetland is re-establishedwhen water is restored. They alsooften report rapid use by wildlife.You will also have the satisfactionof returning to health a part ofMichigan's natural history.



WETLAND RESTORATION TECHNIQUES


Small and large, deep and shal-low, ponds abundantly dotMichigan’s landscape. People,

fish, and wildlife love the resourcesthat these small bodies of waterprovide. Michigan landownershave built an estimated 50,000ponds on farms and near ruralhouseholds to store water for irri-gation and livestock, to provide fireprotection, to attract wildlife, andto raise fish for recreation. Deepwater ponds are great places forfish production because of theircooler temperatures and reducedvegetation. Although shallowponds are not as valuable for fishproduction, they provide suitablesites for cattails, bulrushes, andother vegetation that create foodand cover for wildlife.

The type of pond to constructdepends upon your goals. If youwant to raise bluegills, bass, ortrout, then make the pond deep. Ifyour goal is to attract ducks, frogsand wetland birds, then build itshallow. Some landowners try toachieve both goals with a singleproject and usually fail, especially if

the pond site is smaller than sever-al acres. For more information oncreating shallow water ponds forwildlife, see the chapters onMarshes and Wetland Restor-ation Techniques. Landownersinterested in pond development forother uses should consult with theirMichigan State University Extensionoffice or the U.S. Natural ResourceConservation Service.

Deep Water PondsTo successfully raise fish you

must ensure a balanced fish popu-lation, provide appropriate watertemperature, and limit growth ofemergent (cattails and bulrushes)and submergent (pondweed andmilfoil) plant species. The MichiganDepartment of Natural ResourcesFisheries Division has informationabout how many fish and whatspecies to stock to meet yourpond's size and shape. Minimumdepth for sustaining warm waterspecies like bass and panfish is 10feet. For trout and other coldwater species, the minimum is 12feet or more unless a cold spring orstream feeds the pond. The entirepond need not be this deep, butunless 25 to 50 percent of its sur-face area lies at such depths, thepond will not provide the rightamount of dissolved oxygen in win-ter and range of temperatures insummer that fish need to survive.Even though some fish may live inshallower ponds, they will not growas fast nor as large as they wouldin better habitat. In addition, they

are vulnerable to winter and sum-mer kills. Fish ponds should be 1/2acre or more in water surface area.

Minimizing the amount of shal-low edge around your deep waterpond will reduce emergent vegeta-tion, most species of which grow inwater less than four feet deep. Forthis reason, create steep slopes toa depth of four feet or more.Slopes should range from a mini-mum ratio of 2:1 (2 feet of hori-zontal per 1 foot drop) to a maxi-mum of 3:1 (3 feet of horizontalper 1 foot drop). Minimize theamount of edge by constructing acircular or rectangluar shapedpond.

Shallow Water PondsWildlife species attracted to

constructed shallow water ponds(depending on size) include water-fowl, songbirds, shorebirds, wadingbirds, amphibians, and reptiles, aswell as some upland birds andmammals. Although a portion ofthe pond can be six feet or deeper--to reduce emergent plant growthand to maintain an opening usefulto waterfowl and other wetlandbirds--depths ranging from six

BUILDING ANDMANAGING PONDS


wood duck

inches to four feet are most pro-ductive for a variety of wildlife.Ponds deep enough to house fishcan have a negative impact on theproduction of wildlife such as frogs,toads, salamanders, and evenducklings. Wildlife ponds oftenhost some of the same plants asmarshes, including cattails and bul-rushes in the shallow areas andpondweed and other submergedplants in the deeper spots.

For shallow ponds, increasingthe amount of edge makes thepond more productive for wildlife.Irregular-shaped projects or long,rectangular ones with scallopededges will have more edge,

increasing its wildlife value. Slopedesign should be flatter, rangingfrom 3:1 to 10:1 (horizontal:drop),and projects that are at least 60feet wide reduce the impact ofpredators on ducklings and otheryoung birds.

Constructing a PondGenerally, ponds should be dug

on fairly level areas not suited forwetland restorations. Many partsof Michigan are favorable becauseof the flatter topography andgroundwater which lies closebeneath the soil surface. Water willslowly seep through gravel, loam,and sand layers of a dug depres-sion with a high water table.Conversely, surface run-off willreadily fill basins constructed onclay soils. While some people haveexcavated springs to create ponds,we do not recommend it.Remember that springs provideimportant wildlife habitat to wildturkeys, frogs, salamanders, andturtles. For more information onsprings, see the chapter onSeasonal Wetlands.

Most landowners thinking ofbuilding a pond assume that lowareas offer the best location.Actually, upland sites may be betterbecause the groundwater tablegenerally follows the land's con-tours, and it may be fairly close tothe surface at higher elevations.Upland excavation most certainlywill be better than in the low spots,as they may be muck-filled andmore difficult to work with.Excavation projects in lowlands orwetlands should be avoided andmay require a permit from the Landand Water Management Division ofthe Michigan Department ofEnvironmental Quality. Marshes,lowland woodlands, brushy wet-lands, bogs, and other wetlandtypes provide important wildlifehabitat, and converting them todeep or shallow ponds is not rec-ommended.

The Natural ResourcesConservation Service, an agency ofthe U.S. Department of Agriculturewith offices in most Michigan coun-ties, have soil surveys on recordthat can tell landowners how wellcertain soils on their property willhold water. Soils for pond construc-tion should contain a minimum of20% clay. It is important when con-structing ponds to know water-holding capacity, depth to water,and expected fluctuations of waterin the soil because excavation willhave to go below that level tomaintain water. This information isalso helpful if the source of waterfor the pond is runoff.

The best way to determinewater table depth is to review a soilsurvey with an NRCS staff member-to get an idea of expected normalconditions, then dig test holeswhen the water table is likely to beat its lowest, usually in the hot, dry

12 ft .

4 ft. 4 ft .

12 ft . 12 ft .24 ft .

Example of a deep water pond a 3:1 slope reaching 4 ft

deep, a deep water level of 12 ft . to facilitate a diversity of fish species,

24 ft. across , which provides the correct temperatures and amounts of dissolved

oxygen, depending on the season.

with minimal shallow edges, due to

and a 25% open

water area,

3 ft.

30 ft.30 ft.

Example of a shallow water pond with maximum shallow area due to a 10:1

slope reaching 3 ft. deep at a horizontal length of 30 ft . The total width of

the pond is 60 ft . to reduce impact of predators on young birds.

leopard frog

part of the summer. Spring andsummer groundwater depths oftenvary by two to four feet or more inMichigan, which is why many shal-low ponds dry up in summer. Thiscondition typically occurs where thesoil is sandy or the slope too great.Although the drying process mayhave a negative impact on fishstocks in deeper ponds, it actuallyhelps promote a diversity of plantgrowth in shallow ponds. Whenwater returns to the site, typicallyin fall, wildlife will greatly benefit.

In addition, be sure not to digthe pond too deep. A thin layer ofimpermeable soil, such as clay, maybe what holds the water tablewhere it is. Puncturing this soillayer is much like pulling the plugof a bathtub.If this layer of soil isbroken, the water table will nolonger exist at the previous leveland the created pond will be dry.

Operators of earthmovingequipment all too often do not takegroundwater tables into accountwhen they contract with landown-ers. An agreement to create apond that is 15 feet deep, forexample, could produce a pondwith only 12 feet of water if thegroundwater table lies three feetbelow the surface. In this instancethe operator would have to dig to adepth of 18 feet in order to satisfythe agreement. Landowners areadvised to get a written agreement

from the contractor thatguarantees water depth,

not depth of theexcavation. Anoth-er misconception isthe common beliefthat water seeping

into a test hole mustcome from springs.Landowners and their

contractors all too oftenassume the "spring-fed"

depression they dig will fill withwater. In truth, the water flowinginto the test hole is probablygroundwater seeping through sandor gravel. This water will fill adepression only to the level whereit currently exists.

An option is to create a pond byimpounding existing surface water.For example, field ditches that fur-nish a constant flow of water canbe dammed with an earthen berm.Adding a spillway will allow you tocontrol water depth. For moreinformation, refer to the brochureon Wetland RestorationTechniques. However, suchponds usually require the periodicremoval of silt and other sedi-ments. Also, such projects requirea permit from MichiganDepartment of EnvironmentalQuality and may also need to becoordinated with the county draincommissioner's office. Further,runoff and stream water are rarelyas pure as groundwater, which hasbeen well filtered and is free ofphosphorus and other pollutants.On the other hand, groundwatermay be low in oxygen and containiron, copper, or other minerals thatare detrimental to fish. For thisreason, if a fish pond is desired,one should test the water sourcebefore 'building' the pond.

The actual design of your pro-ject will be based on your goals.Also, design considerations willhave to take into account the soiltype and terrain and the aestheticsdesired. Keep ponds away fromwoodlots to minimize loading fromleaves and other nutrients, andlocate them away from homes andbuildings for maximum wildlife use.Keep in mind excavating costs cansoar if dirt must be moved fartherthan 150 feet. The most cost-effective ponds, then, are those

that are no wider than 300 feet.However, they can be bigger if thebudget allows.

The least-expensive ponds areusually those that require theremoval of excavated dirt (spoil)only once. With the help of thecontractor, plan where you will putthe spoil. Many landowners areamazed at the large volume ofspoil, which typically takes up 20percent more storage volume onceit is removed because it loses itscompact nature. A half-acre pond,for example, with a quarter-acrethat is 18 feet deep, may easilyrequire a full acre of land for spoildisposal. Place the spoil on anupland site and take precautions toprevent erosion back into yourpond.

Management Considerations

Ponds offer opportunities forwildlife and fish management.Those that have a reliable supply ofwater year around function natural-

BUILDING AND MANAGING PONDS

invasive species: garlic mustard,glossy buckthorn, and purpleloosestrife

ly and can best be managed byprotecting the water source. Thehydrology (water availability) ofyour pond is critical in maintainingthe water quality and quantity. Aberm around the pond that is onefoot high by four feet wide and isvegetated will help to filter surfacewater from sediments and contam-inants before reaching the pond.

Within at least 100 feet of thepond, avoid the application of pes-ticides and fertilizers, and do notcontinuously plow or mow to thewater's edge. Creating a bufferzone of grassy vegetation at least100 feet around the pond will helpprotect the pond. For seedingrates and other information, referto the Grass Planting chapter.Fence the pond and buffer zone to

restrict livestock access. Continuoususe by cows, horses, and sheepcan damage vegetation and pollutethe water source with manure. Donot let the pond become a collec-tion point for trash or debris.Consider building loafing platformsto attract waterfowl and turtles. Tolearn more, refer to the chapterson Frogs, Turtles, andSnakes, and Homes forWildlife.

Unavoidable problems couldinclude the invasion of garlic mus-tard, glossy buckthorn, or purpleloosestrife. The latter is a beauti-full, purple-flowered invader thatcan quickly take over a wetland byoutcompeting native plants. Thisnoxious weed has little value towildlife and can be difficult to elim-

inate because of its strong root-stock. The best method is to dig itout by hand before it becomesfirmly established. If alreadyestablished over a large area thisplant may be cut in winter, andthen sprayed with the herbicideRodeo until June. However, it maybe easier to identify the plant afterJune when it blooms, at which timeRodeo can also be used. Be sure tofollow all label directions.

In summary, deep ponds canhold fish and shallow water pondscan attract wildlife to your property.However, landowners should thinkabout the many considerationsinvolved, including constructionand maintenance costs.Government cost-sharing programsfor pond creation are rare. If yourproperty is located in a lowlandarea, you may be able to restore awetland instead of creating a pond.This option wold most likely createbetter habitat for a variety ofwildlife. Because of the high priori-ty for restoring drained wetlandsand the relative lower cost of theseprojects compared to pond cre-ations, there are several programsthat cost share restorations. Referto the other chapters in theWetlands Management sec-tion for more information.



BUILDING AND MANAGING PONDS

wetland

wetland

woods

woodsold field

old field

DPSP

GB

GB

P

P

WR

Existing features

Road

House

Stream

Permanent grass strip

Ditch

Habitat projects

Deep-water pond

Wetland restoration

Grass buffer

Ditch plug

Nesting platform

Shallow-water pond

P

DPSPWRGB


This map is an example that demonstrates the many management options discussedthroughout this chapter. The option(s) you choose should depend not only on your goals,but the location, condition, and present use of your land.

Documents

Introduction to Wetland Management - Department of Natural ... · or "hydrophytic" vegetation, grows ... of the nation's rare wildlife species are located inwetlands or are INTRODUCTION