Introduction to Psychological Disorders

Introductionto

Psychological Disorders

“To study the abnormal is the best way to understand the normal”

Psychological DisorderMental health workers label thoughts, feelings and actions disordered when they are:maladaptiveunjustifiabledisturbingatypical

INSANITY IN THE COURTS

Insanity is a legal termThe insanity plea is used in situations where the defendant is judged to be incapable of knowing right from wrong because of a mental disorder.

Not placed in prisonmental hospital

JOHN HINKLEY, JR. – ASSASSINATION ATTEMPT OF PRESIDENT REAGAN IN 1981

Jeffrey Dahmer Serial killer & sexual offender

Not guilty by reason of insanitymental hospital

Sane and found guilty prison

EARLY MENTAL HOSPITALS

• They were nothing more than barbaric prisons.

•The patients were chained and locked away.

SUPERNATURAL MODEL

•Belief that abnormal behavior is caused by possession by gods, demons, or the devil

•A full moon

•Trephining

Medical Modelconcept that diseases have physical causes

can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured

CURRENT PERSPECTIVES

Bio-Psycho-Social Perspective: assumes biological, psychological and sociocultural factors combine to interact causing psychological disorders.

Used to be called Diathesis-Stress Model:•diathesis meaning predisposition and•stress meaning environment.

CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

DSM-IV (TR) (4th ed., Text Revision) American Psychiatric Association’s

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

MULTIAXIAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE DSM IV

Are Psychosocial or Environmental Problems (school or housing issues) also present?

Axis IV

What is the Global Assessment of the person’s functioning?Axis V

Is a General Medical Condition (diabetes, hypertension or arthritis etc) also present?

Axis III

Is a Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation present?

Axis II

Is a Clinical Syndrome (cognitive, anxiety, mood disorders [16 syndromes]) present?

Axis I

•Axis I •Adjustment Disorders Anxiety Disorders•Cognitive Disorders •Dissociative Disorders •Eating Disorders •Factitious Disorders •Impulse Control Disorders •Mood Disorders •Psychotic Disorders •Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders •Sleep Disorders •Somotoform Disorder •Substance-Related Disorders

LABELING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Labels can be helpful for health care professionals, communicating with one another and establishing therapy.

David Rosenhaun (1973): went to mental hospital complaining of hearing

Diagnosed with mental illness Help changed standards

NEUROTIC DISORDERS

•Distressing but one can still function in society and act rationally

PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS•Person loses contact with reality, experiences distorted perceptions

Charles Manson Son of Sam

• A GROUP OF CONDITIONS WHERE THE PRIMARY SYMPTOMS ARE ANXIETY OR DEFENSES AGAINST ANXIETY.

ANXIETY DISORDERS

• the patient fears something awful will happen to them.

ANXIETY DISORDERS

1. Generalized anxiety disorders

2. Panic disorders

3. Phobias

4. Obsessive-compulsive disorders

5. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

• An anxiety disorder in which a person is continuously tense, apprehensive and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

The patient is constantly tense and worried, feels inadequate, is oversensitive, can’t concentrate and suffers from insomnia.

PANIC DISORDER

• An anxiety disorder marked by a minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking and other frightening sensations.

• person experiences sudden episodes of intense dread.

PHOBIA

• is an irrational, intense and persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things, animals, or people

Coulrophobia ophidiophobia arachnophobia

KINDS OF PHOBIAS

Phobia of closed spaces.

Claustrophobia

Phobia of heights.Specific Phobia

Acrophobia

Phobia of open places.

Social Phobia Agoraphobia

SOME UNUSUAL PHOBIAS(SPECIFIC)

•Ailurophobia - fear of cats•Algobphobia - fear of pain•Anthropophobia - fear of men•Monophobia - fear of being alone•Pyrophobia - fear of fire•Coulrophobia – fear of clowns•Arachityrophobia – fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of one’s mouth

•Triskaidekaphobia – fear of #13

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER

•Persistence of unwanted thoughts•obsessions

•urge to engage in senseless rituals•Compulsions•that cause distress.

Common Obsessions Common Compulsions

Contamination fears of germs, dirt, etc. Washing

Imagining having harmed self or others Repeating

Imagining losing control of aggressive urges

Checking

Intrusive sexual thoughts or urges Touching

A need to tell, ask, confess Counting

Forbidden thoughts Ordering/arranging

A need to have things "just so" Hoarding or saving

Praying

POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER• Victims of traumatic events experience the original event in the form of dreams and flashbacks

• Common in military veterans, survivors of natural disasters, plane/car crashes, and human aggression

Haunting memories.

Nightmares.

Social withdrawal

Jumpy anxiety

Sleep problems.

Module 47 Dissociative and

Personality Disorders

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts and feelings.

sudden loss of memory or change in identity

DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA

•This disorder is characterized by a blocking out of critical personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.

DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE

• An individual suddenly and unexpectedly takes physical leave of his or her surroundings

•in a fugue state: unaware of or confused about his identity, and in some cases will assume a new identity (rare!)

DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.

•Also called multiple personality disorder.

•3 Faces of Eve

PERSONALITY DISORDERSdisorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

Need not involve anxiety, depression or loss of contact w/reality

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

Rader was a deacon who tortured animals as a child

Dennis Rader – BTK

Bind, Torture & Kill

Antisocial Personality Disorderdisorder in which the person (usually man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing

Lie, cheat, steal & unrestrained sexual behavior

Express little regret

Module 48 Mood Disorders

MOOD DISORDERScharacterized by emotional extremes.

•Major Depressive Disorder

•Bipolar Disorder

•Seasonal Affective Disorder

•Dysthymic/Cyclothymic Disorder

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are not caused by drugs or medical conditions.

1. Lethargy and tiredness2. Feelings of worthlessness3. Loss of interest in family & friends4. Loss of interest in activities

Signs include:

WHO SUFFERS FROM DEPRESSION?

•Depression can effect anyone but there is a significantly higher rate of depression among women than men.

•17 million Americans develop depression each year.

•8.6% of adults over 18 have a mental health problem for at least 2 weeks a year.

WHAT IS DEPRESSION?

•Depression is an illness that involves the body, mood and thoughts

•It impacts the way a person functions socially, at work, and in relationships.

• It is more than feeling blue, down in the dumps or sad about a particular issue or situation.

• It is a medical condition that requires diagnosis and treatment

DYSTHYMIC DISORDER

•lies between blue mood and major depressive disorder. •A disorder characterized by daily depression lasting two years or more.•No manic episodes

Major DepressiveDisorder

Blue Mood

DysthymicDisorder

DYSTHYMIA

• People with this illness are mildly depressed for years.

• They function fairly well on a daily basis but their relationships suffer over time.

•Dysthymic disorder: •“down in the dumps” mood most of day

•Chronic low energy & self-esteem

•Difficulty making decisions/concentration

•Sleep/eattoo little or too much

•Less disabled than major depression

•Manic Episodemarked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

•Cyclothymic Disorder: mood disorder lasting a year

• Include numerous manic epidsodes

SEASON AFFECTIVE DISORDER

•This is a depression that results from changes in the season. Most cases begin in the fall or winter, or when there is a decrease in sunlight.

Bipolar Disordera mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania

formerly called manic-depressive disorder

BIPOLAR DISORDER

Multiple ideas

Hyperactive

Desire for action

Euphoria

Elation

Manic Symptoms

Slowness of thought

Tired

Inability to make decisions

Withdrawn

Gloomy

Depressive Symptoms

BIPOLAR DISORDER

The Rich and Famous

CAUSES OF MOOD DISORDERS

BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Genetic Influences: Mood disorders run in families. Rates of depression is higher in identical (50%) than fraternal twins (20%).

Linkage analysis and associations studies link possible genes and dispositions for depression.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS & DEPRESSION

Post-synapticNeuron

Pre-synapticNeuron

Norepinephrine Serotonin

Reduction of norepinephrine

and serotonin has been

implicated in depression.

SOCIAL-COGNITIVE FACTORS

•Depression may be a variation of learned helplessness. (Seligman)

•Negative cognitive styles (Beck)

THE DEPRESSION PUZZLE

•1. negative stressful events interpreted through…(money problems)

•2. a pessimistic explanatory style create…(blame yourself)

•3. a hopeless, depressed state that…(depressed mood)

•4. hampers way the person thinks or acts…(people react negatively to you)

•***fuels more negative experiences

•What are Depressive Attributional Styles?

•(1) Internal

•(2) Stable

•(3) Global

•all contribute to sense of hopelessness; attributions made internally, then assumed stable and global.

Internal Attribution Stylenegative outcomes are one's own fault.

Stable Attribution Stylebelieving future negative outcomes will be one's own fault.

Global Attributional Stylebelieving negative events disrupt many life activities.

EXAMPLE

Explanatory style plays a major role in becoming depressed.

Let’s say someone with depression messes up the icing on a cake they’re baking to take to a party

A depressed person is likely to explain the problem:

• something that was their fault (internal - its my fault the icing is messed up)

• something that’s not going to change (stable – “I’m always going to be hopeless at everything and I’m never going to be good at cake icing”)

• something that reflects a global characteristic of their personality (“I’m hopeless at everything” instead of just “I’m not good at icing cakes”)

SOMATOFORM DISORDERS

•characterized by history of recurrent and multiple physical symptoms for which are no apparent physical causes

•Hypochondriasis: imagined illness

•Conversion Disorder: anxiety produces a loss of physical function (w/no apparent cause)

•BDD: body dysmorphic disorder

Conversion Disorder

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Schizophrenia

SCHIZOPHRENIA

Nearly 1 in a 100 suffer from schizophrenia and world over 24 million people suffer from this disease

Strikes young people as they mature into adults.

Affects men and women equally, but men suffer from it more severely than women.

Symptoms of Schizophrenialiteral translation “split mind”a group of severe disorders characterized by:disorganized and delusional thinking (delusions)

disturbed perceptions (hallucinations)

inappropriate emotions and actions (flat effect)

Delusionsfalse beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

GrandeurPersecution Sin or guilt Divine intervention

Hallucinationssensory experiences without sensory stimulation

• Inappropriate emotions

•Flat effect: a zombie-like state of apparent apathy

•Motor behavior inappropriate: senseless impulsive acts

SUBTYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

•Schizophrenia is a cluster of disorders. •These subtypes share some features but there are other symptoms that differentiate these subtypes.

TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA• Paranoid

• Characterized by delusions of grandeur and persecution

• Catatonic• Characterized by a stuporous state and/or periods

of great excitement and agitation.• Disorganized

• The most serious and characterized by inappropriate affect, silliness, laughter, grotesque mannerisms and bizarre behaviors.

• Undifferentiated • The symptoms do not conform to a specific type

POSITIVE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

•Schizophrenics have inappropriate symptoms •hallucinations•disorganized thinking• delusions •not present in normal individuals

NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

Schizophrenics also have absence of appropriate symptoms apathyexpressionless facesrigid bodies (catatonic)present in normal individuals

CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENIA

• When schizophrenia is slow to develop (chronic/process) recovery is doubtful.

• Such schizophrenics usually displays negative symptoms.

ACUTE SCHIZOPHRENIA

•When schizophrenia rapidly develops (acute/reactive) recovery is better.

•Such schizophrenics usually shows positive symptoms.

ABNORMAL BRAIN CHANGES

Schizophrenia patients may express changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid filled ventricles.

• Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers have found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine receptors in the brain.

• Use drugs to block dopamine

Brain Abnormalities

DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS

•Autism•Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

•Conduct disorder•Tourette’s Syndrome

HISTORY OF TREATMENT

THERAPYPsychotherapyan emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties

Eclectic Approachan approach to psychotherapy that

uses techniques from various forms of therapy

BIOLOGICAL MODEL

•Also referred to as the medical model•There are chemical and/or anatomical disturbances in the brain

•mental disorders as physical diseases•birth difficulties•Heritability• Influential because several disorders have been shown to have biological bases.

PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL

•Disorders result from unresolved inner conflicts or early experiences

•psychodynamic: unconscious conflicts

•cognitive-behavioral: past learning, past history of rewards

• humanistic: poor self-concept or unrealistic goals

SOCIOCULTURAL MODEL

•Emphasizes two factors: the behaviors and the social or cultural context the behavior is viewed

• What is abnormal in one culture may NOT be abnormal in another

CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

• Each model suggests a different approach to origin of the disorder and treatment. The major models include:• psychoanalytical• behavioral• humanistic• cognitive• biological• diathesis-stress model

PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY

•Try to understand childhood experiences

•Probe for supposed repressed info

•Help person gain insight to unconscious

•“talk” therapy

Psychoanalysisfree associations, resistancesdream analysistransferences the therapist’s interpretations of them – released previously repressed feelings, allowing patient to gain self-insight

PSYCHOANALYTIC METHODS OF THERAPY

•1. Free Association – patient reports anything that comes to his/her mind.

•The psychoanalyst takes whatever you say and treats it like a window into your unconscious mind.

2. DREAM ANALYSIS•Dreams have two types of content:•Manifest content- actual events in dream.

•Latent content – hidden message in dream.

(latent = hidden)•Freud thought that each dream represents a form of wish fulfillment. The wish may be disguised, but it is always there.

3. Transferencethe patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationshipse.g. love or hatred for a parent toward the therapist

Patient doesn’t respond leads to resistance

4. Resistanceblocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

Hint anxietyrepression

use of psychoanalysis has rapidly decreased in recent years

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

•After years of psychoanalysts saying we are a bunch of id-driven animals

•behaviorists studying rats in a cage

•Humanists came along in the 60s.

HUMANISTIC THERAPY

•Emphasize people’s inherent potential for self-fulfillment

•Help grow in self awareness & acceptance

•Focus on present AND future

•Conscious thoughts

•Promote growth”clients” not patients

HUMANISTIC THERAPY

Client-Centered Therapyhumanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers

therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth

BEHAVIORAL THERAPY - therapy that applies learning principles to the

elimination of unwanted behaviors

• Behaviorists believe that mental problems are caused by:

• classical conditioning (for example, phobias),

• operant conditioning (addictions, depression), and

• observational learning (we watch our parents and friends suffer so we copy them).

BEHAVIOR THERAPIES

• B.F. Skinner and colleagues• Goal: unlearning maladaptive behavior and

learning adaptive ones

• Systematic Desensitization • Classical conditioning

• Anxiety/Fear

•exposure therapy

• Aversion therapy • Alcoholism, sexual deviance, smoking

Exposure Therapy

treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or reality) to the things they fear and avoid

BEHAVIOR THERAPYSystematic Desensitizationtype of counter-conditioning associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli

commonly used to treat phobiasCalled “flooding” (rapid)

BEHAVIOR THERAPYSystematic Desensitization (slow)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

•Flooding – (treats phobias) if you are afraid of snakes, therapist will throw you in a pit of snakes.

Aversive Conditioningtype of counter-conditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

Drug nausea alcohol

•Antabuse

•Awful taste on nailsstop biting

BEHAVIOR THERAPYToken Economyan operant conditioning procedure that rewards desired behavior

patient exchanges a token of some sort, earned for exhibiting the desired behavior, for various privileges or treats

Behavior modification

COGNITIVE THERAPY

•Cognitive therapy focuses on changing how the client/patient thinks.

• It can be confrontational•The therapist focuses on changing/fixing the irrational thoughts of the patient

COGNITIVE THERAPY

•We are depressed because we are irrational.

•Our expectations are too high and misplaced.

•We want everyone to love us & accept us.

•We want every thing to go our way. •We stay angry about stuff that happened a long time ago.

Cognitive Therapy teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting

WE MUST CHANGE THE WAY WE THINK TO BE HAPPY AND SUCCESSFUL.

COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY• Aaron Beck

• Cognitive therapy • Depression and negative thinking

• Albert Ellis• Rational-emotive therapy

• Goal: to change the way clients think• Detect and recognize negative thoughts

RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY: ELLIS

•A-B-C theory of dysfunctional behavior

•A – Activating event•B – Belief•C – Consequence (emotion) based on that belief.

RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY

•Known as RET

•Developed by Albert Ellis

•Proposed that irrational thoughts lead to negative emotions

•Control and change thoughtskey to better mental health

•Find a positive in a negative situation

•Confrontational “Dr. Phil”

EXAMPLE OF RATIONAL THINKING

•A= fail a midterm examination•B=It’s unfortunate that I failed-I did not study hard enough and I must make sure that I study harder for the final

•C=no consequences (no emotional disturbance)

EXAMPLE IRRATIONAL THINKING: LEADS TO EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE

•A= Fail exam•B= I’m stupid, I’ll never be able to pass this course and I will fail this course

•C=depression

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

Aaron Beck

GROUP AND FAMILY THERAPIES

Family Therapytreats the family as a system

THERAPIES INSPIRED BY POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

•Martin Seligman

•Uses theory & research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative & fulfilling aspects of human existence

•positive psychotherapy

•can be an effective treatment for depression

EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPIES

To whom do people turn for help for psychological difficulties?

Meta-analysis (What works!)procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

WHAT IS A PSYCHIATRIST? • Psychiatrists are MDs (medical doctors) with a specialty in treating mental disorders

• usually with a biomedical therapy (medicine)

• use if you have:• schizophrenia,

• severe depression• suicidal thoughts• other severe mental problems that need medication.

WHAT IS A CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST?

• A clinical psychologist has a PhD in psychology (no medical school). • treat fairly serious mental illnesses with “talk” therapies.

• Treat• personality disorder• anxiety disorders• addictions • using insight or “talk” therapy.

Clinical or Psychiatric Social WorkerA two-year Masters of Social Work graduate program

plus postgraduate supervision prepares some social workers to offer psychotherapy

mostly to people with everyday personal and family problems

Looking for a Career in Psychology?Looking for a Career in Psychology?

Counseling psychologistCounseling psychologist

Clinical psychologistClinical psychologist

PsychoanalystPsychoanalyst

Clinical social workerClinical social worker

PsychiatristPsychiatrist

Specialty:Specialty:

Problems of normal Problems of normal livingliving

Work setting:Work setting:

Schools, clinics, Schools, clinics, other institutionsother institutions

Credentials:Credentials:

Master’s in Master’s in counseling, PhD, counseling, PhD,

EdD, or PsyDEdD, or PsyD

Professional TitleProfessional Title

Counseling psychologistCounseling psychologist

Clinical psychologist

Psychoanalyst

Clinical social worker

Psychiatrist


Those with severe Those with severe disordersdisorders


Private practice, Private practice, mental health mental health

agencies, hospitalsagencies, hospitals


PhD or PsyDPhD or PsyD


Counseling psychologist

Clinical psychologistClinical psychologist

Psychoanalyst


Psychiatrist


Severe mental Severe mental disorders (often by disorders (often by

means of drug means of drug therapies)therapies)


Private practice, Private practice, clinics, hospitalsclinics, hospitals


MDMD




Psychoanalyst


PsychiatristPsychiatrist


Freudian therapyFreudian therapy


Private practicePrivate practice


MDMD




PsychoanalystPsychoanalyst


Psychiatrist


Social worker with Social worker with specialty in dealing specialty in dealing

with mental with mental disordersdisorders


Often employed by Often employed by governmentgovernment


MSWMSW




Psychoanalyst

Clinical social workerClinical social worker

Psychiatrist

Module 52 The Biomedical

Therapies

HOW IS THE BIOMEDICAL APPROACH USED TO TREAT MENTAL DISORDERS?

•Biomedical therapies seek to treat mental disorders by changing the brain’s chemistry with drugs

•its circuitry with surgery, or its patterns of activity with pulses of electricity or powerful magnetic fields

DRUG THERAPIES

DRUG THERAPIESPsychopharmacologystudy of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior

Lithiumchemical that provides an effective drug therapy for the mood swings of bipolar (manic-depressive) disorders

• Psychopharmacotherapy• Antianxiety (benzodiazepines)• Valium, Xanax, Buspar, librium

• Antipsychotic - Thorazine, Mellaril, Haldol• Tardive dyskinesia

• Antidepressant: depression• Tricyclics: increase inhibitory GABA • MAO inhibitors (MAOIs) - Nardil• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

(SSRIs) – Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft – side effects – • Risk of suicide

• Mood stabilizers• Lithium,

DRUG THERAPY

•Antipsychotic drugs (neurolepticsneuroleptics)

•alleviate the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia; Examples: Thorazine, Clozapine, Haldol

• Neuroleptics Neuroleptics block dopamine receptor sites

•can produce sluggishness, tremors, and twitches similar to those of Parkinson’s disease (tardive dyskinesia)

DRUG THERAPY• Antianxiety drugs• Anxiolytics (benzodiazepines)

• Reduces anxiety Reduces anxiety • work by depressing central nervous system activity (inhibitory GABA)

• Most common side effect - drowsiness• highly addictive• Stop use can result in severe withdrawal symptoms, including seizures, increased anxiety, and in rare cases, death

Xanax, Paxil, Valium

DRUG THERAPY

•Antidepressants and mood stabilizers

• Include Prozac, monoamine oxidase (MOA) inhibitors, and

• lithium carbonate (effective against bipolar disorder)

•Treat depression and bipolar disorder

•Usually affect serotonin and/or norepinephrine

ANTIDEPRESSANTS

• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO)

• Increase serotonin, norepinephrine

• Tricyclics – safer ; inhibit reuptake serotonininhibit reuptake serotonin

• SSRIs: increase neurotransmitters

• Prozac

Side effect: tardive dyskinesia – facial tics, Side effect: tardive dyskinesia – facial tics, involuntary movementsinvoluntary movements

ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY

PSYCHOSURGER Y

• Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue

• Egas Moniz – the lobotomy• Cut nerves in frontal lobeemotion controlling center/emotional and violent patients

• “McMurphy”

BRAIN-STIMULATION THERAPIES

•Electroconvulsive therapy is used for the treatment of severe depression

•Repetitive Transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), a possible alternative to ECT, can also be used for the treatment of depression,schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder

ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY

Documents

Introduction to Psychological Disorders