Introduction to Psychology

Spring 2010

What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Goals of psychologyDescribe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processesAttempt to control is made only with willing participants…not against one’s own will

Areas of interest in psychology

EmotionMotivationLearningThoughtIntelligenceGrowth and developmentPersonalityStressAbnormal behaviorSexual behaviorSensation and perception

BehavioristsA type of psychologist who only looks at overt or observable behavior All actions that behaviorists study are public and can be measured by simple observation.

Ex: observing actions such as pressing a lever, turning right or left, or eating

Cognitive psychologistsFocus on mental representations of the world, memories, problem solving strategies, biases, and prejudicesEx: Conducting surveys, analyzing journals, conducting tests

Activity: Cognitive and Behavioral Perspectives

For each of the scenarios below describe how the two different fields given might approach the situation. ( Be able to explain how the psychologist would research or study the individual) List how the field might solve the problem.

1. Rupert sees a psychologist for depression. 2. Stuart can barely concentrate at school. Stuart’s

parents suspect that Stuart either has a learning disability or is suffering from some form of social anxiety.

3. Gale has a drug addiction. Gale wants to stop using drugs, but feels she physically cannot stop doing so.

4. Winnie inflicts physical harm on herself. Winnie denies doing so and covers up any scars or cuts she makes.

Is Psychology a Science?Yes!Psychology is not often thought of as a science by the general public. Why?

What makes Psychology a science?

Psychologists use the empirical approach meaning that studies are conducted through careful observations and scientifically based research. Psychologists also formulate satisfactory theories

Satisfactory theoriesTheories that help predict behavior

Ex: A satisfactory theory of hunger will let us predict when people will eat and not eat

Ex:Actual versus assumed effects of alcohol

If our observations can not be explained by a theory or predicted by the theory we should consider revising our theory.

Psychology and Critical Thinking

Pseudopsychology: phony, unscientific psychology masquerading as the real thing

Examples: mysterious powers of the mind, supernatural influences, astrology, graphology, fortune telling

Our GoalDistinguish between real and pseudopsychologyCommon sense is not enough“Common sense” has led to the belief in the superiority of racial groups, demonic possessions as causes of mental illnesses, lobotomies, and the idea that they are just bad people and there is nothing that can be done about them

Examples of Pseudopsychology

AriesAries live life head first. Aries are noted for courage and leadership qualities, primarily because you are nearly always ready for action. The need for excitement pushes you into new territory -- and as long as you are ahead of others while demonstrating confidence, chances are that they will follow you. As self-ordained leader of the pack, Aries fight for what you believe to be important. But it's not that Aries are fearless. Your courage is more of a commitment to face your fears and overcome them.

Handwriting

Angular connectionsRhythmic writingcovering the whole pageStrange ending of letters"Invented" lettersTwisted lettersBroken lettersCorrections, especially "artistic corrections"Abundance of punctuation marks or lack of themSlow writingPeculiarities and exaggeration

Vigilant and tense handwritingExtremely strong pressureAngelsSeparationNarrownessExtremely wide spaces between words or identical to the spaces between lettersLeft of upright slantTense strokesLarge or extreme height differentialsAt times - a weak strokeSecondary narrowness

How can we avoid pseudopsychology?

Detect confirmation biases (the tendency to attend to evidence that compliments and confirms our beliefs or expectations, while ignoring evidence that does not)

Analyze methods such as facilitated communication

In other words…Be skeptical, think critically, and ALWAYS seek evidence

How has pseudopsycholgoy effect

the science of Psychology?It has diminished public support of legitimate psychological practices.

In other words, most people don’t know the difference between pseudopsychology and the legitimate practice.

Psychiatry versus Psychology

PsychiatryIs a medical specialty

Psychiatrists hold MD (Doctor of medicine) degrees and have specialized training in the treatment of mental and behavioral problems.

Licensed to prescribe medication and perform other medical proceduresUse the medical perspective

PsychologyPsychologists work in a much broader field, ecompassing many different specialties. Most have nothing to do with the diagnosing and treating of mental disorders.While most hold doctoral degrees, most have no training in medicine

3 branches of Psychological practice

1. Experimental psychology

2. Teaching Psychology

3. Applied Psychology

Experimental Psychologists

Also called research psychologistsConduct the basic research in PsychologyTypically works at a college or university

Teachers of PsychologyOverlaps with experimental psychology because most researchers also teach classes at the colleges or universities where they conduct researchThis group also includes high school teachers, community college teachers, etc… who do not conduct research

Applied PsychologistsUses knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to tackle human problems, such as training, equipment design, and psychological treatment.

Work in a wide variety of places such as schools, clinics, factories, social service agencies, airports, hospitals, casinos, etc…

Types of Applied Psychologists

Industrial and Organizational Psychologists

I/O PsychologistsSpecialize in modifying the work environment to maximize productivityMay work with developing interviewing and testing procedures, developing training programs, market research, etc…

Sports PsychologistsWork with athletes to help maximize their performanceWork with enhancing motivation, controlling emotions under pressure, and planning practice sesions

Engineering PsychologistsWork at the interface between people and equipmentMay design devices for easy and reliable human use, or try and detect what went wrong with a piece of equipment (human error)Usually employed in private industry or by the government

School Psychologists

Are experts in problems with teaching and learningTypically work in school districts, where they diagnose learning and behavior problems by consulting with teachers, students, and parents.Spend a great deal of time administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological tests

Rehabilitation Psychologists

Work with physicians, nurses, counselors, and social workers on teams.Deal with individuals with both physical and mental disorders (stroke, spinal cord injury, alcohol/drug abuse, amputation)

Clinical or Counseling Psychologists

Help people with psychological problems adjust to the demands of life (ex: anxiety, depression, etc…)About ½ of all doctoral level psychologists list this as their specialty.The clinician would likely have a private practice involving testing and long-term therapy, while the counselor is likely to work at an agency or school and spend fewer sessions with the client

Other Types of Applied Psychologists

Developmental- study changes ( emotional, physical, cognitive, social) throughout life spans. Tries to answer nature versus nurture question.Personality- define human traits and influence on human thought process, feelings, and behavior. Explains normal and abnormal behaviorsSocial- concerned with nature and causes of individual’s thoughts, feelings, and overt behavior in social situations

Nature versus NurtureNature= heredity, our biological make-up, elements we have no control over

-studies emphasized the roles of instinct, fixed patterns of behavior, and the influence of evolution on behavior Nurture= environment, how we have been treated and taken care of, how our environment affects us.

-behavior is learned, modifiable due to experience, and not, at least in humans, constrained by evolutionary history

Emerging FieldsClinical Child Psychologists- help children overcome and adjust to problems ( much different from those who help adults). Works with parents and teachers.

Emerging FieldsForensic Psychologists- apply psychological expertise within the criminal justice system.( expert witnesses, counsel officers on stress, train police in handling suicides, hostage crises, family disputes, etc…)

The History and Structure of Psychology

History ContinuedMost historians credit Wilhelm Wundt ( 1832-1920) with the birth of psychology in 1879.Established the first psychological laboratory in Germany

Where did Psychology come from?

ObservingQuestioningResearching?

Plato First philosopher credited with study of how humans gain knowledge

Aristotle

Stated that human behavior was subject to rules and laws. Believed that people were motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Peri Psyches- About the psycheDeveloped theories of cognition, memory, problem solving, and ethics

Yoga and BuddhismExplored consciousness, which they attempted to control through meditation

African Spiritual BeliefsAttempted to explain personality and mental disorders from traditional spiritual beleifs.Shamans (healers) developed theories very similar to the ones psychologists use today

Rene’ Descartes17th century French philosopherThought sensations and behaviors were based on activity of the nervous system.His ideas fit well into new information about the biology and nerve circuits in animals

The Beginnings of Schools of Psychology

StructuralismWilhelm WundtDevoted to uncovering the basic structures that make up the mind.The mind consists of three basic elements- sensations, feelings, and images- which combine to form experienceIntrospection: Reporting one’s own conscious experienceExample of Research: Present subjects with sights and sounds and describe sensations and feelings

FunctionalismWilliam James, John DeweyEmphasizes use or function of the mind rather than elements of experienceExperiences permit us to function and adapt to our environmentsLooks at how individuals adapt or fail ro adapt

BehaviorismJohn Watson- Little AlbertLimits studies to measurable events

Focuses on…Response- a movement or other observable reaction to stimuli.Stimuli- something causing or regarded as causing a response

Behaviorism ContinuedReinforcement- A stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response

ConditioningSimple learning in which stimuli come to signal other stimuli by means of association

Gestalt PsychologyMax Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler1920s…Prominent in GermanyHow does perception influence problem solving?Emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns.Learning or problem solving is accomplished by insight or the sudden recognition of perceptions.

continuedHuman interpret perceptions as wholes and in terms of the context in which they occur. Ex: You are likely to have a different interpretation of a man running towards you depending on whether you are on a deserted street at night or at a track in broad day light

Figure and Ground - We tend to organize our

perceptions by distinguishing between a

figure and a ground.  The figure appears to the eye as a square inside a

circle, or as a donut shaped circle with a

square hole.

This figure is an example of anomalous motion

illusion, because although nothing is actually

moving you believe that it is.

In the famous Necker Cube illusion, the two-dimensional box shifts orientations. Stare at it awhile and notice the

sensation of movement, although you know it

does not move.

Sometimes you see things that are not there, as shown in the following

illusion. If you stare at the grid only briefly, you will see areas of gray at the

intersections of the white rows and columns. They

are white; there is no gray in the picture.

Try to count the black dots

Stare at the bluish dot for awhile without moving your eyes or your head. The dot will gradually fade. When the dot

fades. Move your eyes or head and the blue dot will appear.

What does Gestalt psychology tell us?

Studies higher order cognitive processes relative to behaviorism. The visual world is so complex that the mind has developed strategies for coping with the confusion. The mind tries to find the simplest solution to a problem. One of the ways it does this is to form groups of items that have certain characteristics in common.

PsychoanalysisSchool of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior.

TheoryThe conscious mind contains information of which we are aware at any given moment: anything that is thought, perceived, or understood resides at this level. Ex: your decision to come to school today was a conscious decision.

Theory continuedOne level down is the pre-conscious , which contains the memories and thoughts that are easily recalled, ready to break into consciousness at any moment. Ex: What is your address?

What did you east for breakfast this morning?

What are your parent’s names?

Theory continuedAt the bottom level is the unconscious , which contains the personal information of which we are NOT aware: the drives, urges, wishes, and thoughts of all of our past experience, by far the largest receptacle of the psyche. All these threaten to destabilize the conscious mind if they surface.

Psychoanalytic Techniques

Freud first used hypnosis as a means to find memories in the unconscious.Some memories were repressed and could come out under the hypnotic tranceCatharsis: a powerful and often traumatic transfer of an memory from the unconscious to the conscious.

Psychoanalytic TechniquesFree Association: patients are asked to continually relate anything which comes into their minds, regardless of how superficially unimportant or potentially embarrassing the memory threatens to be. This technique assumes that all memories are arranged in a single associative network, and that sooner or later the subject will stumble across the crucial memory.

PsychoanalysisGeneral mental healthFamily life issuesSuicide preventionSelf esteemStress managementAnger issues

Psychoanalysis and Freud continued

Addresses popular cultureEx: emotionally unstable people likely to go on killing spree. A psychologist explains the killing spree as “unconsciously” doing away with mother or fatherEx: Slip of the tongue or Freudian slip

How Psychologists Study Behavior

Does alcohol cause aggression?What are the effects of aspirin on a fetus?What are the effects of exercise on anxiety and depression?Does pornography trigger crimes of violence?

Opinions or Theories?Empirical science- assumptions are supported by evidence (psychology).

Scientific MethodStep 1: Formulating a Research QuestionDaily observations motivate us to ask these

Step 2: Developing a Hypothesis

Hypothesis- An assumption about behavior that is tested through research.

Step 3: Testing the Hypothesis

Through carefully controlled methods such as naturalistic observation

Step 4: Drawing conclusions About the

HypothesisDrawing conclusions about the accuracy of the hypothesis with the research findings.

Methods of ObservationCase Study Method

Case Study- A carefully drawn biography that is done through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests

The Survey MethodSurvey- A method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people is questioned about their attitudes and behaviors.

-questionnaires-interviews-examine public records

Samples and PopulationsIn surveys and others research methods, the individuals who are being observed are referred to as a sample. A sample is a segment of a population.

Psychological Research continued

Psychologists also use tests ( intelligence, aptitude, personality) to measure characteristics and traits among the populationThese tests can be distorted due to social desirability so psychologists use…Validity Scales- groups of test items that suggest whether or not the test results are valid ( measure what they are supposed to measure)

The Naturalistic Observation Method

A scientific method that observes organisms in their natural environments Use unobtrusive, or non-interfering measures

Blind and Double Blind Experiments

Blind- Subject unaware if he or she has received or not received treatment.

Ex: Alcohol and aggression- subjects can not “act” how they think they should.

Double BlindsNeither the subjects nor the persons measuring the results knows who received the treatment.

Ex: FDA administering new drugs. Some members get placebos, or “sugar pill” while others get actual drug. After trial an impartial panel of judges will decide if there was a difference between the drug and the placebo.