1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1. 1 Introduction

This chapter is aimed to introduce the topic and to explain the general

procedures used in this study. This chapter provides an overview of the topic, the

basic features of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts including geographic and

demographic features, the reasons for selecting these districts for research, the

ethnicity of tribes in the selected area, the significance of the study, the

formulation of research problem, the objectives of the study, the sources of data,

the research methodology, the scope of the study, the limitations of the study and

review of literature.

1.2 The Concept of Social Formation

The social formation is a term familiar with the study of Sociology and it is

largely synonymous with „society‟. It is a concept refers to the conditions of

existence of society and the particular term is devised by the Structuralist, Louis

Althusser. It is the sum total of product of concrete economic, political and

ideological relations bound together1. The social structure and traditions of a given

society, in the modern period often embodied within a national State is called

social structure2. Murdock calls it as social evolution instead of social formation. It

is an evolution of social organization and a normal process of cultural change and

they find special application in the area of social formation3.

1 Gordon Marshall, Social Formation: A Dictionary of Sociology, 1998, p.21.

2 George Peter Murdock, Social Structure, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960,

p.184.

3 Ginsberg Morris, Social Change. British Journal of Sociology, Vol.IX: 1947, pp. 1-8.

2

Ginsberg expressed the concept, “social formation” as “structure”. It is the

principal form of social organization, which includes types of groups, associations,

institutions and the complexity of these which ultimately framed in to society and

social formation would involve a review of the whole field of corporative

institutions4. Social formation of tribes is an element to observe their social

structure which is different from that of the other people. The isolation that they

succumb to has played a vital role in their social formation. The rate of social

formation is not uniform but on the other hand, it is highly uneven among the

tribals.

1.3 Indian Constitution and Tribes

The Indian Constitution placed the tribal welfare on the popular

Governments through the President and Governors5. Article 46 of the Constitution

declares that “the State shall promote, with special care, the educational and

economic interest of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of

Schedules Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social

injustice and forms of exploitation”. There is a higher grade of special treatment

provided for the Scheduled Tribes, in the Constitution. In the fifth Schedule,

special privileges of the weaker sections, especially the Scheduled Tribes is given.

To Ghurye, “It stands as the clearest testimony to the full appreciation of the

nature and extent of the problems of the Scheduled Tribes by the framers of the

Constitution”6.

There are almost twenty Articles and two special Schedules in the

Constitution of India which elaborately explains the protective privileges meant

for the tribal people. The special provisions incorporated in the Constitution under

4 Kumar A., Tribal Development in India, New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2002, p.20.

5 Ghurye G.S., The Scheduled Tribes, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1963, p.35.

6 Behura and N. K. Nilakanda Panigrahi. Tribals and the Indian Constitution. New Delhi:

Rawat Publications, 2006, pp. 57-58.

3

different sections are:- Part III on Fundamental Rights, Part IV on Directive

Principles of State Policy, Part X on Scheduled Tribes and Tribal areas, Part XII

on Finance, property etc., Part XVI on Special Provisions relating to certain

classes and lastly the Fifth and Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Special

protective provisions contained in the Constitution are the Articles 14, 15 (I, II),

15 (4), 16 (1), 16(4), 16 (4A), 17, 19(5), 23, 24, 25, 29, 46, 164 (II), 244, 275, 330,

332, 334, 335, 338, 339(1), 340, 341, 342, 366, 371 (A,B,C), Fifth Schedule and

Sixth Schedule. The Directive principles of State Policy explain privileges for the

tribal communities through different Articles of 38, 39, 39 (A), 41, 43, 46, 47, 48

and 48 (A)7.

The Constitution provides various safeguards in favour of Scheduled

Tribes. They may be broadly divided into two parts, viz., (1) Protective and (2)

Development. The Protective Provisions are contained in Articles 15(4), 16(4),

19(5), 23, 29, 46, 164, 330, 332, 334, 335 and 338, 339(1), 371(A), 371(B),

371(C), Fifth and Sixth Schedule. Article 15(4), 16(4) and 19(B) are exception to

Fundamental rights of equality and freedom guaranteed under Part III of the

Constitution. Provisions relating to development of Scheduled Tribes are

contained mainly in Articles 275(1) first provision and 339(2)8.

Article 29(2) provides for Cultural and Educational Rights controlled by

Clause 4 of Article 15, incorporated in the Constitution by the First Amendment

Act, 1951. Article 330, 332, 334 and 335 ensures reservation of seats for the

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha (Article 330) and State

Legislative Assemblies (Article 332).The quota was fixed keeping in mind the

population size of the two groups at the rate of 15 percent for the Scheduled

Castes and 7.5 per cent for the Scheduled Tribes.

7 Verma R.C., Indian Tribes through the Ages, Government of India: Publications

Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1990, p.75.

8 Behura N. K. op.cit, p.58.

4

The Constitution prohibits discrimination (Article 15) of any citizen on

grounds of religion, race, caste etc., untouchability (Article 17), and forced labour

(Article 23). It provides for specific representation through reservation of seats for

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Parliament (Article 330) and in the

State Legislative Assemblies (Article 332) as well as in government and in public

sector jobs (e.g. public enterprises) in both the federal and State governments

(Article 16(4), 330(4) and 335)9.

1.4 Antecedents of Tribal Uprisings in Kerala

In Kerala, the tribals have played a prominent role in the shaping of its

history. The Kurichiyas and Kurumbas of Wayanad enhanced the glory of the

tribals by participating in the anti-English East India Company revolt during the

late18th and early 19th centuries. It was against the new English policy of

collecting revenue from them in cash rather than in kind. The rebels were

successful in capturing English garrisons at Sultan‟s Battery and Manantavady.

The Kurichiyas were one of the freedom fighters of India. When the historic battle

between Pazhassi Raja and the British forces took place on January 7, 1787, the

Kurichiyas under Thalackal Chandu took up arms and assisted the Raja, and they

exhibited their skill in archery and proved their chivalry and patriotism. The

Kurichiyas and Kurumbas provided all sorts of assistance to Pazhassi Raja and his

men, to survive in the forest for many years. They guided the forces to advance in

the forest through proper ways and aided them to retaliate the British attacks with

guerilla warfare10

.

The tribals of Kerala had a tradition of rebellion against the anti elements in

their suzerainty. They have realized the presence of evil elements in their

surroundings. The Kurichiya Revolt of 1812 was an armed struggle against the

9 Ibid., pp.19-20.

10 Kurup K.K.N. Pazhassi Samarangal, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Bhasha Institute,

1999, p. 139.

5

foreign domination in their dominion. The British presence questioned their

traditional power structure and imposed unnecessary restrictions. The new tariffs,

introduced in the tribal areas were unbearable. It was the last attempt of the tribal

communities in Kerala against the anti national elements11

. Even though the tribal

struggles lacked the modern concept of nationalism they exposed the displeasure

to the factors of intrusion in their realm.

In the recent periods, certain tribal communities have advanced in the

scenario of literacy, life expectancy, housing facilities etc. The lack of transport

and communication facilities to the tribal settlements is the chief impediments in

the way of progress. The paucity of infrastructure development is a major

constraint in their progress.

1.5 Tribes of Pathanamthitta District

The tribal communities of Pathanamthitta district consists of seven

communities i.e., Ulladan, Mala Vedan, Mala Pandaram, Mala Arayan,

Kanikkaran, Malayan and Mudugar.The total population of tribals in the district is

6379.The male population is 3098 and the female population is 3281.

Among them the Ulladan and Mala Vetan are the prominent communities

with largest numbers. The Ulladans have 2285 and the Mala Vedans have 2161

population. The population of other communities, Mala Pandaram (554),Mala

Arayan(958), Kanikkaran(5), Malayan(3)and Mudugar(4), according to the survey

results published in February 2010 by the Kerala Institute of Local administration

(KILA) and the Scheduled Tribe Development Department of Pathanamthitta .

The largest tribal settlement in Pathanamthitta District is Adichipuzha in

Naranammuzhy Panchayat and the smallest is Chippankuzhy in Seethathodu

Panchayat.

11

William Logan. The Malabar Manuel, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Gazetteers

Department, 2004, p. 81.

6

The Mala Arayans have the highest literacy (98.41) and the Mala

Pandarams have the lowest (42.45)12

. The Mala Pandarams show some features of

primitive tribal groups (PTG) because they reside in the midst of forest even now

and to a great extent follow the migratory life style. Their shifting habit of

settlement is the major hurdle in their progress. They like to keep a particular

distance from the non-tribes and the instances of interaction and the mingling are

rare especially among their women folk.

1.6 Tribes of Kollam District

Before the formation of Pathanamthitta district, its major portions were

included in the Kollam district. So, the meaningful study of the tribes in

Pathanamthitta is impossible without the study of tribes in Kollam district. Most of

the tribes reside in Pathanamthitta district have a common anscestorship with

Kollam district. They share equal culture and ethnicity. The places laying in the

Western Ghat and the adjoining areas are the favourite settlement of the tribes.

The Kanikkars, Mala Pandarams, Mala Vetans, Mala Arayans and Ulladans are

the chief tribal groups in Kollam District. The total tribal population in the district

is 4641. The most populated group is Kanis with 2446 members in 685 families.

The Mala Pandaram is the second largest group with a population of 1051 in 317

families. The Mala Pandarams found in the Achenkoil region still follow the

traditional way of living in isolation. They live in the outskirts of the forests, away

from main stream and lacked basic infrastructures. The modern facilities of health,

education and technology are accessible to them but they are disinterested to

12

District Survey Report on the Scheduled Tribes of Pathanamthitta, Vol.1, Trivandrum:

Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA) and Scheduled Tribe Development

Department, 2010, p.1.

7

utilize the facilities. The Mala Vetans 760(232 families), Ulladans 225(68

families) and Mala Arayans 2(one family) are the other tribals in the district13

.

The Kanikkars made some good progress, especially in the field of

medicine. The Arogyapacha, one of the herbal medicines, found in the Thenmala

forest region, is an example. The living condition of the Mala Vetans is not so

good and it is mainly due to their inborn habit of laziness and craze for intoxicants.

1.7 Etymology

The term „Kanikkar‟ etymologically means the owner of the earth (Kani –

earth, Karan – owner). They believe that they are the descendants of the famous

Sage Agasthya. Precisely, the name Kanikkar is given to them by Dhanushkody,

the forest conservator of Travancore. There is another story regarding the name of

this tribe. The tribal people used to give gifts to the king ones in a year. The gifts

are usually precious articles from the forest. Those who offer gifts (Kanikka) are

called by the name Kanikkar. It is believed that the Kanis are the Pre-Dravidian

race, were living in the Indus and Gangetic river delta. The Dravidians as well as

the Aryan invasion compelled them to take shelter in the forest, their present

settlement areas. Kanis are seen only in Kerala, especially they are found in South

Eastern part of Kerala, i.e., Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Pathanamthitta

districts.

The „Kanikkar‟ mainly settled in Kollam district is also known as

Kanikkaran, Kanis, and Kaniyan. The name Kanikkar means „Proprietor of land‟.

Kani, a shortened form is used as a synonym and as well as their title. To another

view, they followed the practice of submitting „Kanikka‟ or presents of honey,

13

District Survey Report on the Scheduled Tribes of Kollam Vol.1., Kerala Institute of

Local Administration (KILA) and Scheduled Tribe Development Department, 2010,

p.1.

8

cardamom and ivory to a ruling chief and got the name Kanikkar.To Edgar

Thurston the word Kanikkaran means hereditary proprietor of land14

.

The „Mala Pandaram‟ or otherwise termed as Hill Pandaram may be the

ancestors of rural and urban Pandaram. However, there exists no direct connection

in any other matter with the Mala Pandaram except the name Pandaram. The name

Pandaram for this community might be from the pale complexion (Panduranga)

noticed among some of them. Bhandaram in Malayalam connotes disgusting and

hated person15

.

„Ulladans‟ are also known as Nayadi and colloquially as Nadi. Nayadi in

Malayalam means one who is „wandering‟ or nomads. Etymologically, the term

„Ulladan‟ is a combination of words Ull (interior), Nadu (country) and connotes

that they are people of the interior. To another view, they are experts in various

„adalls‟ (dances) and they performed in the interior. To another view, they are the

descendents from a Nambuthiri woman who on being proclaimed an outcast said

„Ullatana‟ meaning that the offence for which she was ostracized was true16

.

The tribal community,‟Vetan‟ or „Mala Vedan‟, known in different names

such as Vetan, Mala Vetan and Vettali. They are spelt also differently- Vedan,

Vetan, Malai Vedan, Malai Vetan, Mala Vedan and Mala Vetan. The name is

derived from the Malayalam word Vedan (hunter). The term „Malai Vetan‟ is used

to address those Vedans who located in the hills; „mala‟ in Malayalam means hill.

They were famous as hunters and were formerly soldiers and later dacoits17

.

14

Singh K.S., The Scheduled Tribes of India, Oxford Publishing House: Culcutta.

(1997). p.826.

15 Ibid., p.1415.

16 Ibid. p.437.

17 Thurston Edgar, Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol.3., Bombay: Cosmo

Publications, 1975, p.121.

9

1.8 Features of Pathanamthitta District

Pathanamthitta is a hilly terrain of pristine beauty is popular as the head

quarters of pilgrim worship in Kerala. More than 50 percent of the total area is

covered with forests. The district is rich with rivers, streams, mountain ranges,

coconut groves, fertile fields etc. The Pathanamthitta district is famous for temples

and churches. It is one of the youngest districts of Kerala; nestles its head on the

slopes of Western Ghats and stretches to the low lying rice fields of Alappuzha,

Kottayam and Kollam districts. The topography of the district is highly

undulating. It starts from the tall hill slopes covered with thick forests on the east

along the mountains down to the valleys and small hills to the flat land of coconut

trees in the west. Pathanamthitta engrossed in the hilly terrain of Kerala can rightly

be called the head quarters of pilgrimage tourism in the state. Sabarimala, an

important Hindu pilgrimage centre attracts crores of pilgrims from different parts

of India and the state18

.

1.8.1 Climate

The district has more or less the same climatic conditions as prevalent

elsewhere in the state, viz., dry season from December to February and hot season

from March to May. The climate is generally moderate, the temperature rising

from 20°C to 39°C. The south west monsoon from June to September and the

north east monsoon from October to November provide fairly good rain19

.

1.8.2 Crops

Pathanamthitta is a true tropical land with fertile agricultural land,

plantations and forest. Varieties of vegetables, tapioca, paddy and spices like

cardamom, pepper etc. are cultivating to a great extent. But, the area of paddy

cultivation has shrinked at a higher rate in the recent decades and the paddy fields

18

http://Pathanamthitta.nic.in.

19 Ibid.

10

were converted to dry lands and large scale constructions have been taken place in

those areas. The rapid growth of rubber plantations in extensive areas adversely

affects the traditional patterns of cultivation20

.

1.8.3 History

Pathanamthitta is a combination of two words „Pathanam‟ and „Thitta‟

which means an array of houses on the river side. The district was formed on 1st

November, 1982, in the interest of the hastening process of development. It is

considered that the regions presently under the district were formerly under the

Pandalam reign which had connection with the Pandya kingdom. The present

Pathanamthitta district contains the portions of the erstwhile Kollam, Alappuzha

and Idukki districts. Pathanamthitta, Adoor, Konni, Ranni and Kozhencherry are

the chief places taken from Kollam district, and the places like Thiruvalla and

Mallappally are taken from Alapuzha district21

.

1.8.4 National Movement

The Pathanamthitta district has a very proud tradition of struggle for the

freedom of India. During the last visit of Mahatma Gandhi in Travancore in

1937A.D, he pressed the need of Khadi and Charka and inspired his follower

Khadar Das T P Gopala Pillai to spread the message of Khadi and Charka. He

founded the Mahatma Gandhi Ashram at Elanthoor in 1941A.D. Mahatma Gandhi

in 1937A.D during his 4th

and last visit to Kerala visited Elanthoor also. In

1921A.D there was strong protest in Travancore against the British in connection

with the visit of the Prince of Wales. A student‟s strike was held in 1922, in the

Travancore region, filled a lot of spirit and enthusiasm among the freedom

fighters. The Congress leaders like Ponnara Sreedhar and K. Kumar, the

participants from Kerala in the Flag Sathyagraha at Nagpur were arrested and

20

Ibid.

21 Ibid.

11

beaten up by the police in the early 1920s. The chief contributor to the freedom

struggle of Kerala from Pathanamthitta district were Elanthoor K. Kumar,

Thadiyel Raghavan pillai,Pandalam.K.P and N. G. Chacko and their role to

encourage the common people in the direction of national movement was praise

worthy.

The „Thoppippala Samaram‟22

was another great example of the mass

movement in Pathanamthitta district against the dictatorship of Sir C. P.

Ramaswami Iyer, the then Diwan of Travancore. The Travancore state congress

deep rooted its influence in the Pathanamthitta district through its restless strikes

against the anti-national elements.

1.8.5 Art and Culture.

Pathanamthitta district is one of the great centres of Kerala, well known for

its rich tradition of art and culture. The famous folk art „Padayani‟23

got birth and

fame as an art of Pathanamthitta district. Most of the temples of Pathanamthitta

especially „Bhagavathy‟ or Devi temples conduct Padayani. The Vasthuvidya

Gurukulam at Aranmula24

constituted by the State Cultural Department is a unique

institution functioning for the promotion of „Vasthuvidya‟. The presence of

22

„Thoppipala Samaram’was a mass struggle in Travancore State against the unpopular

policy of the first Communist ministry of 1957 and it was a part of the „Vimochana

Samaram‟ of 1959.

23 „Padayani‟ is a ritualistic dance, which literally means an array of common people.

The figures in Patayani consists of „Pisachu, Kali, Karakkura, Pillatini, Bhairavi,

Kalan‟ etc. The mask is painted with a grotesque surrealistic touch. The round eyes and

the triangular ears and the abnormal size of the head gear give a touch of super human

dimension. In Kadammanitta Devi Temple near Pathanamthitta, ten day long padayani

performance held in connection with the annual festival in April/may, every year.

24 „Vasthuvidhya Gurukulam’ in Aranmula is functioning for the promotion of the ancient

Indian architecture which is pure and ethnic expression of its socio-cultural heritage.

The objective of the Gurukulam is the preservation and promotion of Vasthuvidhya and

mural paintings. It also aims at the renovation and conservation of traditional buildings

and mural paintings. The gurukulam has been conducting one year post graduate

diploma course in Vasthuvidhya. The residential system of education is imparting and

so it has been following the „Gurukula model‟ education of ancient India.

12

scholars even from foreign countries reveals the significance of the centre as an

international institution.

„Aranmula Kannadi‟ is another unique art of Pathanamthtta district. It is a

mirror cannot be found anywhere else in the world. It is a metal mirror and its

making requires a long process that needs a lot of patience. Some undisclosed

metals are alloyed with Copper and Tin to cast the „Aranmula Kannadi‟ in typical

clay moulds. It takes not less than 14 days to make a dozen metal mirrors, and the

smallest „Aranmula Kannadi‟ is of one and half inches costs about Rs.950. The

technique of production of the mirror is a top secret and the craftsmen have been

handed over it from generation to generation25

.

1.9 Features of Kollam District.

Kollam, earlier known as Quilon, is one of the fourteen districts of Kerala

state, representing all the natural attributes of Kerala and is endowed with a long

coastal region, a major sea port on the Arabian Sea. Kollam, very famous for

cashew trading and processing industry and it is also famous as “The God‟s own

Capital”. Plains, mountains, lagoons, lakes and backwaters, rivers, forests and

farm land make the topography of the district highly varied. Kollam from the very

early period itself is famous for its overseas trade and its mercantile relationship

with Phoenicians and the Romans is very popular.

The Ashtamudi Lake, occupies about thirty percent of its area and it make

Kollam the gateway of the Kerala Backwaters. Thevalakkara and Thekkumbagam

25

„Aranmula’ in Pathanamthitta district is a great centre of Kerala culture and tradition

and the kerala government has announced it as a „Centre of Heritage‟. It is on the bank

of Pamba, the holy river of Kerala. The famous boat race during „Onam‟ (the national

festival of Kerala) is conducting in Pamba River in Aranmula in the first Malayalam

month of Chingam. The Partha Saradhi Tample is another attraction of Aranmula and it

is a pilgrim centre especially during the Sabarimala pilgrimage. The „Aranmula

Mirror‟is another contribution of Aranmula to the world. The Vasthu Vidhya

Gurukulam is functioning in Aranmula.

13

Panchayats together had made the very ancient Korekins (sea pointed inland)

Kollam port of Tarsish even in 1500 B.C.

1.9.1 Geography.

Kollam district is located in the South-West cost of India, bordering

Arabian Sea in the west, Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the east, Kerala district of

Alapuzha in the north, Pathanamthitta in the north-east and Thiruvananthapuram

district in the south. Latitudinal and Longitudinal extends are 8.80°N, 76.6°E

respectively and spans 2,492Km26

. It is the seventh largest district in Kerala and is

densely populated. Sasthamkotta Lake, the only fresh water lake in Kerala is

located here. This lake is instrumental in providing fresh drinking water to the

whole of Kollam city. Kallada and Ithikkara rivers are the two major rivers drains

through the district. Kollam town is located on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake.

Neendakara, major fishing port in South Kerala is located on the banks of this

lake. Edava and Nadayara lakes lie partly in Kollam district.

1.9.2 Climate

The climate of Kollam is not uniform, but highly varied. The presence of

long coastal area and the nearness of Tamil Nadu state bring the variations.

Kollam experiences oppressive summers and moderate winters. Temperature is

almost steady through out the year. The average temperature is around 25°C to

32°C. The places like Punalur get high temperature due to the flow of dry wind

from the nearby Indian state Tamil Nadu. Summer usually begin from March and

extends till May. The monsoons begin by June and end by September. Kollam

receives an annual average rainfall of around 2700mm. Winter is from November

to February and temperature is moderately cool and hovers from 18°C to 25°C.

26

The Census Report of India, 2001.

14

1.9.3 Literacy and Education

Kollam district is far advanced in the field of learning and education. It has

many well advanced and reputed educational institutions to impart quality

education. According to the 2001 census, Kollam has a literacy rate of 91.18 per

cent, where male literacy rate is 94.43 per cent and female literacy rate is 88.18

per cent27

. This number is consistent with the state average, while is far greater

than the national average.

1.9.4 Industries

Kollam district is famous for its trade and industries from very ancient

period. Kollam district, now-a-days is moderately industrialized. Two central

government undertakings, the Indian Rare Earth Limited, Chavara and Parvathy

Mills Ltd; are among the industries in Kollam. Kerala Ceramics Ltd., Kundara,

Kerala Electrical and Allied Engineering Company, Kundara, Kerala Primo Pipe

Factory, Chavara, Kerala Minerals and Metals Limited, Chavara, United Electrical

Industries Kollam and Kerala Agro-Fruits Products, Punalur are State Government

owned companies. Kollam is also famous for Cashew nut industries. Cashew nuts

imports from other states and even from other countries and, the processed cashew

exports to many parts of the world.

1.9.5 Forest

According to the Government of Kerala estimates 81,438 ha (hectare) of

land is under forest cover in the Kollam district. The eastern portion of the district

is dense forest and it is a part of the Western Ghats. Thenmala, Punalur and a

portion of Achencoil forest division includes in it. The Thenmala range,

Aryankavu range and Shenduruny Sanctuary makes the Thenmala division while

Achencoil range, Kallar range and Kanayar range make up the Achencoil

Division. The Punalur division contains Pathanapuram and Anchal ranges.

27

District Survey Report on the Scheduled Tribes of Kollam, op.cit. p.13.

15

The Shenduruny wild life sanctuary, 66km away from Kollam town, is

situated on the southern part of the Western Ghats (8°50' and 8°55'N, 77°5' and

77°15'E) in the Pathanapuram Taluk of Kollam district. The name Shenduruny has

been formulated from the name of a tree species locally called Shenkuruny or

Chenkurinji (Gluta travancorica), a tree mainly found in this area. Remnants of

Stone Age culture from a large cave situated at the north western part of the

Shenduruny River was excavated from this sanctuary. Those remains belong to the

Mesolithic period of the Stone Age.

The tropical rain forest has a rich variety of wild life, and some endangered

species are found here. The species found in the sanctuary include; Bonnet

Macaque, the Lion Tailed Macaque, the Nilgiri Languor, the Gaur or Indian

bison, the Sambar deer, the Muntjac or Barking Deer, Wild Boar, the Indian

Elephant and different species of squirrels and Indian Palm Squirrel28

.

1.9.6 Agriculture

Kollam district has a wide variety of crops like Paddy, tapioca, coconut,

rubber, banana, mango and cashew. The total land under cultivation is 2,18,267

hectors. 70 percent of the workforce of the district is engaged in agriculture or

allied activities. Average per family holding of farm land is 0.21 hectors29

.

1.10 Demographics

1.10.1 Pathanamthitta District

As per the census data of 2001, the total population of Pathanamthitta

district is 1234016. There are 589398 males and 644618 females. The total

number of scheduled caste is 162002. The total number of scheduled tribe

population is 6549. The Ranni Taluk has the largest share of tribal population i.e.,

28

Malayala Manorama Daily, June 13, 2011.

29 District Survey Report on the Scheduled Tribes of Kollam, op.cit. p.13.

16

4828. The other taluks contain very less tribal population; Adoor Taluk (210),

Kozhencherry Taluk (690), Mallappally Taluk (225) and Thiruvalla Taluk (296).

The Scheduled Tribe Development Department and the Kerala Institute of

Local Administration (KILA) has conducted a survey and according to that report,

the total number of scheduled tribe families in Pathanamthitta district is 1791. The

total tribal population in those families is 5970. The number of male population is

2926 and the female is 3044. The percentage of male population is 49 and of

women is 51 percentages. In the total population, 587 are of children below 6

years. There are 409 scheduled tribes both men and women, have marital

relationship with scheduled caste or others (men 172, women 237). If they are also

included in the scheduled tribe population, the total number of population is 6379

(male 3098, female 3281).

There are seven groups of scheduled tribes in Pathanamthitta district, i.e.,

Ulladan, Mala Vetan, Mala Arayan, Mala Pandaram, Kanikkaran, Malayan and

Mudugan. The original settlers of the district are Ulladan, Mala Vetan and Mala

Pandaram. The other sections migrated to this district in different periods. The

most populated section of the tribals is the Ulladans. Their number of families is

674(37.63%), and their total number is 2285(35.82%), the number of male

population is 1119 and the female is 1166.

The second largest group is the Mala Vetans. They live in 632 families and

their total population is 2161. The percentage of their population is 33.88 and the

percentage of families is 35.28. The Ulladans and the Mala Vetans together have

69.70 percent of the total tribal population in the district. The number of families

of the Mala Arayans is 299 (15.02%) and their total number in the district is

958(15.02%). The Mala Pandarams have a total population of 554(8.68%) live

in182 (10.16%) families. The kanikkar, Malayan and Mudugar have very less

17

percentage of population in the district. Their total population is only 12 in 4

families30

.

1.10.2 Kollam District

In the Kollam district, the total number of scheduled tribe families is 1303

and the total number of family members is 4484. Among them, 2163 are male and

2321 are female. There are more than 158 tribal women. So the sex ratio is

1073:1000. Besides, 59 from scheduled castes and 98 from other castes also live in

the houses of the scheduled tribes and they became a part of the tribal families

through marriages. Hence, the total population is 4641. The settlements of the

scheduled tribes is found in the Kollam Corporation, Punalur Municipality and in

the Block Panchayats like Ochira, Karunagappally, Sasthamkotta, Pathanapuram,

Anchal, Chavara, Anchalummoodu, Mukhathala and Chadayamangalam. The

highest concentration of scheduled tribes is found in the Anchal Block Panchayat

with 849 families (65.15%) having 2926 members, i.e., 63 per cent of the tribal

population of the district. Anchalammoodu, Chavara, Mukhathala and Ochira

Block Panchayats have less number of tribal families (Anchalummoodu Block

Panchayat – 2, Mukhathala Block Panchayat – 12, Ochira Block Panchayat – 25).

The chief tribal groups in the district are the Kanikkaran, Mala Pandaram,

Mala Vetan, Mala Arayan and Ulladan. The Kanikkaran are the most populated

group in the district. Their total population is 2446, living in 685 (52.57%)

families. Their percentage in the population is 52.70. The second largest group is

the Mala Pandarams with 1051(22.65%) members living in 317(24.33%) families.

The Mala Vetans live in 232 (17.81%) families having 760(16.38%) members.

The Ulladans have 68(5.22%) families and 225 (4.85%) members. The Mala

Arayan community has only one family and two members in the district. In the

Kollam district, the sex ratio is in favour of women and it is highest among the

30

Ibid.

18

Kanikkarans. Among them the sex ratio is 1128:1000 (male – 1149, female –

1297)31

.

1.11 The Tribals and the Sahyadri

The Western Ghat extends from Tapti River in Gujarat to Kanyakumari in

Tamil Nadu. It spread in different states of India, like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The part of Western Ghat from Palakkadu to

Kanyakumari is generally known as Sahyadri. The Sahyadri is famous for its

fabulous bio-diversity. The flora and fauna in these forests is beyond any

comparison32

.

From time immemorial, the Sahyadri slopes and valleys were abodes of

primitive men. The tribal people always like the natural surroundings for their

settlement. The geographical settings of these areas are suitable and convenient for

their peculiar and unique life style. If we take the tribals of Kerala from Kasargod

to Thiruvananthapuram districts the tribals wish to live and selected to reside in

the sloping sides and rich valleys of the mountains or hills. The tribals follow the

method, which is least exploiting the natural resources but maximum utilizing it

with out any harm. The forest give them everything for their life, i.e., shelter,

shadow, showers, shrubs, herbs, fruits, roots, leaves, fodder etc., The forest protect

them from their enemies and prevent the intrusion of external forces into their

genuine culture. Majority of the tribals are reluctant to give up their natural

settlements even in the modern period. The incentives given to them by the

government agencies and non-government organizations could attract them least

because they have been experiencing exploitation and misappropriations from the

external factors from time immemorial.

31

Ibid.

32 Malayala Manorama Daily, June 13, 2011.

19

The forest areas of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are the chief

settlements of the tribals and they live in and around the forest and their

sustainability is closely linked with the forest. Even though they engaged in other

occupations, their chief source of income is related with forest oriented jobs. The

forest laws to a great extent hindered their easy access to the forest and the

collection of forest goods. The tribals of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts

retaining their affection and relation with the forest without any bound. The tribals

have a long tradition of culture deeply rooted with the existing surroundings. So,

their migration from other parts would not be in the recent decades or centuries.

But, it is a surprise that, even though they share many common aspects, in certain

peculiar matters they retain their cultural identity. The Pathanamthitta and Kollam

districts are not frontline tribal populated areas like Wayanad, Palakkad or Idukki,

but they are not inferior in their nobility and ethnicity.

1.12 Reasons for Selecting Pathanamthitta and Kollam Districts for

Research

The scholar has selected and studied the tribal people and their social

formation process in Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts based on concrete

findings. In the modern period, the social scientists have adopted an

interdisciplinary and philanthropic approach to the marginalized and isolated

communities and they spent their time and money to reveal the causes behind the

retaining of the hunger and tears of the „sons of forest‟ and other downtrodden

classes. The common masses have poor knowledge about those communities

living in the peripheries or outside the circle of communication. The media like to

spend more time and energy for political exclusives. The tribal problems and

grievances are not sensational issues to the mainstream society or they give least

preference to that.

At this juncture, it is fair to select the cause of the tribals who live in the

southern districts of Kerala. There is a significant fact that altogether seven

20

different tribal communities settled in these two districts. Moreover, they exhibit

very divergent life styles and cultural patterns. They claim their descendents from

nobility and aristocracy. These two districts are museums of different tribal

groups. The presence of the neighboring Indian States, adds colour and flavor to

the stories describing the origin of tribals in these districts.

Pathanamthitta and Kollam are two frontline districts in Kerala and they

registered their name and fame in education, literacy, better living standard and

other socio-economic profiles. The infrastructure facilities of these two districts

are also far advanced. Both these districts have abundant forest wealth and the

Sahyadri ranges controls the climate and culture of these regions. The tribals of

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts selected their settlements in the dense forest

regions and they exhibit divergent and unique features of life style. These districts

are popular for its advancement in health scenario and it is a model to other

districts.

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts exhibit a progressive picture of living

standard. Then a question will arise about the progress of the tribals in these

districts. What kind of progress they made in the recent decades? Whether they

could assimilate and amalgamate with the non-tribes? How much they changed

according to the parameters of progress put forward by the authorities? The State

machinery has drained crores for the upliftment of the tribal communities.

Unfortunately, many questions regarding the tribals and their acceleration to

advancement, not yet studied in the selected area. So the researcher has the

responsibility to inquire the rate of social formation among the tribal people. It is

essential to bring them to the limelight, to unveil their comforts and conditions, to

understand their progress through the programmes implemented by the

government agencies and voluntary organizations like NGOs. It is our duty and

responsibility to identify the present condition of the tribals in these districts and

to evaluate their response to the progressive measures. Their socio-economic,

21

political, educational and cultural conditions have to be evaluated. Their health

hazards also should be analyzed. The tribals in these districts have dissimilarities

with patterns of commonalties. Above all, the researchers from social sciences

have least selected these districts for their study. So, the tribals and their social

formation in Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts required a thorough

investigation.

1.13 Tribe’s Ethnicity in the Studied Area

The tribals are very special people with their own culture, tradition, rituals,

ceremonies, taboos, individuality and ethnicity. Every group of tribals follows

certain peculiar customs and practices and it make them distinct and unique from

other groups. When the rigid caste system prevailed in Kerala, the tribals also kept

that type of practices among them and many times claimed their origin from the

noble families and considered themselves as superior and regarded other tribes as

inferior. When they conducted rituals and ceremonies, they kept the other tribals

having inferior position at a certain distance or did not invite to the functions.

Most of the tribals in Kerala have their tribal hierarchy with „Mooppan‟ as head.

Each group of tribals has their own customs and practices. Each and every

member of the tribal community has the duty and liability to practice the unwritten

laws traditionally transferred from generation to generation. Doshi33

have the

concept that the tribals in common share some basic pattern of life style, “They

have scattered pattern of habitation, follow the institutions like polygamy, bride-

price and drinking, prefer to live in hills and forests, in small groups or isolations,

follow subsistence economy, pay importance to rituals and ceremonies etc.

Pathanamthitta district contains seven different groups of tribes like

Ulladan, Mala Vedan, Mala Arayan, Mala Pandaram, Malayan, Mudugan and

Kanikkaran. These seven tribal groups live in 43 scheduled tribe colonies or Urs.

33

Doshi S.C., Tribal Ethnicity: Class and Integration, Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 1990,

p.144.

22

In the modern period, different tribal groups live in the same colonies. Among the

seven tribal groups the Mala Pandarams in certain regions still follow the primitive

life style and shifting their settlements regularly. In the Chalakkayam region

(under Ranni Forest Range and very near to the Shasta Temple, Sabarimala), they

live in the forest and retain their ethnicity to a great extend and rely on forest for

their subsistence. They resume the scattered pattern of habitation, living in

isolation, migrating periodically, keeping the strangers in distance, getting

marriage at a younger age and more instances of broken families, polygamy in

certain cases, uncontrolled birth rate, neglecting education etc. The other tribal

groups keep the ethnicity, but not with much vigour, ready to assimilate with the

tribes and non-tribes. Therefore the Ulladans and Mala Arayans have made

tremendous progress in their life.

In Kollam district, the chief tribal groups are Kanikkar, Mala Vetan, Mala

Arayan, Mala Pandaram and Ulladan. They live in 26 colonies or Urs. They keep

their basic ethnicity and follow the rituals and practices to a great extent but the

waves of changes are evident among them. In Kollam district also the Mala

Pandarams follow their own life style. They did not deviate from the traditional

way of life to a great extent. In the Achencoil region, they live in the midst of the

forest, with the forest oriented subsistence. They collect minor forest produces

(MFP) and keep their face against the development measures taken by the

Government and other agencies. The Kanikkars and others still live in the outskirts

of villages, very near to the forest, depending on both forest and nearby villages

for their subsistence, i.e., collecting forest resources in the seasons and engaging in

various miscellaneous jobs in the villages in the off seasons. In case of birth,

puberty, marriage, pregnancy, death etc., the old customs vanished to a certain

extent and the practices of the mainstream society, especially the Hindus,

conquered their life style.

23

Each tribal group has their own peculiar physical features. Their lips, noses,

hair, shape of head, structure etc. are to a great extent identical to one another.

Different tribal groups have their own common ancestors. Their occupation

pattern, food habits, mode of settlement, rites in connection with birth, death,

marriages etc. have also similarities. But, slight variations can be found among

different tribal groups on these practices. The tribals have their own language for

their internal communication, but they are also fluent in the common language,

i.e., Malayalam.

1.14 Significance of the Study

The tribals of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are still living in or near

the forest. Their miseries and misfortunes are severe than any other non-tribe

communities. Their accessibility to the mainstream society is limited. Their

inferiority is going on without any alterations. The plans and programmes

announced for their emancipation couldn‟t save them from the bonds of

primitiveness. A minute group acquired the privilege of literacy and education

provided them the opportunity to occupy desirable employment in government or

nongovernment enterprises. But, those who are well placed, reluctant to be with

their fellow beings in the hamlets and like to migrate in the urban areas to enjoy

the facilities available there for better living and education. They develop an

aversion to their traditional lifestyles. So their model couldn‟t be imitated by the

rest. The pattern of dress, diet, dialect and demands were changed in the case of

certain communities but others turn their faces against the means of modernity.

They continue as marginalized and destitute.

The tribal communities in Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are distinct

in their features. The mishaps of uncertainty and poverty fill them to the

lachrymal. The tribals are the least progressed and most marginalized sections of

Kerala people. The modern concepts of Social Science entreat the study of the

marginalized communities. The exposition of their life to the philanthropists is

24

required. To learn and realize their sympathetic condition and to unveil the pseudo

claims of tribal modernity, a thorough study is required. An investigation on the

tribals, with a Subaltern approach is needed to find out the aspirations and interests

of the downtrodden masses. So the scholar identified, the study on the tribals is

significant, in the contemporary period.

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts advanced in many areas and they are

model to other regions of Kerala. The tribal communities in these districts present

a contradictory picture of development. The yardsticks of progress in the case of

the tribals are not in par with the non-tribes and their journey of life through

disadvantages is not yet unveiled properly. When the researcher has opted tribals

of Pathanamthitta and kollam districts for his study, very few research publications

were from that area. Sufficient studies were conducted on the tribals of Wayanad,

Idukki and Palakkad districts, where the tribals have a good percentage of

population. The tribals of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts share some

common ethnicity, tradition and culture. These two districts were geographically

one, till 31st October 1982. Among the seven tribal communities in these districts,

five of them pervades in both districts. So it will be fastidious to neglect one

district from the study. Wayanad, Idukki, Palakkad and other tribal concentrated

districts of kerala, always attracted the social scientists and sufficient studies were

held on those areas. So it would be enthusiastic and interesting to explore the

tribal affairs and welfares of two districts with unique tribal patterns.

The scholar has given maximum importance to understand the major

problems and challenges faced by the tribals in Pathanamthitta and Kollam

districts. Even after the implementation of various programmes, the targeted tribal

welfare could not be achieved. The impediments in the path of desired result

should be discussed in detail and it required deep understanding of the tribal

hesitations to the development projects and the lethargic attitude of the

bureaucracy towards the plans and projects. Enormous funds have been spent for

25

them but the unaltered living conditions of certain tribal communities are a

specimen to the inadequacy or inefficiency of the plan implementations. So, a

curious investigation on the tribal problems and solutions should be required. The

major challenges and responses of the tribals in the modern period also should be

evaluated.

The present research work assumes relevance as it encourages to make an

evaluation of the strength, weaknesses and opportunities of the tribals and to

mention the major threats faced by the community. The authorities can enact

sufficient measures to solve the problems of the tribals. In reality, it is the not the

problem of the paucity of legislations, but the improper execution of laws

specially meant for the tribals and it is the chief lacuna in tribal progress. The

study also invites the attention of the interested academicians, students and other

personalities and societies to take further research on the minorities and

marginalized.

1.15 Formulation of Research Problem

The tribal progress is not a myth but a reality. It would be a puzzle, whether

they attained the desired progress or not. Whether the progressive measures

enrapture and enrich them or demoralize and degenerate them. Certainly, tedious

effort is required to analyze the reasons to vituperate the tribals for their vile

retrogression. The panoramic scenario of tribal progress exhibits high fluctuations,

in their community wise response to progressive measures. The rate and level of

social formation among the tribals is adumbrate and variable. In the sophisticated

societies it is quite easy to identify the level of social formation they follow. It is

impossible to contain the research problems in a few statements because the tribal

problems are multidimensional and multifarious. For the convenience of study the

researcher likes to highlight some of the problems in connection with the tribals of

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts.

26

1. How much progress the tribals made in the socio-economic, educational

and political scenario?

2. How much they made advancement in education through various schemes

and projects introduced by the Centre and State Governments under plan-

non plan categories?

3. How far the external contacts altered their life and in what way the Forest

Laws influenced their traditional life?

4. What is the present health status of the tribals and how much the modern

medical system influenced them and to what extent they utilize them?

5. How much changes happened to their traditional belief systems, tribal

power structure and the impact of tribal organizations like Gothra Maha

Sabha?

6. How much the tribal women empowered and in what way the use of

intoxicants interrupted the stability of their family life?

1.16 Objectives of the Study

The major objectives of the study are:

1. To evaluate the changes and progress made by the tribals of Pathanamthitta

and Kollam districts in the field of social, economic, cultural and political

life.

2. To evaluate the educational progress attained by the tribals, through the

projects of government and voluntary organizations.

3. To understand impact of new Forest Laws in their traditional life and to

realize the infrastructural development in the tribal settlements like roads,

electricity, housing etc.

4. To analyze the food habits of the tribals. The tribals used the forest

products, which were free from pesticides and poisons. Their external

27

contact helped them to familiarize with new food items. The health hazards

of the tribals due to the changed dietary habits should be analyzed.

5. To analyze the position of women and their empowerment and the

instability of families due to the consumption of intoxicants.

6. To assess the transformations in the belief patterns, diet and dress of the

tribals.

7. To understand the effectiveness of the government and non government

agencies for tribal welfare.

1.17 Sources of Data

In Social Sciences the research study is mainly based on various sources,

both primary and secondary. In this study the chief primary sources utilized by the

scholar are government documents like various Orders, Files, Commission

Reports, the Survey Reports prepared by the KIRTADS, KILA and Scheduled

Tribe Development Department etc., „Economic Reviews‟ published by the State

Planning Board, Manuals, Gazettes, Hand Books and Directories of Scheduled

Caste/Scheduled Tribe Development Department.

The scholar used a number of secondary sources for the study of the tribals

of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts. The Gazetteers of the Princely States of

Kerala, books written by scholars, newspapers and periodicals, research papers

published on tribal issues etc supplied enormous data.

In the modern period the growth of information and technology supplies

enough opportunities to understand everything in a speedy way. The availability of

e-learning and e-sources enrich the learning process in a better way. The scholar

had relied on that source for easy access of valuable information.

To substantiate the sources the scholar has conducted a sample survey in

the tribal settlements Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts. The tribal settlements of

these districts were visited for the collection of additional materials for the study.

28

The selection of places and households were at random. The sources were

collected from the respondents directly, in connection with their conditions like,

standard of living, educational progress, housing facilities and other fundamental

needs, the causes for the retaining of poverty, the availability and accessibility of

welfare programmes implemented by the government departments etc. The

indirect sources comprises data like current awareness publications,

encyclopedias, periodicals, hand books sponsored by public offices, textbooks,

rules and regulations dealing with the tribal committees, NGOs, Reports from the

Scheduled Tribe Development Department etc. The survey reports published by

the government departments in the recent times aided the scholar to make

comparative analysis of the data.

The tribal settlements visited by the scholar in Pathanamthitta district were

Chalakkayam, Attathodu, Adichippuzha, Pambini, Kodumudi, Chippankuzhy,

Aruvappulam, Velamplavu, Kudamurutti, Naranamthodu, Olikallu, Moozhiyar,

Naranammoozhi, Saippankuzhi, Thannithodu etc

In Kollam District, the chief tribal settlements selected for the study were

Achencoil, Arippa, Nadutheri, Kadasseri, Mukkadavu, Chembanaruvi,

Kadamancodu, Cherukara, Ambathekkar, Channappetta, Alayamon, Mathra,

Nagamala, Andoorpacha, Aryankavu etc.

An interview schedule was formulated for collecting information regarding

kinship, family, health, education, economy, medicine, political life, condition of

women, social hazards etc. Additional data were collected through personal

observation, continuous field work, and through the participation in their

gatherings in connection with the common functions in the settlement and the

distribution of aids by the voluntary organizations. In addition to that, interview

schedule was also conducted with them.

29

1.18 Research Methodology

The research methodology followed in the present work includes both

empirical and non-empirical methods. The empirical method assumes vital

significance in collecting sufficient information from the respondents. The

empirical study had been done by Questionnaire, interview method and personal

observations. It reveals the real life experiences of the tribals, their problems and

difficulties, their gains and losses, their cries and smiles and their fortunes and

misfortunes. The non-empirical or theoretical concepts formulated on the basis of

the doctrines earlier published on the tribals by the social scientists.

For an extensive study of the topic, primary data was collected and

analyzed. Journals on tribal community, various committee reports, text books on

tribals, statutory rules and regulations, survey reports previously published, hand

books prepared by the Scheduled Tribe Development Department etc. have been

comprehensively analyzed.

1.19 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is confined to all the tribes living in the

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts of Kerala. The study focuses on the social

formation of the tribals in these two districts. The scholar can not exclude any of

the tribes from his study because all the communities have their own identity and

ethnicity. The rate of social formation among each community is not uniform.

They present dissimilar approach to the development programmes and exhibit

uneven progress in different aspects of life. The extent of social formation is a

long process, which has different stages and takes long periods to transform

from one stage to another and it is varied from community to community and

generation to generation. So the study has a wide scope and it has no time bound.

The Ranni Taluk in Pathanamthitta district and the Pathanapuram Taluk in Kollam

district are two tribal majority areas. The communities like Mala Pandarams in

both districts exhibit a primitive- like life style. Their migratory and isolated life

30

pattern never finds comparison in these districts. They did not have the inclination

to the strangers and the making of rapport is difficult. The cooperation of the tribal

promoters aided to find out their settlements in the particular period because they

shift their location four-five times a year. The Kanikkars and Ulladans live in the

midst or in the vicinity of the non tribes. So, an interaction with them was not a

difficult task. Out of seven tribal communities, in Pathanamthitta and Kollam

districts, six of them live in permanent settlements, except few bands of Mala

Pandarams. More than eleven thousand people come under the category of the

tribals and they exhibit diversity in their life patterns. The tribals were proliferated

in extensive areas i.e., in 69 settlements. So the study of tribals in Pathanamthitta

and Kollam districts were not an easy task and its scope is very wide.

1.20 Limitations of the Study

In Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts the tribal settlements are locating in

different parts of these districts. They mainly concentrated in the forest or in the

nearby areas of the forest, to a great extent, away from the main stream society. In

addition to that, some tribal groups have the habit of changing their camp

regularly, to unpredictable areas of the forest. The outsiders cannot locate the

exact places, where they live. It has been a major constraint to the researcher,

when he has gone for field study. It was impossible for the researcher to reach and

collect the data from the whole tribal settlements due to many factors like, their

habit of migration, lack of good roads, even cleared track or definite path was

absent to many tribal areas, the elevated position of their tented huts to escape

from the wild animals like elephants, the dangerous terrain, the slippery rocks in

the forest, the presence of large scale leaches, and their reluctance for

rapprochements. So, the research work was restricted in the accessible areas. The

researcher has used much impartial and methodical approach to make the work

relevant and reliable. Besides, the result of the study cannot be generalized beyond

the limits of the study areas and the articulated views of the respondents with

31

regard to various topics may not be completely free from personal prejudices. The

number of members interviewed and respondents approached for filling the

questionnaire are comparatively very less in comparison to the tribal population.

1.21 Review of Literature

The paucity of elaborate literature on the tribals of the selected area is

evident. Some books with direct or indirect references about the concerned tribal

communities are selected for reference.

„The Kanikkar‟34

a Malayalam book written by C.K. Karunakaran specifies

the ethnicity, geneology, life styles, rituals and ceremonies, art and amusements

and method of treatment of the Kanikkars. It also stresses the uniqueness of the

Kanikkars of Southern Kerala from the main stream communities. It unveil the

various practices prevailed among that community and highlights their fame and

proficiency treatment and life patterns. To understand the Kanikkars in depth, the

book helps a lot.

„The Travancore State Manual‟35

of T. K. Velupillai is another great book

that throws much light on the tribals who were present in the former Travancore

State and the present Kollam and Pathanamthitta districts were a part of that. The

major constraint of the book is its silence about the tribal communities of

Travancore in detail and it only refer the names of the tribal communities at a

glance.

„Tribal Transformation in India‟36

, edited by Buddhadeb Chaudhari in five

volumes, contains the religious, cultural, economic and social transformation of

tribals in India. It is a collective effort of Indian scholars to present the changing

scenario of tribal life and used the latest concept and research tools in 34

Karunakaran C.K., Kanikkar, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Bhasha Institute, 2000.

35 Velupillai T.K., The Travancore State Manual, 4 Vols, Thiruvananthapuram, 1940.

36 Chaudhari Buddhadeb (ed.), Tribal Transformation in India, Delhi: Inter India

Publications, 1992.

32

anthropology and related disciplines. They also refer the religious rituals of Mala

Pandarams and their worship of the jungle deities. The book also deals about the

Kadars of Cochin and their economic transformation.

„Caste and Tribes of South India‟37

, written by Edgar Thurston gives an

idea about the tribals of Travancore, especially the Mala Pandarams and they have

been pictured as the most abject, hopeless and uncompromising specimens of

humanity.

In „Travancore Tribes and Castes‟38

(3 volumes) the author L.A.Krishna

Iyer deemed the Palayans of Schencottah forest range to be the Mala Pandarams or

Hill Pandarams.In his another book „Social History of Kerala‟39

he related other

tribal communities to the Mala Pandarams.He gives a vivid idea about their

economic life and occupation, social life, marriage systems, habitation, diet, rituals

and ceremonies in various forest ranges like Ranni, Manimala, pathanapuram and

Schencottah.

A.A.D.Luiz‟s work, the „Tribes of Kerala‟40

is an elaborate study on the

traditions of forty eight tribes and it provides an understanding of many problems

faced by the tribals.The book discusses the origin and growth of economic life

and institutions, religious ways and social structure of various tribes.

K.R.Ajayan‟s Malayalam book „Agasthyakoodathile Aadivasikal‟41

is

about the Kanikkars of south Kerala. It gives idea about the social, political and

37

Thurston Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Bombay: Cosmo Publications,

1975.

38 Krishna Iyer L.A., The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Thiruvananthapuram:

Government Press, 1937.

39 Krishna Iyer L.A., Social History of Kerala, Vol.1., Madras: The Pre Dravidian Book

Centre Publications, 1968.

40 Luiz A.A.D., The Tribes of Kerala, Delhi: Adimajathi Sevak Sangh, 1962.

41 Ajayan K.R., Agasthyakoodathile Aadivasikal, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Bhasha

Institute, 2009.

33

environmental analysis of the Kanikkars from Aruvamudi to Aryankavu in

Western Ghat. It also narrates the biodiversity of Agasthyakoodam.

The Malayalam book „Keralathile Aadivasikalude Jeevithavum

Samskaravum‟42

written by Seelia Thomas Perumpanani gives a very good picture

about ten tribal communities of Kerala like Urali, Mudugar, Ulladar, Mannan,

Irular, Paliyar, Mala Pandaram, Mala Arayar, Mala Pulayar and Muthuvan. It also

describes the tradition, etymology, customs and practices, rituals and ceremonies,

social structure, cultivation, occupation, art forms etc. of the above mentioned

tribals.

„Encyclopaedic Profile of Indian Tribes‟43

, edited by Sachchidananda and

R.R.Prasad gives the socio-cultural profile of all the tribal communities, who have

been declared as Scheduled Tribes by the Government of India. In this work

A.A.D.Luiz gives an idea about Mala Pandarams and their cultural, economic and

social aspects. The other tribal communities were also mentioned in this book.

„Forest Traders: A Socio-economic study of Hill Pandarams‟44

of Morris

Brian gives an interpretative account of the socio-economic life of Mala

Pandarams. Cultural implications of their activities in the forest are a part of their

social life and relative isolation in the wild culture is a uniqueness of their culture.

„Malayile Arachanum Arayanum‟45

is a Malayalam work compiled

collectively by two tribal writers Narayan and M.K.Narayanan. It is a deep study

on the Mala Arayar tribal community of Kerala. It reveals the cultural

42

Thomas Seelia Perumpanani, Keralathile Aadivasikalude Jeevithavum Samskaravum,

Thiruvananthapuram: Current Books, 2005.

43 Sachidananda and R.R.Prasad (ed.) Encyclopaedic Profile of Indian Tribes, Delhi:

Discovery Publishing House, 1988.

44 Brian Morris, Forest Traders: a Socio-economic Study of Hill Pandarams, London:

Athlone Press, 1982.

45 Narayan, and M.K. Narayanan. Malayile Arachanum Arayanum,

Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Bhasha Institute, 2011.

34

interferences of Mala Arayans in the traditional culture of Kerala tribes. To them

the Kanikkar community belongs to the Mala Arayar lineage.

K.S.Singh in his book, „The Scheduled Tribes‟46

, describes in detail about

various tribal communities of Kerala. All the prominent tribal communities of

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are referred and described in different

volumes of the books.

The Anthropologist Anantha Krishna Iyer47

published many books on

various forest tribes of Kerala like Kadar, Ulladar, Mala Pandaram, Malayar,

Nayadi, Paniyar etc.

The „Native Life of Travancore‟48

written by Samuel Mateer picturises the

tribal people of Travancore and different tribal communities are mentioned in his

book including Mala Pandarams,Ulladans,Mala Arayans,Kanikkars etc.

A. Ayyappan‟s book on the „Socio-economic conditions of the Aboriginal

Tribes of the Province of Madras‟49

gives idea about the major tribal communities

of Kerala.

Another book in Malayalam, „Pathonpatham Noottandile Keralam,‟50

written by, P.Bhaskaranunni, to justify the title, the book gives more idea about

the 19th

century Kerala. It also describes the rituals, practices and the life style of

the tribals also.

46

Singh K.S., The Scheduled Tribes, Delhi: The Anthropological Survey of India, 1994.

47 Ananthakrishna Iyer, The Tribes and Castes of Cochin, Thiruvananthapuram:

Government Press,1912.

48 Samuel Mateer. Native Life of Travancore, London: W.H. Allen, 1883.

49 Ayyappan A., A Report on the Socio-economic conditions of the Aboriginal Tribes of

the Province of Madras, Madras: Madras Government Press, 1948.

50 Bhaskaranunni P., Pathonpatham Noottandile Keralam, Thrissur: Sahithya

Academy,1998.

35

The book compiled by Elamkulam P.N.Kunjan Pillai, „Studies in Kerala

History‟51

mentions few facts about the tribals of kerala especially southern

Kerala.

Gardner wrote about the Mala Pandarams and in his opinion the Paliyans

and Mala Pandarams are one and the same people. It is given in the book „Paliyan

Social Structure, Contributions to Anthropology, Band Societies‟52

Harish Chandra Roat in his work, „Tribal settlement System and

Development Strategy‟53

, points out the geographical profile of tribal settlement

in the context of development programmes. He argues that the village

infrastructure is directly related to the settlement pattern of tribals.

Comprehensive „Survey Reports‟54

jointly prepared and published in 2010

by Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA) and Scheduled Tribe‟s

Development Department about Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts is a good

guideline to the researchers. It supplies the latest datas regarding the tribals of

these districts.

„Tribes of Kerala‟55

by Padmashri S. S. Shashi (ed.), is one of the authentic

books on tribals of Kerala like Kanikkars, Uralis, Kadars and Ulladans. The book

also refers the socio-economic and religious life of those tribals.

51

Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, Kottayam, 1970.

52 Gardner, Paliyan Social Structure, Contribution to Anthropology, Canada: Band

Societies,1969.

53 Harish Chandra Roat, Tribal Settlement System and Development Strategy, Delhi:

Himanshu Publications, 1987.

54 District Survey Report on the Scheduled Tribes of Pathanamthitta,Vol.1., Kerala

Institute of local Administration and Scheduled Tribe Development Department (

February 2010) and District Survey Report on the Scheduled Tribes of Kollam, Vol.1.,

Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA) and Scheduled Tribe Development

Department (March 2010).

55 Padmashri Shashi, S. S. (ed.), Tribes of Kerala, New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt.

Ltd., 2004.

36

Rajan kumar Sahoo‟s „Tribal Development in India‟56

is another good work

about the tribals and it concentrated its attention on the relation of the tribals with

the forest, agriculture, industry and their economic development.

„Environmental Policy and Tribal Modernizations‟57

, a book edited by

R.Singh dealt divergent issues of the tribals like their relation with the

environment, forest resources, forest policy, planning process and progress,

environmental impact on tribal modernization, tribal economy and environmental

issue and social environment of tribes.

„Social Transformation of Indian Tribes‟58

is another book of R.Singh(ed.).

It is a treatise on community, composition and social order, family, clan and

kinship, plans, policies and development, socio-economic status of tribal women,

social interaction among the tribes and the concept of structure on tribe, caste and

nation.

„Tribal Beliefs, Practices and Insurrections‟59

of R. Singh(ed.), is a book on

the rites, rituals and ceremonies, economic consequence of social customs,

supernatural power, belief and practices, social origin of tribal insurrections, social

objectives of tribal movement, processes of stratification and changes.

„Tribes and Tribals: Struggle for Survival‟60

of Nishi. K. Dixit and „Tribal

Development in India‟61

of A. Kumar are another two books narrating the tribal

issues and they are highly useful for the study of tribals.

56

Rajan Kumar Sahoo, Tribal Development in India, New Delhi: Mohit Publications,

2005.

57 Singh R. (ed.), Environmental Policy and Tribal Modernization. New Delhi: Anmol

publications Pvt. Ltd., 2000.

58 Singh R. (ed.), Social Transformation of Indian Tribes, New Delhi: Anmol

Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1999.

59 Singh R. (ed.) Tribal Beliefs, Practices and Insurrections, New Delhi: Anmol

Publications Pvt. Ltd., 2000.

60 Nishi K. Dixit, Tribes and Tribals: Struggle for Survival, Delhi: Vista International

Publishing House, 2006.

61 Kumar A., Tribal Development in India, New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2002.

37

1.22 The Structure of the Thesis

The present work is structured in nine chapters, such as:

1. Introduction

2. „Tribe‟ and „Social Formation‟: Conceptual Frame Work

3. Basic Issues on Tribal Development

5. Tribes of Pathanamthitta and Kollam Districts.

6. Educational Status of the Tribes in Kerala

7. Tribal Health and Housing Facilities in Kerala

8. Tribals and Social Formation in Pathanamthitta and Kollam Districts

9. Conclusion and Suggestions

The introductory chapter contains a brief note on the concept of social

formation, a short description on the tribes of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts,

etymology of various tribal titles, geographical settings of Pathanamthitta and

Kollam districts, their climate, crops, history, demographics, national movement,

art and culture, literacy and education, industries, forest and agriculture etc. It also

include the significance of the Sahyadri ranges in the life of the tribals and the

causes for the selection of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts for research, the

ethnicity of the tribals in the studied area, significance of the study, formulation of

research problem, objectives of the study, hypothesis, sources of data, research

methodology, scope of the study, limitations of the study, review of literature and

the structure of the thesis.

Indian Constitution and Tribes, special provisions ensured by Indian

constitution for the tribals are also included in this chapter. It is not the paucity of

provisions in the constitution for the protection of the tribes but the lagging in the

implementation of those provisions is the problem with the backwardness of

tribals. The chapter contains Protective Provisions(general), reservation for

SC/ST, elaborate description of Protective Provision, educational and cultural

rights, reservation in services, relaxations, concessions, in posts filled by

38

promotions, procedural safeguards, institutional safeguards, and the Scheduled

Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill,2005.

The second chapter gives the conceptual frame work of two important

terms in the thesis i.e., the „tribe‟ and „social formation‟. Firstly the concept of

tribe is given with definitions, features, as indigenous people, classification of

tribe etc. An elaborate description of social formation is also given. It contains the

Structuralism Thory, the classical concept of social formation, stages of social

formation, social formation that happened to the tribals,

Sanskritization/Acculturation etc. In this way the second chapter gives sufficient

details regarding the significant concepts like „tribe‟ and „social formation‟.

In chapter 3 „Basic Issues on Tribal Development‟, the scholar discusses

the major impediments in the process of tribal development. The chapter contains

the issues like the primary objectives of the government policy, the

anthropological view points on tribal development, the limitations of the Tribal

Development Blocks, approaches to the tribal problems, educational progress, lack

of educational facilities, literacy profile, drop-out among the tribals, ten points for

tribal education, uniqueness of tribal wisdom, tribal development and land, land

alienation among tribals and different types of land alienation, tribal right to land,

restoration of alienated land, impact of development projects, the unemployment

of the tribes, tribal development programmes and causes for the failure of

development projects. In this chapter, the development profile of Kerala is given.

The specific area of research, Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts and the

development paradigms of those districts are also included in this chapter.

Chapter 4 „Tribes of Pathanamthitta and Kollam Districts, deals with

different aspects of tribal population in Kerala like, their population, major

educational programmes, institutions, health programmes, socio-economic

development programmes, job oriented activities, new projects, major projects

implemented for scheduled tribes through local self-governments under Pachayat

Raj Act, the role playing by KIRTADS and like institutions in tribal progress, the

39

recent issues of tribal development in kerala, progress in land restoration, Forest

Rights Bill(2007) etc. A brief description of the tribal communities of

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are mentioned in this chapter.

Chapter 5 „Educational Status of the Tribes in Kerala‟ is analyzing the

educational condition of the tribals of Kerala.This chapter discusses various

aspects of education connected with tribals. Educational advancement is the basic

requirement for the emancipation of any community. The social reformers of

kerala always advocated attaining better education and that is the only way to

liberate any society from the clutches of backwardness. The issues considered for

evaluation are the basic causes for tribal backwardness in education, programmes

for the progress of education, the present condition of tribal literacy in Kerala,

major impediments in tribal literacy and education, educational attainment of

tribes, drop-out, Model Residential Schools (MRS), Multi-Grade Learning Centres

(MGLC) and efforts towards tribal education. The educational attainment of the

tribals of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts and the dropout among different

communities and the reasons for their backwardness from education and the need

of the improvement of facilities are also included.

Chapter 6 deals about the „Tribal Health and Housing Facilities in Kerala‟.

There has been pride among the people of kerala that they achieved many in the

health scenario and in the housing facilities and they claim great progress in the

women empowerment. The hypocrisy behind such feelings cannot be real in

certain instances, especially in the case of tribes. The chief points included in this

chapter are the tribal treatment in the past, the role of missionaries in tribal health,

and the health problems of the tribals, major causes for ill-health. Housing

facilities among the tribes also need some reference. The Mala Araya, Kurichiya,

Kattunaika, Kuruma, Adiya, Irula, and Paniya communities are referred in

connection with houses. A few aspects in connection with the status of women are

also given. An elaborate description of the health condition of the tribals of

Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are given with special reference to the

40

availability of medical facilities, diseases, the present condition of their traditional

medicines etc. The housing facilities of tribals in those districts are also described

in detail. The utilization of housing schemes, the facilities in the houses, the

condition of the houses, latrine facilities, drinking water sources, availability of

electricity in the settlements and houses, possession of land, transportation

facilities etc. are discussed.

In chapter 7, „Tribals and Social Formation in Pathanamthitta and Kollam

Districts‟, the scholar tries to find out the present scenario of tribals in the selected

study area, i.e., pathanamthitta and Kollam districts and search some solutions to

various issues related to the social formation of the tribals in those districts. The

major contents included in the chapter are, study method, sex ratio of the tribal

respondents, age of the respondents, marital status, economic condition, income

and occupation, sources of loan and financial liability, occupation of the tribal

women, literacy among the tribes, impact of education, the type of institutions

they studied, causes of tribal drop-out from their studies, social changes, ancestral

worship, housing pattern, modern gadgets using by them, religious condition of

the tribals, the impact of Government Acts and policies on tribes, health condition

of the tribes, position of women and widow remarriage, impact of intoxicants on

the tribal community, changes in the consumption pattern of the tribals, political

awakening among the tribes and the impact of tribal organizations.

Chapter 8 is the concluding chapter and also put forward some suggestions

to enable various bodies to act for the development of various tribal communities.

The concluding chapter would enable the reader to understand the purpose and

results of the investigation done during the research. The chapter analyses

different thrust areas of tribal communities, where speedy action is required and

corrective measures are to be introduced. The emancipation of tribals from the

remaining clutches of underdevelopment is possible only through the intervention

of government and the concerned agencies and the active participation of the non-

governmental organizations.

41

1.23 Conclusion

In the introductory chapter the scholar has attempted to highlight the chief

features of the thesis. The chapter also referred about the constitutional protection

and safeguards offered to the tribals in India. The aims and objectives of the study,

the geographic and demographic settings of the districts selected for study, the

review of selected literature etc were mentioned in brief. The next chapter is aimed

to evaluate the concepts, the „social formation‟ and „tribe‟ in connection with the

thesis.