Chapter One: Introduction 1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDYshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/23098/6/10_chapter1.pdf · Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Chapter One: Introduction

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1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Adjustment is considered as the main indicator of success in life, it is the

individuals’ ability to face the problems resulting from fulfilling their needs, maintaining

a kind of good relationship with others and enhancement of mental health (Siryek, 2003).

As a psychological concept, adjustment refers to behavior that permits individuals to

meet the demands of the environment. More specifically, it is a process by which people

respond to environmental pressures and cope with stress (Rathus & Nevid, 1989).

According to Sufian (2004) adjustment as the individual’s ability to fulfill his

psychological demands and his self-acceptance as well as enjoying life without any types

of struggle acceptance, and participating in social activities.

Students studying in a competitive academic environment today are experiencing

various pressures from the life change that are related to personal aspiration, need to

success, meeting the expectation of the university, family and community, these

experiences have an effect in which they cope in the daily basis. Whether a situation is

pleasant or unpleasant required necessary coping skills to achieve the adjustment and

reduce the effect of stress in body and mind. The data based upon Indian and foreigner

students indicate that the problem of adjustment among university students is associated

with several sources of stress and coping strategies. Hence, the students who have low

level of coping skills show various adjustment problems, the relation between students

coping effort and their adjustment can be determined when coping was said to be able to

aid student’s adjustment process by providing protection through its mechanism in

reducing or modifying conditions that can elicit stress among them, and evident from the

adaptive characteristics of coping.


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OPERATIONAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS OF VARIABLES

1.1 STRESS

Stress typically describes a negative concept that can have an impact on

one’s mental and physical well being, but it is unclear what exactly defines stress and

whether or not stress is a cause, an effect, or the process connecting the two. With

organisms as complex as humans, stress can take on entirely concrete or abstract

meanings with highly subjective qualities, satisfying definitions of both cause and effect

in ways that can be both tangible and intangible. Stress is a term that is commonly used

today but has become increasingly difficult to define. It shares, to some extent, common

meanings in both the biological and psychological sciences.

To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places special physical or

psychological needs upon a person, anything that can unbalance his individual

equilibrium. And while the physiological response to such need is surprisingly uniform,

the forms of stress are innumerable. Stress may be even but unconscious like the noise of

a city or the daily chore of driving the car. Perhaps the one incontestable statement that

can be made about stress is that it belongs to everyone to businessmen and professors, to

mother and their children, to factory workers. Stress is a part of life. Nothing can isolate

stress from human beings as is evident from various researches and studies. Stress can be

managed but not simply done away with. Today, widely accepted ideas about stress are

challenged by new research, and conclusions once firmly established may be turned

completely around.

1.1.1 Concept and definition of stress

Stress is a complex phenomenon. It is very subjective experience. What may be

challenge for one will be a stressor for another; it depends largely on background

experiences, temperament and environmental conditions. Stress is a part of life and is

created by constantly changing situations that a person must face. The term of stress is


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refers to an internal case, which outcomes from frustrating or pathological conditions, a

certain level of stress is unavoidable. Because of its complicated nature stress has been

surveyed for many years by researchers in psychology, sociology and medicine.

Defining stress is a very complex matter, which is the subject of different analyses

and continuous debate among experts. Beyond the details of this debate, a general

consensus can be reached about a definition of stress, which is centered on the idea of a

perceived imbalance in the interface between an individual, the environment and other

individuals. When people are faced with needs from others or needs from the physical or

psychosocial environment to which they feel unable to adequately respond, a reaction of

the organism is activated to cope with the situation. The nature of this response depends

upon a combination of different elements, including the extent of the needs, the personal

characteristics and coping resources of the person, the constraints on the person in trying

to cope and the support received from others. Factors in the perception and experience of

stress (Martino et, al., 2000).

Stress involved in an environmental situation that perceived as presenting needs

which threatens to exceed the person’s capabilities and resources for meeting it, under

conditions where the person expects a substantial differential in the rewards and costs

from meeting the need versus not meeting it (Mc Grath, 1976). The term stress originated

from the Latin words strictest, which means tight, or narrow, and stringer, which means

to tighten (Smith, 1985). Stress is a concept that is difficult to define. Its interpretation

has tended to vary as individual disciplines have used the word for their own specific

purpose, describing the evolution of the term stress, noted that around the 17th century it

was commonly used to mean hardships, strain, adversity, or affliction; and in the 19th

century when the term stress was used in the context of the physical sciences to describe

the behavior of elastic materials under pressure.

In this context, the term stress was used to mean the force, pressure, strain or

strong effort exerted upon a material object or a person. During the 19th and the early


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20th century the word came to be used as an analogue in the social and biological

sciences to describe a possible cause of ill health and mental illness (Bartlett, 1998).

Although, the adverse effects of stress on physical health and emotional well being are

increasingly recognized, there is little agreement among experts on the definition of

stress: -

According to Lazarus (1970) says Stress occurs when there are needs on the

person, which taxes or exceeds his adjective resources. Spielberger (1979) says that the

term stress is used to refer to a complex psychobiological process that consists of three

major elements. This process is initiated by a situation or stimulus that is potentially

harmful or dangerous stressor. If a stressor is interpreted as dangerous or threatening, an

anxiety reaction will be elicited. Thus the definition of stress refers to the following

temporal events Stressor, Perception of Anxiety State Steinberg & Ritzmann (1990) says

that stress can be defined as an under load or overload of matter, energy or information

input to, or output from, a living system.

Selye (1980) says stress is caused by psychological, physiological and

environmental needs. When confronted with stressors, the body creates extra energy and

stress occurs because our bodies do not use up all of the extra energy that has been

created. Selye first described this reaction in 1936 and coined it the General Adaptation

Syndrome (GAS). The GAS includes three distinct stages: a) alarm reaction, b) stage of

resistance c) stage of exhaustion.

Levi & Ursin (1991) considered Stress is a part of an adaptive biological system,

where a state is created when a central processor registers an informational discrepancy.

According to Humphrey (1992) In essence, stress can be considered as any factor, acting

internally or externally, that makes it difficult to adapt and that induces increased effort

on the part of the person to maintain a state of equilibrium both internally and with the

external environment. Levi (1996) says stress is cost by a multitude of needs Stressors


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such an inadequate fit between what we need and what we capable of, and what our

environment offers and what it demands of us.

1.1.2 Types of stress

There are different types of stress acute stress, episodic acute stress, and chronic

stress each with its own characteristics, symptoms, duration, and treatment approaches.

Let's look at each one.

1.1.2.1 Acute Stress: is the most common form of stress. It comes from needs and

pressures of the recent past and anticipated needs and pressures of the near future. Acute

stress is thrilling and exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. A fast run down

a challenging ski slope, as is exhilarating early in the day. That same ski run late in the

day is taxing and wearing. Skiing beyond your limits can lead to falls and broken bones.

By the same token, overdoing on short term stress can lead to psychological distress,

tension headaches, upset stomach, and other symptoms (Cannon, 1939).

Fortunately, acute stress symptoms are recognized by most people. It’s a laundry

list of what has gone awry in their lives, the auto accident that crumpled the car fender,

the loss of an important contract, a deadline they are rushing to meet, their child’s

occasional problems at school, and so on. Because it is short term, acute stress doesn't

have enough time to do the extensive damage associated with long term stress. The most

common symptoms are:-

1. Emotional distress some combination of anxiety, anger or irritability, and

depression, the three stress emotions:

2. Muscular problems including back pain, tension headache, jaw pain, and the

muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament problems.

3. Stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence,

diarrhea, constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome are some physiological stress.


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4. Transient over arousal leads to elevation in heart palpitations, blood pressure,

rapid heartbeat, dizziness, sweaty palms, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet,

chest pain and shortness of breath (Everly, 1989).

1.1.2.2 Episodic Acute Stress: There are those, however, who suffer acute stress

frequently, whose lives are so disordered that they are studies in chaos and crisis. They

are always in a rush, but always late. If something can go wrong, it does. They take on

too much, have too many irons in the fire, and can’t organize the slew of self inflicted

demands and pressures clamoring for their attention. They seem perpetually in the

clutches of acute stress.

It is very common for people with acute stress reactions to be over aroused, short

tempered, irritable, anxious, and tense. Often they describe themselves as having a lot of

nervousness. Always in a hurry, they tend to be abrupt, and sometimes their irritability

comes across as hostility. The work becomes a very stressful place for them (Bartlett,

1998). The cardiac prone, type (A) personality described by cardiologists, Meter

Friedman and Ray Rosenman, is similar to an extreme case of episodic acute stress. Type

A is have an excessive competitive drive, aggressiveness, impatience, and a harrying

sense of time urgency. In addition there is a free floating, but well rationalized form of

hostility, and almost always a deep seated insecurity. Such characteristics would seem to

create frequent episodes of acute stress for the type an individual. Friedman and

Rosenman examined Type A is to be much more likely to develop coronary heart disease

than Type (B).

Another form of episodic acute stress comes from ceaseless worry. Worry warts

see disaster around every corner and pessimistically forecast catastrophe in every

situation. The world is a dangerous, unrewarding, punitive place where something awful

is always about to happen. This awfulness also tends to be over aroused, but is more

anxious and depressed than angry and hostile rioted. The symptoms of episodic acute

stress are the symptoms of extended over arousal, persistent tension headaches,


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migraines, hypertension, chest pain, and heart disease. Treating episodic acute stress

requires intervention on a number of levels, generally requiring professional help, which

may take many months. Often, lifestyle and personality issues are so ingrained and

habitual with these individuals that they see nothing wrong with the way they conduct

their lives.

They blame their woes on other people and external events. Frequently, they see

their lifestyle, their patterns of interacting with others, and their ways of perceiving the

world as part and parcel of who and what they are (Guyton, 1991). Sufferers can be

fiercely resistant to change. Only the promise of relief from pain and discomfort of their

symptoms can keep them in treatment and on track in their recovery program.

1.1.2.3 Chronic Stress: While acute stress can be thrilling and exciting, chronic stress is

not. This is the grinding stress that wears people away day after day, year after year.

Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and lives. It wreaks havoc through long term

attrition. It is the stress of poverty, of dysfunctional families, of being trapped in an

unhappy marriage or in a despised job or career. It is the stress that the never ending

troubles have brought to the people of Northern Ireland; he tensions of the Middle East

have brought to the Arab and Jew, and the endless ethnic rivalries that have been brought

to the people of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.

Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation.

It is the stress of unrelenting needs and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of

time. With no hope, the individual gives up searching for solutions (Everly, 1989). Some

chronic stresses stem from traumatic, early childhood experiences that become

internalized and remain forever painful and present. Some experiences profoundly affect

personality. A view of the world, or a belief system, is created that causes unending stress

for the individual as the world is a threatening place, people will find out you are a

pretender, you must be perfect at all times. When personality or deep seated convictions


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and beliefs must be reformulated, recovery requires active self examination, often with

professional help.

The worst aspect of chronic stress is that people get used to it. They forget it is

there. People are immediately aware of acute stress because it is new; they ignore chronic

stress because it is old, familiar, and sometimes, almost comfortable. Chronic stress kills

through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke, and, perhaps, even cancer. People wear

down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental resources are depleted

through long term attrition (Bartlett, 1998), the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to

treat and may require extended medical as well as behavioral treatment and stress

management.

1.1.3 Sources of stress

Enumeration the causes of stress is hard, there can be innumerable stress factors

since different individuals react differently to the same stress conditions. Albrecht (1979)

says strong stress situations for an individual may prove to be mild for another, for yet

another person the situations might not qualify as stress symptoms at all. Stress is often

termed as a twentieth century syndrome, born out of mans race towards modern progress

and its ensuing complexities. For that matter, causes such as a simple flight delay to

managing a teenage child at home can put you under stress (Bader, 1985).

A stress condition can be real or perceived; our brain reacts the same way to both

causes of stress by releasing stress hormones equal to the degree of stress felt. The brain

doesn’t differentiate between real and imagined stress. It could happen while watching a

horror movie or when one is apprehensive of some imminent danger.

1.1.3.1 Family Problems: every family deals with stress, for many families it’s just an

inevitable accompaniment to modern life, Employees going through personal or family

problems lead to carry their worries and anxieties to the workplace. When one is in a

depressed mood, his unfocused attention or lack of motivation affects his ability to carry


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out job responsibilities. It is said that life acts and you react. Our attitude is our reaction

to what life hands out to us. A significant amount of stress symptoms can be avoided or

aroused by the way we relate to stressors. Stress is created by what we think rather than

by what has actually happened. For instance, handling adopted children, adolescents,

academic failures, retirements, tax audits or sudden loss of money needs a relaxed

attitude, focused will and preparedness to face the quirks of life positively. Otherwise one

tends to feel stressed and reacts in anger and frustration. With a better control of attention

one can feel that the world is a more congenial place to live in (Albrecht, 1979).

In case of a marital conflict, instead of adopting an accusing and frustrating

attitude, Willard F. Harley American clinical psychotherapist suggests that accepting.

Yes, we have a problem, helps clear the clouds. Failure in adopting a realistic attitude to

events creates symptoms of depression and aggravates stress situations. Stress at work is

a relatively new phenomenon of modern life style. The nature of work has gone through

drastic changes over the last century and it is still changing at whirlwind speed. They

have touched almost all professions, starting from an artist to a surgeon, or a commercial

pilot to a sales executive. With change comes stress, inevitably. Professional stress or

job stress poses a threat to physical health, work related stress in the life of organized

workers, consequently, affects the health of organizations (Don & Catherall, 2005).

1.1.3.2 Job Problems: job stress is caused by condition of work as chronic diseases that

negatively affect an individual’s performance and overall well being of his body and

mind. One or more of a host of physical and mental illnesses manifests job stress. In

some cases, job stress can be disabling. In chronic cases a psychiatric consultation is

usually required to validate the reason and degree of work related stress.

Andy Ellis from Ruskin College, Oxford, UK, working on a project on stress at

work, has presented in a chart how stress can adversely affect an employee’s

performance. In the early stages job stress can rev up the body and enhance performance

in the workplace, thus the term I perform better under pressure. However, if this


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condition is allowed to go unchecked and the body is revved up further, the performance

ultimately declines and the people’s health degenerates (Maizer, 2008). And Unrealistic

expectations, especially in the time of corporate reorganizations, which, sometimes, puts

unhealthy and unreasonable pressures on the employee, can be tremendous sources of

stress and suffering. Increased workload, extremely long work hours and intense pressure

to perform at peak levels all the time for the same pay, can actually leave employees

physically and emotionally drained Excessive travel and too much time away from family

also contribute to an employee’s stressors (Speck, 1993).

It has been seen female may suffer from mental and physical harassment at

workplaces, apart from the common work stress. Sexual harassment in workplace has

been a major source of worry for women, since long. Women may suffer from

tremendous stress such as hostile work environment harassment, which is defined in legal

terms as offensive or intimidating behavior. This can consist of unwelcome verbal or

physical conduct. These can be constant sources of tension for women in job sectors.

Also subtle discriminations at workplaces, family pressure and societal demands add to

these stress factors (Tarirey, 1994).

1.1.3.3 Health Problems: health problems are related physical and physiology of an

individual like headache, chills growth retardation, poor physique, brain damage and

weakness of senses of hearing, sight, general health situation of malnutrition,

anemia, speech disorder (Stoura, 1997).

1.1.3.4 Study Problems: being a student can be very stressful for many different reasons.

One of the pressures is the many deadlines and assessments, particularly if you find it

difficult to study, or if you have to fit studying into a busy life which might include

working the person looking after a family. Study stress can creep up on you without you

realizing. The danger signals include, Spending so much time on your college or

university work that you lose touch with friends and forget how to enjoy yourself,

Becoming short-tempered and impatient with family and friends, Finding it hard to


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switch off: sleeping badly, Becoming anxious and/or getting things out of proportion,

Working long hours but not seeming to achieve or complete very much (Stoura, 1977).

1.1.3.5 Technology Problems: the expansion of technology computers, pagers, cell

phones, fax machines and the Internet has resulted in heightened expectations for

productivity, speed and efficiency, increasing pressure on the individual worker to

constantly operate at peak performance levels. Workers working with heavy machinery

are under constant stress to remain alert. In this case both the worker and their family

members live under constant mental stress. There is also the constant pressure to keep up

with technological breakthroughs and improvisations, forcing students to learn new

software all the times (Anzi, 2004).

1.1.3.6 Social Problems: the social stress stems from one’s relationships with others and

from the social environment in general. A person experiences stress when the person does

not have the ability or resources to cope when confronted with an external stimulus

stressor, or when they fear they do not have the ability or resources. An event which

exceeds the ability to cope does not necessarily have to occur in order for one to

experience stress, as the threat of such an event occurring can be sufficient. This can lead

to emotional, behavioral and physiological changes that can put one under greater risk for

developing mental disorder and physical illness.

Humans are social beings by nature, as they typically have a fundamental need

and desire to maintain positive social relationships. Thus, they usually find maintaining

positive social ties to be beneficial. In particular, social relationships can offer

nurturance, foster feelings of social inclusion, and even lead to reproductive success. As a

result, anything that disrupts or threatens to disrupt their relationships with others can

result in social stress. This can include low social status in society or in particular groups,

giving a speech, interviewing with potential employers, caring for a child or spouse with

a chronic illness, meeting new people at a party, the threat of or actual death of a loved

one, divorce, and discrimination. These social stressors convey that social stress can arise


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from one’s microenvironment such as family ties and macro environment such as

hierarchical societal structure. Given the social nature of humans, it is not surprising that

social stress is typically the most frequent type of stressor that people experience in their

daily lives and affects people more intensely than other types of stressors (Maizar, 2008).

1.1.3.7 Personal Problems: personal stressors are events or conditions that occur in a

person's life that may adversely impact on the individual's or their family's health or well-

being. A stressor may occur directly, such as personally experiencing a serious illness, or

indirectly, such as having a family member with a serious illness. In some instances,

personal stressors may have an ongoing impact or limit the capacity of a person, or

family, to live a satisfying and productive life.

The Jordanians Psychologists in year of 2010 have been collected information on

a variety of situations that people may have considered were a problem for themselves,

their family member or their close friends. Types of situations included death, serious

illness, mental health problems, not being able to get a job and divorce or separation.

Information on the number of instances of each type of situation and the degree to which

a person was affected were not collected. Financial stress is discussed separately in the

Financial Stress and Income section of this publication. 61% of people aged 18 years

experienced at least one personal stressor during the year preceding the survey interview.

The most common stressors experienced across all age groups were serious illness and

the death of a family or a close friend. However, stressors varied between age groups,

with people aged between18 to 24 years most commonly experiencing problems with not

being able to get a job 26%, while 27% from people aged 85 years and over were more

likely to experience problems related to a serious illness.

The main factors causing problems and personality disorders are genetic factors,

psychological factors, influences of family, genetic factors, indicate studies by scientists

and researchers in field of psychology that genetic factors play a critical role in

emergence of personality disorders. There are many scientists who are mixing between


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factors genetics and environmental factors as factors are interrelated and interdependent

in each stage of growth of individual. Those who believe that environment can not affect,

only person who carries characteristics of specific genetic, and has class scientists figures

to personal bad conjecture. It is of no confidence in others, doubts without clear evidence,

personal schizophrenic: it is convergence, and the lack of desire in personal relationships

with people and personal enemy of society. It is not respecting rights of others and

extortion, acts contrary to law, personal mood. It is not stability of personal relationships,

identity disorder, behavior and mood, personal hysterical. It is searching permanent

interest, excitement and drew attention, and personal narcissism. It is arrogance, pride, a

sense of importance try to gain even at expense of others, personal reliability is

characterized by relying emotional do not feel safe only in a relationship with

someone. Obsessive and personal is accurate system and tendency of perfection and

attention to detail, there are other disorders like personality disorders (Al-Dadi, 2009).

1.1.4 Theories of stress

Theories that focus on the specific relationship between external needs stressors

and bodily processes stress can be grouped in two different categories, approaches to

systemic stress based in physiology and psychobiology (Selye, 1976) and approaches to

stress developed within the field of cognitive psychology as Lazarus 1966 & 1991,

Lazarus & Folkman 1984, and McGrath 1982.

1.1.4.1 Systemic Stress “Selye Theory”: the popularity of the stress concept in science

and mass media stems largely from the work of the endocrinologist Hans Selye. In a

series of animal studies he observed that a variety of stimulus events as heat, cold, toxic

agents applied intensely and long enough are capable of producing common effects,

meaning not specific to either stimulus event. Besides these nonspecific changes in the

body, each stimulus produces, of course, its specific effect, heat, as produces

vasodilatation, and cold vasoconstriction. Selye says these nonspecifically caused

changes constitute the stereotypical, specific, response pattern of systemic stress, defines


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this stress as a state manifested by a syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically

induced changes in a biologic system. This stereotypical response pattern, called the

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), proceeds in three stages. (a) The alarm reaction

comprises an initial shock phase and a subsequent counter shock phase. The shock phase

exhibits autonomic excitability, an increased adrenaline discharge, and gastro intestinal

ulcerations.

The counter shock phase marks the initial operation of defensive processes and is

characterized by increased adrenocortical activity. (b) If noxious stimulation continues,

the organism enters the stage of resistance. In this stage, the symptoms of the alarm

reaction disappear, which seemingly indicates the organism’s adaptation to the stressor.

However, while resistance to the noxious stimulation increases, resistance to other kinds

of stressors decreases at the same time. (c) If the aversive stimulation persists, resistance

gives way to the stage of exhaustion. The organism's capability of adapting to the stressor

is exhausted, the symptoms of stage (a) reappear, but resistance is no longer possible.

Irreversible tissue damages appear, and, if the stimulation persists, the organism dies

(Selye, 1980).

Although Selye’s work influenced a whole generation of stress researchers,

marked weaknesses in his theory soon became obvious. First of all, Selye's conception of

stress as a reaction to a multitude of different events had the fatal consequence that the

stress concept became the melting pot for all kinds of approaches. Thus, by becoming a

synonym for diverse terms such as, for, as anxiety, threat, conflict, or emotional arousal,

the concept of stress was in danger of losing its scientific value Engel (1985). Besides

this general reservation, specific critical issues have been raised. One criticism was

directed at the theory's core assumption of a nonspecific causation of the GAS. Mason in

1971 to 1975 pointed out that the stressors observed as effective by Selye carried a

common emotional meaning; they were novel, strange, and unfamiliar to the animal.

Thus, the animal’s state could be described in terms of helplessness, uncertainty, and lack

of control. Consequently, the hormonal GAS responses followed the specific emotional


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impact of such influences rather than the influences as such. In accordance with this

assumption (Mason, 1975), demonstrated that in experiments where uncertainty had been

eliminated no GAS was observed.

This criticism lead to a second, more profound argument: unlike the physiological

stress investigated by Selye, the stress experienced by humans is almost always the result

of a cognitive mediation (Arnold 1960, Janis 1958 and Lazarus 1974). Selye, however,

fails to specify those mechanisms that may explain the cognitive transformation of

objective noxious events into the subjective experience of being distressed. In addition,

Selye does not take into account coping mechanisms as important mediators of the stress

outcome relationship. Both topics are central to stress theories as, elaborated by the

Lazarus group.

A derivative of the systemic approach is the research on critical life events. An

example is the influential hypothesis of Holmes and Rahe in year of 1967 based on

Selye's work, that changes in habits, rather than the threat or meaning of critical events, is

involved in the genesis of disease. The authors assumed that critical life events,

regardless of their specific as positive or negative quality, stimulate change that produces

challenge to the organism. Most of this research, however, has not been theoretically

driven and exhibited little empirical support for this hypothesis for a critical evaluation

(Thoits, 1983).

1.1.4.2 Lazarus Theory “Stress ”: two concepts are central to any stress theory: appraisal,

as individual’s evaluation of the significance of what is happening for their well being,

and coping, individual’s efforts in thought and action to manage specific needs

(Lazarus,1993), Since its first presentation as a comprehensive theory of Lazarus in year

of 1966, the Lazarus stress theory has undergone several essential revisions, In the latest

version ( Lazarus,1991), stress is regarded as a relational concept, as stress is not defined

as a specific kind of external stimulation nor a specific pattern of physiological,

behavioral, or subjective reactions. Instead, stress is viewed as a relationship transaction


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between individuals and their environment. Stress refers to a relationship with the

environment that the person appraises as significant for his or her well being and in

which the demands tax or exceed available coping resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1986).

This definition points to two processes as central mediators within the person

environment transaction, cognitive appraisal and coping. The concept of appraisal

introduced into emotion research by Arnold 1960 and elaborated with respect to stress

processes by Lazarus 1966, Lazarus & Launier 1978 is a key factor for understanding

stress relevant transactions. This concept is based on the idea that emotional processes

including stress are dependent on actual expectancies that persons manifest with regard to

the significance and outcome of a specific encounter. This concept is necessary to explain

individual differences in quality, intensity, and duration of an elicited emotion in

environments that are objectively equal for different individuals. It is generally assumed

that the resulting state is generated, maintained, and eventually altered by a specific

pattern of appraisals.

These appraisals, in turn, are determined by a number of personal and situational

factors. The most important factors on the personal side are motivational dispositions,

goals, values, and generalized expectancies. Relevant situational parameters are

predictability, controllability, and imminence of a potentially stressful event. In his

monograph on emotion and adaptation, Lazarus developed a comprehensive emotion

theory that also includes a stress theory (Lazarus, 1993). This theory distinguishes two

basic forms of appraisal, primary and secondary appraisal. These forms rely on different

sources of information. Primary appraisal concerns whether something of relevance to the

individuals well being occurs, whereas secondary appraisal concerns coping options.

Within primary appraisal, three components are distinguished; goal relevance describes

the extent to which an encounter refers to issues about which the person cares. Goal

congruence defines the extent to which an episode proceeds in accordance with personal

goals.


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Type of ego involvement designates aspects of personal commitment such as self

esteem, moral values, ego ideal, or ego identity. Likewise, three secondary appraisal

components are distinguished, blame or credit results from an individual’s appraisal of

who is responsible for a certain event. By coping potential Lazarus means a person’s

evaluation of the prospects for generating certain behavioral or cognitive operations that

will positively influence a personally relevant encounter. Future expectations refer to the

appraisal of the further course of an encounter with respect to goal congruence or

incongruence (Lazarus, 1966).

Specific patterns of primary and secondary appraisal lead to different kinds of

stress. Three types are distinguished, harm, threat, and challenge (Lazarus & Folkman,

1984). Harm refers to the psychological damage or loss that has already happened. Threat

is the anticipation of harm that may be imminent. Challenge results from demands that a

person feels confident about mastering. These different kinds of stress are embedded in

specific types of emotional reactions, thus illustrating the close conjunction of the fields

of stress and emotions.

Lazarus (1991) distinguishes 15 basic emotions; nine of these are negative anger,

sadness, envy, fright, disgust, guilt, shame, jealousy, and anxiety, while four are positive

pride, happiness, and relief love. Two more emotions, hope and compassion, have a

mixed valence. At a molecular level of analysis, the anxiety reaction, as is based on the

following pattern of primary and secondary appraisals, there must be some goal relevance

to the encounter. Furthermore, goal incongruence is high, as personal goals are thwarted.

Finally, ego involvement concentrates on the protection of personal meaning or ego

identity against existential threats. At a more molar level, specific appraisal patterns

related to stress or distinct emotional reactions are described as core relational themes.

The theme of anxiety, for example, is the confrontation with uncertainty and existential

threat. The core relational theme of relief, however, is `a distressing goal incongruent

condition that has changed for the better or gone away (Lazarus, 1991).


18

1.1.4.3 Cannon Theory “fights or flight”: it was first described by Cannon the fight or

flight response also called freeze response, hyperaroual, or the acute stress response. It is

a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful, attack, or threat to

survival (Walter, 1932). The theory states that animals react to threats with a general

discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or

fleeing. More clearly, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the

secretion of catecholamine, especially. This response is recognized as the first stage of

a general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and

other organisms (Gozhenko, 2009).

1.1.4.4 Freud Theory “Psychoanalytic Theory”: mention to the definition of personality

organization and the dynamics of personality development that underlie and guide the

psychoanalytic and psychodynamic psychotherapy, named psychoanalysis, a clinical way

for treating psychopathology. First laid out in the late 19th century by Sigmund Freud,

psychoanalytic theory has undergone many refinements since his work (Tere and

Lauretis, 2008). Theory of Psychoanalytic came to full prominence in the last third of the

twentieth century as part of the flow of critical discourse regarding psychological

treatments after the 1960s, long after Freud's death in 1939.

Freud had ceased his analysis of the brain and his physiological studies and

shifted his focus to the study of the mind and the related psychological attributes making

up the mind, and on treatment using free association and the phenomena of transference.

The study emphasized the recognition of childhood events that could potentially

influence the mental functioning of adults. His examination of the genetic and then the

developmental aspects gave the psychoanalytic theory its characteristics (Blumenthal &

Ralph, 1981).

1.1.4.5 Seligman Theory “Learned Helplessness”: is the condition of a human or animal

that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are

opportunities for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining


19

positive rewards ( Seligman,1975). Learned Helplessness theory is the view that clinical

depression and related mental illnesses may result from a perceived absence of control

over the outcome of a situation. Organisms that have been ineffective and less sensitive

in determining the consequences of their behavior are defined as having acquired Learned

Helplessness (Carlson & Neil, 2010).

1.1.5 Resources theories of stress: a bridge between systemic and cognitive

viewpoints

Unlike approaches discussed so far, resources theories of stress are not primarily

concerned with factors that create stress, but with resources that preserve well being in

the face of stressful encounters. Several social and personal constructs have been

proposed, such as social support Schwarzer & Leppin (1991) sense of coherence

Antonovsky (1979), self efficacy Bandura (1977), hardiness Kobasa (1979), or optimism

Scheier & Carver (1992). Whereas self efficacy and optimism are single protective

factors, hardiness and sense of coherence represent tripartite approaches. Hardiness is an

amalgam of three components, internal control, commitment, and a sense of challenge as

opposed to threat-. Similarly, sense of coherence consists of believing that the world is

meaningful, predictable, and basically benevolent. Within the social support field, several

types have been investigated, such as instrumental, informational, appraisal, and

emotional support (Schwarzer & Leppin, 1991).

The recently offered conservation of resources COR theory assumes that stress

occurs in any of three contexts, when people experience loss of resources, when

resources are threatened, or when people invest their resources without subsequent gain.

Four categories of resources are proposed, object resources as physical objects such as

home, clothing, or access to transportation, condition resources as employment, personal

relationships, personal resources, as skills or self efficacy, and energy resources means

that facilitate the attainment of other resources, as a money, credit, or knowledge. Hobfoll


20

and coworkers outlined a number of testable hypotheses called principles derived from

basic assumptions of COR (Hobfoll et.al., 1996).

1.1.5.1 Loss of resources is the primary sources of stress: this principle contradicts the

fundamental assumption of approaches on critical life events that stress occurs whenever

individuals are forced to readjust themselves to situational circumstances, may these

circumstances be positive e.g., marriage or negative as a loss of a beloved person. In an

empirical test of this basic principle, Hobfoll and Lilly (1993) found that only loss of

resources was related to distress.

1.1.5.2 Resources act to preserve and protect other resources: self-esteem is an important

resource that may be beneficial for other resources. As observed that women who were

high in self esteem made good use of social support when confronted with stress, whereas

those who lacked self esteem interpreted social support as an indication of personal

inadequacy and consequently misused support (Hobfoll & Leiberman, 1987).

1.1.5.3 Having stressful circumstances, individuals have an increasingly depleted

resources pool to combat further stress: this depletion impairs individual’s capability of

coping with further stress, thus resulting in a loss spiral. This process view of resources

investment requires focusing on how the interplay between resources and situational

demands changes over time as stressor sequences unfold. In addition, this principle shows

that it is important to investigate not only the effect of resources on outcome, but also of

outcome on resources (Holmes & Rahe, 1967).

1.1.6 Effect of stress

Medically it has been established that chronic symptoms of anxiety and stress can

crumble our body’s immune system. Irrespective of the nature of the causes of stress real

or perceived our subconscious mind reacts with the same body response by

releasing stress hormones equal to the degree of our fear, worry or sense of threat. It

brings about changes in the bodies biochemical state with extra epinephrine and other


21

adrenal steroids such as hydrocortisone in the bloodstream. It also induces increased

palpitation and blood pressure in the body with mental manifestations such as anger, fear,

worry or aggression. In short, stress creates anomalies in our body’s homeostasis. When

the extra chemicals in our bloodstream don’t get used up or the stress situation persists, it

makes our body prone to mental and physical illnesses (Mapp & Hudson, 1997).

1.1.6.1 Psychological Effects: brings researchers in field of mental health that stress

effects is disorder realization of individual, lack of clarity of self concept for a friendly,

memory weaken become fragmented. It becomes more susceptible to disease,

psychological, mental, physical, and repeated heavy stress causes individual to anger,

fear, sadness, and feelings of depression, feelings of shame jealousy, stress that can lead

to disruption of growth self esteem increase dispersion of attention, linked to the stress

disorder, performance, and weakness, confusion of hearing, movement of excess, self

hatred, weakness of the ego, and loss of identity, tendency of alienation, frequent

complaint of disease, desire in drowsiness (AlMusawi, 1998).

1.1.6.2 Physiological Effects: physiological effects associated with stress in digestive

upset, diarrhea, constipation, chronic respiratory disorders, and high blood pressure,

severe headaches, spread of skin disease, goiter, diabetes, muscle spasm, rheumatoid

arthritis, eating disorders such as loss of appetite, increase eating, obesity, orientation of

vomiting, nausea, Hilgerad and Quick some other physiological effects such as heart

attacks, stomach ulcers, high cholesterol as explained study House and others related to

professional stress their impact on physical health such as angina and disease can lead

eventually to the emergence of the effects and negative consequences for his life,

community and we mention the most important of these effects:-

First, Stress Generates Threats: Stress generates a kind of violence, external and

resentment on ground and look at him look bad, hoping to get out of its crisis reduce the

severity of responsibilities it, if no one stands beside him and holds him some of burden

and pain, lead to isolationism from life, distance from reality, making owner lives in a


22

fantasy world , impeding approached has thought and analysis, which depends on

individual discussions vague philosophical analysis, or interpretation not accepted by

abnormal and normal rational people (Bader, 1985).

Second, Impact in Dealing with Others: impact in dealing with others or building social

relationships, where it is difficult for individual under influence of stress to build

relationship with neighbors, or friends with co-workers, or with students and teachers,

with public and staff, with staff and responsible manager, and with all segments and

levels of society, a threat to building society individual, institutions in progress and

prosperity (Don & Catherall, 2005).

Third, Negative Impact on Different Aspects: Negative impact on different aspects

of membership of individual many of organic diseases are secretions of fact that

psychological state experienced by patient, so doctors recommend to stay away from

psychological emotions, people with heart or stress or diabetes, stomach or colon because

psychological factor plays an important role in calming such diseases, cure them,

or raise intensity and effects.

Fourth, Negative Effect of Stress: stress negatively affects production of work and

creativity in life he lose balance in owner to deal with things, as well as disperses energy

and potential, as well as resentment of access to meet the objectives (Makmen, 1999).

1.2 COPING STRATEGIES

Coping has been defined in psychological terms by Susan Folkman and Richard

Lazarus as constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific

external or internal needs that are appraised as taxing (Cummings, 1991) or exceeding the

resources of the person. Lazarus & Folkman (1984) coping is thus expending conscious

effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize or

tolerate stress or conflict (Snyder, 1999). Psychological coping mechanisms are

commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills, Unconscious or non conscious


23

strategies such as defense mechanisms are generally excluded. The term coping generally

refers to adaptive or constructive coping strategies, the strategies reduce stress levels.

However some coping strategies can be considered maladaptive, stress levels increase.

Maladaptive coping can thus be described in effect, as non coping. Furthermore the term

coping generally refers to reactive coping. The coping response follows the stressor, these

contrasts with proactive coping in which a coping response aims to head off a future

stressor.

1.2.1 Concept and definition of coping strategies.

Coping is intimately related to the concept of cognitive appraisal and, hence, to

the stress relevant person environment transactions. Most approaches in coping research

follow Folkman and Lazarus 1980, who define coping as the cognitive and behavioral

efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce external and internal demands and conflicts

among them. This definition contains the following implications. (a) Coping actions are

not classified according to their effects as reality distorting, but according to certain

characteristics of the coping process. (b) This process encompasses behavioral as well as

cognitive reactions in the individual. (c) In most cases, coping consists of different single

acts and is organized sequentially, forming a coping episode. In this sense, coping is

often characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of different action sequences and,

hence, an interconnection of coping episodes. (d) Coping actions can be distinguished by

their focus on different elements of a stressful encounter (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

They can attempt to change the person environment realities behind negative emotions or

stress problem focused coping. They can also relate to internal elements and try to reduce

a negative emotional state, or change the appraisal of the demanding situation, emotion

focused coping.

1.2.2 Types of coping strategies.

Coping responses are partly controlled by personality habitual traits, but also

partly by the social context, particularly the nature of the stressful environment; about


24

400 to 600 coping strategies have been identified. Classification of these strategies into a

broader architecture has not yet been agreed upon. Common distinctions are often made

between various contrasting strategies, such as problem focused versus emotion focused;

engagement versus disengagement; cognitive versus behavioral, Weiten (2008) has

provided a useful summary of three broad types of coping strategies:

First, Appraisal focused strategies: occur when the person modifies the way they think,

employing denial, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way they

think about a problem by altering their goals and values, such as by seeing the humour in

a situation, some have suggested that humour may play a greater role as a stress

moderator among women than men (Weiten, 2008).

Second, Problem focused: People using problem focused strategies try to deal with the

cause of their problem, They do this by finding out information on the problem and

learning new skills to manage the problem, Problem focused coping is aimed at changing

or eliminating the sources of the stress (Worell, 2001).

Third, Emotion focused strategies: involve releasing pent up emotions distracting one

self, managing hostile feeling, meditating or using systematic relaxation procedures,

Emotion focused coping is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the

perception of stress (Brannon & Feist, 2009). Typically people use a mixture of all three

types of coping strategies, and coping skills will usually change over time, all these

methods can prove useful, but some claim that those using problem focused coping

strategies will adjust better to life (Taylor, 2006). Problem focused coping mechanisms

may allow an individual greater perceived control over their problem, whereas emotion

focused coping may sometimes lead to a reduction in perceived control maladaptive

coping. Folkman and Lazarus identified six emotion focused coping strategies (Robinson,

2005) disclaiming, escape avoidance, accepting responsibility or blame, exercising self

control, seeking social support, and positive reappraisal


25

Two problem focused coping strategies: taking action to try to get rid of the

problem is a problem focused strategy, but so is making a list of the steps to take. Lazarus

(1970) notes the connection between his idea of defensive reappraisals or cognitive

coping and Freud's concept of ego defenses, coping strategies thus overlapping with a

person's defense mechanisms (Skynner & Cleese, 1994).

First, Adaptive or Constructive Coping: one positive coping strategy, anticipating a

problem is known as proactive coping (Brannon& Feist, 2009), Anticipation is when one

reduce the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and

preparing for how one is going to cope with it. Two others are social coping, such as

seeking social support from others, and meaning focused coping, in which the person

concentrates on deriving meaning from the stressful experience (Skynner & Cleese,

1994). Keeping fit, when you are well and healthy, when nutrition, exercise and sleep are

adequate, it is much easier to cope with stress and learning to lower the level of arousal

by relaxing muscles the message is received that all is well are also positive techniques

(Madders, 1981).

One of the most positive methods people use to cope with painful situations

is humour, you feel things to the full but you master them by turning it all into pleasure

and fun, while dealing with stress it is important to deal with your physical, mental, and

social well being. One should maintain their health and learn to relax if they find

themselves under stress. Mentally it is important to think positive thoughts, value oneself,

demonstrate good time management, plan and think ahead, and express emotions.

Socially one should communicate with people and seek new activities. By following

these strategies, one will have an easier time responding to stresses in their lives (Davis &

Twamley, 1999).

Second, Maladaptive Coping or noncoping: while adaptive coping methods improve

functioning, a maladaptive coping technique will just reduce symptoms while

maintaining and strengthening the disorder. Maladaptive techniques are more effective in


26

the short term rather than long term coping process. Such as dissociation, sensitization,

safety behaviors, anxious avoidance, and escape including self medication, these coping

strategies interfere with the person's ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired

association between the situation and the associated anxiety symptoms.

These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.

Dissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts,

memories, and emotions. This is often associated with Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome.

Sensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and anticipate fearful events

in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place. Safety

behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on

something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety. Anxious

avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the

most common strategy. Escape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often

demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people

want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety (Davis & Twamley, 1999). Moreover,

there are some others coping strategies can help the individuals to cope a stress describe

as:-

1- Enjoy Nature: Apart from these specially created sounds, we can access and utilize the

natural sounds all around us. Nature has a vast repertoire of soothing and rhythmic

sounds. We seem to overlook the sounds of ocean, breeze, rustling of leaves, bubbling

sounds of a cascade, Listen to the note they transmit, then go deeper into the sounds and

listen to the note behind them. Then let the sounds resonate through your entire body

washing tensions and worries (Makmen, 1999).

Chanting or listening to mantras are considered to be greatly relaxing and

uplifting, Muscle circulation and brain, Sound therapy is found to be extremely beneficial

in almost all stress related problems It can be helpful for, Easier, more effective sleep,

regaining vitality and a sense of well being, and obliteration of tiredness. Deep relaxation,


27

relief from anxiety and consequent healing of stress related disorders such as high blood

pressure, hypertension, and digestive problems.

Correction of stammering and other speech defects induced by psychological

disturbances, Dyslexia, hyperactivity and behavioral problems in children can also be

effectively treated by therapeutic sounds, Weight loss A balanced body vibration ensures

reduction in stress effects and metabolism rates. This can diminish artificial craving for

food as under stress, Increasing mental focus and concentration (Wood, 1991).

2- Pursuit Sports: Tension anxiety and anger can be enormously overwhelming feelings.

Their unchecked expression can ruin our outer existence and suppressing them can vitiate

our inner being. But such negative emotions can be effectively expended by taking long

walks in open environments. Walking provides you with an excellent opportunity to

recharge and invigorate your body with extra intake of oxygen and release of muscle

tensions. Through long walks, important organs such as heart, lungs, digestive system,

and muscles get thoroughly exercised, facilitating blood circulation, the act of walking is

recognized as a therapy with multifaceted benefits. Walking is also an effective and

handy stress buster (Rashidi, 1999).

The walk can be a three part exploration of your stress. You can begin at a

moderate pace and then increase your speed. As you walk at a moderate pace, raise your

eyes to the middle ground 6 - 8 feet ahead of you. This is a warm up pace, which allow

your feelings and thoughts to open up. It helps you explore the cause of the emotional

turmoil, whether it is inside you or came from a situation outside yourself.

First - As you pick up fast pace it makes you feel more energetic and helps speed up your

thinking process. You try to find solution to the problem. You even exhaust the pent up

negative emotions when you complete a fair round of walk. You may choose to forgive

people and forget the causes that created the situation (Notes, 2003).


28

Second - At the end you can slow down to a place where inner feelings are more

accessible. You may size up the stressors and discover methods to avoid them in future

by modifying your thinking and attitude, Regular walking sessions can make you feel

surer about you, can improve your physical and mental discipline apart from keeping

your body healthy. In the process you release your blocked energy and negative feelings

and thoughts (Labaneyah, 2006).

Third - Music or sound coordinated in a rhythmic manner is known to appeal to our inner

being so powerfully that it can effect healing in our body. The science of yoga reveals

that body is made of vibrating energy. Difference in physicality suggests the presence of

different types of vibrations in that energy. Music, whether vocal or instrumental,

basically sends out various forms of vibrating sound energy to its surrounding. People are

generally attracted to the types of music appealing to their inherent body vibration. Some

people may love to listen to the high and racy vibrations of jazz, but to some other it`s the

slow and lilting sound of flute that appeals most (Notes, 2003). The sound of music,

when coordinates well with one`s inner vibration, untangles the knotted and stressed out

nerves, soothes the mind body, and promotes well being in human as well as other

species. Music can be a source of emotional enjoyment, whether one performs or just

experiences it as a passive listener.

In human body, the music appreciation centre is located in the right hemisphere of

the brain, by listening to music one switches over from the left hemisphere dominant for

binary activities to the creative right hemisphere. It helps stimulate one's thinking

pattern. Music has tremendous relaxation effect on our mind as well as our body. Surveys

on the effect of music therapy reveal that favorable musical vibrations can promote a

positive thought process in an individual (Makmen, 1999). Modern therapeutic science

says that music has a massaging effect on our brain. Perhaps, that is the primary reason

for widespread usage of music as anti anxiety and antidepressant therapy and the handiest

tool for relaxation, so each day massaging your brain with a few moments of your


29

favorite’s tunes and melodies can go a long way in making you a cheerful and positive

person (Labaneyah, 2006).

This therapy employs sound and nature of life in an organized or rhythmic form to

disentangle the stressed out nerves and brain, relaxing the mind body as a whole. Certain

sounds have telling effect upon the state of our brain. Most of the sounds heard in the

world today are discharging sounds, draining the brain of its vital energy. Sound therapy

is a method of beneficially recharging the cortex of the brain and distributing the latent

energy throughout the nervous system (Qari, 2000). Usually, the effect of therapeutic

sound upon a person is one of vitalizing, harmonizing and healing at almost every level

of being. Sound therapy is one of the most preferred techniques for relieving negative

effects of stress. Brain energy is a form of electricity, engendered by the central grey

nuclei. These are like batteries constantly recharging the brain. The cells of the cortex are

the ones which are most energy laden and are accumulated particularly in the zone of the

high frequency. High frequency sound transmitted to the brain via the ear activates these

cells and releases hitherto untapped energy. As a consequence the balance in body

vibration is restored and one can feel relaxed, and lighter. Sound Therapy is simple in

practice. It consists of listening to therapeutic sounds, on quality equipment, for at least

three hours a day to a total of 100 to 200 hours. The therapist decides the length of time

depending on the condition of patients (Amada, 1994).

1.2.1 Coping theories

1.2.1.1 Classification of Approaches: Lazarus model outlined above represents a specific

type of coping theory. These theories may be classified according to two independent

parameters first, trait oriented versus state oriented. Second, micro analytic versus macro

analytic approaches (Krohne, 1996). Trait oriented and state oriented research strategies

have different objectives, the trait oriented or dispositional strategy aims at early

identification of individuals whose coping resources and tendencies are inadequate for

the needs of a specific stressful encounter. An early identification of these persons will


30

offer the opportunity for establishing a selection or placement procedure or a successful

primary prevention program. Research that is state oriented, such as which centers around

actual coping, has a more general objective. This research investigates the relationships

between coping strategies employed by an individual and outcome variables such as self

reported or objectively registered coping efficiency, emotional reactions accompanying

and following certain coping efforts, or variables of adaptation outcome as health status

or test performance. This research strategy intends to lay the foundation for a general

modificatory program to improve coping efficacy.

Micro analytic approaches focus on a large number of specific coping strategies,

whereas macro analytic analysis operates at a higher level of abstraction, thus

concentrating on more fundamental constructs. Freud (1926) says classic defense

mechanisms conception is such as of a state oriented, macro analytic approach. Although

Freud distinguished a multitude of defense mechanisms, in the end, he related these

mechanisms to two basic forms: repression and intellectualization (Freud, 1936). The

trait oriented correspondence of these basic defenses is the personality dimension

repression sensitization (Eriksen, 1966). The distinction of the two basic functions of

emotion focused and problem focused coping proposed by

Lazarus & Folkman (1984) show another macro analytic state approach. In its

actual research strategy, however, the Lazarus group broadened this macroanalytic

approach to a micro analytic strategy. In their Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman

& Lazarus, 1988), Lazarus and co-workers distinguish eight groups of coping strategies,

confrontative coping, and distancing, self controlling, seeking social support, accepting

responsibility, escape avoidance, painful problem solving, and positive reappraisal. The

problem with this conception and, as a consequence, the measurement of coping is that

these categories are only loosely related to the two basic coping functions. Unlike the

macroanalytic, trait oriented approach that generated a multitude of theoretical

conceptions, the macroanalytic, trait oriented strategy is mostly concerned with

constructing multidimensional inventories (Schwarzer & Schwarzer 1996). Almost all of


31

these measurement approaches, however, lack a solid theoretical foundation (Krohne,

1996).

1.2.1.2 Macroanalytic, Trait Oriented Coping Theories : Research on the processes by

which individuals cope with stressful situations has grown substantially over the past

three decades (Zeidner & Endler 1996), Many trait oriented approaches in this field have

established two constructs central to an understanding of cognitive responses to stress,

vigilance, that is, the orientation toward stressful aspects of an encounter, and cognitive

avoidance, that is, averting attention from stress-related information (Janis, 1983).

Approaches corresponding to these conceptions are repression sensitization (Byrne,

1964), monitoring blunting (Miller, 1987), or attention rejection. With regard to the

relationship between these two constructs, Byrne's approach specifies a one dimensional,

bipolar structure, while Miller as well as Mullen and Suls leave this question open.

Krohne, however, explicitly postulates an independent functioning of the dimensions

vigilance and cognitive avoidance (Mullen & Suls, 1982).

1.2.1.3 Repression sensitization: the repression sensitization construct Byrne (1964)

relates different forms of dispositional coping to one bipolar dimension. When confronted

with a stressful encounter, persons located at one pole of this dimension repressors tend

to deny or minimize the existence of stress, fail to verbalize feelings of distress, and

avoid thinking about possible negative consequences of this encounter. Persons at the

opposite pole sensitizers react to stress related cues by way of enhanced information

search, rumination, and obsessive worrying. The concept of repression sensitization is

theoretically founded in research on perceptual defense Bruner and Postman (1947) an

approach that combined psychodynamic ideas with the functionalistic behavior analysis

of (Brunswik, 1947).

1.2.1.4 Monitoring and blunting: the conception of monitoring and blunting originated

from the same basic assumptions formulated earlier by Eriksen (1966) for the repression

sensitization construct. Miller imagine both constructs as cognitive informational styles


32

and proposed that individuals who encounter a stressful situation react with arousal

according to the amount of attention they direct to the stressor. Conversely, the arousal

level can be lowered, if the person succeeds in reducing the impact of aversive cues by

employing avoidant cognitive strategies such as distraction, denial, or reinterpretation

(Miller 1980). However, these coping strategies, called blunting, should only be adaptive

if the aversive event is uncontrollable. Such as of uncontrollable events are impending

surgery or an aversive medical examination, If control is available, strategies called

monitoring, such as seeking information about the stressor, are the more adaptive forms

of coping.

Although initially these strategies are associated with increased stress reactions,

they enable the individual to gain control over the stressor in the long run, thus reducing

the impact of the stressful situation. as of a more controllable stressor is preparing for an

academic exam, the general relationship between a stressor's degree of controllability and

the employment of monitoring or blunting strategies can be moderated by situational and

personal influences. With regard to situation, the noxious stimulation may be so intense

that blunting strategies, such as attention diversion, are ineffective with respect to

reducing stress related arousal. Concerning personality, there are relatively stable

individual differences in the inclination to employ blunting or monitoring coping when

encountering a stressor (Miller & Mangan, 1983).

1.2.1.5 The model of coping modes: Similar to Miller monitoring blunting conception,

the model of coping modes MCM deals with individual differences in attention

orientation and emotional behavioral regulation under stressful conditions, The MCM

extends the largely descriptive monitoring blunting conception as well as the repression

sensitization approach in that it relates the dimensions vigilance and cognitive avoidance

to an explicative cognitive motivational basis. It assumes that most stressful, especially

anxiety evoking, situations are characterized by two central features, the presence of

aversive stimulation and a high degree of ambiguity. The experiential counterparts of

these situational features are emotional arousal as being primarily related to aversive


33

stimulation, and uncertainty related to ambiguity. Arousal, in turn, should stimulate the

tendency to cognitively avoid or inhibit the further processing of cues related to the

aversive encounter, whereas uncertainty activates vigilant tendencies.

These two coping processes are conceptually linked to personality by the

hypothesis that the habitual preference for avoidant or vigilant coping strategies reflects

individual differences in the susceptibility to emotional arousal or uncertainty.

Individuals who are especially susceptible to states of stress induced emotional arousal

are supposed to habitually employ cognitive avoidance (Krohne, 1993). The employment

of avoidant strategies primarily aims at shielding the person from an increase in arousal

motivated coping behavior. Individuals who are especially affected by the uncertainty

experienced in most stressful situations are supposed to habitually employ vigilant

coping. Thus, the employment of vigilant strategies follows a plan that is aimed at

minimizing the probability of unanticipated occurrence of aversive events uncertainty

motivated coping behavior. The MCM conceives the habitual coping tendencies of

vigilance and cognitive avoidance as independent personality dimensions. That means,

aggregated across a multitude of stressful encounters, the employment of vigilant

strategies and of avoidant ones does not preclude each other. Thus, four coping modes

can be defined. (a) Persons who score high on vigilance and low on cognitive avoidance

are called sensitizers. These persons are primarily concerned with reducing uncertainty

by directing their attention towards stress relevant information. (b) Individuals with the

opposite pattern are designated as repressors.

These persons minimize the experience of arousal by avoiding aversive

information. (c) Non defensives have low scores on both dimensions. These persons are

supposed to flexibly adapt to the needs of a stressful encounter. Instead of frequently

employing vigilant or avoidant coping strategies, they prefer to act instrumentally in most

situations. (d) Individuals who exhibit high scores on both dimensions are called high

anxious. In employing vigilant as well as avoidant coping strategies, these persons try to

reduce both the subjective uncertainty and the emotional arousal induced by stressful


34

encounters. Because the two goals are incompatible in most situations, high anxious

persons are assumed to show fluctuating and therefore less efficient coping behavior.

Approaches to assess individual differences in vigilance and cognitive avoidance are

described (Krohne et.al,. 2000).

1.2.1.6 Future Perspectives: although the fields of stress and coping research represent

largely explored territory, there are still fertile perspectives to be pursued in future

research. Among the promising lines of research, two perspectives will be mentioned

here.

First- Compared to the simplistic stimulus-response conception of stress inherent in early

approaches on stress, the psychological such as cognitive transformation approach of the

Lazarus group clearly represents progress. However, in advocating a completely

subjective orientation in conceptualizing stress, Lazarus overstated the cognitive turn in

stress research. In stating that we might do better by describing relevant environments

and their psychological meanings through the lenses of individuals, Lazarus (1990) took

a stand that is at variance with the multivariate, systems theory perspective proposed in

his recent publications on stress and emotions (Lazarus, 1990). First: the stress process

contains variables to be assessed both subjectively and objectively, such as constraints,

temporal aspects, or social support networks, as well as responses to be measured at

different levels (Lazarus, 1990). Second: the fact that most objective features relevant to

stress related outcomes exert their influence via a process of cognitive transformation

(Mischel & Shoda, 1995).

Does not mean that objective features can be neglected, it is of great practical and

theoretical importance to know which aspects of the objective environment an individual

selects for transformation, and how these characteristics are subjectively represented.

Third, as far as response levels are concerned, it is obvious that stressors do not only

create subjective cognitive responses but also reactions at the somatic and the behavioral

expressive level. In fact, many individuals especially those high in cognitive avoidance


35

are characterized by a dissociation of subjective and objective stress responses Kohlmann

(1997) for an early discussion of the psychological meaning of this dissociation. These

individuals may manifest, such as, relatively low levels of subjective distress but at the

same time considerable elevations in autonomic arousal. In recent years, the concept of

subjective autonomic response dissociation has become increasingly important in

clarifying the origin and course of physical diseases and affective disorders (Lazarus,

1966).

Second - It is important to define central person specific goals or reference values in

coping, such as reducing uncertainty, inhibiting emotional arousal, or trying to change the

causes of a stressful encounter. These goals are not only central to understanding the

stress and coping process; they are, in fact, the core of personality (Karoly, 1999). Goals

define the transsituational and Tran’s temporal relevance of certain stressors, serve as

links to other constructs such as self concept or expectancies, influence regulatory

processes such as coping, and define the efficiency of these processes. Instead of

applying global and relatively content free trait concepts in stress and coping research

such as anxiety, depression, or optimism, a more fertile perspective would be to study

personality in this field by paying attention to what people are trying to do instead of only

observing how they actually respond to stressful events (Mischel & Shoda, 1995).

Gender differences in coping strategies are the ways in which men and women

differ in managing stress. There is evidence that males often develop stress due to their

careers, whereas females often encounter stress due to issues in interpersonal

relationships (Davis & Twamley, 1999). Early studies indicated that there were gender

differences in the sources of stressors, but gender differences in coping were relatively

small after controlling for the source of stressors, and more recent work has similarly

revealed small differences between women's and men's coping strategies when studying

individuals in similar situations (Brannon & Feist, 2009).


36

In general, such differences as exist indicate that women tend to employ emotion

focused coping and they tend and befriend response to stress, whereas men tend to use

problem focused coping and the fight or flight response, perhaps because societal

standards encourage men to be more individualistic, while women are often expected to

be interpersonal. It is however also important to note that the strictly genetic component

of these differences is still debated, and that gender preferences for coping strategies are

the result of social conditioning and child rearing, for instance, males are often

encouraged to be independent, while females are expected to comply, which may

influence each gender's choice of coping mechanism (Washburn et.al., 2004).

Both men and women sometimes employ maladaptive mechanisms, such

as avoidance and self punishment, to handle daily hassles. Stress is often a primary factor

in models of illness and disease, and research has shown that people under extreme

amounts of stress often exhibit cognitive deficits, illness, increased levels

of depression and anxiety, lower self esteem, bad health, and lack of sleep. However,

college students of both genders who employ problem solving strategies have better

health and increased self esteem (Brougham et.al., 2009).

Hormones also play a part in stress management Cortizole, a stress hormone, was

found to be elevated in males during stressful situations. In females, however, Cortizole

levels were decreased in stressful situations, and instead, an increase in limbic activity

was discovered. Many researchers believe that these results underlie the reasons why men

administer confront or escape reaction to stress, whereas, females have tend and

befriend reaction. Confront or escape response activates the sympathetic nervous

system in the form of increased focus levels, adrenaline, and epinephrine. However, tend

and befriend reaction refers to the tendency of women to protect their offspring and

relatives. Although these two different reactions are generally associated with their

respected genders, one should not assume that females cannot implement confront or

escape behavior or those males cannot implement tend and befriend behavior (Wang

et.al., 2008).


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1.3 ADJUSTMENT

Adjustment is a term used by psychologists and lay people. The lay man,

however, tends to use the term improperly. They seem to assume that adjustment is

desirable behavior. Actually it is a general term that connotes either good or successful

adjustment, or poor adjustment as termed as maladjustment. The term "adjustment" has

been described in many ways by different psychologists, biologists, mental hygienists

and other behavioral scientists in many ways, as already explained biologists take

adjustment in terms of adaptation to the physical world. Some explain adjustment in

terms of conformity to the environmental needs; some say that a normal or statically

average man is an adjusted man. So, no two behavioral scientists are agreed upon a

common definition of adjustment. Generally, it has been argued that the concept of

adjustment is a mere fiction, as people have always failed in giving a standard definition

of adjustment, partly because of its many meanings, and partly because of the criteria

against which adjustment could be evaluated are not well defined, further, the boundaries

between adjustment and maladjustment are never water tight.

In a very simple term, adjustment refers the extent to which an object fits the

purpose for which it is intended. We attempt to adjust situation and condition in our

environment in such ways that our daily programmer of activities run smoothly. Now we

try to understand the meaning of adjustment from different point of views as proposed by

different social scientists. The mental hygienists take a more personal view of the

adjustment process and consider it to be the need for persons adjusting to him,

understanding his strength and limitations, facing reality and achieving a harmony within

him (Kaplan, 1965). They put emphasis on the achievement of self acceptance, freedom

from internal conflicts, self realization and developing unifying set of values which make

life purposeful and meaningful. The counselors, while dealing with a maladjusted

individual, try to bridge the gap between the real self and the ideal self of the client. It

means that maladjustment is taken to be a state of cleavage between the real self and the


38

ideal self. Actually, the client is made to understand his real self, so that he may adjust

himself effectively.

By the time an individual reaches early adulthood, many developmental

milestones have already been attained. Logic, reasoning, autonomy, identity, and physical

growth normally are in place. However, as we enter into young adulthood, the highly self

oriented development of our past years being to minimize. Milestones have already been

attained. However, as we enter into young adulthood, the highly self oriented

development of our past years begins to minimize. A new focus begins to develop,

namely an interest in losing one's own egocentrism and devoting oneself to another.

Erikson called this stage Intimacy vs. Isolation which results, if the stage is successfully

passed, in the virtue of truly loving others.

Adjustment disorders are extremely common. A adjustment disorder is

characterized by the development of emotional the person behavioral symptoms such as,

school behavior problems, anxiety, social conflicts or withdrawal, fighting, work

problems, academic problems, depression, or physical complaints, in response to a

specific stressor or stressors within your environment (Piaget & Baird, 1977). To put it

simply, if you are experiencing significant stress, and because of that stress you develop

psychological symptoms that are greater than what might be expected, given the stress,

and this causes impairment in some major life functioning, then you have an adjustment

disorder. Major life functioning would include school adjustment, work adjustment,

social adjustment, legal difficulties, family adjustment or physical health.

Stressors can be almost anything, such as the ending of a relationship, or a

marriage, being terminated from your job, a family member developing a serious illness,

being forced to relocate by your job, natural disasters such as hurricanes or floods, living

in a crime ridden area, becoming a crime victim, becoming a parent, and getting married.

These events cause some stress in almost everyone (Barakat, 2008). However, when

stress causes clinically significant symptoms to develop, or interferes with your ability to


39

cope with ongoing life management tasks, then you may have an adjustment disorder.

There are different types of adjustment disorders, according to the symptoms that

develop. These include: with depressed mood; anxiety; mixed emotional response;

conduct disturbance; mixed emotional problems and conduct disturbance; and

unspecified (Donovan, 1988).

Adjustment examines the stress that change creates a why even good changes are

stressful. Adjustment can be defined as a process of altering one's behavior to reach a

harmonious relationship with their environment. This is typically a response brought

about by some type of change that has taken place. The stress of this change causes one

to try to reach a new type of balance or homeostasis between the individual both inwardly

and outwardly, and with their environment.

Adjustment occurs over time in common speech. This is often referred to this as

an adjustment period. The length and depth of the adjustment required is dependent upon

the complexity of the change that catalyzed it, and the underlying resilience of both the

person and their environment (Patricia, 2009). Psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard

Rahe’s Life Stress Inventory is a standard scale that names and measures major life

stressors. It’s a result of their studies first conducted in the late 1960s, with the scale

being created in 1978. It has been and still is in wide use.

Jones & Tenenbaum (2009) says if the adjustment disorder lasts less than six

months, then it may be considered acute. If it lasts more than six months, it may be

considered chronic. However, the symptoms cannot last longer than six months after the

stressor, or its consequences have terminated (Sakhuja, 2006), Diagnosis of adjustment

disorder is quite common. There is an estimated incidence of 5% to 21% among

psychiatric consultation services for adults. Adult women are diagnosed twice as often as

are adult men, but among children and adolescents, girls and boys are equally likely to

receive this diagnosis (Fard, Hudgens & Wenler, 1978). Adjustment disorder was

introduction into the psychiatric classification systems almost 30 years ago, but the


40

concept was recognized for many years before that, when considering bio psychosocial

disorders, an athlete’s overstrained state can be due to an Adjustment Disorder (Rapport

& Ismond, 1990).

1.3.1 Concept and definition of adjustment

Adjustment in Language: means harmony and convergence which is contrary to

repulsion, Personality psychologists define adjustment on the basis of self concept and

self picture of the individual which should be in accord with reality. Adjustment is the

process of meeting life’s problems and is personality and the self concept aspect of

personality in action (Glanz & Walston, 1958). We may define the self concept as the

total psychological view that the individual has of himself in relation to the environment,

or it is an organization of self meaning or ways of seeking self.

Some psychologists have taken adjustment from quite a different angle and

defined it in terms of integration of separate responses or acts, large unit of behavior, in

which separate acts or responses are joined or integrated, are called adjustment, It is

evident that the process of adjustment is multi dimensional and this is the reasons to

disagreement among different behavior scientists. But most of the psychologists agree, to

the extent, and that is, defining adjustment in terms of achieving a balance between

internal demands and the requirements of the environment, or between internal

psychological forces and external conditions.

Fahmi (1978) known adjustment as the behavior process by which humans

maintain equilibrium among their various needs or between their needs and the obstacles

in their environment, when people say they are in an adjustment period they typically

mean they are going through a process of change and are searching for some level of

balance or acceptance with the environment, others, or themselves. Whereas, Alrifaai

(1986) considered adjustment as a set of reactions that modify individual mental

construction and behavior to respond to surrounding conditions are limited or a new

experience.


41

Although, Abdel Mu’ti (2006) was not supportive of this definition, as he viewed

adjustment procedure or behavior does individual in order to satisfy needs and correlation

with certain conditions, and this is the action or behavior that includes a change in

environments of individual, self built psychological, and external, nature and social

environment in which to adjust individual to him, and divided this field into two kinds;

internal and external factors. The internal factors are the psychological needs of an

individual. However, the external factors include climate, valleys, topography and etc...

Those affect the individuals’ psychology (Makmen, 1999).

1.3.2 Fields of adjustment

Adjustment can be taken into consideration in terms of dimensions and diverse

fields as follows:

1.3.2.1 Personal Adjustment: Happiness with self and satisfaction, satisfying motives,

hunger, thirst, sex, comfort, maternity, self-satisfaction, love, self-esteem, self-

independence, harmony, dispute resolution, fitting abilities of individual and their

resources with level of ambition and goals.

1.3.2.2 Social Adjustments: A social aspect of adjustment requires that the individual

should achieve a reasonable compromise between his drive for self realization and the

need of the society in which he lives. He should establish a satisfying contact with the

other members of his group. His outlook on life should be socially oriented. Clinical

psychologists consider an organized behavior to be adjusted behavior and, therefore,

freedom from fears, phobias, anxiety, obsessions, hostilities, complexes, stress and other

pathological symptoms, are the criteria against which adjustment can be evaluated.

1.2.2.3 Study adjustment: Shaefer & Lazarus (1981) points out that success

of any individual in educational institutions, cognitive and social growth, the appropriate

collection and problem solving courses, such as poor academic achievement.


42

1.3.2.4 Family adjustment: It is the reconciliation between spouses in addition to those

relations based on affection, love, and cooperation. This adjustment includes marital

adjustment, marriage adjustment mainly related to partner choice and homogeneity of

their levels of intellectual, cultural, social adjustments and age group.

1.3.2.5 Vocational Adjustment: Person selected for profession or work that first their

abilities, aptitudes, acceptance, satisfaction of it, continuing attempts to develop

creativity, sense of happiness and satisfaction as well (Fahmi, 1978).

1.3.3 Factors affecting in adjustment

There are a large number of interrelated factors in process influencing adjustment;

some of which are psychological, biological, and physical of individual and others are

external resulted from the surrounding environments.

1.3.3.1 Needs of development: they require psychological development of individual,

laming to survive with happiness and contentment. Moreover, they reflect stage of

development in peace, each stage of growth of early childhood, middle, adolescence,

adulthood, and old age (Gareer, 1999).

1.3.3.2 Childhood Developmental needs: a child is in need of learning to walk, speak,

adjust and play. In addition, a child needs to develop cognitive and mental skills

necessary for life such as distinguishing between the right and the wrong.

1.3.3.3 Adolescence Developmental needs: an adult is expected to be aware of the

concepts of growth only of the body, accept the body changes and take responsibility; for

example, in choosing an appropriate profession (Don, 2004).

1.3.3.4 Old Age Developmental needs: the old should be prepared to face trouble, do

appropriate activities, adjust to retirement, be independent for children and establish

social relationships the young (Barakat, 2008).


43

1.3.3.5 Primary and secondary motives: motive s a psychological feature that arouses an

organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal-

directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels

or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that

elicits a desire to eat. Motivation is the purpose or psychological cause of an action

(Makmen, 1999).

Motives are often categorized into primary, or basic, motives, which are unlearned

and common to both animals and humans; and secondary, or learned, motives, which can

differ from animal to animal and person to person. Primary motives are thought to

include hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, and perhaps aggression and fear. Secondary

motives typically studied in humans include achievement.

1.3.3.6 Physiological Factors: are the mental factors that help or prevent sportspeople

from being in the right 'frame of mind' to perform well (Desouki, 1974).

1.4 SIGNIFICAT OF THE STUDY

Problem of adjustment for students studying in competitive university is

significant for mental health professional. Stress and anxiety has direct bearing on

student’s adjustment. The prevalent of stress had increased among students in recent

years. This is due to various factors such as increase pressures, competition, decrease

resources, inadequate family support, and explosion to violence. In this context Lazarus

& Folkman (1984) theoretical framework on stress and coping, conceptualization of

adjustments as achievement, and suggest that adjustment is multi-dimensional in nature.

It involves responding successfully to academic demands, social integration with

others, mental, psychological and physical wellbeing. In this regard, coping skills can

help the student navigate through various challenge and problems of life. University life

is considered to be stressful experience for students, since they need to learn to cope,

variety of challenge. Some students are able to deal with these transitional problems in


44

counteractive way and increase their level of adjustment, whereas, others overwhelmed

and unable to meet the demands of that life leads to experience difficulties of adjustment.

Hence the finding of the present study has counseling implication and are

expected to be helpful to counselors in understanding the role of sources of stress and

extent of coping behavior in counseling process for promoting adjustment. This study

may provide about the theoretical foundation for the counselors to help students to learn

to use effectives coping skills particularly during stressful time, and may be helpful to

educationists, parents, and psychologist in understanding the importance of the

adjustment and enhancement of well-being among university students.

1.5 RATIONAL OF STUDY

Students who are enrolled in different competitive academic environments today

have various stressors from the life change that are related to personal aspiration, needs to

success, meeting the expectations of the university, family, community, health and

emotional needs, these experiences have an important effect in their body and mind.

Students are different in coping strategies and adjustment are the ways of perceiving and

manage stress, there is an evidence that males offer developed stress due to their career,

whereas females often encounter stress due to issue in personal relationship. Purna &

Cowthami (2008) indicated that there is gender difference in perceiving stress, while the

differences in coping skills and adjustment are relatively small after controlling the

sources of stress when studying the students in similar situations.

Theoretical approach to stress and coping related to life problems or challenges,

force the students to execute different types of behavior called coping strategies to

achieve the balance and adjustment with his/her environment, where the students who

have low level of coping skills show various adjustment problem. Lazarus & Launier

(1978) with their unique emphasis on stress and coping posit that adjustment is a process

that helps to understand the dynamic of individuals, which can be described through

medical, biological, sociogenic and psychogenic models.


45

Culture plays an important part in the relationship between stress and coping skills

to achieve the adjustment, where each culture produces its own unique set of stress and

this stress varies not merely in terms of their physical, economical, social, and

environmental, but also in their values and ideology, hence, coping is considered as an

important buffer in the relationship between stress and adjustment. In the line of these

theoretical arguments, an attempt has been made to identify different sources of stress,

coping strategies and relating it with adjustment in different cultures.

There are cultural, social, environmental, economical, political, and behavioral

differences between the Jordanian and Indian students. The Jordanian students are much

more in hurry, over ambitious, less attentive and much more concentrated in the worldly

affairs, while, the Indian students are more careers oriented, more conscious and peace-

loving. Thus, the main purpose of this study is examining the influence of different

sources of stress and coping strategies on adjustment among Jordanian and Indian

university students. Besides, the effect of gender, university, and educational streams,

were also investigated on these psychological variables with reference to Indian and

Jordanian university students.

1.6 Objective of the study

The present study aims to

1. Find out the differences on sources of stress, coping strategies and adjustment

between Jordanian and Indian university students.

2. Know whether the sources of stress and coping strategies are predictors of

adjustment among Jordanian and Indian university students.

3. Find out the major source of stress that Jordanian and Indian university

students are exposing to.


46

4. Know the area of coping strategies which is most widely used by Jordanian

and Indian students.

5. Determine the most affective area of adjustment among Jordanian and Indian

university students.

6. Investigate the influence of gender, university, and educational streams on

sources of stress, coping strategies and adjustment in Jordanian and Indian

university students.

1.7 Research Questions

The study trying to answer the following questions:

1- Do Jordanian and Indian students differ in sources of stress, coping strategies

and adjustment?

2- Are sources of stress and coping strategies predictors of adjustment among

Jordanian and Indian university students?

3- What is the major source of stress Jordanian and Indian university students are

exposing to?

4- Which area of coping strategies most widely used by Jordanian and Indian

students?

5- Which area of adjustment most effective on Jordanian and Indian students?

6- Are there any influences of gender, university, and educational streams on

sources of stress, coping strategies and adjustment in Jordanian and Indian

university students?


47

1.8 Hypothesis of the Study

H1- There are significant differences on sources of stress, coping strategies and

adjustment between Jordanian and Indian students.

H2- Sources of stress and coping strategies will be significant predictors of adjustment in

Jordanian and Indian students.

H3- Academic area will be the major source of stress among Jordanian and Indian

students.

H4- Health area will be the coping strategies most widely used by Jordanian and Indian

students.

H5- Emotional area of adjustment will be the most effective area on Jordanian and Indian

students.

H6- There is a significant influence of gender, university, and educational streams on

sources of stress, coping strategies and adjustment amongst Jordanian and Indian

students.

Documents

Chapter One: Introduction 1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDYshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/23098/6/10_chapter1.pdf · Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY